Study Guide

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 Introduction 1 Unit 7 Sense organs and coordination
7 .1 The eye 68
Section A: The organism and its
environment
7.2 Light and colour 70
7.3 The ear 72
Unit 1 Matter 7 .4 The nervous system 74
1.1 States of matter 2 7.5 The endocrine system 76
1.2 CelI st ruct ure 4
Unit 8 Health and sanitation
1.3 Diffusion and osmosis 6
1.4 Act ive t ra nsport 8 8.1 Keeping clean 78
8.2 Pests and parasites 80
Unit 2 Reproduction and growth Practice exam questions 82
2.1 Reproduction 10
2.2 Sexual reproduction 12 Section B: The home and workplace
2.3 Menstrual cycle, pregnancy and birt h 14
2.4 Birth control met hods 16 Unit 9 Temperature control and ventilation
2.5 Pre- and post-natal care 18 9.1 How is energy transferred? 84
2.6 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STls) 20 9.2 How is energy transferred in f luids? 86
2.7 Growt h in plants, humans and 9.3 Thermostats and t hermometers 88
population 22 9.4 Evaporation and cooling 90
9.5 Humidity and ventilation 92
Unit 3 Food and nutrition
3.1 Photochemical reactions 24 Unit 10 Conservation of energy
3.2 Crop production 26 10.1 Energy 94
3.3 Food chains and food webs 28 10.2 Energy on t he move and
3.4 Food groups and nutrit ion 30 momentum 96
3.5 The importance of a balanced diet 32
3.6 Digestion 34 Unit 11 Electricity and lighting
3.7 Microorganisms and food 1 1 . 1 EI ectricity 98
preservation 36 11.2 Fuses and cables (flexes) 100
3.8 Teeth and digestion 38 11 .3 Energy consumption 102
Unit 4 Transport systems 11.4 Efficient light ing 104
11 .5 Be prepared in an emergency 106
4.1 Transport systems in plants 40 11 .6 Safety f irst 108
4.2 The human circulatory system 42
4.3 Blood grou ps 44 Unit 12 Machines and movement
4.4 Immunity 46 12.1 Simple machines 11 0
4.5 High blood pressure and its effects 48 12.2 Using 111achines 11 2
4.6 Drugs 50
4.7 Skeleton, joints and muscles 52 Unit 13 Metals and non-metals
Unit 5 Respiration and air pollution 13 .1 Metals and non-metals 114
5.1 Respiratory surfaces 54 13.2 React ions of metals 11 6
5.2 Breat hing and gaseous exchange 56 13.3 Alloys at work 120
5.3 Respirat ion 58 13.4 Taking care of iron or steel 122
5.4 Air pollution 60 Unit 14 Acids, bases and mixtures
5.5 Effect s of smoke 62
14.1 Household chemicals 124
Unit 6 Excretion 14.2 Solutions, suspensions and
6.1 Excretion in humans 64 colloids 126
6.2 Excretion in plants 66 14.3 Hard and soft wa ter 128
14.4 Household cleaning products 130
Practice exam questions 132
Section C: Earth's place in the Universe
Unit 15 The Universe and our Solar System
15.1 Our place in t he Universe 134
15.2 The Solar System 136
15.3 The Earth, Moon and Sun 138

Unit 16 The terrestrial environment

16. 1 Soils 140
16.2 The importance of soil 142
16.3 Nat ural cycles 144
16.4 Air masses 146
16.5 Air in motion 148
16.6 Tides and t idal waves 150
16. 7 Volcanoes and eart hquakes 152

Unit 17 Water and the aquatic environment

17 .1 Water and life 156
17 .2 Purifying water for drinking 158
17 .3 Flotat ion 160
17 .4 Water pollution 162
17.5 Fishing 164
17.6 Navigation and safety on the water 166

Unit 18 Fossil fuels and alternative sources

of energy
18.1 Fossil fuels 168
18.2 Altern ative sources of energy 170
18.3 Solar energy 172

Unit 19 Forces
19.1 Principles of forces 174
19.2 Gravity and stability 176
19.3 Turni ng fo rces 178
19.4 Circular motion and sat ellites 180
Practice exam quest ions 182
Index 184

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 States of matter

Everything on Earth, including its atmosphere, is made up of matter.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the states of matter.
• Descri be the properties of
solids, liquids and gases.
• Explain the properties of each
state of matter using particle
theory.
Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Look at the things
around yo u and the substances that they are made from. You vvill
find vvood, metal, plastic, glass, water, air ... the list is almost endless.
There are millions of different substances catalogued by scientists. In
general, they can be classified as solids, liquids or gases - known as
the three states of matter.
Properties of each st at e of matter
Solids all have a fixed shape and volume. They cannot be compressed.
Liquids have a fixed volume, but they can flow and change their
shape. A substance in the liquid state will occupy slightly more space
than an equal mass in its solid state (but
;----o}), water and ice are exceptions).
Gases have no fixed shape or volume.
.,...,, They can be compressed easily.

Particle t heory
Solid Liquid Gas To explain the properties of solids, liquids
Figure 1.1.1 The three states of matter - solid, liquid and gas
and gases, we use the particle theory (also
known as the kinetic theory of matter).
It is based on the fact that all matter is rnade up of tiny particles and
describes:
• the movement of the particles, and
• the average distance between particles
within each state of matter.
Look at the diagrams to the left that represent the th ree states of
matter.
General properties Average dist ance Arrangement of M ovement of particles
bet ween part icles part icles
Solid Fixed shape; Particles are Regula r pattern Vibrate on the spot
inco mp ressible touching
Liquid No fixed shape; can flow; Most particles a re Irregular, random Slip and slide over and
very difficult to compress touching around each other
Gas No fixed shape; spreads Large distances Irregular, random Can move very quickly. In a
out to fill its container; ra ndom manner, between
easily compressed collisions
Each particle in a solid is touching its nearest neighbours and they
remain in this fixed arrangement. They cannot move around, but they
do vibrate constantly.
The particles in a liquid are also very close together but they can
move past each other. This results in a constantly changing, random
arrangement of particles.
The particles in a gas have much more space, on average, between
the,11. They can move around at high speeds and in any direction.
This means the particles have a random arrangement. The hotter the
gas is, the faster the particles move.

Changing state
A solid turns into a liquid at its melting point. This is the same
temperatu re at which the liquid freezes or solidifies back into the
solid. The hotter a solid is, the faster its particles vibrate. Eventually,
the vibrations will be so strong that the particles begin to break
free from their neighbours. At this point the solid starts to melt and
become a liquid.
A liquid turns into a gas at its boiling point. The gas condenses back
into the liquid at the same temperature. The hotter a liquid is, the
faster its particles move around. As the temperature rises, more and
more particles gain enough energy to escape from the surface of the
liquid. Its rate of evaporation increases. Eventually, the liquid boils
and bubbles of gas rise and escape from within the liquid.
Each change of state is reversible. They are examples of physical
changes. No new substances are fo rmed in changes of state.
Substances with higher melting points and boiling points have
stronger forces of attraction betvveen their particles.
Note that if a solid is heated and changes directly to a gas without
melting, i.e. it does not pass through the liquid phase, the change Boiling \'\la ter in a kettle
'--=-------'
is an everyday 'change of
of state is called sublimation . Also, some people classify a fourth
state'
state of matter called plasma. It can be thoug ht of as clouds of 'sub-
atomic' particles, i.e. the stuff that makes up the particles in solids,
liquids and gases. These are common in outer space.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
KEY POINTS
1 Name the fo llowing changes: 1 The three states of matter
a liquid ➔ solid b gas ➔ liquid c solid ➔ liquid a re sol ids, Ii quids and gases.
d l iq u id ➔ gas e solid ➔ gas (in a single step). 2 The particles in a solid are
2 Explain why substances have different melting points in terms packed closely together,
of their particles. fixed in their positions and
vibrate.
3 Describe the changes that occur to t he particles as a gas is
cooled down to a temperature below its freezi ng point. 3 The particles in a liquid are
also close together, but
4 Eva poration is the change of state that occurs when a liquid
can slip and slide over each
changes to a gas below its boiling point. You can investigate other in a random motion.
the factors that affect the rate of evaporation using a wet
paper towel on a high resolution electric balance. Plan an 4 The particles in a gas have,
investigation into one factor t hat might affect the rate of on average, lots of space
evaporation of water from the paper towel, writing a brief between the111 and zoom
method. around randomly.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the parts that make up
an animal cell and those that
make up a plant cell.
• Draw a labelled diagram of a
typical unspecialised animal
cell and plant cell.
• Explain the functions of the
main parts of a cell.
Cell structure
All living things are made up of cells. Cells enable all the processes
of life and so are essential for all living things on Earth. Cells are too
small to see with the naked eye.
You need a microscope to study the structure of cells.
Animal cell s
There are many different types of cells in the human body, but they
have certain features in common.
Look at the diagram of a typical unspecialised animal cell below.
Ribosomes
• •
• Cell membrane
•
•
•
• I
• •
• Cytoplasm
•
-•
~
Mitochondria Nucleus
Figure 1 .2. 1 A simpli fied typical animal cell
Functions of the cell parts
Each part of a cell has its own particular functions. The parts all
coordinate to ensure a cell works properly.
Nucleus - This is the 'control centre' of the cell. It controls all
the activities in the cell and contains the genetic material that
controls how the cell develops.This genetic information is carried on
chromosomes. which contain DNA (deoxyri bonucleic acid).
Cell membrane - This is the outer part of the cell. It forms a barrier
around the cell. It allows simple substances to pass in or out of the
cell.
Cytoplasm - This is the jelly-like liquid inside the cell. Most of the
chemical reactions we need to keep us alive happen in solution. For
example, our cells get the energy they need from respi ration taking
place here (see Mitochondria below).
Mitochondria - These are fo und in the cytoplasm and are the sites
where respiration takes place.
Ribosomes - Proteins are made here.
Plant cells Nucleus / Cellulose
Plant cells have all t he com po nents of animal cells, but also contain
A cell wall
, Cell
,' ..• '
more feat ures. 1
1' •• membrane
Look at t he diagram of a typical unspecialised plant cell o pposite. •. Chloroplasts
, • ••
Functions of the cell parts
•.•·, /;
' • Permanent

.- ..( ..
vacuole
Every plant cell has a cell wall. These surro und t he cell contents
(together w it h t he cell membrane) w it h a more rig id bou ndary made
• .. Mitochondria
of cellulose. This g ives t he cell suppo rt and shape. •
•• Cytoplasm
Many plants cells also have: '~~• .• •., •,, Ribosomes
Chloroplasts - These are the green parts (o r o rganelles) in plant cells
w here pho tosynt hesis takes place. A pigment called chlorophyll gives
chloroplasts t heir g reen colo ur. This absorbs light energy w hen plants Figure 1.2.2 A simplified typica l plan1
make t heir own food d uring pho tosynthesis. cell

A vacuole - The large central part of t he plant cell t hat is full of cell
sap (liquid). This helps to su pport t he plant.

KEY POINTS
1 A typical unspecialised animal cell contains a nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm and mitochondria.
2 A typical unspecialised plant cell also contains a cell wall,
chloroplasts and a vacuole in g reen parts of t he plant.
3 Each component of a cell has functio ns that are interlinked so
the cells work properly.
4 Chromosomes carry genetic information in t he form of DNA.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a labelled diag ram of a typical unspecialised animal cell

and plant cell.
2 W hat are the differences betw een a typical unspecialised plant Figure 1.2.3 Cheek cells
cell and animal cell?
3 W hat is t he fu nction of :
a the nucleus
b chlo ro pl asts
c mitochondria
d the cell membrane
e ch romosomes?
4 Look at Figures 1.2 .3 and 1 .2 .4 and ident ify t he labels.
Figure 1.2.4 Onion cells
 Diffusion and osmosis

To function properly, cells need to move certain substances into and

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain t he processes of
diffusion and osmosis.
• Illustrate the movement of
particles (molecules or ions)
in and ou t of cells.
• State that t he cell membrane
is part ially permeable in
osmosis.
out of t he cell. Examples of t hese substances are glucose, wa ter and
oxygen. Diffusion and osmosis are two processes by which this
takes place.
Diffu sion
All substances are made of particles. In gases and liquid s t hese
particles move around randomly. Diffusion takes place w hen particles
(molecules or charged particles called ions) are not distributed
evenly. The random mot ion of the particles means t hat event ually
the particles w ill be evenly spread. Overall, the particles move f rom
w here t hey are in a high concent rat ion to where they are in a low
concentrat ion. Look at Figure 1.3 .1 below.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -0 0 0 O
0
O O
0 o0 ~0 0 0 0 0 0
Q O O 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Oo o o oooo 0
o o o o 1I o o o o o O O O o O 0 O O 0o
o o O oO O o O O O 0 00 0 0 0 00 ° 000
oOo o oo
0 ° 0 00 0 o 0 o0 o o Oo O O O 01 Oo O O O Q
At the moment As the particles As the particles Eventually, the
when the blue move randomly, move and spread particles are
particles are added the blue ones begin out, they bump into completely mixed
to the red particles to mix with the red each other. This and diffusion is
they are not mixed ones. helps them to keep complete.
at all. spreading randomly.
Figure 1.3.1 I The process o f diffusion
In t he process of diffu sion we say that t he particles move down
a concentration gradient. They move f rom an area of high
concentra tion to an area of low concentrat ion. For example, dissolved
glucose molecules will move across cell membranes f rom your gut
(vvhere there will be a high concent ration of glucose in solution
after a meal) into you r blood (w here the concentration of glucose
is lower).
The bigger t he difference in concentration between two regions, t he
steeper t he concent ration gradient. We fi nd t hat diffusion takes place
more quickly when t here is a steeper concentration gradient.

Osm osis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. Osmosis involves the movement
of wa ter through a part ially permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane. 'Partially permeable' means that only certain substances
can pass t hrough the membrane. Small molecules, such as t he
solvent water, can pass t hrough, but large molecules cannot.
But w hich way do the water molecules move in osmosis? The
direction is determined by t he concent ration of water on either
side of t he partially permea ble membrane. We can t hink of a
dilute solution as having a 'high concentratio n of water'. Then,
we can think of wa ter molecu les moving from a region w here
their concentrat io n is high (in a dilute solution) to where t heir
concentratio n is low (to a more concent rated solution). Look at
Figure 1.3.2 below.

Partially permeable membrane KEY POINTS

Co,oo•t<ato.d
glucose solution
r,.5:_d 0-J'"-
--. -□- •
)'-: ..-
mt,to gt,<0sosol,Uo•
- pore m
• membrane
1 Diffusion and osmosis
are vital processes in t he
t ransport of substances into
Glucose molecule- - ~ Q ~• I' p and out of cells.

1-iclrY. T, vwater molecule 2 Diffusion and osmosis

There are fewer water r_. q, D,.. • There are more water
involve t he transfer
of particles down a
molecules on this side -0 ..- molecules on this side
concent ratio n gradient.
o1 the membrane and • o1 the membrane and
therefore fewer water Q ~ Q , there1ore more water 3 Diffusion is t he movement
molecules pass from I' ~ J .,_ f molecules pass from
left to right I' d ... ~ -. right to left of particles f rom an area of
high concent ration to an
Figure 1.3.2 Osmosis - the movement o f \'\later across a partially permeable area of low concent ration .
membrane
4 Osmosis is the movement
We can study osmosis in experi ments using part ially permeable bags of wat er molecu les across
as model cells. a partially permeable
membrane - f rom a d ilute
solution, with a high
0 Glucose molecules Water moves into concent ratio n of wa ter, into
• Water particles (molecul~ Glass tube s ~ bag by osmosis a concentrated solutio n,
Initial ---- ---ti---- level
Final w ith a low concentratio n of
water.
level

•
•

•
•
Water ___ , •
. .
.. • •
•
•
• • SUMMARY QUESTIONS
•
• -:--
. -!- Partially permeable.+--r- • •
• • •
membrane bags • • • 1 Define t he terms a d iffusion
and b osmosis.
Concentrated Before After Less concentrated
glucose solution glucose solution 2 Using the substances glucose
Figure 1.3.3 Osmosis experiment and water, explain the
difference between diffusion
In t his experiment you start with a concent rated glucose solution and osmosis.
inside the sealed partially permeable bag. The bag is put in a 3 Draw a labelled diagram
beaker of water. If left, the bag w ill swell up. This happens because of an osmosis experiment,
water rnoves across t he partially permeable membrane into the similar to t he o ne shown
concentrated glucose solutio n . Remember that water moves from in Figure 1.3.3. Start w ith
a region where it is in hig h concentratio n (in t his case pure water) pure water inside t he
to w here water is at a lower concentrat ion (in t he concent rated partially permeable bag
g lucose solution). and concentra ted glucose
solution in t he beaker.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Describe what happens in
active transport in cells and
why it is necessary.
• Give examples of active
t ransport in organisms.
Active transport
What is active t ransport?
You have seen hovv substances can move into and out of cells
and between cells, t hrough partially permeable membranes. The
processes of diffusion and osmosis make t his happen. Both take place
down a concent ration gradient on either side of t he membrane.
In diffusion, particles of a dissolved substance move from an area
of high concentration to an area of lo\A/ concent ratio n. In osmosis,
it is water particles (molecules) t hat move t hrough t he partially
permeable membrane from a high concent ration of water (in a more
dilute solution) to an area of low concentrat ion of water (a more
concentrated solution).
However, there are times \A/hen it benefits an organism to move
substances into, out of, or between cells against a concentration
gradient. In other words, they move substances f rom an area of low
concentrat ion to an area of high concent ration. They achieve this
by a process called active transport. Cells that move substances
by active transport have special molecules (called transport proteins
- see Figure 1.4.1 below) in their membranes. These help to move
particles of t he dissolved substance against a concent ration gradient
t hrough the cell membrane.
Active t ransport needs energy to t ake place, w hereas t he processes of
diffusion and osmosis do no t req uire energy. The cell uses respirat ion
to provide t he energy needed. You can fi nd out more about
respiration in 5.3 on page 58.
-.
• 0
••
High concentration
••
• Energy
~ Cell membrane _ __ __
Figure 1.4.1 Model of active transport
Where is act ive transport needed?
Here are some examples of situations where an organism needs
to move particles against a concentration grad ient. The particles are
either:
• molecules, such as glucose needed for respi ration to release
energy, or
• ions, vvhich are charged particles, such as t he mineral ions.
The particles might move:
• into t he root hair cells on t he roots of a plant. The concent ration of
mineral ions in soil is very much lower t han in the root hair cells, so
t he ions \Nill not enter t he cells by diffusion. To get t he mineral ions
needed by plants for healt hy growth, active t ransport has to take
place. The energy needed for t he process comes from respiration in
t he root cells.
• into t he bloodstream, out f rom cells in the kidneys - w hen blood
sugar levels are lo\/\/ a fe\11/ hours after a meal, t he excess glucose
absorbed from t he blood passes back ou t of t he cells in the kidney
tubules by active tra nsport (see 6. 1 on page 64).
• into and out of cells to keep t he balance of sodium ions and
potassium ions at the right levels.
• from a solution of digested food into t he cells lining the small
intestine - glucose moves against a concent ra tion gradient.

KEY POINTS
1 Substances can be moved against concent ration gradients by
active transport.
2 The process needs energy from respiration to work.
3 Active t ransport takes place in t he int estines, kidneys and in
plants in the root hairs.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Describe t he process of active t ranspo rt.

2 How is active t ransport different f rom t he processes of
diffusion and osmosis in a cell?
3 Give t hree examples of active t ransport t hat takes place in t he
human body.
 •
Reproduction

All living t hings produce offspring in a process called reproduction.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
There are two types of reproduction - asexual and sexual.
• Descri be t he process of simple
cell division. Asexual reprod uction
• Descri be t he process of In asexual reproduction only one parent is needed. The parent
asexual reproduction in organism has cells t hat can divide in two, multiplying to give identical
plants. organisms called clones. See Figure 2. 1.1 showing simple cell division.
• Descri be t he process of
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, reproduce like this. However,
asexual reproduction in
more complex organisms can also generate their ovvn offspring.
animals.
• Compare asexual and sexual Yeast (a fungus) and hydra (a water animal) use a process called
reproduction. budding. In t his, a cell bulges f rom t he side of t he dividing cell in
the parent as it fi lls with cytoplasm. The nucleus of the original cell is
copied and is transferred into t he newly fo rming cell. The new cell then
breaks off and forms a new organism which is a clone of the parent.
Cell
nucleus

Figure 2. 1.2 Asexual reproduction in yeast cells is called budding. What type of
organ ism is yeast?

In plants, such as st ravvberries, reproduction takes place throug h

runners t hat grow f rom the parent plant. The runners grow ou t along
the ground, and produce new roots w hich form shoots and grovv
into a new plant. The runner t hen dies and t he cloned plant becomes
independent of t he parent plant.
Figure 2.1.1 Cell division Floweri ng plants can also grow storage organs (see Figure 2.1 .4).
These can be:
Strawberry • bulbs - layered, swollen, underground stem, for example onions,
Main plant body
garlic, lilies

New plantlet • corms - short, solid, enlarged stem bases, for example dasheen,
eddo, crocus, gladiolus
• rhizornes - swollen, horizontal-growing stems, for example iris, ginger
Runner
• t ubers - swollen root, fo r example sweet potato, yam.
New roots
If t he plant dies t he storage organ can use its store of energy to grovv
Figure 2.1.3 Some pla nts reproduce into a new plant.
asexually by growing
runners We can also take cuttings, w hich grow into clones of the original
plant. For example, we can cut a stem, t hen plant it in root ing
compost (a mixture containing the right nutrients fo r plant growth).
Tissue cultu re is a more modern fo rm of taking cuttings. It uses a few Terminal Outer dry
plant cells in a special plant hormone mixture to grow a large mass bud which leaf
of cells. Then each cell is put in a growing mixture to produce huge produces Inner fleshy
numbers of identical plants. new plant v leaves
Lateral
Grafting is another technique t hat plant growers use, usually wit h
bud which
t rees. This makes a new t ree by grafting a cutting f rom one tree into produces
a notch cut into a different t ree. If the two plants are bound together new bulb Swollen stem
containing New shoot
they will grow into one new plant.
food Bud which
We can also clone animals novv. In this way, a farmer can choose an Remainder produces
animal vvith favourable characteristics to clone. What would be a of previous new rhizome
favou rable characteristic of a goat reared in a mountainous terrain? rhizome Root

:::=11"-Budfrom
Sexual reproduction Lateral bud
which new
which will
shoot grows
Cloning is done by taking egg cells f rom an excellent female produce
specimen. These are fert ilised by sperm f rom a prize 111ale. This part of new corm Corm
t he process is sexual reproduction as there are two parents, each Figure 2.1.4 Storage organs that can
one donating genetic information to t heir offspring. grow into ne>N plants

The fertilised cell is allowed to grovv into a ball of cells (either in t he

animal or in a science lab). Then the embryo formed has individual
KEY POINTS
cells removed. These are allowed to divide and grow into new identical 1 Asexual reproduction takes
embryos. This is asexual reproduction. These embryos are t ransplanted place when one parent
into other female animals to complete t he pregnancy. The cloned has cells t hat divide to
animals will all be the same because the genetic information carried in form a new individual. The
their nuclei is identical. They will all have t he desired characteristics. offspring a re genetica Ily
id entica I. There is no
Comparing asexual and sexual reproduction vari ation f rom t he parent.
This table shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of each 2 Sexual reproduction, where
method of reproduction. two parents share genetic
information to produce
Type of Advantages Disadvantages offspring, gives vari ety
reproduction in a species. This helps
Asexua l No need to fi nd a part ner Lack of genetic variation them evolve and become
as only one paren t is - so if a parent is better adapted to t heir
needed. susceptible to a disease environment over time.
Many offspring produced all t he clones will get
very quickly in t he ri ght t he same disease, w hich
conditions. puts a species in danger SUMMARY QUESTIONS
'
Large numbers produced of extinction.
in one place mean t hey New offspri ng may 1 Name t hree ways in which
can compete for resources live very close to t he an organism can reproduce
more effectively than parent, for example in asexually.
other species present in plants where bits break 2 Explain how farmers can
smaller nu mbers. off and grow into new clone t heir best cow.
plants, so conditions
might deteriorate. 3 Why does a cutting grow
into a plant that looks t he
Sexual Variation w ill be ensu red Two parents are needed
. same as t he parent plant?
111 a spec1es. so t ime and energy is
Over tim e the spent f inding a partner. 4 List two advant ages and two
advantageous The process of disadvantages of asexual
characteristics will come reproduction f rom rep rod uction.
t hroug h in offspring as the fertilisation to birth is
species evolves to cope vvith much longer.
changes in its environment.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Structu re of flowers and
pollination.
• Explain fertilisation.
• Descri be t he human male and
female reproductive systems.
This M araval Lily from
- ~ - - - - ' Trinidad is an insect-
pollinated pla nt
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction needs male and fernale sex cells, called gametes,
to meet and fuse together. This is called fertilisation. This type of
reproduction takes place in most plants and anirnals.
Sexual reproduction in plants
Flowering plants have male and female parts. The male organs
(stamens) make pollen, containing the male sex cells. The fema le parts
(carpels) make the ova (eggs) inside an ovule. Look at Figure 2.2. 1.
The stamen is the male
part of the flower
Pollen sac contains pollen grains
Carpel
••
•• J--Anther
•- - - Filament
The carpel is the female
Sepal part of the flower
a---Stigma
Stalk--------1
- - Style
Ovule
Egg cell - +.U:. , __ ovary
Little opening
called the micropyle
Figure 2.2.1 The stru cture of a floweri ng plant
Pollination
The pollen, usually from another plant of the same species, lands on
the sticky stigma. It can get t here in tvvo \/\fays - transfer by insect
and by the wind. In plants with brightly coloured petals, the pollen is
likely to be transferred by insects. Insects, such as bees, are attracted
by the colours and feed on the sweet-smelling, sugary nectar inside
the centre of the flower. As they feed, pollen sticks to their legs and
is transferred to the stigma of a neighbouring flower when the bee
passes on to feed on more nectar.
Other flowering plants, such as grasses, do not need insects for
pollination to take place. They grow long, feathery stamens with
lots of light pollen grains that can be blown to the stigmas of other
plants by the wind.
Fertilisation
Once the pollen has reached the stigma, the male sex cell, or gamete,
has to reach the female gamete inside the ovule. The pollen grain
grows a tube down the style into the ovary. The male gamete passes
down the tube and on into an ovule. There the male and female
gametes join as fertilisation takes place.
The fertilised cell starts the process of division to produce a seed and
the ovary tu rns into a fruit. Think of a tomato - you can see the seeds
bedded inside the fleshy fruit that was once the ovary in a tomato
plant.

Sexual reproduction in humans

Male and female humans have different sexual organs, as shovvn in
Figure 2.2.4.

Fallopian tube or oviduct Uterus Bone Seminal vesicle

Clitoris Sperm
duct

Opening of vagina Cervix Sperm tubules in testis

Figure 2.2. 4 The male and female reproductive systems
KEY POINTS
The male gametes (sperm) are produced in the testes and stored
there. Then they are released down the sperm duct and out of the 1 Sexual reproduction in
penis during ejaculation. For fertilisation to take place the sperm have plants and animals involves
to meet the female gamete, the ovum (egg). This happens in sexual a male gamete and a female
intercourse where the penis becomes erect and is inserted into the gamete fusing together
woman's vagina. Millions of sperm are in t he ejaculated flu id. The when fertilisation takes
sperrn have flagella (tails), which they use to move t hrough t he cervix place.
and into the uterus where one sperm meets the ovum. The sperm 2 In flowering plants, the male
penetrates the outer layer of the ovum and fertilisation takes place. part is called the stamen and
the fem aIe pa rt is the carpel.
Pollen grains carry the male
gamete to the stigma.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS The male gamete joins the
fema le gamete inside the
1 Draw a flow diagram to explain sexual reproduction in a ovule through a pollen tube
flowering plant. which grows down t he style.
2 What are the two ways in which pollination takes place in a 3 In humans the male gamete
flowering plant? is t he sperm (made in the
3 How does sexual reproduction ensure that the offspring testes) and the female
produced are not all identical, and why does this benefit a gamete is the ovum
species? (made in t he ovaries).

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he menstrual cycle
and state the hormones
involved.
• Explain the menopause and
its effects on the body.
• State and explain the process
involved in pregnancy.
• Descri be t he stages of labour
and birth.
LINK
For more information on sexual
intercourse and fertilisation, see
2.2 'Sexual reproduction'.
Menstrual cycle,
pregnancy and birth
The menstrual cycle
Menstruation is the discharge of blood and tissue through the
vagina. The discharge comes from the lining of the uterus and
happens at approximately fo ur-week intervals. Menstruation starts at
puberty and lasts until the menopause (see below).
A woman's menstrual cycle is controlled by the release of hormones.
1 FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) released by the pituitary gland
starts t he monthly cycle. As its name suggests, this hormone
stimulates an egg to mature in a follicle \Nithin the ovary.
2 Oestrogen is then released by the ovary. Its levels rise and cause
the lining of the uterus to thicken. This is in preparation for a
fertilised egg to start a pregnancy.
3 LH (luteinising hormone) is produced by the pituitary gland as
the oestrogen levels fall. LH stimulates the release of the egg
from the ovary into the fa llopian tube. This is called ovulation
and occurs at about day 14 of the cycle. The egg is ready to be
fertilised.
4 Progesterone is then released about a \A/eek later. This causes
fu rther thickening of the lining of the uterus. Ho\Never, if a
fertilised egg does not implant itself there, progesterone levels fall
and the lining breaks down. It is discharged through the vagina;
a process lasting between two and five days. This is menstruation,
known as a woman's 'period'. The falling levels of progesterone
stimulate FSH production and the cycle starts again.
Decrease in
Progesterone progesterone causes
causes uterus uterus lining to begin
lining to remain to break down
Oestrogen
0 Cl thick
c:: stimulates
.,"'"' ·-
-.c:: uterus lining
""'c::u
"'
:::, to thicken
-
E~
I- :::, 0
1 7 14 21 28
Time (days)
Figure 2.3.1 How the lining of the uterus changes during the menstrual cycle
The menopause
% The menopause refers to the end of menstruation. Some time
between the ages of 45 and 55, women stop having periods. Low
oestrogen levels cause the ovaries to cease functioning. This may
cause short-term symptorns such as hot flushes, irritability, dry skin
and muscle aches.
Preg nancy
Pregnancy is the time between fertilisa tion and birt h. This period of EXAM TIP
t ime is called t he gestational period. It usually lasts for 39 weeks or
9 mont hs in humans. Doct~r-s _ca II\, sci "1.-1-pLe t i-le
Cl "1.-l-11\,Lotic fl,Kid to cl-! ecfe
During pregnancy, t he fertilised egg travels down the fallopian t ube and
implants itself into the lining of the uterus. The embryo grows in t he
for- ge~tic cil:Jll\,or-"1.-1-C!Lities
LIi\, ti-le foetKs .
uterus, attached to t he mot her via the placenta and urnbilical cord, and
develops into a foetus. The foetus is protected in the uterus by a bag of
amniotic fluid. The fl uid cushions t he foetus if the mother gets bumped.
The mother' s blood provides nut rients and rernoves waste products
from t he blood of the embryo/foet us. That is vvhy it is important t hat
a mother eats a good diet and avoids smoking, dru gs and alcohol
during pregnancy. The baby of a drug addict is born addicted to the KEY POINTS
drug and experiences nasty w it hdrawal symptoms.
1 The menst rual cycle is
One week Ten weeks controlled by hormones.
Menst ruatio n occurs about
every four weeks. It ceases
Fallopian w hen a woman reaches t he
tube
Foetus menopause.
Embryo (6cm)
(12mm) 2 An embryo develops into a
Uterus Uterus Umbilical
cord foetus in t he uterus during
Vagina Cervix Cervix pregnancy.

Three months Nine months 3 The hormone oxytocin starts

:---..._...--:=:::::::::,...~ Placenta the process of labour to give
birth to a baby.
The
Foetus amniotic Placenta
(25cm) cavity fills Umbilical
the uterus cord
Uterus Umbilical SUMMARY QUESTIONS
cord Uterus
1 a What is menstruatio n?
Cervix
b Approximately how many
Figure 2.3.2 Stages of pregnancy
days does t he menstrual
cycle take to complete?
The stages of labour and birth c What happens to an egg
Labour occurs spontaneously at about 9 mont hs and is usually during ovulation?
completed in 24 hours. d Draw a table to show t he
hormones involved in t he
• Du ring t he f irst stage of labour t he muscles of the uterus start t o
menstrual cycle and t heir
cont ract. This is caused by t he hormone oxytocin, released by the
effects.
pituitary gland. This may also cause t he membrane, or amnion,
around the baby to break releasing t he amniotic flu id. The cervix 2 a How does the foetus
becomes t hinner and widens (dilates). receive its nutrients
• The second stage of labour commences when t he cervix is fu lly during pregnancy?
dilated and t he baby's head is delivered f rom the vagina. b How is t he foetus
• The third stage involves the placenta separating f rom the wall of protected in t he uterus?
the uterus and being delivered as the aft erbirth. Once t he placenta c What role does oxytocin
is delivered, the umbilical cord is clamped and cut, and the baby is play in pregnancy?
given to t he mother.
 Birth control methods

LEARNING OUTCOMES Contraception

Birth cont rol, or family planning, allows you to plan w hen to have
• Discuss natural methods of
children. You can also decide on the size of your family and t he t ime
contraception.
interval between each child. Making an informed choice can avoid
• Discuss barrier met hods, t he risk of an unwanted pregnancy.
hormonal methods and
surgical met hods.

Natural methods
Method Description
Wit hdrawal (coitus Penis withdrawn from
interru pt us) vagina before ejaculat ion.
Rhythm methods More mucus is secreted at
Mucus (the Billings t ime of ovulat ion. This is
method) usually more viscous, so
intercourse is avoided for a
few days on eit her side of
t his time.
Temperature Relies on rnonitoring the
menstrual cycle for a rise
in t emperature t hat is
associated wit h ovulation.
Intercourse needs to be
avoided a few days before
and after this t ime.
Advantag es Disadvantages
No side-effects. Fluid secreted before
ejaculat ion may contain sperm.
No protection against sexually
transmitted infections (STls).
Unreliable.
No side-effects. Not very reliable as ovulat ion
Method of may be difficult to predict -
cont racept ion some women have irregular
recommended by menst rual cycles.
Catholic church. Need to abstain fro rn sexual
intercourse at fert ile times,
Can be used to plan
a pregnancy. or use a condom or other
method.
No chemicals or
It takes t hree or four menstrual
physical products
cycles to learn effectively.
used.
You have to keep daily records
of your temperature.

Barrier methods
Method Description Advan tages Disadvantages
Male condom Made from very thin latex No medical Putting it on can interrupt
(rubber). It is put over side-effects. sexual intercourse.
the erect penis and stops Easy to obtain f ree May slip off or split if not used
sperm from entering the f rom some clinics properly.
vagina. and sold widely. May red uce t he sensitivity of
Can help protect the penis.
both partners f rom
some STls including
HIV.
Diaphragm/cap A flexible latex or silicone
w ith spermicide dome shaped device, used
with spermicide, is put into
the vagina to cover the
cervix. This stops sperm
f rom entering t he uterus
and meet ing an egg.
Hormonal methods
Method Description
Contraceptive pill It contains oestrogen and/
(also available as or progesterone.
patch, injection or It can thicken cervical
implant) mucus to prevent sperm
reaching t he egg;
It prevents implantation
and ovulation.
Surgical methods
Method Description
Female The fa llopian tubes are cut,
sterilisation (t ubal sealed or blocked by an
occlusion) operation. This stops the
egg and sperm meeting.
Male sterilisation The tu bes (ducts) that carry Permanent w ith no
(vasectomy) sperm fro rn the testicles to side-effects.
the penis are cut, sealed or Once the operation
blocked.
Can be put in at any Putting it in can interru pt
time before sexual sexual intercourse.
intercourse. More reliable if used wit h
No serious heal th sperm icide, but some people
risks. can be sensitive to sperm icide.
Offers some Correct size needs to be known
protection against and it needs replacing if a
STls. woman changes weight, i.e.
gain or loss of more t han 3 kg .
May be damaged during use.
Advantages Disadvantages
Simple to take - No protection against STls.
one t ablet a day; May have temporary side-effects,
patch changed such as headaches, mood
weekly; injection swings or depression.
lasts for 12 weeks.
Increased risk of heart disease
and high blood pressure.
Not rel iable if vomiting and
diarrhoea occurs after taking or
if on a course of ant ibiot ics.
Advantages Disadvantages
Steri lisation is Not reversible.
permanent wit h no
long- or short-term
serious side-effect s.
Once the operation
is carried out there
is no need to t hink
about contraception.
Usually irreversible (al though
the t ubes can be repaired in
rare cases).
is carried out t here Some people t hink it 1"flight
is no need to t hink increase t he risk of testicular
about contraception. cancer.

KEY POINT SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Natural methods of cont raception
consist in avoiding having sex during
ovulation; barrier methods do not let t he
sperm meet the egg; hormone methods
can prevent implantation or ovulation;
surgical n1ethods prevent eggs from
leaving t he fa llopian t ubes or sperm
from leaving t he penis.
1 Describe two ways of permanent ly prevent ing
conception (fertilisation) taking place.
2 W hich method of contraception
a depends on predicting monthly ovulation
b relies on t ricking t he female body with hormones
c prevents sperm from entering the vagina and
protects against STls?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain t he effects of
nutrition, drugs, X-rays, t he
rhesus facto r and disease on
pre- and post-natal care.
• Descri be t he advantages
of breastfeeding and
immunisation.
Breastfeeding has many
'--=-----' health benefits for both
mother and child
Pre- and post-natal care
Breastfeeding
The production of milk in a mother's breasts is called lactation.
Colostru m is the milk produced in t he f irst three to four days of
lactation. It is a concentrated form of breast-milk. Colost rum contains
all t he nutri ents and protective fact ors of breast-milk, but in higher
concentra tions. Babies receive protection against infection and help
for t heir immune system from their fi rst feed of colostrum.
A woman's body begins to make brea st-milk after giving birth.
Delivery of t he placenta (afterbirth) causes a drop in hormones
and allows milk production. W hen t he baby suckles at the breast a
hormone (oxytoci n) is released into the bloodstream. This stimulates
the 'let down' or milk ejection reflex. Placing a baby close to its
mother after its birth, especially skin to skin, is good practice. It will
increase t he mother's hormone levels and milk production, as well as
speeding up t he bonding process.
Advantages of breastfeeding
Breast-milk:
• is at the correct temperature for the baby
• contains antibodies to help t he baby f ight off any infections
• contains t he correct amount of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins,
minerals and fats in a form t hat is easy to digest
• changes as the baby grows to give it the perfect nutrients fo r each
stage of its development
• is steri le
• does not cos t anything
• helps to form a bond between t he mother and baby
• reduces t he ri sk of having diarrhoea and vomiting, chest and
ear infectio ns, const ipation, eczema, as well as being obese and
developing Type 2 diabetes
• reduces t he ri sk of sudden infa nt death syndrome and childhood
leukaemia
• reduces t he ri sk of breast and ovarian cancer and of hip f ractu res in
t he mother.
Sometimes mothers who do not breastfeed give t heir babies
powdered milk, or formula, f rorn a bottle. The bottles and tea ts have
t o be sterilised. The wat er used to mix w ith t he powder should not
be contaminated and the mixture must be made up under sterile
conditions. In some places women are not able to do t his and there
is a risk of babies getting infect ions from non-sterile formula milk or
bottles.
Pre-natal care LINK %
Pre-natal (also called ante-natal) care monitors t he woman's health For more information on the
during pregnancy. It also deals vvith t he health and development of rhesus factor in pregnancy, see
her baby. 4.3 'Blood groups'.
Smoking, alcohol and drugs
Srnoking is one of t he most da111aging factors to t he healt h of
t he unborn baby. Carbon monoxide f rom t obacco smoke restri cts
t he amou nt of oxygen carri ed by the red blood cells. Risks include
miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight babies t hat fail to t hrive and
higher risk of foetal abnormalities.
Alcohol is a poison t hat can damage bot h t he sperm and t he ovum
before conception, as well as the developing embryo. The alcohol can
be passed f rom t he mother's blood across t he placenta to the baby.
The main risks t o t he baby are mental retardation, retarded growth
and damage t o the brain and nervous system . LINK %
Bot h prescribed and recrea tional drugs can pass t hrough t he placenta For more info rm ation on
to the baby's bloodst ream. Marijuana interferes \Nith the normal immunisation (or vaccination),
production of male sperm and t he effects take three to nine mont hs see 4.4 'Immunity'.
to wear off. Hard drugs, such as cocaine, heroin and morphine,
can damage t he chromosornes in t he sperm and ovum leading to
abnormalities. KEY POINTS
Diet 1 Pre-natal care looks after
It is important that t he mother has a balanced diet du ring pregnancy the needs of mothers and
so t he baby gets all the nut rients it needs for growth and development. their unborn babies during
pregnancy.
Supplements of folic acid are recommended \A/hen t rying to get
pregnant and for t he fi rst 12 weeks of pregnancy. This reduces t he 2 Post-nat al care monitors t he
risk of having a baby w it h conditions such as spina bifida. mother and baby following
the birth in t he baby's f irst
Diseases in pregnancy and immunisation of the baby year of life.
Pathogens, like viruses and bacteria, can pass f rom mot her to baby.
• German measles (ru bella) is caused by a virus that can cross the SUMMARY QUESTIONS
placenta. It causes abnormalit ies such as deafness and heart defects.
• The HIV viru s that causes AIDS may cross the placenta. Therefore, a 1 a Why is breast-milk
baby may be born HIV positive if the mother is infected. beneficial fo r t he
development of the
• Listeriosis and salmonella are bacterial infections. They can be
newborn baby?
picked up by eat ing certain foods. These include mould-ri pened
cheeses, such as camembert and brie, as well as raw eggs. b Why do some mothers
choose to feed t heir
Duri ng t he f irst year of life, babies are immunised against certain babies on formula milk
dangerous diseases. These diseases could cause death or lasting mixtures?
damage. Examples are measles, mumps and rubella (MMR),
w hooping cough, diphtheria, tetanus and polio. 2 Make a list of diseases t hat
babies can be immunised
X-rays against.
X-rays are high-energy electro111agnetic waves. They are dangerous 3 Besides diseases, make a
in high doses as t hey can interfere wit h body cells, causing cancers. list of other factors t hat can
They are harmful in any dose to t he developing foetus. Therefore, harm t he unborn baby.
we canno t use them to monitor development of t he foet us. Instead
hospitals use ultrasound - a safer wave - for scanning.
 Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STls)

Sexually transmitted infections (STls) are passed f rom one person

LEARNING OUTCOMES
t o another duri ng sexual activity. An STI can be caused by viruses,
• State the major types of STls bacteria or parasites, such as fungus.
(bacterial, viral and fungal). • Some infections are caused by bacteria such as chlamydia,
• List recommended methods gonorrhoea and syphilis. These are usually cura ble.
to prevent and control t he • However, infections caused by viru ses such as HPV, genital herpes,
spread of STls. hepatitis B and HIV canno t be cu red.
• Discuss t he use of retrovirals
in t reatments of HIV/AIDS.
Bacterial infections
STI Sympt oms of disease caused Treat ment
Chlamydia Women often show no signs; Treated by
perhaps a slight vaginal antibiotics;
r-- Slime discharge; lower abdominal and if left u nt reated,
I capsule
back pain; nausea; fever. it can cause
Cytoplasm Cell wall i nfe rti Iity.
Rings of DNA Gonorrhoea First symptoms appear between Treated with
called plasmids 2-7 days after infection in a antibiotics,
\/\/Oman; most women sho\1\/ no although some
.___ _ Strands of genetic signs; some have t hick cloudy strains are
material
or bloody vaginal discharge and resistant.
f requent urination.
Figure 2.6.1 A bacterial cell Men have t hick yello\1\/-green
discharge f rom penis; sores
develop on the penis and pain
BACTERIA on uri nating.

Bacteria are single-celled Syphilis Painless sores on the genitals Curable wit h
organisms, smaller t han animal t hat can last 3-6 weeks t hen antibiotics;
or plant cells. You need a disappear; swollen glands; skin if left u nt reated,
powerfu l microscope t o see rashes. it can lead to
t hem. Some bacteria have slime blindness and
capsules and/or flagella. The paralysis.
flagel la help bacteria to move
around.
EXAM TIP
Bacteria cause many
communicable diseases in
animals and plants, and can
destroy food stores. However,
some bacteria are very useful,
fo r example in making cheese
or yogurt, t reating sewage and
making medicines. Everyone
needs t he 'good bacteria' fo und
in our guts to remai n healthy.
Vira l infections VIRUSES
STI Symptoms of disease Treatment
Viruses are even smaller t han
caused
bacteria. They cause disease
Human Papilloma Most ly w ithout symptoms. No cure, but in all living t hings, including
Virus (H PV) A few strains cause visible most infect ion plants. They get into cells, living
warts t hat occur on is cleared by and reproducing inside t hem.
vagina, penis, urethra or t he body in 1- 2 This damages and destroys t he
.
cervix. years. infect ed cells. Unlike bact eria,
Genital herpes Small painf ul ulcers on the No cure, but t hey cannot be treated wit h
genitals. can be treated antibiot ics.
vvit h ant i-viral
medicines to
alleviate
syrnptoms. FUNGI
Hepat itis B Viral infection of t he liver No cure, but
Fungi can be sing le-eel led or
wit h symptoms of jaundice can be treated
multicellular organisms. They
- t iredness, nausea and w ith ant i-viral
include moulds, yeasts and
weight loss. medication.
mushrooms. They cause many
AIDS (Acquired Early symptoms of AIDS No cure, but plant diseases, but are useful
Immune Deficiency are very much like flu, t reatments in brewing and bread-making,
Syndrome) caused swollen glands, raised include ant i-viral which uses yeast. Like candida
by HIV (Human temperature; lat er drugs, some of (see opposite), athlete's foot is
Immunodeficiency symptoms might include vvhich prevent the also a fu ngal infectio n. They are
Virus). weight loss, pneumonia, viru s multiplying t reat ed with ant i-fungal creams.
types of cancer and a inside t he body's
decrease in brain fu net ion. cells.
Not all people develop
AIDS; some remain HIV
positive, but w it hout
symptoms.

Fungal infection
Candida (also knovvn as thrush) is a fu ngal infection. It is present in
small amounts in healthy people, but may multiply in warm, dark and
moist places, such as t he vagina. It is not really a sexually t ransmitted SUMMARY QUESTIONS
infect ion, but it can be passed to another person during sex. Using a
condom or abstinence will protect against t his. 1 Draw a table w it h t hree
Its symptoms are itching and soreness of t he vagina and genitals, plus headings t o show exa mples
a t hick w hite or creamy vaginal discharge. It also causes discomfort or of bacterial and viral STls.
pain during sex. It is trea ted using ant i-fungal drugs. 2 What is candida, w hat are its
symptorns and how can it be
t rea ted?
KEY POINTS
3 Why w ould somebody w ho
1 Sexually t ransmitted infections are passed between partners ignored t heir symptoms of
having unprot ected sex. syphilis mistakenly t hink their
problem had been solved
2 Bacterial infections are t reated w ith antibiotics, but t here is no after a couple of months?
cure for viral infections yet. Why w ould t his be a very
3 Abstinence or using a condom protects against STls. serious mistake?
 Growth in plants,
humans and population

LEARNING OUTCOMES Germination and growth in plants

• Explain the process of
germination and growth in
plants.
• Describe the cycle of growth
in humans/understand the
difference between boys and
girls.
• State the consequences of
exploding human population.
• Review methods in which
population can be controlled.
Germin ation is the process that occurs when a seed begins to
develop into a new plant A seed is a food store, so that the new
plant can grow and develop until it has produced its own leaves.
Then it can begin to photosynthesise.
To germinate and grovv into a plant, the seed needs:
• energy
• oxygen
• vvarmth
• water.
A radicle (root) begins to grow downwa rds into the soil. Then
a plumule (shoot) begins to grow upwards towards the light. It
produces green leaves, so it can begin the process of photosynthesis.
Oxygen is obtained from the air between particles of soil and is used
for respiration.
Temperature is important as if it is too high or too low germination
will not take place. Water in the soil helps the surface of the seed to
soften and 111akes it easier fo r the radicle and plumule to grow out of
the seed.

The radicle The radicle The plumule grows The radicle continues to grow
emerges grows down out. It is bent over down and the plumule
first. into the soil. to protect the tip. grows up.
Plumule

~ Diminishing
.~ growth phase Stationary Radicle
~ phase
I=' Figure 2.7. 1 The germination and ea rly grovvth of a plant. Which grows upvvards
0
Q)
- a radicle or a plumule?
:E Log or exponential
0 phase
E0 , The rate of plant growth can be seen by its growth curve shown in
Figure 2. 7.2. It fol lows the same pattern as most organisms. The
~
.;- plant cells begin dividing, but there are not many cells to start with .
.I::!
~ Then, as the number of cells increases, the rate of growth increases.
There are more cells dividing so the number of cells multiplies quickly.
Lag phase But growth then slows dovvn, either because of genetic factors (the
plant has reached its maximum height) or environmental factors t hat
Time
limit growth. The growth ceases when the number of cells dividing
Figure 2. 7 .2 Gro\,vth curve of a plant equals the number of cells dying.
Growth in humans
80
From birth, babies grow and develop quickly and by t he age of one
can usually sit up, feed themselves and some may be walking. By 70 Growth spurt 1-...
in puberty
the age of two they will be starting to communicate by talking. This
development cont inues steadily unt il puberty w hich occurs between
-~50
~
60
..
10 and 14. (I)

~ 40
~
Then t here is another growth spurt and the sex organs become
30
active. The start of puberty can vary from person to person, bu t girls
usually develop earlier t han boys. The changes t hat take place are 20
controlled by hormones. 1o __ :: JGrowth spurt in baby
As well as physical changes these hormones can also make
adolescents have mood changes and increased sexual urges. o 5 10 15 20 25
Conception Time (years)
Following puberty, girls tend to f inish grovving at about 18 years of Figure 2.7.3 The human grovvth curve
age, w hereas boys can keep growing slowly until about 21 years of
age.

Human population growth

LINK %
The world's human population is about 7 billion and is growing.
For more info rmation on t he
Feeding all these people is extremely difficult and some suffer t he
effects of a shortage of
effect s of fa mine.
nut rit ion in t he diet, see 3.5
This number of people makes grea t demands on t he Earth's limited 'The importance of a balanced
resources. Those in developed count ries live in societies t hat use large diet'.
amounts of energy in t heir daily lives. Most of t his comes from non-
renewable fossil fuels. Crude oil, w hich provides most of our fuels,
will run out in a few decades. The Earth's mineral resources, f rom
w hich we obtain our metals, is also dwindling. The Earth's natural
resources cannot support its growing population.
Educating people in developing countries to plan a fa mily t hat is
sustainable is part of t he solution. In developed countries t here is
a problem w it h too many unwanted teenage pregnancies - again SUMMARY QUESTIONS
educa tion is needed to red uce t he problem. Birt h cont rol is t he
major way to keep our populations manageable. 1 Draw a flovv chart to describe
how a seed grows into a
young plant.
2 a Sketch the growth curve
KEY POINTS of a normal plant and
explain its shape.
1 Germinating seeds need energy, oxygen, warmth and wa ter in
order to grow into a plant. b Do the same as part a ,
but w it h a human,
2 The growth curve of a plant starts off slowly and gradually growth curve.
speeds up before it slows down again. Eventually the plant
grows new cells at t he same rate as t he old ones die. 3 a State two of t he Earth's
natural resources that will
3 The human growth curve has two spurts - at the start of a eventually run out.
baby's life and at puberty.
b How can t he accelerating
4 The world's population is growing at a rate t hat cannot be growth of the Earth's
sustained. Birth control w ill be a maj or part of reducing t his populat ion be slowed
population explosion. dovvn?
 ~,-, '
- ..

-., ··•:3·· fQQd~ii,nd ·nu:tr.it •

3 .1 ,(t Photochemical
reactions

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he process of
photosynt hesis.
• List the conditions needed for
photosynt hesis.
• W rite a word equation and
a chemical equat ion to
represent what happens in
photosynthesis.
• Compare photosynthesis with
t he photochemical reactions
in photography.
Some chemical rea ct ions are affected by light. These are called
photochemical reactions. 'Photo ' refers to light; chemical reaction
refers to a change in w hich new substances are produced. For
example. in black and white photographs t he f ilm contains silver
salts, such as silver chloride, which decompose in light.
In t his reaction small grains of grey silver metal are formed on t he
film. You can see t his reaction by making a precipitate (an insoluble
solid) of white silver chloride using two test t ubes. One test tube is
put in a dark cupboard and one is left on a window sill next to some
light. The one in t he light t urns a darker colour, w hereas t he one in
t he cupboard stays vvhite. This shows t hat light energy is needed t o
brea k down the silver salt.
light energy
silver chloride - - - - - silver + chlorine
The rnost important of all pho tochemical reactions is
photosynthesis. This is t he process used by plants to make t heir
own food.

Photosynthesis
Plants use carbon dioxide f rom the air and water f rom t he ground
Sunlight in pho tosynt hesis. The starting materials, carbo n dioxide (CO2) and
wa ter (H 20), are called t he substrates. In a series of reactions in t he
plant, t he subst rates are t urned into glucose (C6 H120 6) and oxygen
(0 2) gas.
Chlorophyll, t he green substance in chloroplasts inside plant cells,
is needed for pho tosynthesis to take place. The chlorophyll absorbs
light energy f rom t he Sun. This is converted into chemical energy in
t he prod ucts of photosynt hesis.
We can summarise photosynt hesis by t hese equations:
chlorophyll
carbon dioxide + water ------➔ glucose + oxygen
Figure 3. 1.1 Summary of to 't rap' light energy
photosynthesis
The glucose made is used in the process of respiration to release
energy that the plant can use. It is also used to make new
substances in the plant. Much of the chemical energy in the glucose EXAM TIP
made from photosynthesis is stored in the plant as starch. Many
glucose molecules bond together to make t he long-chain molecules Wne,...eve,... cnloropl..asts
of starch. &!Ye fou111,c;i i.111, pl&1111,ts,
pnotost1111,tnesi.s C&!111, t&1Ju

oo pl.ace.

050, .. Starch molecule

etc.

Glucose (thousands of glucose molecules

molecules join to make long starch molecules)
Figure 3.1.2 Glucose u nits link together to form starch molecules to store
chemical energy

---=----' Plants in tropical forests get plenty of sunshine a nd rain, although

those in the shade of the tree ca nopy need large leaves to collect the
sunligh t needed for photosynthesis SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a Write a word equation to

KEY POINTS summarise t he process of
1 During photosynthesis, chlorophyll absorbs light energy
photosynthesis.
which is converted into chemical energy in the products. b Now \II/rite a balanced
chemical equation fo r the
2 Photosynthesis can be summarised as: same process.
carbon dioxide + water ➔ glucose + oxygen 2 Describe the role of
3 The glucose made can be turned into starch which stores chlorophyll in photosynthesis.
chemical energy in the plant. 3 Compare the type of
photochemical reactions
we get in black and white
photography with those in
photosynthesis. How are
t hey similar and how do they
differ?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Ident ify and discuss the
causes of soil erosion.
• List methods of preventing
soil erosion.
• Compare and cont rast
methods used to produce
crops.
- -=-------' Planting crops on terraces
helps prevent \'\later
rushing down a slope and
eroding 1opsoil away
. OTHER!METHODS OE CROP.
PRODUCTION .
Organic fa rming: this uses
natura l growing techniques
t hat avoid synt hetic fertilisers,
pesticides, genetically modif ied
crops, growth hormones and
ant ibiotics.
Container gardening: this
is used on a small scale w here
ferti le land is limited, for
example w here people have no
garden space. Pots and other
containers are ideal fo r rooftop
gardens or window boxes.
Crop production
Soil conservation
In certain places, t he topsoil (in w hich plants grow) can be blown
away by t he wind or washed away by rainwater. The soil can be
removed in sheets, like a land-slide, or in channels (small ones are
called rills and deeper ones are called gullies). This soil erosion is
more likely if an area:
• has had all its plants removed, for exam pie by over-grazing -
because plant roots bind t he soil toget her
• is on a slope - as wa ter will flow down quickly
• is not sheltered - as the f ull force of the wind can do maximum
damage.
Farmers can conserve t heir soil, protecting it f rom erosion, by:
• not removing all plant-life from an area
• creating flatter terraces to grow crops on a sloping site - t his is
expensive to set up as it requires a lot of labour and large amounts of
stone and rock to support the terraces, but it does make fa rming the
f latter land much easier than working on a slope (see Figure 3.2. 1)
• planting alternat e rows of crops between rows of soil-binding
plants, such as grass
• sowing t heir crops at right angles across the slope of an inclined
f ield - a t echnique called contour ploughing
• planting in long narrow strips along t he contours using crop
rotation (called strip plant ing)
• planting hedges or const ructing wind-breaks around f ields t o
shelter soil from t he wind .
However, severe weat her events such as hurricanes or floods can still
quickly erode t he soil despite the precautions in place.
Hydroponic f arming
Hydroponic farmers grovv plants vvithout t he use of soil. Instead, t he
plants are placed in solutions containing careful ly cont rolled amounts
of mineral ions (nutrient s). This method of growing plants has been
known about for cent uries, but is now becoming more popular. It is
useful where t here is limited fertile farmla nd. As crops grovv in ideal
conditions in hydroponics, t hey yield more t han crops grown on
trad it ional fa rms. There is also no need for pesticides, as plants grow
indoors. Another advantage is that any minera l ions left in solut ions
can be re-used once plants are taken to market. They are not released
to pollute the environment.
Hydroponics could one day be used to feed cit ies, housed in multi-
storey buildings. This would produce food t hat does not need to be
tra nsported great distances and all f rom a very small area of land
compared to the acres used on t raditional fa rms .
Crop rotation
Intensive f arming of the same crop, year aft er year, in t he sarne field
will deplete the soil of nutrients. For example, soils in many Caribbean
islands were badly depleted of their plant nutrients by years of
monocropping of sugar cane and cotton. Farmers should change the
type of crop in the f ield each year, so t he demand on different plant
nutrients changes. It is also a good idea in t his crop rotat ion to leave
a f ield fallow every few years. In the fallow year, no crop is grovvn for
harvesting. Instead clover is grown. It is one of a few types of plant
t hat can use nitrogen gas f rom the air for growth. Clover has root
nodules t hat convert nit rogen into t he nitrate ions plants need to
make essential proteins.
At t he end of t he season t he clover is ploughed into t he f ield and
tops up t he nitrogen levels vvit hou t the farmer needing to add much
nit rogen fertiliser.

Greenhouse f arming
Commercial greenhouses (or glasshouses) are t he best way for
fa rmers to cont rol t he conditions in w hich t heir plants grow. They can A commercial glasshouse
' - ~ - - _ _ J ensu res that cro ps ca n be
optimise t he levels of light and carbon dioxide, as well as controlling
grown out of season
temperature and providing the ideal amounts of \/\later and nutrients
(mineral ions).
However, greenhouse farming is an expensive way to grow crops so
it is mainly used for specialist crops that can be sold at a high price.
Large-scale crops, such as maize or sugar cane, would not be cost-
effective for f armers.

KEY POINTS
EXAM TIP
1 Soil erosion is caused by \rvind and rainwater, but farmers
have ways of reducing t he loss of topsoil. "':hi:it l¾a~es a soi:L fert£Le
2 Crop rot ation is a way t o conserve plant nutrients in the soil. wiLL vaYJ:1 fol¾ crop to
crop, as wiLL the opti:l¾ul¾
3 Greenhouse farmi ng can provide ideal conditions fo r plant pH-for grow~V\,g a crop.
growth but it is expensive.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a W hat do we mean by soil erosion?

b List t he ways in which fa rmers can reduce t he risk of soil
erosion.
2 A farmer owns four fields and can sell t hree different crops for
a reasonable price at the end of each growing season. How
could the farmer plan his planting to reduce the amount spent
on ferti Ii sers ea ch year? ExpIain your answer.
3 A market gardener can get a good price for her asparagus, LINK <'~
but in some years bad wea t her has spoilt her crop. How might For more info rmation about t he
she solve t he problem and what should she consider before pH of different soils, see 16.2
making her decision? 'The importance of soil'.
 Food chains and food
webs

LEARNING OUTCOMES Food chains

A ll the energy for life on Earth comes o riginally f rom t he Sun. This
• Define producers, consumers,
energy is passed f rom organism to o rganism along food chains. A
decomposers, habitats,
food chain shows the energy f low as t he different orga nisms feed on
herbivores, carnivores,
each other.
omnivores, populations,
community and ecosystems. Each food chain will start with a g reen plant or algae as these are able
• Draw simple food chains and to 'captu re' the Sun's energy. As plants o r algae photosynt hesise they
food webs in t errestrial and use the Sun's energy in the reaction that makes their food, glucose.
aquatic environments. light energy
ca rbo n dioxide + water-------'> glucose + oxygen
The plant o r algae at t he start of a food chain is called a producer.
LINK <'~ A ll the organisrns above t he producer in t he food chain are called
For more informat ion about consu mers.
photosynthesis, see 3. 1
'Photoc hem ica I reactions'. Producer Primary Secondary Tertiary
consumer consumer consumer

Grass - -• Grasshoppper - - -- R a t - - - -• Snake

Figure 3.3. 1 A simple terrestrial (on land) food chain. Terrestrial habitats, ,._,here
food chains are found, include forests, hedgerows, fields and deserts.

In Figure 3.3.1 the producer is grass. A herbivore (plant-eater), in t his

case a g rasshopper, eats t he grass. The g rasshopper is the primary
consu mer in the food chain. Then the g rasshopper is eaten by a rat,
t he secondary consumer. Rats are examples of omnivores because
t hey w ill eat animals o r plants. The rat is t hen ea ten by a snake, the
t ertiary consumer in this food chain. The snake is a carnivore (meat-
eater). Energy f rom each organism is passed along the chain in the
direction of t he arrows.
This is an example of a terrestrial food chain as it takes place on land.
Food chains are also fou nd in aquatic environments such as seas, rivers,
creeks and ponds. For example, this is a f ood chain from a lake:
algae ➔ \11/ater snail ➔ crayfish ➔ crane

The lake forms the habitat w here t he o rganisms live. It is part of

a wider ecosystem, w hich includes all t he biological and physical
aspects of an area.

Each stage in a food chain is called a t rophic level. As energy is

t ra nsferred up a food chain, energy is wasted between each t rophic
level. This is because not all the energy taken in is transferred to useful
energy. Some is contained in animals' waste products. Decomposers
w ill feed on these waste products. Some energy is used to keep
endothermic animals warm and in moving around. So the energy
passed on to t he next t rophic level is less than was taken in. The energy
EXAM TIP
is eventually t ransferred to the surroundings as hea t energy.
Rel¾el¾beY- tnat food.
Food webs cncrill\,s Clll\,d webs crLwa!js
In reality food chains do not exist in isolation. Anirnals seldorn eat just start witn a pLcrll\,t OY- crLgae.
one type of orga nism. In order to survive t hey eat a variety of plants
and/ or animals.
The int erlinking of the linear food chains to describe t he more complex
feeding relat ionships produces a food web. Look at Figure 3.3.2.

Snake ::-- - Owl

/~ ~
Frf g,:::::::::: : : :~Rfa=t::-----M~ou~s~e______ Shtew
Moth Grasshopper Earthworm

i
Flower
i
Grass Berry
i
Plant root
Figure 3.3 .2 An example of a simplified terrestrial food 'Neb. All the organisms in
a food vveb, plus the habitat they live in, make up an ecosystem.

The organisms in t he food web fo rm t he community t hat live in a

particular habitat. The number of any one species in t he community
is called its population. Any large changes in the population
of a species in t he food web will affect t he ot her species in the
community. For example, if a pesticide kills many of t he grasshoppers
in a particular habita t, then t he population of ra ts could decrease.
Decreasing the ra ts will mean one of t he food sources of t he snake is
affected. They might need to eat more mice and shrews, which will
affect t he food stocks of t he owls. With fewer shrews t he earthworm
populat ion could rise, and so on.
Such changes might result in migrat ion of a species t o another KEY POINTS
habitat or a change in feedi ng ha bi ts in order to survive.
1 Feeding relationships in a
particular habitat can be
SUMMARY QUESTIONS described by food chains.

1 Here is a food chain: 2 Food chains can be

combined t o form food
flower ➔ moth ➔ frog ➔ snake
webs.
a Name the secondary consumer in the food chain.
3 Energy flows along the food
b Give an example of a carnivore and a herbivore from the
chain, but is reduced at each
food chain.
level.
c Name t he producer in the food chain .
4 Changes in the population
d Describe the flow of energy in t he food chain.
of a species in a food web
2 If a disease w iped out t he population of snakes in t he food have knock-on effects for
chain in Question 1, w hat would be t he possible consequences the ot her species.
for the other organisms in t he habitat?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the difference
between balanced and
unbalanced diets.
• State the major Cari bbean
food groups and list the
nutrients they contain.
• Descri be t he resu Its of food
tests.
Figure 3.4.1 The six Caribbean food
groups
Food groups and
nutrition
A balanced diet
There is a saying, 'You are what yo u eat'. It is important that we are
aware of t he health implications of our diet. In order to stay healthy
we need to eat a balanced diet. A balanced diet contains all the
essential food nutrients we need, in the correct amounts.
Look at the poster from the Pan American Health Organisation in
Figure 3.4.1. It shows how typical Caribbean foods can be classified.
It also gives the recommended proportions of each needed for a
bala need di et.
We can also classify foods according to the nutrition they provide. In
this case vve would have the following nutrients.
Carbohydrates
These are sugars and starch. They provide the energy our cells need
for all the essential processes of life. Svveet foods are rich in sugar
and we get starch from rice, pasta, bread, yams and cassava.
Proteins
These are needed fo r growth and the repair of cells. Meat, fish, eggs,
milk, nuts and beans are good sources of protein.
Fats/oils
These are stores of energy and help to keep your body warm. Fats
and oils are used to fry foods. They are contained in margarine, butter
and anything made usi ng t hese, such as cakes, pastries and biscuits.
Vitamins
There are 13 types of vitamin which help the body perform vital
functions. They regulate the body's metabolism. Although we only
need small amounts of the different types, witho ut them the body
will start to suffer. For example, vitamin D helps the body to absorb
calcium ions. These are needed for healthy teeth and bones. Without
vitamin D children develop a deficiency disease called rickets where
the legs become 'bowed ' outwards.
Fruit and green vegetables are rich in vitarnins. For example, citrus
fruit supplies us with vitamin C. Without vitamin C we would get the
deficiency disease scurvy.
Minerals
l ike vitamins, minerals help the body build essential materials and
help vital chemical reactions take place. They are absorbed in the
body as ions. Ions are charged particles, such as the calcium ions
for teeth and bones just mentioned . We need about 15 different
minerals to stay healthy.
Other essential nutrients in a bala need diet are:
Water
About two-thirds of your body is water. Most of the reactions in your
body happen in solutions made with water. It also helps to cool your
body when you sweat.
Fibre
This isn't really a nutrient as it is not absorbed into the body.
However, it does play an important role in moving solid vvaste
t hrough and out of your body.

Food tests
Most foods cont ain mixt ures of different nutrients, bu t some are
\II/ell-known sources of one particular type. For example, rice, bread
and pasta are good sources of carbohydrates in the form of starch.
Boiled rice contains about 23% carbohydra te, but also has a little
prot ein (2 .2%) and only 0. 1% fat.
We can ident ify the major nut rients in food using some simple food
tests.

Starch
Starch will t urn brown iodine solution to a blue-black colour.

Red ucing sugars

Sugars, such as glucose, are also carbohydrates. Sucrose is the sugar I
you put in tea and coffee. We can test fo r the sugars called red ucing
sugars, of \11/hich glucose is one, using Benedict's solut ion. This is a blue
solution. W hen we heat a solution containing a reducing sugar, t he
solution turns orange or red. You get a positive test with glucose and
fructose (but not w it h sucrose unless it is broken down by acid f irst).

Proteins
If a food contains prot ein it will turn blue Biuret solution violet.
Look at Figure 3.4.2.

Fats and oils Figure 3.4.2 Biuret solution turns

Add the food to a little ethanol in a test t ube and shake it. Pour from blue to violet in the
presence o f a soluble
t he liquid off into a second t est tube, leaving any solid behind. Add protein
t he same amount of water t o t he liquid in the test tube and shake
again. A white suspension in t he liquid shows t he presence of fat.
Alternatively, place t he food on a piece of brown paper and see if it SUMMARY QUESTIONS
leaves a t ranslucent mark.
1 What are t he components of
KEY POINTS a ba laneed diet?
1 There are six Caribbean food groups: staples; legumes: foods 2 a What do you understand
from animals; f ruits; veget ables; fats/oils. by t he term 'deficiency
disease'?
2 The nutrients we get f rom food are: carbohydrates; proteins;
fats/oi ls, vit amins: minerals. Water and fibre are also essential b Identify two deficiency
for a balanced diet. diseases and state t he
nutrient(s) lacking.
3 A balanced diet has all the essential food nut rients, in the
correct amounts. 3 How would you test a
sample of powdered milk
4 Positive food tests include: Benedict's solution turns orange/
to determine its nutrient
red w hen heated w ith a reduci ng sugar; Biuret solution turns
composition?
violet with protein; fats leave a t ranslucent mark on brown
paper (or filter paper).

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Discuss issues caused by an
unbalanced diet.
• Explain \,vhy energy
requirements differ between
people.
• Discuss food additives and
their effect on health.
-
EFFECT OF EXERCISE
Exercise plays a part in weight-
reduction programmes to
combat obesity. Not only t hat,
regular exercise prevents build
up of fa tty deposits in arteries
and strengthens your heart. It
also 't ones' t he body, giving
'muscular definition'.
LINK
For more information about
\,vhy exercise is good for you,
see 4.5 'High blood pressure
and its effects'.
The importance of a
balanced diet
People w ho eat an 'unbalanced' diet over a significant time will
become malnourished. There are various types of malnutrition, f rom
the deficiency diseases ment ioned in 3.4 (rickets, scurvy) to obesity
(excess energy intake) and Protein Energy Malnutri tion (insufficient
protein and energy intake).
Obesity
There is some concern in t he Cari bbean (and in many other parts of
the world) about t he modern -day diet. A growing number of people
are becoming obese (very overweight, wit h a Body Mass Index of
over 30).
Nutritionists and dieticians advise us w hat we should eat and in w hat
quant ities. Too much fried f ood is not good for you and should be
avoided. Your body stores fa t under your skin and around the organs
of your body. Fatty deposits can line t he inside of your arteries,
increasing t he risk of:
• type 2 diabetes
• heart disease
• high blood pressure.
All of t hese are potentially life-threa tening conditions if left
untreated. Eating too much satura ted animal fa t is t he main cause of
t hese condi tions. On one Caribbean island, figu res show t hat half of
the islanders w ill suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure) by
the age of 45 years.
How much energy do we need?
In order t o lose weight, people must transfer more energy f rom t heir
cells than is taken in when t hey eat. But how much energy a person
needs each day varies. It depends on your age, w hether you are male
or female and how much physical activity you do, for example in your
job or in your leisure t ime (such as sports). Look at the table below.
Person Energy requ irements
('~ each day (kJ/day)
Pregnant woman 10000
Teenage boy 12 500
Man doing manual work 15000
Young girl 8500
Inactive man over 50 years old 8500
Inactive woman over 50 years old 6750
People requi re less energy as they get older because their rnetabolic
rate slows down and they tend to be less active. Young people need ..... . . ............
.... .. ,....... --......
~ IM " COCONUT-.,

~ - ~ . . _ . . . . .... SJ . . . . . . . .

--·----·--
more energy for the reactions in their body to make new proteins for
growth. They usually transfer lots of energy as they play. Hovvever,
there is concern that video and computer games result in young
.................... .
••nlliMtdCMU 1 • - - - ~

r.zatnt11 CMd1 C..,

,_41
people doi ng less physical activity in their spare time than in the past. ., r ,.,., ..,o..w.c:..
This and over-eating rnean that childhood obesity is becoming more 40...... -
,_~w.uc.1, ... t. . . . , I
,,_1)1.1',N)_C-_

.._--.................__.,..........
..--·-·
common. This can go on to cause early-onset diabetes in young , . . -~-C....,.OI

.. -
adults. _....,_......,..... •••----C ss I A
• ••on•
, t ._. . . . . . . . .,.C 11
~

Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) _,.c

~ -_
-- _
ad_._
,_,,y_
---
IDL!IIS

---
Starvation causes Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). Lack of food will

·-
result in conditions knovvn as kwashiorkor and marasmus. Children --IOaW'IO
suffering from kwashiorkor have a swollen abdomen, with retarded
growth and muscle wastage. Without enough energy being taken Figure 3.5.1 This label from Dunn's
in, the body starts to break dovvn protein for energy. Marasmus is River Coconut milk shovvs
similar, but children look very dra wn around the face and do not have some of the additives used
the distended abdomen. routinely in some pa rts o f
the food indu stry

Food additives
Many foods have substances added to improve:
• appearance, fo r example colourings
• shelf life, for exam pie preservatives
• texture, for example emulsifiers
• taste, for example flavouri ngs and flavou r enhancers.
You can see these food additives listed on the contents label on
cans and packaging.
Some people are worried about the effects of adding artificial KEY POINTS
chemicals to our food. However, all additives are tested for safety
before use with consumers. 1 Over-eating and under-
eating cause malnutrition.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 Over-eating high-energy
foods, such as carbohyd rates
1 What are the health problems caused by obesity? and fats, leads to obesity.
This causes an increased ris k
2 Put the follovving in order of daily energy requi rements,
of heart attacks, strokes and
starting with most energy:
diabetes.
a bed-ridden 70-year-old; a sprinter in t raining;
a 9-year-old girl; a pregnant woman. 3 The energy needed by
different people depends on
3 Name two conditions caused by PEM. gender, occupation and age.
4 a Why does the food industry use additives in products? 4 Starvation causes PEM.
b Make a list of 10 food additives from the labels of some
5 Food additives can improve
common processed foods. the colour, texture, taste
c Draw a table of the advantages and disadva ntages of using and shelf life of foods.
food additives. Use the internet to fi nd out health issues However, some might
associated with certain food additives. Why could the cause conditions such as
information on some vvebsites be biased? hyperactivity in children.
 Digestion

We need to digest our food to make use of its essential nutrients. In

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• State the difference between
mechanical and chemical
digestion.
• Descri be the role of enzymes
in chemical digestion.
• Identify the parts of the
digestive system and explain
their functions.
• Explain the words absorption,
assimilation and egestion.
many foods the nutrients are present as large, insoluble molecules.
These include starch, protein and fats. In digestion the large,
insoluble molecules are converted into small, soluble molecules. The
small rnolecules can then pass through the gut wall into the blood to
be t ransported around your body.
Figure 3. 6. 1 shows the digestive system.
M echanical digest ion
This is the physical process of breaking up pieces of food into smaller
bits. There are no chemical reactions involved so no new substances
are made. The molecules remain intact. This process starts with your
teeth cutting and grinding food into small bits as you bite and then
chew it . The process continues as the food is squeezed by muscles as
it passes down the tube (oesophag us) that leads from your mouth to
your stomach.
The process of muscular contractions that passes food through the
digestive system is called perista lsis.

- oesophagus
Chem ica l digestion
Stomach Chemical digestion is the process that actually breaks down the large
molecules into smaller ones. Enzymes in our digestive juices carry
out this function. Enzymes are soluble proteins that act as biological
catalysts. Different enzymes are needed to break down different types
of food molecules.
enzyme
Large SUBSTRATE PRODUCTS
intestine carbohydrases
carbohydrates sugars
Appendix Rectum proteases
Anus proteins amino acids
Ii pases
Figure 3.6.1 The digestive system
fats/oils fatty acids + glycerol
Pepsin - protease Trypsin - protease from
from the stomach the small intestine Varying pH in the digestive system
;:::, Enzymes work best in particular pH ranges. The digestive system is
~
(.) adapted to create the best pH for the different enzymes in different
"'
Q) parts of the system. For example, in your mouth, saliva has a pH
~ 1---~-,..L-""---~-~-~-
LU
between 6.5 and 7.5 to suit the enzyme called salivary amylase. It
breaks down starch (a carbohydrate) into maltose (a sugar).
0 2 4 6 8 10
pH Further down the digestive system we have food arriving at the
Figure 3.6.2 Enzymes operate best at
stomach that has a pH of about 2.0. Our gastric juices contain
their optimum pH (and hydrochloric acid in which pepsin (a protease) starts the breakdown
their optimum tempera ture) of protein molecules into smaller chain molecules (called peptides).
Then in the small intestine the pH is increased by bile and juices
Structure of
fro rn the pancreas and intestines. The bile, which is made by the Villus small intestine
liver, emulsifies (physically splits up) globules of fats and oils into
tiny droplets. The lipases can break down the fats into glycerol and Rich blood
fatty acids. In this higher pH, different proteases help to break down supply
produces a
proteins and peptides into amino acids. For example, trypsin works steep
best at pH 7.8 to 8.7. concentration
gradient for
Absorpt ion a nd assimil at ion efficient
diffusion
The smaller, soluble molecules produced by digestion then
pass th rough the walls of the small intestine by diffusion or Large surface ----
active transport. Active transport can move molecules against a area for
concentration gradient. diffusion

To make absorption easier, the surface area of the small intestine is Thin wall_
very large. Its surface is folded and covered in villi (see Figure 3.6.3). (only one cell
These are like tiny fi ngers sticking out from the surface. They have thick) so there
is only a short
capillaries (thin blood vessels) that carry the absorbed food molecules distance
away to the bloodstream. across which
diffusion
These molecules arrive at cells where they cross the cell membrane takes place
and are assimilated (changed) into substances needed by the body. For
example, amino acids are assimilated into proteins to build muscle.

Egest ion
Lymph -,;;
system
-
The remaining material is passed out of the small intestine into the Figure 3.6.3 Vill i line the su rface of
large intestine (or colon). There, much of the water from the digestive the intestine to absorb
the soluble molecules
juices is reabso rbed. Otherwise the body would end up dehyd rated. produced in digestion
The solid waste is called faeces. It passes from the large intestine into
the rectum before it leaves the body (is egested) from the anus.

KEY POINTS
1 Large, insoluble food
molecules are broken down
during digestion into small
soluble molecules.
2 Mechanical digestion breaks
pieces of food physically into
smaller bits.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS 3 The smaller bits of food can
be more easily chemically
1 Draw a flow chart showing the parts of the digestive system. digested by enzymes.
Include a key that explains the function of each part.
4 The enzymes break the
2 Why are the villi important in the process of absorption? molecules into smaller
3 a What are the products formed when the following food molecules that can pass into
types are digested? the bloodstream by way of
proteins ii carbohydrates iii fats villi in the small intestine.
b What is the general name given to enzymes that digest? 5 Waste material is then
proteins ii carbohydrates iii fats egested at the end of the
process.
4 Explain the difference between digestion and egestion.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the conditions t hat
promote the growth of
. .
m1croorg an,s ms.
• Descri be t he effects of
microorganisms in food.
• Descri be different methods of
food preservation.
Figure 3.7.1 You can easily see the
mould that grows on
stale bread. You can help
prevent mould by storing
bread in a dark place at
room temperature and
sealing it so no moisture
can get to it. Bread can
be stored in a freezer
Microorganisms and
food preservation
Most microorganisms need the following conditions in order to grow:
• vvarmth
• moisture
• a neut ral pH
• a good food supply, for example sugars, proteins.
Their food supply can be foods meant for human consumpt ion.
If unt reated foods are contaminated w it h microorganisms, in
favourable growing conditions, the foods will go off. You have
probably seen, and smelt, w hat happens w hen milk is left out of the
fridge too long or w hen we keep bread too long.
The growth of mould on bread is easy to spot. However, some
microorganisms, such as bacteria in meat, can be difficult to see and
can be harm ful to humans. They are called pathogens.
In order to protect our food f rom microorganisms, people have
developed ways of preserving food. Here are some met hods used.
Salting
This ancient method can be used wit h f ish and meat. The salt inhibits
t he growt h of bacteria. Wa ter leaves the bacterial cells by osmosis,
shrivelling up the bacteria as it gets dehydrated.
~~~!~.os1t~
W'.'HzMO!!ns
• ••- ~ ;• u
I -
Figure 3 .7 .2 Salted fish are a popular food in the Caribbean
Drying
M icroorganisms need water to t hrive. So allowing foods to dry out
helps to preserve them. The water can be removed by drying in t he
air, such as sun-dri ed tomatoes, by warming a food to evaporate off
the water or by the more modern met hod of freeze-drying.

Pickling
The microorganisms t hat cause harm to humans w hen digested
mainly grow best in nearly neutral pH conditions. Pickling consists
in preserving food in vinegar, containing about 10% ethanoic acid.
This lowers the pH so t hat enzymes in t he bacteria are de-activated
(denatured) in t hese acidic conditions.

Heating
This is usually used with liquids, such as f ruit juices, milk and low-
alcohol dri nks. The process heats t he liquid for a prescribed t ime t hen
cools it quickly. This kills most of the bacteria and enables t he liquid
to have a reasonable shelf life. For example, milk can be pasteuri sed
by heating to just above 70°C fo r about 15 seconds, t hen cooling it
quickly to 4°C.

Refrigeration
The act ion of enzymes is slowed down at low temperatu res, slowing
down the reactions t hat make food spoil. So fridges are set at
temperatures around 5°C. If temperatures of 0°C and lower are
used (as in a freezer), the wat er in the food f reezes. This means t hat
microorganisms have no liquid water available so they cannot function. LINK C'~

Adding sugar For more information about

osmosis, see 1.3 'Diffusion and
This works like salting, as water leaves t he bacterial cells by osmosis osmosis'.
to pass into t he syru p, w hich has a lower concent ratio n of wa ter. This
dehydrates t he bacteria.

Adding preservatives SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Food companies can add substances to inhibit bacterial growth
or stop t he react ion with oxygen t hat make t he food go off . 1 Before t he days of
For example, if you look on food packaging you might see the refrigerat ion, hovv did sailors
preservat ives benzoic acid, sorbic acid or sulphur dioxide listed. These on long voyages make sure
their meat did not go off?
all creat e acidic conditions, so bacteria cannot rnultiply.
2 List t he methods of food
KEY POINTS preserva tion and think of
a way to classify them into
1 M icroorganisms need warm, moist conditions with a neutral groups. Show your results in
pH and a food supply t o multiply. a table.
2 M icroorganisms spoil food so met hods of preserving foods 3 Plan an investigation to find
have been developed over time. These rely on killing out w hich fact ors promote
microorganisms or making sure t hey do not get t he the growth of mould on
conditions t hey need to t hrive. bread.
 Teeth and digestion

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he general structure
of a tooth.
• List the different types
of teeth and relate their
structu re to their functio n.
As you saw in 3.6, the teeth start off the process of mechanical
digestion of food. They can cut, tear and grind food into small
enough pieces fo r us to swallow. This physical breakdovvn of t he food
also helps the work of enzymes in chemical digestion. That's because
the enzymes have a larger surface area to attack and break dovvn the
Ia rge food molecu Jes.
Figure 3.8.1 below shows the parts that make up a tooth.

Crown Pulp cavity

Cement
Socket

Fibres connecting
cement to jaw bone
Root - +---1- - - Jaw bone

-+-- - Gum

Upper jaw Nerve and

blood vessels

Molar
Figure 3.8. 1 The general structure of a tooth

To do their job well, humans have different types of teeth. Their teeth
have evolved to cope vvith eating both plants and animals as food.
Children usually have 20 baby teeth that are replaced by 28 to 32
permanent teeth. (Your back four molars may not erupt throug h your
gums.) Look at Figure 3.8.2 opposite to see the types and location of
Figure 3.8.2 The differen t types of teeth the different types of teeth in your mouth.

Using dental formu lae

We can use a dental formula to represent the number and types of
teeth fou nd in one half of the upper and lovver jaw.
In a child: I 2/2 C 1/1 PM 0/0 M 2/2 = 10 teeth, where I = incisors,
C = canines, PM (or P) = premolars and M = molars. The num bers
show the number of teeth in the upper qua rter/lower quarter. Thus
doubling the total in the dental formula gives us the number of teeth
in the mouth of a child, i.e. 20.
In an adult I 2/2 C 1/1 PM 2/2 M 3/3 =16. Thus doubling it gives t he
number of teeth in the mouth of an adult, i.e. 32 (which includes the
wisdom teeth).
The dental formula can also be used to show t he teeth in other
animals, fo r example a cat: I 3/3 C 1/1 PM 3/2 M 1/1.
Each of the four types of tooth is shaped to carry ou t its particular
fu nction.

The function of different teeth

Fluor'de helps to
' -"'--- - - - - ' prevent tooth decay by
Type of tooth Shape Its function
strengthening the enamel
Incisor Biting and cutting food that coats your teeth

V
Broad, flat,
chisel shaped
Canine ~~ Tearin g food

\J Pointed
Premolar r<J.J..1 Tearin g and grinding food
I
~
J~
~ -✓

Broad flat crown

with ridges, two roots

Molar I -, -' ~ ' Grinding and crushing food

~ ,.

~~ -
Broad flat crown
with ridges, three roots

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a labelled diagram to show the general structure of a KEY POINTS

t ooth.
1 Adults can have 32 teeth.
2 W hy are teeth contributors to mechanical digestion and not These are incisors, canines,
chemical digestion? premolars and molars.
3 Sketch t he shape of the visible parts of an incisor, canine, 2 The shapes of the different
premolar and molar t oot h, and relate t his to its fu nction in types of t eeth are matched
mechanical digestion. to their fu nctions.
 Transport systems in
plants

To maintain life, all living things need a way to exchange substances

LEARNING OUTCOMES
with their environment. They need to take in the essential nutrients
• Descri be t he structure of the and water they need. Then, they transport materials to the cells that
root and stem, including need them and also transport waste products back out into the
xylem and phloem (vascular environment.
tissue).
• Explain the structure of a Transport in plants
plant's circulatory system.
Plants need carbon dioxide and water to photosynthesise. They take
• List the factors that affect in carbon dioxide from the air th rough tiny holes in the surface of
transpiration. their leaves called stomata. These are usually in the underside of
leaves. Special guard cells control the opening and closing of the
LINK <'~ stomata.
For more information about Plants do not photosynthesise all the time. For exarnple, the guard
photosynthesis, see 3.1 cells close the stomata at night. Look at Figure 4. 1. 1 below. The cells
'Photoc hem ica I reactions'. in which photosynthesis takes place are usually near the stomata, so
the gases haven't got to travel fa r.
A vascular bundle Phloem tubes
contains xylem have thin Upper
and phloem with walls and epidermis
cambium cells living cells
between them
Palisade
Phloem layer

Spongy
layer

Lower{
epidermis • ;.::.,'1--- - Guard
L:1 cells open and
-- / -- - \ - close the stomata to
Stomata like this allow gases to move in and out of the leaf control water loss
Figure 4.1.1 Leaves have large air spaces inside to increase the surface area of
Cambium cells Xylem vessels cells exposed to carbon dioxide
grow into new have thick. strong
xylem and walls and are not
living
Plants have two trans port systems for moving materials larger
phloem
distances.
Figure 4.1.2 Transport in a plant -
xylem carries the water and • The xylem transports water and mineral ions around the plant.
mineral ions around and
• The phloem transports the glucose made du ri ng photosynthesis
phloem carries the glucose
around. Xylem and phloem around the plant.
are vascular bundles of
tissue.
Transporting water, mineral ions and glucose
LINK %
The other substrate needed for photosynthesis is water. This is taken
For more information about
up t hrough the roots. It is transported to the chloroplasts in cells in
osmosis, see 1.3 'Diffusion and
the green parts of the plant t hrough the xylern. It is drawn up from
osmosis' .
the roots to replace water lost from the leaves by evaporation. Each
root cell is adapted with a long prot rusion that gets between soil
particles. This maximises the surface area in contact with the very
dil ute solutions of mineral ions in the soil. Water enters the root
cells by osmosis and the mineral ions enter them by active transport
against a concentration gradient.
This water evaporates out of the leaves through the stomata. So
when the stomata are open to allow carbon dioxide into the leaf,
water can also escape from the leaf. As the water escapes, more is
drawn up through the xylem to replace it. This loss of water vapour is
called transpiration. Open stomata
The glucose made in photosynthesis travels th rough the phloem
tubes to the rest of the cells in the plant. The glucose is needed for
respira tion in all plant cells or in the growing regions to make new
molecules.

Factors affecting transpiration

The rate at vvhich plants lose water in transpiration depends on how
favou rable the conditions are for photosynthesis and evaporation of
water. So transpiration will be fastest when it is: Closed stomata
• hot and not too humid (so water molecules have more energy and Figure 4.1.3 Stomata open to let
can escape more easily into drier air) carbon dioxide into leaves
for photosynthesis. At the
• sunny (so stomata a re open to maximise photosynthesis) same time this lets water
• windy (so water molecules are removed from around the leaf so the vapou r escape, which can
make the plant \<Vilt.
air does not get saturated with water).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
EXAM TIP
1 What is the difference
between the functions of
sto~t:lt/:l /:l re 11\,ever co~pLeteLu cLosecl - see F' xylem and phloem?
4 1 .3 . U Lgu~
2 Explain how the t ransport
of water through a plant is
aided by transpiration.
KEY POINTS 3 Explain the factors that affect
the rate of transpiration.
1 Transport systems in living things are needed to exchange
materials with the environment and move substances around 4 How are transport systems
inside t he organism to where they are needed. different for organisms
made of one cell compared
2 In plants, the transports systems are xylem (for water and with those made of
mineral ions) and phloem (for glucose). many cells? Why are the
3 Plants lose water through transpiration, which supplies the differences in t he structure
fo rce needed to enable the movement of water up the plant of the res piratory systems
from the roots. necessary?
 The human circulatory
system

The human circulatory system is made up of the heart, the blood and
LEARNING OUTCOMES
its various blood vessels.
• List the components of blood Blood is a mixtu re made up of plasma, red blood cells, platelets and
and descri be their functio ns. white blood cells. Figure 4.2.1 shows the composition of blood.
• State the types and functions
Plasma - this stra w-coloured watery liquid makes up most of the
of blood vessels.
blood. It contains the red blood cells and the white blood cells. It also
• Descri be t he structure of the contains small bits of cells called platelets vvhich help in clotting the
heart. blood.
• Name the major blood vessels
associated with the heart. Plasma transports the small rnolecules from digestion such as glucose
and amino acids, mineral ions, waste products and various proteins
and hormo nes.
Red blood cells - these 'biconcave
discs' transport oxygen from the lungs
to cells all round the body. The oxygen
10 cm3 ll"'----1 Plasma- bonds tem porarily to a haemoglobin
liquid part of blood molecule in the red blood cell and
(55% of blood volume) releases the oxygen at tissues.
White blood cells - these help to Cell membrane Haemoglobin
protect us against disease. There
5cm3 Figure 4.2.2 A red blood cell
are two types of white blood cell -
White blood cells phagocytes, which engulf pathogens,
and platelets and lymphocytes, which produce Lobed nucleus Large nucleus
Red blood cells antibodies to destroy pathogens. These I
form part of our immune systern .

The blood vessels

Figure 4.2.1 The composition of blood
There are three types of blood vessel to Phagocyte Lymphocyte
carry blood around your body. Figure 4.2.3 Phagocyte and
lymphocyte
• Arteries - to carry blood away from
your heart
• Veins - to carry blood back to yo ur heart
• Capillaries - to link the arteries and veins.

Artery Vein Capillary

• thick muscular wall, • thin muscular wall, with • no muscle
capable of constricting no constriction • large lumen
• small lumen
• transports blood from the
heart (oxygenated except
• large lumen
• transports blood to the
heart (de oxygenated
p
Lumen
• no constriction
• links arteries to veins
• blood changes from
Lumen in the pulmonary artery) Lumen except in the pulmonary oxygenated to
(opening) • blood under high vein) deoxygenated
pressure, moving rapidly, • blood flows slowly, under • flows slowly, under
in pulses low pressure reducing pressure
Figure 4.2.4 Structu re of an artery, vein and capillary
The hea rt
LUNGS
The heart is a muscular organ that pumps the blood around your "'O
C:

body. It is about the size of your fist. Figure 4.2.5 shows its structure.
HEART
RIGHT SIDE LEFT SIDE
Pulmonary artery

Aorta
Vena cava "'>
from head "'u
Pulmonary "'C: )>
Semi-lunar
valves veins
Left atrium
~
-"'
0
~

Right
atrium

Deoxygenated blood
Left ventricle - wall ■ Oxygenated blood
Vena cava thicker than right
from body - Direction of blood flow
ventricle
Tricuspid valve Figure 4.2.6 Flow chart of the
-t:;;--1-,L.J._ Septum - separates circulatory system
Tendon the right-hand side
of heart (deoxygenated
Right ventricle blood) from left-hand
side (oxygenated blood)
-► Direction of DOxygenated ■ Deoxygenated SUMMARY QUESTIONS
blood flow blood blood
1 a What makes up most of
Figure 4.2.5 The structure of the heart
your blood?
• The heart acts as a double pump. The right-hand side pumps blood b Which part of blood helps
away from the heart and the blood retu rns to the left-hand side. fight infections?
• Blood comes through veins into the atria chambers at the top of c Which part of blood
the heart. Oxygenated blood from the lungs arrives into the left delivers oxygen to cells?
atrium. Deoxygenated blood arrives back into the rig ht atrium. d What is the role of
• The atria contract to force the blood down into the ventricles. platelets?
• Then the ventricles contract to pump the blood out of the heart 2 Draw a table to summarise
down the arteries. The right ventricle sends deoxygenated blood to the structure and function of
the lungs to receive more oxygen and get rid of carbon dioxide. The t he different types of blood
left ventricle sends oxygenated blood to tissues all around the body vessels.
(this needs stronger rnuscle than the right ventricle).
3 Look at Figure 4.2 .5.
• Valves are needed in the heart to make sure blood flows in the
right direction and prevent 'backflow'. a Which artery takes blood
to the lungs?
KEY POINTS b Which atrium does blood
from the lungs arrive back
1 The blood is made up of plasn,a, red blood cells and white into?
blood cells, with a small amount of platelets.
c Which ventricle has t he
2 Arteries take blood from the heart; blood returns to the heart t hicker muscle? Why?
through veins; capillaries are the thin blood vessels that link d What separates the two
the arteries and veins. sides of the heart?
3 The heart pumps blood around the body, acting as a double e What stops blood back-
pump. flowing in t he heart?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Name t he fo ur blood groups.
• Explain ant igens and
antibodies.
• Discuss precautions in blood
transfusio ns.
• Explain the rhesus factor (Rh)
and blood groups.
A blood d onor soon
replaces the 500 cm' of
blood dona1ed
Blood groups
Antigens are molecules at the surface of cells t hat cause an immune
response in t he body. The response is from antibodies in your blood
plasma. Antibodies can attach themselves to the ant igens, causing
the cells to clump together (known as agglutinat ion). The antigens on
'foreign' cells allow cells to be recognised as being f rom ou tside your
body. Your body's antibodies can recognise t heir own antigens so do
not bind to t hem.
Antigens and antibodies in different blood groups
Red blood cells can have different ant igens on t heir surface (cell
membrane). There are two types of ant igen, labelled as A and B. This
means t here are four types of blood:
• A (vvith just A ant igens)
• B (wit h just B antigens)
• AB (wit h both A and B antigens)
• 0 (wit h no antigens).
Your blood w ill make antibodies t o attack blood cells t hat are from a
different blood group f rom your own. We represent t he ant ibodies
t hat attack a particular ant igen by its lower case letter. For example,
antigen B will be attacked by antibody b. So if you are blood group B,
your blood will have a-type antibodies. It will not have b antibodies
or it would attack its own blood. The table below shows t he antigens
and ant ibodies in each blood group.
Blood group Antigens present on red Ant ib odies present in
blood cells plasma
A A b
B B a
AB A and B none
0 none a and b
Blood transfusions
Only certain types of blood can be given to a person after an accident
or during an operation. If t he w rong type is given, antibodies will
attack the red blood cells causing them to clump toget her. For
example, b ant ibodies in blood group A would attack the red blood
cells wit h antigen B if blood group B was received.
The table below shows w hich blood groups are compatible wit h each
other.

Blood group of the recipient (receiver)

A B AB 0
Blood group A yes no yes no
of the donor B no yes yes no
(giver)
AB no no yes no
0 yes yes yes yes

For example, we can explain t he last column in t he table. If you KEY POINTS
are blood group 0, you have antibodies of bot h a and b. So if
you are given blood from groups A, B or AB, red blood cells w ill 1 There are fou r blood
stick together and ultimately be broken down. This means you are groups: A, B, AB and 0.
incompatible with blood groups A, B and AB and only a t ransfusion
2 Care has to be taken to
of blood group O vvould work.
ensure recipients of blood
transfusions receive only a
Rhesus factor compatible blood group.
Anot her antigen was discovered on red blood cells from resea rch 3 Blood t ransfusions also
done on rhesus monkeys. The ant igen was given the letter D. Humans need to be checked to
do not have t he d antibodies naturally to attack this. ensure the rhesus facto r
(positive or negative) also
However, we can make t he antibody that will attack rh esus positive
blood if exposed to it. So people are now checked to see if t heir matches.
blood is rhesus positive (Rh +) or rhesus negat ive (Rh-), as well as 4 The rh esus fact or can
w hich blood group t hey are. Your medical records will show this if cause complications in
you have been tested in case you need a blood t ransfusion. pregnancies.
The rhesus factor can cause complications in pregnancy. As your
blood group is inherited, sometimes a mother can be rhesus
negative, w hile t he foetus is rhesus positive f rom the fa ther. SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Near t he end of t he pregnancy some blood cells can pass into the
mot her from t he foet us. The mother 1rvill now make antibody cl to 1 Name t he four blood groups.
attack t he 'foreign' red blood cells. These can then pass into the 2 a Explain w hy someone
foetus and will attack its red blood cells with antigen D. with blood group A
The breakdown of some of the fi rst born baby's red blood cells is not could not receive a blood
usually a problem. However, in subsequent pregnancies, t he mot her's transfusion from a donor
blood will have mored antibodies t hat pass into t he foetus. The of blood group B.
foet us 1rvill need blood transf usions while in t he womb, otherwise its b Explain w hy blood from
01rvn red blood cells will be broken clown, which would be fatal for donors of blood group
the foet us. 0 will be easier to match
than other blood groups.
To get around t his problem, t he mother can be injected wit h d
antibodies after her f irst pregnancy. This dest roys all the rhesus blood c Which blood group can
cells from t he foetus. So she will not continue to make her own d receive blood donated by
antibodies that could attack the next rh esus-positive foet us. an AB donor? W hy?
3 Explain how a rhesus-
negative pregnant mother
and a rh esus-positive father
can give rise to problems in
their f oetus.
 Immunity

LEARNING OUTCOMES Preventing disease

Diseases are caused by pathogens (microorganisms such as bacteria
• Descri be t he role of or viruses) entering the body. The body's white blood cells are its
antibodies in the prevention
defence once a pathogen gets into yo ur body.
of disease.
• Explain how vaccines work. We have seen in 4.3 t hat antibodies are produced in the blood. These
are made by lymphocytes to help us get rid of 'foreign' cells that
• Explain how damage can be
enter our bodies. Phagocytes can finish off the job by engulfing the
done to the immune system.
invading cells and breaking thern down with enzymes.
• Explain the consequences
of damage to t he immune
system, with reference to
HIV/AIDS.

Lymphocyte
.
1 Lymphocyte recognises antigens on

.
. ·_. .-o·
'-..:,.✓ .
the surface of bacteria as 'foreign'
and produce antibodies against them.
.
......
..I. . .
.. .

Phagocyte
4 Bacteria are enclosed
in a vacuole where they
Bacterium Antigen are ingested and killed.

2 Antibodies stick to the

antigens on the bacteria.
The bacteria clump together.

Figure 4.4.1 How the body's immu ne system deals with 'foreign' cells

Vaccination
It takes some time for the lymphocytes to generate the antibodies
EXAM TIP
needed to attack a particular pathogen. In this time the pathogen
The bocl1::1 sol¾etil¾e.S can be multiplying rapidly and you get the symptoms of the disease.
pro cl Kees a 111,ti bocl£es So it is best if we can get protection against certain diseases by
vaccination . This is also known as immunisation.
agai111,st harl'l,\,less
SKbsta111,ces. Wl1 e111, tl-iis In vaccination, we receive a pathogen's antigens in a vaccine, usually by
l-iappe111,s, tl-ie perso111, an injection. This stimulates your white blood cells to produce antibodies
SKffers {1"011,,\, atLerg£es. against that particular antigen. The antibodies are then ready to deal
with that pathogen as soon as it enters your body. The pathogen cannot
multiply so you do not get the symptoms of the disease. You have
immunity against that disease.
 Figure 4.4.2 A baby receives vaccinations against several diseases, such as
measles, mumps and rubella, in the first year of i1s life

Your body can carry on making antibodies once t he pathogen has

KEY POINTS
been dealt with. That is w hy you only get measles once. So a vaccine
against measles w ill not need 'topping up', unlike some ot hers that 1 W hite blood cells defend
only work for a certain time. For example, you might have received a us against pathogens.
booster vaccination for tetanus. Lymphocytes produce
The ant igens used in vaccines are often delivered on dead antibodies w hich bind to
microorganisms t hat cannot reproduce. Vaccines against typhoid, ant igens on the surface of
cholera and w hooping cough are made like t his. Ot her pat hogens pat hogens. The pathogens
in vaccines may be living, but they have been de-activated in some clump toget her and are
way so t hey cannot multiply. These include vaccines against measles, ingested by phagocytes.
ru bella, polio and t uberculosis (TB). 2 Vaccination stimulat es the
production of antibodies
HIV/AIDS against certain diseases.

Viru ses work by penetrating cells and multi plying vvit h them,
destroying t he host cell. HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus) is a
relatively new virus, fi rst diagnosed in 1982. It enters cells t hat are SUMMARY QUESTIONS
part of your immune system, called T-helper cells. HIV gets into t hese
cells via an infected individual, usually t hrough unprotected sexual 1 Explain t he diffe rent actions
intercourse or by sharing needles to inject drugs. of a lymphocyte and a
phagocyte in destroying a
The virus can lie dormant in t he T-hel per cells for years before it pathogen.
starts to multiply. At t hat stage, f ull-blown AIDS (Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome) develops. The infected person becomes open 2 Describe how vaccination
to infection f rom ot her pat hogens as t heir immune system is severely pro tects us against a disease.
damaged by t he virus. A secondary disease is usually t he cause 3 a Describe how a person
of death. At present t here is no vaccine available against HIV, but infected w it h HIV can
research continues, with some positive results repo rted in 20 16. HIV eventually die of AIDS.
can be successful ly t reated by combinations of drugs called anti- b Carry out some resea rch
ret roviral t herapy. This does not cu re Al DS, but stops progression to and write a short
fu ll-blown AIDS.
information sheet on
t he latest treat ments for
people vvith HIV/AIDS.
 High blood pressure
and its effects

LEARNING OUTCOMES What ca uses high blood pressure?

People suffer f rom high blood pressure (hypertension) when t he
• Describe how high blood
arteries become narrower. The inside of an artery is usually smooth
pressure (hypertension)
. and wide enough to allow a good flow of blood. However, a diet
arises.
with too much saturated animal fat , such as butter, milk, red meat
• Descri be t he effects of high and cheese, can affect your arteries. Fat ty deposits of cholesterol can
blood pressure on t he heart. build up inside arteries. This makes it more difficult for blood to flow
• Explain w hy t he physiological t hrough. Therefore, a higher pressure is needed to pump the same
effects of exercise can help to volume of blood around the body at the same rate.
reduce high blood pressure.

Figure 4.5.1 Blood pressure is usually measured in units called millimetres of

mercury (sometimes w rit1en as mm Hg). Tvvo numbers are quoted -
the systolic pressure of blood leaving the heart, normally between
11 0 and 140 mm Hg, and the diastolic pressure of blood returning
to the heart, normally betvJeen 70 and 90mmHg.

As well as fat ty f oods, o ther factors cause high blood pressure. These
include:
• alcohol consumption
• smoking
An artery with the area • too much salt in t he diet
' - - " - - - - - - ' o f its lumen (opening)
narrowed by fatty
• diabetes
deposits. This is called • stress
atherosclerosis.
• not enough exercise
• obesity
• genetic factors.
Effects of high blood pressure
Over t ime, high blood pressure increases t he risk of :
• heart failure
• heart attack
• stroke
• kidney fa ilure
• diabetes.
W hen arteries become blocked your heart has to work harder to
pump blood around your body. If t his carries on over a long time t he
heart w ill suffer failure.
Sometimes t he narrowing (or hardening) of arteries gets so bad t hat
t he blood can no longer flow. If an artery is blocked, oxygen will
not get to muscles served by t hat artery. When t his is an artery from
t he heart, t he heart muscle gets no oxygen and dies. This causes
t he person to suffer a heart attack. It can be fatal. Getting medical
treatment early greatly increases t he chances of surviving.

Reducing high blood pressure

We cannot do anything about the genetic factors
t hat make some people more susceptible to high
blood pressure. However, lifestyle decisions can
reduce t he risks of high blood pressure in all people.
For example:
• ea t a healt hy, balanced diet (avoiding too much
sugary and fa tty food , taking care not to take in
more energy f rom food than you need)
• do not smoke or drink too much alcohol
• take regular exercise.
Alcoholic d rinks are enjoyed by many people,
- -=--------' but too mu ch alco hol can cause serious health
Why exercise is good for you problems

Exercising makes you breathe faster and deeper, and your heart beats
faster as your muscles need more oxygen. W ith regular exercise you
can build up your heart muscle and increase t he size of your heart
chambers. So a greater volume of blood is pumped around t he body SUMMARY QUESTIONS
vvith each beat. That is w hy trained athletes have a slower pulse rate
t han unf it people. They are also less likely to be overweight, as t hey 1 List t he facto rs that cause
successfully balance t heir energy intake f rom food with t he energy high blood pressure
transferred each day, w hich includes exercising. (hypertension).

KEY POINTS 2 What are t he health issues

associated w ith high blood
1 High blood pressure (hypertension) can cause many ailments pressure?
and increases t he risk of heart attacks.
3 Why is taking regular
2 Eat ing a healthy diet, balancing your energy intake with your exercise likely t o reduce t he
energy output and taking regula r exercise helps to maintain a risk of getting high blood
normal blood pressure. pressure?
 Drugs

Sport ing success can bring t remendous fa me and fortune to t hose

LEARNING OUTCOMES
involved. This tempts some people to go to any lengths t o be better
• Descri be t he effects of using than t heir rivals. Taking prohibited drugs is one vvay t hat some try to
performa nee-en hancing improve t heir performance. The ruli ng bodies of sport have banned
drugs in sport. performance-enhancing drugs. They monitor compet itors in random
drug tests. The tests use t he latest technology to detect t he slightest
• Explain how hormones
(steroids) can improve trace of banned substances.
performance.
• Discuss t he eth ica I issues of Performance-enhancing drugs
drug misuse in general. There are several types of drug t hat competitors could be using. Here
are some exarnples.
• Steroids - these promote the grovvth of muscle (mimicking natural
hormones such as testosterone) and enable athletes to trai n harder.
• Horrnones - t hese are naturally found in the body, but are taken
art ificially by some athletes. For example, at hletes in endurance
events have taken EPO - a natura l hormone that stimulates t he
production of red blood cells. This enables rnore oxygen to be
carried to your muscles - very useful for marathon runners and
long-distance cyclists. This is a form of blood doping. Human
growth hormone (HGH) is also abused by t hose wanting to build
muscle quickly.
• Stimulants - t hese sharpen your senses and quicken your reactio ns.
• Sedatives - t hese calm you, slowing down your pulse rate, for
example t hey can stop your hand shaking vvhen taking aim with a
gun in shooting competitions.
• Painkillers - these enable you to t ra in and compete by blocking
pain.
• Diuretics - t hese get rid of water f rom your body and are used
in sports w here t here are weight limits, fo r example boxing and
horse-racing.
• Diet pills - t hese stop food craving, make you feel f ull, or stop the
body absorbing fat.
Marion Jones won
five medals at the 2000 As drug testing has improved, cheats have come up with more
Olympics (three gold and devious ways of avoiding detection. These include taking other drugs
two bronze). However, t hat mask t he evidence t hat the performance-enhancing dru g was
she was later disqualified
and lost the medals
ever taken.
when she admitted Another form of blood doping does not involve taking a drug, bu t
takin g steroids before
the Games. She went to
is still classed as cheating. An athlete can boost t heir number of
prison for lying in cou rt red blood cells by removing some blood fro m their body before
du ring an investigation an event and separating out their red blood cells. Then t hey take
into drug abuse in sport. an int ravenous infusion of t hese separat ed red blood cells on the
morn ing of the event. It enhances the performance of the athlete as
the increased number of red blood cells delivers more oxygen to the
muscles and provides greater endurance and stamina.
Harmful effects of drug m isuse
The short-term gains in performance come at a price. The side-effects
of the drugs can seri ously darnage health and even lead to a
prernatu re death.

Drug Harmful effects

Steroids Liver damage, coronary heart disease, kidney
damage, increased aggression
Hormones EPO - risk of heart fai lure and strokes
HGH - heart disease, diabetes, arthritis
Stimulants Heart damage
Sedatives Fa tigue, dizziness, poor circulation to hands
and feet
Painkillers Addiction
Diuretics Dehydration
Diet pills Hypertension, kidney problems, liver damage

Health and ethical issues

In addition to the drugs already mentioned, there are illegal dru gs,
such as heroin and cocaine, as well as legal drugs, such as alcohol
and nicot ine, t hat can cause heal th and addict ion problems.
Substance abuse and addiction can cause serious health problems.
Effects may include:
To reach the top of your
• depression .,_..:;..._ __, sport ta kes tremendous
commitment and the help
• memory loss
o f sports scientists w ho can
• paranoia plan your training and diet
• organ d amage
• fertility issues or
• cancer.
Drug abuse and misuse cost society a high price for t he medical care KEY POINTS
needed to t reat the consequences of addiction.
1 Steroids and hormones
are two of the drugs that
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
some sports people take to
enhance t heir performance,
1 Make a table t o show three types of drugs that are taken to
even t hough t hey are
enhance performance in sport. Use t he headings below.
banned.
Performance- How it improves Two examples of
2 Performance-enhancing
enhancing drug performance sports where this
drugs all have harmful
drug might be used
side-effects.

3 It is ethically wrong to use

2 a Name two legal dru gs. drugs to gain advantage
b Name two illegal drugs. over fellow competitors.

3 W rite an art icle to a sports magazine as a 'clean' athlete 4 Individuals and society pay a
worried about others in your sport taking drugs to improve high pri ce for the abuse and
misuse of dru gs.
t heir performance.
 Skeleton, joints and
muscles

LEARNING OUTCOMES The human skeleton

A ll vertebrates (organisms w ith backbones) have a skeleton. Look
• Ident ify t he major bones of
at the human skeleto n in Figure 4. 7 .1. Our skeleton has va rious
t he human skeleton.
f unctio ns:
• Descri be t he functio ns of t he
skeleton. • It su pports the body.

• Ident ify different types of • It protects t he o rgans inside the body, as well as the blood vessels.
joint in the human body. • Its joints help t he body t o move in different ways, includ ing the role
• Explain how muscles can of t he ribcage in breathing.
move limbs.
Cranium
Clavicle ---...
Scapula - --i* ~--Humerus
~ - - - Sternum
,l----- - Ribcage
------- Ulna
r - - Pelvic girdle
'M'-- Radius

1 +-- - femur
1.Q.1,,- - Patella

lilt-- - Tibia
lit-- - - Fibula

Figure 4. 7 .1 The huma n skeleton

Types of joints
Bones are attached to ot her bones by ligaments and where t hey can
move relative to each other, we fi nd joint s (knovvn as synovial joints).
At t hese points in t he body, we find ca rtilage between t he bones to
stop t hem grind ing toget her, with synovial fluid to add lubricatio n to
make movement smoother.
There are d ifferent types of joint between bones:

Typ e of joint Example Range of movement

Ball-and-socket Hip, shou lder Allows a wide range of movement
in all directio ns
Hinge Knee, elbow Allows movement in one direct io n
Pivot Neck Rotatio n and some back and forth
and side t o side
Fixed Skull Nil
 Skull Knee Shoulder

Immovable
Hinge Ball-and-Socket
Figure 4 .7 .2 The three main types of join1 (The o ther type of joint is the pivot
joint. There are only 1hree pivot joints in your body: one in your neck,
at the base o f your skull, and one in each of your elbows .)

Muscles
M uscles provide t he forces needed to move bones. They are attached
to your bones by tendons. The muscl es work by contract ing,
providing pulling forces on t he bones. So in order to move t he bones
relative to each other t hey work in pairs, called antagonist ic pairs.
Look at Figure 4.7.3, w hich shows how an arm moves abou t the
elbow joint (a hinge joint).

Triceps

Biceps Biceps contracts~ ~\

and pulls the
lower arm up
Triceps
contracts
and pulls
the lower
arm down

Figure 4.7.3 How antagonistic m uscles work to move the arm

KEY POINTS
1 The human skeleton
SUMMARY QUESTIONS provides support fo r t he
body, protects organs and
1 List the fu nctions of the human skeleton. blood vessels, and enables
movement.
2 Name four types of joint.
2 There are fou r main types
3 a What joins one bone to anot her bone?
of joint - f ixed, hinge, pivot
b What joins muscles to bones? and ball-and-socket.
c Name the lubricant found in joints.
3 Muscles move bones by
4 Expl ain t he role of t he biceps and triceps muscles in moving an working in antagonistic
.
arm. pairs.
 •
Respiratory surfaces

Oxygen is essential for life o n Earth. We need oxygen fo r cells to

LEARNING OUTCOMES
respire. Respiratio n is the process by w hich living things release t he
• State the basic features of a energy t hey need. To get oxygen from t he envi ro nment and into t he
respiratory surface. blood is the job of the respiratory system.
• Descri be t he structure of the
alveoli. Features of a respiratory surface
• Descri be t he structures of t he In t he human body this t ransfer of oxygen happens w hen you
lungs in humans and t he g ills brea the in air into you r lungs. Air co ntains about 20% oxygen. Look
in fish. at Fig ure 5.1 .1.
• Discuss how f ish obtain
The oxygen enters t he blood by diffusion across the cell membranes
oxygen f rom water.
of the alveoli and the tiny capillaries. To ensure diffusion takes place

Nose---..1.~=;:-.,. Trachea (windpipe)

r
Mouth - - ~:,=~
~
==-:i, _,
Muscles between
Epiglottis
the ribs
An alveolus
- -.;;;:
: :; - •
Air in Ribs

Thorax
.,,.,
~ •• Air out

Alveoli
,--::::-::?..... (air sacs)

tr----} Abdomen

Diaphragm Bronchi
Spherical shape gives relatively large surface area for diffusion

Good blood supply maintains concentration gradient for diffusion by removing oxygen and bringing lots of carbon dioxide
Figure 5.1.1 The exchange of gases in huma ns ta kes place in their lu ngs at alveoli

as quickly and efficient ly as possible, living t hings have developed

LINK
You ca n read more about
d iffusion in 1.3 'Diffusion and
osmosis', and about the Iu ngs
in 5.2 'Breathing and gaseous
exchange'.
('~ respiratory surfaces t hat:
• have a large surface area
• are very t hin so t he distance to diffuse across is as small as possible
• have a good su pply of blood
• are always moist.
These \Ni ll ensure there is a st eep co ncentratio n g radient.
Gaseous exchange in fi sh
Fish spend their lives undervvater and so they cannot use oxygen gas
directly from the air. They have to use oxygen gas dissolved in the
water. They have special organs called gills to help them to do this.
Look at Figure 5. 1.2 to see how fish breathe.

shutL
Operculum

Water
current
Operculum
open; - c @
Water =_J
Rich blood
supply
Very thin tissue - short
distance for gases to
diffuse across
curr:_
en::_
t ___ Constant flow
1 of water
Floor of mouth lowered Floor of mouth raised
Figure 5.1.2 The fish takes water into its open mouth, lowering 1he floor of its
mouth . 1/\l hen its mouth is full of \'\later, it closes it and raises the floor,
pushing wa ter over the gills and out of its body.
_.,,..,._ Large
surface
The structure of the gills gives t he dissolved oxygen plenty of area
opportunity to diffuse into the fish's blood. You can see in Figure
5. 1.3 that the gills contain stacks of wafer thin layers for the water
to pass over and allovv diffusion to take place. Gill stacks

KEY POINTS
The essential fea tures of a respi ratory surface for efficient
diffusio n are:
1 to have a large surface area
2 to be very thin __
....__,._ ___. The structure of the gills is
adapted 1o allow diffusion
3 to have a good supply of blood to take place efficiently

4 to be moist.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 List the essential features of an effective respi ratory surface.

2 Explain why it is important for a respiratory surface to have:
a a large surface area
b a good supply of blood.
3 The cell membrane of an alveolus is one cell t hick. Why is t his
important?
4 a Explain how a fish can breathe even though it spends its
life underwater.
b Try to explain why a fish effectively 'suffocates' when it is
removed from the water.
 Breathing and gaseous
exchange

LEARNING OUTCOMES How we breathe in and out

• Descri be t he structure of the
respiratory system.
• Explain how we inhale and
exhale.
• Explain the gaseous exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the lungs.
As well as allowing oxygen to move into the blood, the alveoli also let
carbon dioxide diffuse out of the blood and into the lungs. Carbon
dioxide is a waste product of respiration and must be removed from
the body. In order to carry out this gaseous exchange, the body has
to breathe in and out continuously. Figure 5.2. 1 is a diagra m of our
respiratory system.
In order to breathe, the diaphragm (tissue and muscle across the
bottom of your chest) and intercostal muscles (between the ribs)
contract and relax. This changes the volume, and hence the pressure,
inside your lungs. Look at Figure 5.2.2 below.

Incomplete rings Key Inhalation Exhalation Thoracic

Direction of
of cartilage
support the
Mouth Nasal cavity
t air flow t Trachea t cavity:
volume is
trachea and Throat
Rib (in 1-4-- (windpipe) less; air
bronchi pressure
cross section)
Thoracic The rib increases
Thoracic cavity:
lntercostal cage is
cavity volume is
muscle raised
in which the greater; air
(between _}
lungs lie, pressure
ribs)
protected decreases
by the ribS-r--J>-- Left
bronchus
Trachea

Right lung Heart Bronchiole The diaphragm The diaphragm back

Alveoli
Diaphragm - a sheet of muscle that
forms the base of the thoracic cavity
Figure 5.2.1 The respiratory system
EXAM TIP
1vle tt,a c"1ea a 11\.ci t"1e
bro~c"1us "1ave r£11\.gs of
cartilage to prevell\.t t"1ell\,\,
froll\,\, coLLaps£~.
flattens to its rest position
Figure 5.2.2 This shows how changes of pressure wi1hin our lungs enable us lo
inha le and exhale
Inhaling
When the diap hragm contracts it moves downwards. At the same time
the external intercostal muscles contract and the internal intercostal
muscles relax. This raises your ribcage up and out. These automatic
actions increase the volume of your chest cavity, decreasing the
pressure of the air inside your lungs. The pressure is lovver than the air
outside your body, so air is forced to enter your lungs and they inflate.
Exhaling
Then the diaphragm relaxes, rising upwards as the external intercostal
muscles relax and the internal intercostals contract. These actions
squeeze your chest. This increases the pressure inside them to a value
above that of the air outside. This has the effect of forcing air out of
your lungs, to equalise the pressure.
Comparing inhaled and exhaled air ...
Breathe
out into Breathe
We can test t he d ifference in concent ratio n of carbo n dioxide in t he
this tube in through
air we breat he in compared to t he air we b rea the out, as shown in this tube
Figu re 5.2.3 op posite.
This experiment shows t hat exhaled air contains a higher concent ration
Lime- --.J.i ,~-Lime-
of carbon d ioxide t han the air we brea the in. That is w hy the limewater water water
tu rns cloudy faster w hen exhaled air is passed t hrou gh it.
This table compares t he compositio n of in haled and exhaled air. A B
Figure 5.2.3 Comparing inhaled and
Gas Inhaled air (% ) Exhaled air (% ) exhaled air

Oxygen 21 16
Carbo n dioxide 0.04 4 KEY POINTS
Nitrogen 78 78 1 The diaphragm and
Wa ter vapou r Varies Saturated w ith water int ercostal muscles co nt ract
and relax t o cause changes
Exhaled air is also wa rmer t han inhaled air. of pressure in t he chest
w hich inflate and deflate the
Gaseous exchange at t he alveoli lungs.

Some of the oxygen gas vve breathe into ou r lungs d iffuses across 2 Exhaled air co ntains more
t he t hin cell membranes of t he alveoli. Then it d iffuses across the t hin carbon d ioxide and water
cell rnembranes of t he capillaries and into t he blood. The oxygen is vapour t han inhaled air, but
ca rried by red blo od cells and enters t he cell. Here it is used to release less oxygen.
energy in respiratio n. 3 Gaseous exchange takes place
The ca rbo n dioxide made in respirat io n does t he reverse journey. It at t he alveoli w it h oxygen
passes f rom t he respiring cell into the blood w here it is carried back t o entering t he blood and
the lungs. There is a co ncentrat ion g radient between t he gas dissolved ca rbon dioxide leaving it.
in blood and t hat from the air. Therefore, carbo n d ioxide diff uses out
of the blood across the thin cell membranes into t he air pocket of the
alveoli. From t here it is breat hed ou t of t he lungs - see Figure 5.2 .4. SUMMARY QUESTIONS

.... Air moves 1 How cou ld you use

~ ? in and out limewater to show that t he
Bronchiole
concent rat io n of carbon
dioxide in exhaled air is

, Blood with high oxygen

greater than its concent rat io n
in inhaled air?

concentration and low 2 Explain the role of muscl es in

Blood wi th low oxygen
concentration and high carbon
dioxide concentration from the heart
Figure 5.2.4 Gaseous exchange at the alveoli
carbon dioxide t he mecha nism of breat hing.
concentration taken to
the heart 3 In w hich part of t he
respirato ry system does:
Capillary network a gaseous exchange take
place
b air pass down a cylindrical
structure, kept open by
ri ngs of cartilage
Alveoli c air t ravel t hrough two
t u bes?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• State what respiration is,
including a word equation
and a chemical equation to
represent t he process.
• Explain that respiration t akes
place both with and w ithout
oxygen.
• Compare aerobic and
anaerobic respira tion.
EXAM TIP
lne Sl,{bstv(.ltes fo..-
, ,
vespiv&itioV\, (.lye gLl,{cose
aV\,d oxtJgeV\,, &i V\,d tne
pvod l,{Cts (.l ..-e ca vbo V\,
dioxide aV\,d WC,lte r. we
doV\,'t c(.lLL 'e~..-gtJ' (,l
pr-odl,{ct as it is V1-0t (.l
$1,{ bs ta 111.,ce.
Note tn&rt tne eqK(.lt1,o111.,
for- vespi..-atio111., is tne
..-eve..-se of tne eqK(.ltio111.,
fo..- pnotostJ 111.,t nesis.
dioxide given off in
fermentation to make the
dough rise
Respiration
Respiration is the process by w hich the cells in living t hings obtain
t heir energy. This energy is required for all t he reactions and processes
that cells need to fu nction. It is essent ial for t heir metabolism.
There are two types of respirat ion:
• aerobic respiration - w hich requires oxygen
• anaerobic respiration - w hich does NOT req uire oxygen.
Aerobic respiration
The process by which cells release some of the chemical energy stored
in carbohydrate molecules takes place in their mitochondria. This is
not achieved in a single chemical reaction, but in a complex series
of reactions. However, we can summarise aerobic respiration by t he
following equation:
glucose + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide+ water (, energy)
C6H120 6 + 60 2 ➔ 6C0 2 + 6H 20 (- energy)
(substrates) (products)
Anaerobic respiration
If t here is no oxygen available, cells can still get energy f rom their
carbohydrates by anaerobic respiration. From t he same amount of
substrate, t his process does not release as much energy as aerobic
respiration. You need to know about t\.vo types of anaerobic
respiration, fermentation and production of lactic acid.
Fermentat ion
In the absence of oxygen, the cells in yeast (a type of fu ngus) survive
by respiring using anaerobic respiration. They release energy frorn
glucose and in t he process make ethanol (an alcohol) and carbon
dioxide.
enzymes 111
yeast
glucose et hanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide ( + energy)
CsH120 6 2C2 H50H + 2C0 2 ( + energy)
(substrate) (products)
This fermentation reaction is used in 111aking beer and other
alcoholic drinks. To make spirits such as ru m or vodka, t he alcohol
must be distilled to increase its concentration above that in beer or
wine. The alcohol can also be used as a biofuel w hen sugar cane or
beet is fermented.
Bakers also use yeast to ferment sugars w hen making bread. They
make use of t he carbon dioxide gas given off in t he reaction to make
the bread dough rise.
Lactic acid production
The other type of anaerobic respirat ion takes place during exercise,
if t he muscle cells cannot get enough oxygen for aerobic respirat ion.
In t his case, the glucose, in t he absence of oxygen, is converted into
lactic acid:
g lucose---➔ lactic acid (+ energy)

This lactic acid builds up in your muscles, causing t hat uncomfortable

'burning' sensa tion you get during hard exercise. As in fermentation,
t he energy released is much less t han in aerobic respiration.

Figure 5.3.2 Af1er vigorous exercise lactic acid must be broken down and
removed from muscles. To do this we breathe deeply allowing plenty KEY POINTS
of air to enter our lu ngs. Our pulse rate stays high to make sure
plenty of blood is available for gaseous exchange in the alveoli. We 1 Res pirat ion releases a 11 the
call this 'repaying the oxygen debt' . energy required for I ife
processes.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 Aerobic respiratio n uses
oxygen to release energy
1 W rite t he word equations to represent: f rom glucose, making
a aerobic respirat ion carbon dioxide and water in
b anaerobic respirat ion in yeast cells the process.
c anaerobic respirat ion in muscle cells du ring vigorous 3 In anaerobic respi ration,
.
exercise. w ithout oxygen:
2 l ist some useful products made by anaerobic respi ration. - fermentation with yeast
produces ethanol (alcohol)
3 Explain t he data in t he table below. and carbon dioxide
Type of respiration Energy released per - during hard exercise, we
gram of glucose produce lactic acid in our
muscles.
Aerobic respiration 16. 1 kJ
Fermentation by yeast 1.2 kJ 4 Aerobic respiratio n releases
much more energy t han
Anaerobic respirat ion in muscle cells 0.8kJ
anaerobic respiration.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List five major air pollutants
and their sources.
• State how t hese pollutants
enter t he air.
• Discuss t he ailments t hat are
caused by air pollution.
• Ident ify t he key gases
involved in respirat ory
disorders.
Figure 5.4. 1 Ca rbon monoxide is
produced by car engines.
1\/lodern cars have catalylic
converters fitted in their
exha us! systems to remove
most o f this toxic gas once
it warms u p . However, they
change carbon monoxide
to carbon dioxide - w hich
is still an air pollu tant.
Air pollution
Air pollution is a growing concern arou nd t he world. W ith increasing
industrial activity and increasing numbers of vehicles on the roads,
emissions into t he atmosphere are affecting t he natural balance of
gases in t he air.
Causes of air pollution
Carb on dioxide
The main compou nds in fossil f uels are made o f hydrogen and
carbon (hydrocarbons). W hen we burn t hese fuels in a good supply
of air, carbon dioxide and water are formed.
hydrocarbon + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide + wa ter
Carbon dioxide (CO 2) levels have increased rapidly over the last
century. That's because society has become more industrialised and
more and more people have cars.
Carbon dioxide is called a g reenhouse gas. It absorbs energy
transferred from the Earth as it cools down and stops t he energy
escaping out into space, so t he average temperature of the Eart h has
been rising. This is called global warming. People are worried t hat
global warming w ill cause sea levels to rise, flooding low-lying land. It
could also affect climates around t he world and cause more extreme
weather events.
Sulphur dioxide
W henever we bu rn a fossil fuel, t here is a chance that sulphur
dioxide (S0 2) gas w ill be given off. The sulphur is present as impurities
in t he fossil fuel. The metal extraction industry also produces sulphur
dioxide gas, when metal sulphides are roasted in furnaces.
Sulphur dioxide causes breathing problems. It makes asthma worse
as it irrita tes t he lining of t he lungs. The gas narrows t he passages
to the alveoli and can t rigger an ast hrna attack. Su lphur dioxide also
causes acid rain which affects fo rests and lakes, together with the
plants and animals that live t here. It also attacks buildings, especially
those made of limestone, and metal st ru ctures.
Carb on monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas. It is made w hen f uels bu rn
in insufficient oxygen. If there is not enough oxygen, some of t he
carbon in t he fuel tu rns into carbon monoxide instead of carbon
dioxide. This happens inside car engines vvhere petrol burns in a
limited space.
Carbon monoxide is colourless and odourless so you don 't realise
w hen you are breathing it in. This makes t he t oxic gas particularly
dangerous. People can die from faulty gas boilers t hat burn gas in
insufficient air.
The carbon monoxide bonds to haemoglobin in your red blood cells.
Haemoglobin usually bonds to oxygen and carries it arou nd t he blood
st ream, releasing it at cells \/\lhere it is needed. So if the haemoglobin
molecules are attached to carbon monoxide, t hey cannot bond to
oxygen. W it h less oxygen, a person starts to feel tired and dizzy, and w ill
eventually lose consciousness. If you are not put in fresh air, you will die.

Lead
Lead (Pb) is an ingredient put in leaded pet rol to make older car
engines run more smoothly. If a car is running on leaded petrol, t he
lead is emitted t hrough t he exhaust pipe into t he air.
Modern cars run on u nleaded petrol. That is because lead is a toxic,
heavy metal. It affects t he development of t he brain in children and
can cause learning difficulties.

Methane
Met hane (CH.) is another greenhouse gas, like carbon dioxide. It is a
more effective absorber of energy than carbon dioxide, bu t there is
no t as much of it in t he air.
Methane is released from fields used to grow rice, natural marshland
and from grazing cattle as a waste product. As the hu man population
rises, rnore land is being used for gro\Ning rice and raising cattle to
feed us all. Therefore, methane levels in the atmosphere are increasing.

Respiratory disorders
• We have already seen how sulphur dioxide can t rigger asthma
KEY POINTS
attacks. Other respi ratory disorders, such as Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD), are made worse by air pollution. 1 Air pollution is caused by
• Air pollut ion might also be a factor in t he growing number of carbon dioxide, sulphur
people suffering f rom allergies. dioxide, carbon monoxide,
• Unburnt hydrocarbons f rom vehicle exhausts are also a cause for lead and methane released
concern. These contain carcinogenic compounds w hich can cause by human activity.
lu ng cancer. 2 Air pollutants can ca use
• Tiny part icles in t he air, such as t hose given off from diesel engines, various respiratory ailments,
also irri ta te t he breathing passages and could lead to cancers. such as asthma, allergies
Sahara dust and smog also contain some of the particles t hat are and lung cancer.
breathed into t he lungs.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Copy and complete t he t able below. 2 Explain why carbon monoxide is

a t oxic gas.
Air pollutant Sources Harmful effects
Carbon dioxide
Sulphur dioxide
Carbon monoxide
Lead
Methane

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Discuss the importance of a
smoke-free environment.
• Explain the composition of
smoke.
• State the harmful effects of
substances in smoke.
Smoking ma kes your
--=-------' breath smell and d iscolours
your teeth - however,
these are minor effects
compa red with the long -
term health proble ms it
causes
Effects of smoke
Smoking can seriously damage your health. Such warnings are even
printed on cigarette packets. Tobacco smoke causes millions of
deaths each year - deaths that are often slow and painful. So vvhy
would anybody want to smoke? Reasons differ, but many smokers
start smoking when they are teenagers, often due to peer pressure.
Some people see themselves as 'cool' when they smoke; others think
it helps them stay thin.
But whatever the reasons for smoking, the nicotine in smoke is an
addictive drug. Once you start smoking regularly, it becomes difficult
to stop - even when you knovv the harm it does.
Harmful substa nces in tobacco smoke
Carbon monoxide
We have already seen how this toxic gas is made during combustion
reactions. It reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of your red blood
cells - one reason why smokers get breathless easily. It can also harm
a pregnant woman's foetus, slowing its grovvth.
Nicotine
This is quickly absorbed into the blood and spread around the body.
It makes your pulse race, increasing your blood pressure and the
strain on your heart. It is the addictive agent in tobacco smoke.
Tars
These are what cause the characteristic 'smoker's cough' and can go
on to cause cancers (by an increased factor of about 25% compared
with non-smokers). The tars build up and paralyse the tiny filaments
called cilia that naturally remove impurities from yo ur bronchial
tubes. So s111okers often cough because it is the only way they have
of getting rid of the excess mucus that builds up.
Diseases caused by to bacco smo ke
Diseases caused by narrowing arteries
The respiratory system is not the only part of the body to be affected
by smoking. The blood vessels and heart are also damaged. The
arteries of smokers tend to get Ii ned inside with fatty deposits. This
makes it more difficult for blood to flow through them. If arteries in
the heart are affected it causes heart attacks. If arteries to the brain
are affected it can lead to strokes.
Smoking can also lead to amputation of limbs (usually feet and legs)
as the blood supply to limbs can eventually be cut off.
Cancers
The cancer-causing chemicals (carcinogens) in tobacco smoke can
affect any surface in the respiratory system they come into contact
vvith. Smokers are more likely to get cancers of the mouth, tong ue,
throat and lungs, as well as the pancreas and bladder.

Breathing diseases
We have mentioned how tars in smoke affect the delicate cilia and
cause smokers to cough up excess mucus made in their lungs. Over
time this scars and damages the tissues in the bronchus, causing
bronchitis. Emphysema and Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease
(COPD) a re other breathing diseases. Sufferers struggle for breath and
tire easily as t he respiratory system cannot deliver enough oxygen to
the blood. Equally they find it harder to remove carbon dioxide waste
from t heir blood efficiently.

Pa ssive smoking
The da ngers that smokers face to their health also apply to others
who breat he in their 'second-hand' smoke. When a smoker inhales
smoke, not all the harrnful substances have been removed, so passive
smoking is a real health issue. Consequently, many countries have
banned smoking in bars and cafes, and some have a ban in all public
places, even those outdoors.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a Name the addictive substance in tobacco smoke.

b What immediate effect does this substance have on your
heart ?
c What longer-term condition can this substance cause?
2 a Which substances in cigarette smoke cause cancers?
b List five parts of the body that are more likely to be affected
by cancer in a smoker than in a non-smoker.
3 a Name three breathing diseases which can affect smokers.
b Explain how 'smoker's cough' is caused.
4 The table below shows cigarette consumption and the risk of
deat h by lung cancer. KEY POINTS

Number of cigarettes Death rate per year Relative risk 1 Tobacco smoke contains
smoked per day per 100 000 people
nicotine (addictive), carbon
monoxide (toxic) and tars
0 14 - (carcinogens).
1- 14 105 8 2 Smoking causes many
15 - 24 208 15 life-threatening illnesses. It
25 and over 355 25 increases t he risk of death
by cancer, COPD, heart
Comment on the trend shovvn by the data in the table. attack and stroke.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Dist inguish between excretion
and egestio n.
• Ident ify excretory organs and
their products.
• Descri be t he structure of the
kidneys and the skin.
• Explain osmoregulation.
LINK
For more about the lungs, see
5.2 'Breathing and gaseous
exchange'.
LINK
For more about t he movement
of particles across membranes,
see 1.3 'Diffusion and osmosis'.
Liver - produces urea.....-
Main vein (vena cava)
Right kidney
Ureter - tube through
which urine passes
from the kidney to
the bladder
Ring of muscle -
controls the opening
and closing of the
bladder
Figure 6. 1 .1 The kidneys, liver and bladder
Excretion in humans
What is excretion?
There are many chemical reactions going on in your body all the t ime
(metabolism). Some of t he products made will be used by your body
for various fu nctions. However, the other substances of metabolism
are waste products. These are removed from your body in the process
of excretion.
Excretion should not be confused wit h egestion. Egestion occurs
w hen your body gets rid of undigested material in faeces. This is
material t hat is eaten and travels t hrough the digest ive system, but
does not get absorbed by t he body. It does not take part in t he
chemical reactions of your metabolism.
C'~
The body produces as waste:
• carbon dioxide and wa ter (from respiration)
• urea (made when excess amino acids from proteins are broken
down in t he liver).
The vvaste products are t ransported in t he blood to t he lungs and t he
% kidneys.
Carbon dioxide is removed from t he lungs w hen we breathe out,
along vvit h some water. Urea and water are removed in urine, and
wa ter is also removed in sweat from t he skin. However, much water is
reabsorbed by t he kidneys fo r its many uses.
The kidneys
Diaphragm
We each have one pair of kidneys.
Main artery (aorta) Figure 6.1 .1 shows their position and
Left kidney how t hey are linked to t he bladder.
Renal artery - brings Your kidneys help t o maintain steady
blood containing urea conditions in your body (homeostasis).
. .-i--- and other substances They do t his through osmoregulation.
in solution to the kidney
Osmoregulation is the process in w hich
Renal vein - carries blood the body maintains t he correct balance of
away from the kidney, after water and ions.
urea and other substances
have been removed from The kidneys remove urea f rom t he blood.
the blood by the kidney This is f iltered out t hrough t he capillaries
Bladder - stores urine in t he nephrons. There are about a million
nephrons in a kidney. The nephrons are
Urethra - tube through
which urine passes to delicate stru ctures where relatively small
the outside of your body molecules can diffuse t hrough pores in
the capillaries. As well as urea, molecules
of glucose, amino acids and mineral ions
can all fi t t hrough t he pores and enter
the tubules in t he kidney. This is called
ult rafiltration .
Then substances t hat are useful to t he body, such as all t he glucose
and some mineral ions, are selectively reabsorbed by t he kidney
back into the blood. The waste u rea and o ther substances pass out of
t he kidney down t he ureter as u rin e. This is stored in the bladder.
A horm one called ADH, released f rom the pituitary gland, cont rols
the amount of water in your u rine. ADH makes t he walls of the ducts
in t he kidneys that collect water more permeable. They let more
water back into the bloodstream, so less is lost in your urin e. No
ADH is released if you have too much wat er in your bod y, so excess is
removed in u rine. This is an example of osmoregulation.
KEY POINTS
Dialysis
1 Excretion removes the waste
We can survive with just one kidney functioning properly. Hovvever, if products of metabolism
t he kidneys are damaged or diseased in some way, people can have f rom the body. Egestion is
t heir blood f iltered by dialysis. In dialysis, blood is pumped out of th e the passage from t he body
body t hrough t ubes that pass t hroug h t he dialysis solution (sometimes of mate rial t hat is not used
called the dialysis f luid). The blood is separated from t he dialysis solution in the body's metabolism.
by a partially (or selectively) permeable membrane (see Figu re 6.1 .2).
Then diffusion takes place along a concentration gradient. 2 The lungs, kidneys and
skin remove t he waste
The concentration of glucose and mineral ions in the dialysis solut ion substances produced by
is set at normal concentrations fou nd in the blood. Therefore, chemical reactions in t he
these useful molecules do not pass out of t he blo od. Hovvever, the body.
dialysis solution contains no urea, so that does diffuse throug h the
membrane and out of t he blood. This mimics t he ultrafilt ration 3 The kidneys filter the
process in t he kidneys. blood, removing urea, and
maintain t he balance of
\11/ater and mineral ions in
The skin - temperature control your body.
The body loses water as water vapour when we breathe ou t and 4 Sweating removes water,
also as sweat from our skin. The skin has sweat glands which absorb plus some mineral ions and
flu id from capillaries. The water passes through a na rrow tube to the urea, from t he body.
surface of t he skin w hen we get too hot. The water evaporates f rom
t he surfa ce of the skin, cooling us down.

Body temperatu re rises Body temperature !alls

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What is t he difference
Body temperature between excretion and
Body tempe.;:-
!alls _::ra~tu:i:re
: :::=:::;2>! Thermoregulatory
- - ~.!'. rises egestion?
centre
Lots o1 sweat Hairs Body No sweat Hairs pulled 2 In t he kidneys:
produced lie flat responses erect to trap
insulating layer a W hat do we mean by:
~ ..,<--triggered--l.'""'I.
~ pillarie~ 01air i ultrafiltration
Capillaries
->.--- - - :- -
ii selective abso rpti on?
b Name a compound
containing nit rogen that
Blood vessels supplying capillaries Blood vessels supplying capi llaries is f iltered out of the
near the sur1ace of the skin dilate, so near the surface of the skin blood in t he kidneys.
the blood flow through the capillaries constrict, so the blood 11ow through
increases and more heat is lost the capillaries decreases c W hy does t he
Figure 6.1 .2 Waler is los1 (along with some mineral ions a nd urea} when vve
composition of urine
sweat. Why is i1 more accurate to say 'When 1he wa ter evapora1es differ at different t imes?
from swea1 .. .' ra ther tha n 'When sweat evaporates .. .'?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify waste products
of respiration and
photosynthesis.
• Descri be methods of
excreting waste products in
plants.
LINK
For more information about
photosynthesis and the
structure of a leaf, see 3 .1
'Photochemical reactions'
and 4. 1 'Transport systems in
plants',
Excretion in plants
We have seen that plants make their own food du ring
photosynthesis. In a complex series of chemical reactions, they
convert carbo n dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen.
carbo n dioxide + water ➔ glucose + oxygen
The glucose made is used in respiration in the plant cells where
energy is released.
glucose + oxygen ➔ carbon dioxide+ water
The glucose is also used to make other compounds that the plant
needs. Some of the oxygen made in photosynthesis is used in
% respiration, but much is released into the atmosphere. Therefore, we
can think of oxygen as a metabolic 1rvaste product in plants.
The oxygen gas escapes th rough the stomata in the leaves. How are
the openings in stomata controlled by a plant?
The carbon dioxide released from respi ration can also be thoug ht
of as a waste product - but only at night! Remember that
photosynthesis needs energy from light in order to take place. So in
daylight, the carbon dioxide produced in respiring cells is used for
photosynthesis. It is not excreted from the plant as waste. However,
at night no photosynt hesis takes place in the dark, but plant cells
respire all the time. So at night carbon dioxide is a waste product and
it is released through the stomata in the leaves.
Figure 6.2.1 Plants excrete waste products through 1heir stomata
Water, a waste product of respiration, is released from the plant
when the stomata open to let carbon dioxide gas in. If the weather
gets very hot, too much water is lost from a plant and it wilts. This
is a defence mechanism as the sagging, curled up leaves reduce the
surface area exposed to sunlight.
Plants also break dovvn other substances, for example pigments,
which produce toxic substances. The plant gets rid of these when the
leaves change colour and fall from the plant. This effectively removes
any toxic products of metabolism. The following spring new leaves
grow again with no toxic compounds present.

Figure 6.2 .2 Shedding leaves is o ne vvay that pla nts excrete waste products

Plants can also sto re waste products, for exa mple in their vacuoles. As
well as leaves, other parts die and fa ll off plants and these can also
be used to store waste products. For example, old xylem can be used
and trees, such as mangroves, can sto re waste materials in their bark.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
KEY POINTS
1 What are t he waste products
1 Oxygen gas is the waste product of photosynthesis in plants. formed by plants during:
2 Carbon dioxide is the waste product from respi ration. a photosynthesis
b respiration?
3 Carbon dioxide, oxygen and water vapour are all released
throug h stomata. The amounts va ry according to day/night 2 a How are the products
and temperature. of plant respiration
removed?
4 Plants also excrete substances by shedding leaves, and stori ng
them in dead woody parts and bark that will eventually fa ll b Why do the amounts of
off. waste product vary in a
24-hour period?
3 How can plants excrete toxic
waste products that cannot
be released as gases?
 The eye

The eye detects visible light and enables us to see the world around
LEARNING OUTCOMES
us. Look at its structure in Figure 7. 1. 1.
• Identify parts of the eye and
state their fu nction. Iris - coloured ring of muscle Eye lens - focuses Vitreous humour -
• Explain how images are that controls the amount of light light onto the retina transparent jelly-like
formed (accommodation). entering the eye substance that supports
the back of the eye
• Explain defects of the eye Aqueous humour - transparent
watery liquid that supports the Retina - the
and descri be how they are front of the eye light-sensitive
corrected. cells around the
Cornea - transparent ___ fl inside of the eye
layer that protects the
eye and helps to focus Blind spot-
light onto the retina region where the
, ____,- retina is not
Conjunctiva membrane sensitive to light
Other sense organs
(no light-sensitive
Sense organs Stimulus Pupil - the central hole formed cells present)
by the iris. Light enters the eye
Ea rs Sound, head through the pupil.
position
Ciliary muscles - attached to the lens Eye muscles - Optic nerve - carries
Nose Chemicals in air by suspensory ligaments. The muscles move the eye nerve impulses from
Tongue Chemicals in food change the thickness of the eye lens. in the socket the retina to the brain
Figure 7. 1. 1 Structure of the eye. What connects the eye to the brain?
Skin Touch,
ternperatu re,
pressure, pain Light enters through the circular gap (the pupil) in the coloured area
of the eye (the iris). The iris contains muscles which make the pupil
larger in the da rk and smaller in bright light.

Focusing light in the eye

The light is focused onto the back of the eye, which is called the
retina. Here there a re sensory cells called rods and cones that tu rn the
light energy into electrical impulses. These are sent dovvn the optic
nerve to be interpreted in the brain.
In order to see things clearly the light rays from an object must
be focused on the retina. This process of refraction (changing the
direction of light rays) starts at the outer surface of the eye - the
cornea. Then fi ne adj ustment takes place at the lens behind the iris
Image formed on the retina and pupil. The lens can be made fatter and thinner by circular ciliary
Point object muscles which surround t he elastic lens. To see near objects the
at the
near point light has to be refracted more so the lens is made fatter. The ciliary
muscles contract, releasing tension on the suspensory ligaments.
Without being stretched the lens shrinks into a thicker shape
(see Figure 7.1 .2). The process of focusing light on the retina at the
back of the eye is knovvn as accommodation.
Figure 7. 1 .2 l ooking a t near objects
To see distant objects, the ciliary rnuscles relax, pulling the suspensory Image formed on the retina
ligaments tighter and stretching the lens into a thinner shape (see
Figure 7. 1.3). To distant point object

Defects in the eye

Short-sightedness
Some people are short-sighted. They can see near objects clearly, but Figure 7 .1.3 Looking at d istant objects
cannot focus the light from distant objects. This is because their lens
is refracting light too strongly. That makes the rays of parallel light
focus in fro nt of the retina . To rectify this, they use corrective lenses
in spectacles that bend rays outwards before they enter t he eye.
Then, if the lenses are the rig ht strength, the light rays focus the light
precisely on the retina. Concave lenses are used to bend the light
outwards (see Figure 7. 1.4). People often wear t his type of spectacles
when they drive.

Long-sightedness
Other people can see distant objects, but close-up objects are
blurred . Their lens cannot bend the light enough to focus the rays on
the retina. To rectify this, they wear spectacles or contact lenses with Figure 7 .1.4 How a concave lens in
convex lenses. These help to refract the rays more strongly towards spec1ad es helps people
who are short-sighted
each other (see Figure 7.1. 5). People often wear this type of glasses
fo r reading.
Astigmatism is a growing problem in Caribbean countries. This is
vvhere the cornea, or lens, is not the correct shape. It can result
in blurred vision and long- or short-sightedness. It can usually be
corrected by using spectacles or contact lenses, but severe cases need
surgery.

Effects of ultraviolet or bright light

Sunlight contains ultraviolet light which can damage the front part
of the eyes, for example the cornea. Very bright light will damage the
retina at the back of the eye. Sunglasses with UV protection should
be worn in sunshine. Figure 7 .1. 5 How a convex lens in
spec1ad es helps people
who are long-sighted

KEY POINTS
1 The main structures in the
SUMMARY QUESTIONS eye are the cornea, iris,
pupil, lens, suspensory
1 Draw a table to show the fu nction of the following parts of an ligaments, ciliary muscles,
eye: retina and optic nerve.
a ins b lens 2 People who are short-
c ciliary muscles d retina sighted need concave lenses
to help them focus light rays
e rods and cones f optic nerve.
on the retina, whereas long-
2 Draw diagrarns to explain how long- and short-sightedness are sighted people need convex
rectified. lenses.
 Light and colour

LEARNING OUTCOMES The visi ble spectrum

When a thin beam of white light passes t hrough a glass prism the
• Descri be how white light is
w hite light is dispersed into t he seven colours of the spectrum. You
separated into its constituent
have probably seen t he visible spectrurn in a rainbow or w hen t he
colours.
Sun shines on a puddle with a t hin fil m of oil on top of it. Do you
• Dist inguish between primary know t he colours, in order?
and secondary colours.
• Discuss t he effect of mixing
different primary pigments.
• Descri be t he effects of
White
light ing on t he colour of light
objects.
• Separate different coloured Red
inks by chromatography.
Ray box
• Distinguish between artificial Prism
and natural lighting, and
between transparent,
Screen
t ranslucent and opaque
materials. Figure 7 .2.1 W hite light is dispersed by the glass prism into the colo urs o f the
spectrum

White light is made up of red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo

. . -· . . . ~
and violet light. By spinning a card wheel with t hese colours painted
'
TRANSMISSION
. - . ..
OF LIGHT
.. . . on in segments, t he wheel should appear w hite. The different colours
have different wavelengths and change direct ion as t hey pass f rom
Transparent materials let light
air into t he glass. They are diverted in the opposite direction as t hey
pass straight through them.
pass out of t he glass prism back into air. This changing of direct ion of
Translucent materials let some light t ravelling from one substance into anot her is called refraction .
light pass through, but it is Red light, w it h the longest wavelength is refracted least. Violet, wit h
scattered on the way through, t he shortest wavelengt h in the spect rum, is ref racted most.
producing a blurred image.
Opaque materials do not let Primary and secondary colours of light
light pass through them . Red, green and blue are known as t he primary colours of t he
spectrum. If t hey are combined in t he right intensity, t hey will form
w hite light.
The coloured dots that make up a TV picture are formed f rom
combinations of red, green and blue dots. Indeed our eyes have t hree
types of cone cells to detect red, green and blue light.
Secondary colours are made by mixing tvvo primary colours together.
• Red + green = yellow
• Red + blue = magenta
• Blue + green = cyan
Figu re 7.2.2 The primary and
secondary colours
The colour of objects
The colour an object appears depends on w hich parts of t he visible
spectrum it absorbs and which it reflects. We see the reflect ed
colours. If all t he colours in t he visible spectrum are refl ected, the
object appears w hite. If t hey are all absorbed, the object appears
black. When we mix pigments toget her, t he colour is the common
ref lected parts of the spectru m. Paper clip

The same object can appear different colours using light f ilters. For
example, an object can be red in normal light, but if a fil ter is used
to shine blue light on it, it looks black. That is because t he object
absorbs t he blue end of t he spectru m.

Solvent front
Physically separating mixtures of pigments •
The technique used to separate mixt ures of dyes or pigments is called
chromatography. The mixt ure is spott ed onto some f ilter paper
I
(or special absorbent chromatography paper) using a very narrow
Water
glass tube called a capillary tu be. The paper is left standing in a lit tle
(the solvent)
solvent in a large beaker.
As t he solvent runs up t he absorbent pa per, t he different pigments
in t he mixture are left behind at different heights. This is because Figure 7 .2 .3 The ink was spotted on
1he pencil line drawn
t he pigments have different solubilities in t he solvent. They also have
near the bottom of the
different fo rces of attraction w ith the water bonded into the pa per. chromatography paper.
Those w it h weak attractions to t he wa ter in t he paper and high W hal colour pig men1s
solubilities in the solvent will be carried f urthest up t he paper. made up the orang e ink?

Natural and artificial lighting SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Lighting is very important in any building. Windows, roof-lights and
glazed doors all let natural light in. In dayt ime, if correctly placed, 1 a Name t he col ours of t he
t hey can let light f rom the Sun illuminate colours and enable the spectrum, starting wit h
people inside t he building to perform t asks safely. t he shortest wavelength.
b Explain how white light is
In places t hat are not lit up by natural light, reflect ive surfaces help
dispersed int o t he colours
to bounce light around inside the building. At night, we need to
of the spectrum .
use artificial lighting. The types of light source, t heir fittings and
positioning are essential to the efficient functioning of a building. 2 What colour is formed w hen
t he followi ng colours of light
are m ixed?
KEY POINTS
a red, green and blue
1 White light is dispersed into the colours of t he spectrum b red and blue
because the different colours of light are refracted by
c blue and yellow.
different amounts.
3 Write a method for an
2 The pri mary colours of light (red, green and blue) form white
experiment to see if an
w hen they are mixed toget her. Two primary colours mixed
orange felt-tipped pen is
together form a secondary colour (yellow, magenta or cyan).
made f rom a single pigment
3 The colour an object appears depends on t he colours it or a mixture of pigments.
reflects, as well as the colour of the light shining on it.
4 Look at Figure 7.2.3. Explain
4 Coloured pigments can be physically separated by how t he colours were
chromatography. separated.
 The ear

The ear has two important fu nctions - it detects sound and helps us
LEARNING OUTCOMES
t o maintain our balance. Most of its structure lies within t he skull.
• Ident ify parts of t he ear and The external ear is used to collect sounds and direct them to t he inner
state their fu nction. ear. Look at Figure 7 .3 .1.
• ExpIain how noises (loudness/
pitch) affect the ear.
• Descri be how hearing loss is
caused by damage to t he ear.
• Descri be how the ear
maintains balance.

Figure 7 .3.1 The structure of the ear. What are the two functions of the ear?

Sound waves
Sounds are made when objects vibrate. As they vibrate, t hey cause
waves of disturbance in t he air molecules. These sound waves spread
out f rom t heir source, getting weaker t he f urt her t hey travel. The
loudness of a sound w hen it reaches the ear is determined by t he
st rengt h of t he molecular disturba nce. This is called t he amplit ude of
t he sound wave. The loudness of a sound is measured in units called
decibels (dB).
The pitch, or frequency, of a sound wave (fo r example high or low)
is determined by how quickly t he source of the sound vibrates.
The faster t he vibrations are, t he higher t he pitch of t he sound.
We measure the f requency of a wave in units called hertz (Hz). The
human ear can usually hear sounds with a frequency in t he range of
about 20Hz to 20000Hz.
How we hear
We hear sounds w hen the disturbances of t he air molecu les t ravel
down the ear canal and arrive at t he ear drum. The sound waves
make t he ear dru m vibrate. These vibrations are passed on to
the three small bones called t he ossicles. Their movement causes
vibration of the inner ear dru m or oval window, w hich in t urn
distu rbs liqu id in the cochlea. This is detected by tiny, sensory hairs
in t he cochlea. These send an electrical impulse t o t he brain, which
interprets the signals received into t he sounds vve hear.

Hearing loss
We can lose our hearing if:
• t he ear canal becomes blocked wit h vvax
• t he ear drum is damaged by excessively loud noises
• t he ossicles fuse together and so stop vibrating properly
• cells in the cochlea are damaged (caused by loud noises at a certain
f requency - this is w hy ear protectors are worn by workers in noisy
environments and why personal music players shou ld not be t urn ed
up too loud).
__
...__..::,_ __, Excessively loud sounds can
permanently da mage your
M aintaining balance hearing
Just above the cochlea we f ind t he semi-circular canals. Look at
Figure 7.3.3. The t hree canals are fil led with liquid t hat have sensory
hairs, which detect movement in t he liqu id. They send their electrical
impu lses to the brain, w hich makes t he necessary adjustments to
muscles to maintain our balance.

Semi-circular canals
Auditory nerve

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Figure 7.3.3 The semi-circular canals help us maintain our balance. What detects 1 Describe how sounds are
movement in the liquid in the semi -circu lar ca nals ?
made and travel to t he ear.

KEY POINTS 2 Draw a flow diagram to

show the sequence of steps
1 The ear enables us to hear sounds and maintain our balance. when we hear a sound.

2 The vibrat ions of sound waves are passed along t he delica te 3 List t he causes of hearing
inner st ructu re of t he ear. loss.

3 Care must be taken not to damage the sensitive structures in 4 How does the ear help us
your ears. maintain our balance?
 The nervous system

Your body has to cope with all sorts of changes in its environment.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
These changes act as a stimulus t o t he body t o respo nd in some way.
• Name and describe t he The body detects t he changes using its sense organs - eyes, ears,
function of neurones. nose, tongue and skin.
• Ident ify t he major parts of the Your sense organs contain special cells t hat detect changes, such as
central nervous system and in light, sou nd, smells, tastes, hea t or pressure. These cells are called
t heir functions. sensory neurones. The neurones are linked in bundles called nerves.
• Explain reflex (involuntary) There are t hree types of neurone, shovvn in Figu re 7. 4. 1.
actions.
• State the effects w hen t he Volunta ry actions
central nervous system
Here is t he sequence of events when you decide how to respond to a
malfunctions.
stimulus.
1 A stimulus detected by a sensory neurone triggers off an electrical
Cell body impulse that t ravels along a sensory nerve to t he spinal cord.
Direction of impulse • 2 The elect rical impulse t hen t ravels up t he spinal cord to the
CNS brain, which coordinates w hat happens next.

Fatty sheath 3 The brain sends an electrical impulse back down t he spinal cord
SENSE ORGAN to t he correct nerve w hich is attached from t he spinal cord to a
muscle.

Cell body 4 The electrical impulse leaves t he spinal cord via a motor neurone
and t ravels dovvn a motor nerve to t he muscle.
5 W hen t he electrical impulse arrives at a muscle, t he muscle
responds by contra cting.
The spinal cord and t he brai n make u p t he cent ral nervous system
(CNS). The sequence of events for a voluntary action is shown in
Figure 7. 4.2.
Direction of impulse
Muscle fibres
Sensory neurone

Figure 7 .4.1 The three types of

___- Cell body
neurones - sensory (top),
relay (m iddle), motor
(bottom) Relay neurone ( ____,,
~·•

Spinal cord
Motor neurone

Figure 7.4.2 The sequence leading to a con trolled or volun1ary ac1ion

Reflex (involuntary) actions
Sensory receptor in skin of finger Synapse White matter
,,,---.,{
Stimulus - / - .. Sensory neurone Relay neurone
for example,
touching a
hot plate
...~ ~--'--
Grey matter

0
Biceps Spinal
muscle
contracts --- nerve

and
withdraws Motor neurone
hand
Spinal cord
Figure 7.4.3 The sequence of events in a reflex action. This is called a reflex arc.

KEY POINTS
Imagine you touch a plate that has been in a very hot oven. You drop
the plate automa tically before you even feel the pain. This involuntary 1 Voluntary movements are
action is called a reflex action. controlled by electrical
You do not need to t hin k about a reflex action. That's because the impulses sent from the brain.
elect rical impulse f rom t he sensory neurones to the motor neurones 2 Electrical impulses arrive at and
bypasses the brain. This helps us react more quickly to a stimulus t hat leave f rom the central nervous
might cause us harm. The action is quicker as a result of a shorter system through neurones,
sequence of events t han in a voluntary action w here we actively packaged as nerves.
decide w hat to do. Look at Figure 7.4.3. 3 In reflex actions the brain is
The electrical impulse travels between the incoming sensory neu ro ne bypassed as relay neurones
and the outgoing mot or neu ro ne via a relay neurone in t he spinal t ransfer an electrica I impulse
cord. Chemicals are released and received to cross t he gaps at either directly between sensory
end of the relay neurone so t he impulse can bypass t he brain. neurones and motor neurones.
4 Damage to t he nervous
Other involu ntary actions coordinated like t his are your brea thing, system is serious as
your heart beating and you r knee j erking w hen it is tapped. Can you conscious and u nconscious
t hin k of a refl ex action in a baby?
coordination is disrupted.

Damage to t he nervous syst em

If electrical impulses canno t travel through the central nervous SUMMARY QUESTIONS
system, you can become paralysed. That is w hy brea king your back
or neck is so potent ially dangerous. If t he break damages t he spinal 1 Describe the fu nction of :
cord, elect rical impulses sent by the brain cannot get to muscles. a sensory neu ro nes
The higher up t he spine the break o ccurs, t he worse the paralysis b relay neurones
as more of t he muscles can no longer be controlled and actions c motor neurones.
coordinated.
2 Explain the difference
Other disorders, such as motor neuro ne disease, affect t he upper between a voluntary and an
and lower motor neurones. Degeneration of t he motor neurones involuntary action.
leads to weakness and wast ing of muscles. This causes an
increasing loss of mobility in limbs. Event ually there are difficulties 3 Explain which break in the
spine, severe enough to
with speech, swallowing and breathing - all coordinated by t he
damage the spinal cord, is more
nervous system.
serious - a break near t he base
of the spine or a break near th e
top of t he spine.
 The endocrine system

The endocrine system and the nervous system act together to

LEARNING OUTCOMES
coordinate a variety of effects in the body. This ta ble compares the
• Identify glands and their two systems.
location in the body.
Nervous system Endocrine system
• List hormones produced by
glands and describe their use How 'messages' Electrical impulses Hormones
and effect. are sent around that travel along (chemicals) that
the body neurones (which travel through the
• Explain how the endocri ne make up nerves) bloodstream to
system works.
target organs
Timing and effect • Rapid response • Slower response
• Almost immediate • Longer term
Hypothalamus • Acts in a precise • Can act over a
area larger area
• Effects are short • Effects are longer
lasting lasting
Pituitary
gland ~/✓ The endocrine system is made up of glands, located around the body.
Some glands exist as organs themselves or as parts of other organs.
Figure 7. 5 .1 shovvs vvhere the main glands are found.
Thyroid
gland The pituitary gland, at the base of the brain, coordinates t he effects
of most of the other glands. The nearby hypothalamus is the link
I~ \ between the nervous system and t he endocrine system.
Pancreas The endocrine glands release (secrete) chemicals called hormones.
They are transported around the body in the blood. The hormone
Adrenai--+- ca,,,t
molecules can be thoug ht of as chemical messengers. Some have
gland / general effects around the body, but others are targeted at particular
Ovary--1---- - - organs.
(in female)
Some hormones are proteins or steroids. For example, growth
Testis- t---~ Ot hormone is a protein and testosterone is a steroid. Testosterone is
(in male) made in the testes. It stimulates the male characteristics to develop in
adolescent boys.
Figure 7.5.1 The main endocrine
glands. How vvould you
describe the posi tion of the
pituitary gland?

LINK ('~
For info rmation regarding the
abuse of hormones in sports,
see 4.6 'Drugs'.
The table below shows sorne other horrnones, the glands that
produce them and their effects.
Hormone Produced by t he Effect
endocrine gland . ..
Adrenaline Pancreas Gets the body ready for
emergency action, for example
raises the pulse rate and dilates
blood vessels to muscles, lungs
and liver (ensuring muscles
have a good supply of glucose
and oxygen)
Glucagon Pancreas Converts glycogen back into
glucose (raises blood sugar
level)
Insulin Pancreas Converts glucose into glycogen
vvhich is stored in the liver
(lowers blood sugar level)
Oestrogen Ovary Stimulates secondary female
characteristics
Thyroxine Thyroid Regulates growt h

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 a Where is the hormone testosterone produced? 1 Endocrine glands secrete

hormones into the blood.
b Testosterone stimulates muscles to develop. Hovv does it
get to the muscles? 2 The hormones act as
c What type of chemical compound is testosterone?
'chemical messengers',
stimulating responses
2 a Where is t he hormone adrenaline produced? around the body.
b State two effects of adrenaline on the body. 3 The pituitary gland
3 Sketch a diagram to show the position of the main endocri ne coordinates the actions of
glands in the body. most other glands.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the different types of
waste.
• Discuss some uses that can be
made of waste.
• Discuss the need fo r personal
and community hygiene.
•
Keeping clean
Types of waste
As a society we produce lots of waste as a result of our lifestyles. Here
are some examples.
Domestic waste
Think of the rubbish you and your family th row away each week.
Most things we buy come packaged in plastic and/or cardboa rd.
Then there is the waste generated in the kitchen. Most of the ru bbish
we throw into a bin will eventually be taken to a landfill site. These
are huge holes where the rubbish is dumped.
Much of the limited space in a landfill site is taken up with plastic
waste. Many traditional plastics take a very long time to decompose.
They are chemically unreactive - which is one of their useful
properties in some applications, but not when disposing of them.
Chemists have novv developed biodegradable plastics that can be
broken down by microorganisms in the soil. These biodegradable
plastics decompose in landfill sites in a few months.
Biological waste
We also have to get rid of the waste products our bodies produce.
This can be thought of as domestic, biological waste. In towns and
cities this sewage is taken in pipes to sewage treatment plants. There
the sewage is broken down by microorganisms in tanks that have
plenty of air available. The liquid is purified sufficiently to pass back
into rivers or the sea. In the countryside, many households have
septic tanks from which sewage is collected periodically or they invest
in their own small treat111ent plants.
Industrial wa ste
Disposing of waste from some industries is more difficult than others.
The hotels in the tou rist ind ustry produce domestic waste, only on a
large scale. Hovvever, chemical processing plants can produce toxic or
unsightly waste that must be made safe before releasing it into the
environment.

KEY POINTS
1 Waste can be classified
as domestic, biological or
industrial.
2 We can make use of some
waste, such as in the
production of biogas fuel or
in recycling.
3 Personal and community
hygiene can reduce public
These brovvn lagoons are holding waste iron compounds from the healthcare spending on
---=-------' processing of aluminium ore (bauxite) extracted in Jamaica
treating the diseases caused
by unhygienic conditions.
Uses of waste
Dumping waste in a landfill site squanders the Earth's limited
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
resources. The landfill sites can also pollute groundvvater if any toxic or
harmful substances are disposed of illegally in the household rubbish. 1 Give an example of the
It is fa r better if we can make use of the waste in some vvay. Here are followi ng types of waste:
some uses. a domestic
• The solid sludge leh aher sewage has been treated can be sterilised b biological
and used as a fertiliser on fields. This can be used with manure c industrial.
collected by fa rmers from fa rm animals.
2 a Rubbish in a landfill
• Recycling - we can recycle glass, paper, iron/steel and aluminium. site gives off flammable
This saves resources and energy. Plastics are more difficult to methane gas. What use
recycle, as there a re so many different types, but it is possible when could be made of the
the product packaging is marked with a code to help sort them. gas?
• Biagas can be generated by the action of microorganisms on
b How can a landfill site
organic waste. The gas can be burned to generate electricity. contaminate drinking
water supplies?
Community and personal hygiene 3 Predict the consequences if
The taxes people pay to their govern ments helps to pay for the a government was to ru n
costs of keeping our environment a clean and healthy place to live out of money and could
in . Reg ular rubbish collections are organised for the disposal of our no longer afford to remove
household waste. Our sewage is taken away and treated. If this and dispose of waste from
vvas not do ne, ru bbish and human waste would soon build up and homes and businesses fo r
become a breeding ground for all kinds of pests and parasites, and six months.
the diseases they carry.
 Pests and parasites

Pests are organisms that cause us inconvenience at best, and at worst,

LEARNING OUTCOMES
can cause illness and even death. Mosquitoes are a pest that can be
• Explain the conditions that a nuisance, but also spread disease. For example, in 20 10 there was
promote the breeding an increase, in the disease dengue, which can be fatal. An early rainy
of household pests and season that caused an increase in numbers of mosquitoes was to blame.
parasites. Mosquitoes can be controlled by spraying marshy areas with insecticide.
• Explain how to control pests However, care must be taken that the chemicals used do not cause
and parasites. harm to the environment or the food chains in the ecosystem.
• Disting uish between pests People who live in mosquito areas are encouraged to never leave any
and parasites. uncovered water in containers outside. Mosquitoes will use the water
to lay their eggs in. They should fi t screens to doors and windows,
and sleep under a mosquito net. These provide a mechanical control
barrier to prevent mosquito bites. When outdoo rs, yo u can apply
anti-mosquito spray to the exposed areas of skin.

Adult

Adult emerges - Eggs

Figure 8.2.1 Mosquitoes feed on
blood, so they can pass
on malaria parasites to
humans, and heartworms
to dogs, d irectly into the
bloodstream. Parasites
live a nd feed on the host
organism they infect.
~;;:~ - -
Figure 8.2.2 The life cycle of a mosqui to. It vanes between fou r days and a
month

EXAM TIP Numbers of mosquitoes can be controlled by intervening in its life

cycle. For example, removing sources of stagnant water stops eggs
l)o 111.,o~ co111.,f kse pests witn from developing. You can also introd uce biological controls in water,
pay-asites. 'PllY-asites IA Y-e such as mosquito fish that feed on mosquito larvae. Introducing birds,
,
oy-ga111.,is"1A-s ti-lat feed o111., dragonflies and frogs that feed on ad ult mosquitoes has also been tried.
tviei.,. viost . Foy- e.Ktl "1A-pLe, Cockroaches are another pest. These thrive where they find food,
WOY-"1A-s
,
t viat
,
Live £111.,side water and shelter. Therefore, keeping a house clean and free from
IA 111.,i"1A-IA Ls, i 111.,CLkd L111.,g any waste food or water, with any cracks and holes filled in walls,
VI k "1A.tl IA.,$ . will stop a cockroach infestation. If they find a good food supply
and somewhere to hide away, they will cause diseases such as
gastro-enteritis, typhus and skin diseases. They also provoke allergic
reactions that cause dermatitis, asthma and bronchitis.
Chemical control with insect icides is the usual way to rid an infested
building of cockroaches. These are toxic substances and should be
applied by professionals. Borax is a traditional, less harmful substance
that is effective against cockroaches.

Pests can also be controlled in agriculture by biological means. The

fa rmer will introduce a predator to feed on the pest. An example is
the ladybird that feeds on aphids that destroy plants. Spiders can also
be used to decrease the num ber of flies. •
Figure 8.2.4 The cane toad is an
Another species introduced on Caribbean islands is the cane toad.
excellen t biological pes1
This feeds on pests, such as the w hite-gru b, that attack the sugar con1rol. It will ea1 almost
cane crop. Cane toads were even introduced into Jamaica to control any1hing. Unfortunately it
rats, although this did not seem to work. can be so effec1ive tha1 i1
becomes a pes1 itself!

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Mice are seen as pests once

t hey infest a home. Give a:
a biological
b chemical
Rais are a11racted to rubbish and must be controlled, oflen by c mechanical
- =------' chemical mea ns (ra1 poison) and mechanical means (bai ted traps).
Reducing our waste, reusing or recycling as much as possible will method that could be used
help. to control them.
2 Explain where you might find
KEY POINTS cockroaches in a kitchen.
1 Pests and parasites breed successfully in da rk, damp places 3 Why do mosquitoes pose
where food is readily available. such a th reat to humans?
2 Pests and parasites can be controlled by biological (predatory 4 What is the difference
organisms), chemical (pesticides) or mechanical (barriers or between a pest and a
traps) means. parasite?
Section A . :Pr"t-:tice exam questions

SECTION A: Multiple-choice questions

1 Which of t he follovving are functions of t he 6 The diagram below shows t he reproductive

human skeleton? organs of a flowering plant.
Protect the brain and spinal cord I
II Storage of calcium
Ill Production of hormones
IV Manufacture of blood cells
a I, II and Ill
b II, Ill and IV
c I and IV only
d I, II and IV
2 In which part of t he kidney does ultrafiltration
take place? Which label is the stamen?

a Glomerul us a I
b Trachea b II

c Pituitary gland C Ill

d Nephron d IV

3 Which process removes indigestible mat erial 7 Which item listed below w ill complete t he
from t he body? fol lowing sentence?

a Excretion Examples of non-biodegradable waste include

plast ic, ___ and radioactive waste.
b Digestion
c Egestion a banana peels

d Perista Isis b newspaper

c nylon
4 Water vapour is released f rom plants t hrough:
d yard waste
a phloem
b xylem 8 Which of t he fo llowing ways result in food
becoming contaminated?
c stomata
I Inadequate cooking
d chloroplasts
II Poor personal hygiene
5 Which of t he substances below are produced
Ill Chemical and physical contaminat ion
during aerobic respiration in a cell?
IV Using clean surfaces in food preparat ion
I Hydrogen
activity
II Oxygen
a I, II and IV
Ill Water vapour
b I, Ill and IV
IV Carbon dioxide c I, II and Ill
a I and II d 11, Ill and IV
b II only
c l,ll andlV
Fu rt her practice questions
d Ill and IV and examples can be found
on the accompanying website.
SECTION A: Short answer questions
9 a Mrs Clarke is a 45-year-old office worker.
She is sitting at her desk most of the day.
Her BMI measurement indicates that she is
'obese'.
i Which two measurements are needed
to calculate Mrs Clarke's BMI?
ii Mrs Clarke's mother died at the age of
50 from a heart attack. Descri be the
change in an artery that can cause a
heart attack.
111 Mrs Clarke's doctor carried out tests
on her and found increased levels of
glucose in her uri ne. Which medical
condition causes this?
iv Which two hormones control the levels
of glucose in the blood?
v Which organ produces the two
hormones in part iv?
vi The doctor tells Mrs Clarke to lose
\/\/eight. What t\1\/0 pieces of general
advice should she follow in terms of
her eating and lifestyle?
b i The kidney is the major organ of
excretion in humans. Name two
other excretory organs and state their
products.
ii What do you understand by the term
'homeostasis'?
111 The kidney is rega rded as a
homeostatic organ. Explain fully how
it is involved in controlling the water
balance of the body.
10 a Plants can make their 0\1\/n food by
photosynthesis.
i Name the two substances that plants
change chemically to make their
fuod. 0 the line on this graph.
ii Name the sugar and the waste product
fo rmed in photosynthesis. (2)
111 Which substance is needed to 'trap'
the energy from sunlight? (1)
b The experiment below is carried out
to investigate the effect of changing
the intensity of light on the rate of
photosynthesis.
•
(2) •
•
(2)
Ho\/\/ do you vary the intensity of light
fa lling on the water-plant using the
apparatus shown? (1)
(7) ii The results from the experiment were
used to draw the graph below.
(2)
(1)
(2)
Light intensity
(4) Explain what is happening between
points A and B on the grap h. (2)
(4) 111 Explain what is happening between
points B and C on the graph. (2)
iv Sketch a graph showing the effect
of varying the concentration of
(7) carbon dioxide on the rate of
photosynthesis. (2)
v Sketch a graph showing the effect
of varying the temperature between
10°C and 50°C on the ra te of
photosynthesis. Explain the shape of
(3)
Further practice questions
and examples can be found
on the accompanying website.
 •
How is energy transferred?

Heat energy can be transferred from one place to another in three \Nays:
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• conduction
• Descri be how heat energy is
conducted in solids. • convection
• Descri be how heat energy is • radiation.
transferred by radiation. In this section we \Nill look at conduction and radiation. Convection is
dealt with in 9.2.

Conduction
If you heat a metal spoon at one end, the heat energy is grad ually
transferred to the other end. This is called conduction. We say that
the heat energy is conducted through the metal of the spoon.
When a solid is warmed up its particles (atoms, molecules or ions)
start to vibrate more vigorously. These increased vibrations are passed
on to their neighbouring particles, which in turn get hotter and pass
on the vibrations to the particles they are in contact with, etc. Metals
also contain free-moving electrons which drift between the particles
in their structures. These can transfer the heat energy quickly through
a metal. We say that metals are good conductors of heat (or are
good thermal conductors).

Test rods Figure 9.1.1 I The conduction of heat energy

thro ugh a metal

Some materials, including liquids and gases, are poor conductors of

heat energy. They are described as thermal insulators.
Vaseline
We can carry out experiments, such as the one sho\/\/n opposite, to
Drawing test which materials are good conductors of heat energy. The best
pin
conductor will let heat energy travel along it most quickly, melt the
Vaseline and the drawing pin \Nill fa ll off fi rst.
Tripod
So if you are choosing a material to make a cooking pan, you will
decide on a good conducto r of heat energy. In addition, the material
needs to have a high melti ng point and should not react readily with
Figure 9.1.2 Testing \<Vhich material is steam or hot water. That is why steel, al uminium or copper is usually
the best thermal cond uctor chosen.
Radiation
Radiation is another method of transferring heat energy. It transfers
energy in the form of electromagnetic waves, such as infrared
radiation. These are given off from any hot object. You can feel the
radiated heat energy when you hold your hands in front of a fi re.
You might have seen images taken at night using an infra red camera.
Instead of responding to light like a normal carnera, this detects
infrared radiation emitted fro rn objects. The hotter the object, the
more infrared radiation it gives off (emits).
'-.::....._;__ __, Police use 'nigh t-vision'
The Sun's energy travels t hrough space to reach Earth by radiation.
cameras to detect suspects
Fortunately for us, radiation does not need a substance to transfer as 1hey emit infrared
heat energy. That is why it can travel through space, which is a radiation in the dark
vacuu m (contains no particles).
In experiments vvith shiny silvery cans and dull black cans of water we
find t hat:
• a dull black can of cold water warms up faster in sunlight than a
shiny silvery can containing the same volume of cold water
C>
• a dull black can of hot water cools down faster than a shiny silvery
can of hot water.
>
This shows us that:
• dull black surfaces absorb radiation more quickly than shiny silvery
surfaces
• dull black surfaces radiate heat energy more quickly than shiny
silvery su rfaces.
Figure 9.1.4 The differences between
KEY POINTS dull black and shiny silvery
surfaces
1 Metals are good conductors of heat energy.
2 Radiation transfers heat energy as electromagnetic waves,
which can travel through a vacuum.
3 A dull black surface absorbs radiation more quickly than a
shiny silvery surface.
4 A dull black surface radiates heat energy more quickly than a
shiny silvery surface.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a Which of the fol lowing materials is the best conductor of

heat energy?
iron wood plastic glass
b Explain your answer to part a in terms of particles.
2 Describe a fair test you could carry out to show that a black can
of water absorbs energy more quickly than a silvery can of water.
3 a Which type of heat energy transfer can take place throug h
a vacuum - conduction or radiation?
b What evidence have you got for your ansvver to part a ?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be how energy is
transferred in liquids and
gases (flui ds).
• Discuss how convection takes
place over the sea and land.
• Explain how convection takes
place in a large beaker of
water heated by a Bunsen
burner.
• Explain how a thermos flask
works.
•• •
••••
••••
Gas at 20°c Same gas at 40°C
Figure 9.2.1 I A hot fluid occupies a larger
volume than \¥hen it is cold
as its density decreases as
its temperature rises
EXAM TIP
:,vnel-'\, a fluid i.s neated
~t exp a111,c/.s because of tne
~1-'\,Ci--eas:d V1,1,,0VeV1,1,,e111,t of
its particles - tne particles
tneV\,1,,selves Do NOT
expa111,d .
How is energy
transferred in fluids?
Liquids and gases are sometimes referred to as flu ids. The particles
(mainly molecules) in a fluid are able to rnove around. There is more
space on average between the particles in a gas than in a liquid and
the gas particles can move more freely.
When a fluid is heated its particles move around more quickly. This
means that a given number of particles will take up more space.
So as the flu id warms up, it expands and its density decreases. This
means that the hot part of the fluid will rise, floating upwards. The
heat energy is transferred by the hot particles moving from a \/\/armer
place to a cooler place. We call this convection.
As the warmer particles rise, cooler ones move sideways to take their
place. This in turn makes particles in the flu id move down\1\/ards to
take their place and a cycle is set up. This is called a convection
current.
We can show a convection current in a large bea ker of \/\later heated
by a Bunsen burner. By adding a coloured crystal \1\/e can follow the
movement of the flu id, in this case water.
' . Purple
. , ..... 'cloudiness'
,.....- Water
/ "'
,.....- Purple crystal
of potassium
"xxxxxxxxxxxxxx" manganate (VII)
' •
Heat
Figure 9.2.2 I Convection current set up in a beaker of \'Valer. The hot water above
the flame expands, becomes less dense and rises. It 1s replaced above
the flame by colder \'Valer and the convection curren t beg ins to
circulate water around the beaker.
Land and sea breezes
Have you ever noticed days when the wind direction near the coast
changes to the opposite direction in a 24-hour period? The \/\/ind will
switch from blowing in from the sea in the daytime (a sea breeze) to
out to sea at night (a land breeze). We can explain these land and
sea breezes by thinking of convection currents in the air. Look at
Figure 9.2.3.
In sunlight, the land warms up more quickly than the sea. So the air
above the land rises. Cooler air from over the sea rushes inland to
take its place. So in daytime we get a breeze coming in off the sea.
 Air warmed by t ,- !
land rises ~ \ \ )
Sea breeze due to cooler air
from the sea flowing in to
replace warm air
,r.
•

Figure 9.2.4 Convection currents cause

Figure 9.2.3 Convection currents cause la nd and sea breezes. Why does hot a ir
breezes that cool you down
rise?
on a day at the beach

At night-time, the land cools down more quickly than the sea. So the
wanller air above the sea rises. Then the cooler air from over the land EXAM TIP
rushes out to take its place. This produces a breeze out to sea from
the land. ''Rtld£atoir.s' used t o heat
bu~td£"'-gs tira"".sfeir 11\.1..ost of
How a thermos (or vacuum} flask works t heu- heat er,,,,,eirgij airour,,,,,d
a iro_o~ bij cor,,,,vect£o"", r,,,,,ot
iradicrtior,,,,, as the£ir 11\,&111\.1. e
., ~~ Plastic cap .suggests .
~ --=---TI
Double-walled glass (or plastic) container

Plastic protective cover SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Hot or cold liquid
Sponge pad (for protection)
,=- Inside surfaces silvered to stop radiation
Vacuum prevents conduction and convection
Plastic spring for support
1 Explain how a convection
current is set up in a room
heated by a radiator against
one wall.
2 Look at the diagram of the
experiment in the figure below.

Water

KEY POINTS Purple crystal

of potassium
1 Cohvection currents (the movement of particles) transfer heat manganate(VII)
energy in fluids from one place to another.
2 A hotter fluid rises and a cooler fl uid moves in to take its place.
t
Heat
Tripod

3 The changing temperature differences between the land Figure 9.2.6

and the sea causes shifting land-sea breezes over a 24-hou r
period. Predict what you would see
in the beaker as it is heated
4 A thermos (or vacuum) flask helps to reduce energy transfers beneat h the coloured crystal.
from a liquid to its surrou ndings by minimising conduction,
convection and radiation. 3 Give two design features of
a thermos flask that helps
reduce energy t ransfer
from its contents to the
surrou ndings.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Draw a labelled diagram of
a bimetallic strip and explain
how it operates.
• Explain how thermostatically
controlled household
appliances work.
• List and describe different
types of thermometer.
• Explain how a liquid-in-glass
thermometer works.
KEY POINTS
1 A bimetallic strip bends
when heated as the two
metals joined together
expand at different rates.
2 Thermostats can be used to
keep an electrical appliance
at a constant temperature.
Not too hot (the bimetallic
strip bends to break the
circuit) and not too cold (the
bimetallic strip straightens
to close the gap in the
circuit).
3 A liquid-in-glass
thermometer works because
the liquid inside it expands
as it gets hotter and
contracts as it gets colder.
Thermostats and
thermometers
Thermostats
Using less electricity when operating electrical appliances saves us
money. Thermostats are devices that can switch the electric current
off automatically once a certain temperature has been reached. The
circuit will be switched back on automatically once it cools down
below that ternperature. So a therrnostat can keep appliances at a
certain temperature without you having to switch them on and off all
the time yourself.
The bimetallic strip
Thermostats contain a bimetallic strip which bends, creating a gap
that breaks the circuit when the desired temperatu re is reached and
stops any further heating.
A bimetallic strip is made of two strips of different metals, such as
brass and steel. The two strips can be welded together. All metals
will expand as they get hot. However, they vvill differ by how much
they expand for a given temperature rise. For example, brass expands
more than steel. So when the bimetallic strip is heated, the strip will
bend. Look at Figure 9.3. 1. Notice how the brass strip is longer than
the iron strip.
Brass Brass has expanded more than steel
Steel
Figu re 9.3.1 The b imetallic strip bends when heated
Thermostatica lly cont rolled household appliances
Central heating, or air conditioning, is often controlled automatically
by thermostats in different rooms. These can feed back to the boiler,
or air conditioning unit, when a certain temperature is reached. In
this vvay they can maintain a steady temperature in a building.
In other appliances we can vary t he temperature more often using
a control knob. For example, when iro ning clothes you will need to
switch settings between different fabrics. In an iron the control knob
will change the distance between the contact point and the bimetallic
strip in its electrical circuit. Look at the circuit in Figure 9.3.2.
When ironing synthetic fa brics, t he iron should not be allowed to get
too hot. Turning the control knob to the right setting will make the
gap between the contact point and the bimetallic strip open up at a
lower temperature than if the knob is set to 'cotton'.
 Control knob on iron - ~
moves up or down

Contact Bimetallic strip

Power - - - - - - -;::=-- - -- - L - -- ~
supply._...., Bulb full of Space allowed
alcohol for expansion

Heating element Alcohol

-10 70

Figure 9.3.2
in iron
The bimetallic strip controls how hot the iron w ill get
·~
§
8 oio 10
60
50
~C. 0" ' 20 40
Steel
Thermometers 30 30 marker
20
There are several different types of t hermorneter. Steel
marker 50 10
60 0
Laboratory thermometer
70 - 10
These are made o f glass vvit h a narrovv bore and t he bulb at t he
bottom. The bulb and bore have mercu ry (a liquid metal) in t hem.
There is a vacuum above t he t hin thread of mercury in t he bore. As Mercury pushed by alcohol
t he tempera tu re increases, t he mercury expands and ri ses up t he Figure 9.3.3 A maximu m-minimum
bore. You read the temperature against t he scale, marked in degrees thermometer

Celsius (°C). They usually have a range from - 10°C t o 11 0°C.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Alcohol thermometer
Like t he mercu ry t hermomet er above, this is a liquid-in-glass 1 A bimetallic st rip can be
t hermometer. The alcohol is a colou rless liquid so it has red dye made of copper and steel.
added to make reading t he t hermometer easier. The alcohol boils at Copper expands more
78°( so it can't be used at high temperatures. However, it can be t han steel. Draw a labelled
used at lower temperat ures than a mercury t hermometer. diagrarn to show w hat
happens w hen this bimetallic
Clinical thermometer strip is hea ted.

This is used to t ake t he temperature of the body. They have a na rrow 2 Explain how a thermostat
range eit her side of body te111peratu re (37 .6°C), from 34°C to 43°(. works.
The bore has a narrow 'kink' (called a constriction). This lets mercury 3 W hat type of t hermometer
pass u p through it, but do esn't let it pass dow n. So once you r would you choose to
temperatu re is taken, t he doctor or nurse can t ake it out of you r measu re:
mout h and look at t he temperat ure. The t hermometer is shaken to
return the mercu ry back to t he bulb.
a t he highest and lowest
t emperat ure reached over
Maximum- minimum thermometer a week
b t he temperat ure of a
These are usually used to keep records of t he w eather, for example,
person feeling unwell
t he maximu m and minimum tempera tu res reached in a 24-hour
perio d. They have alcohol on top o f mercury in a U-shaped t ube. c t he boiling point of water
A marker, such as a steel disc, is left at t he minimurn in one arm of in a school experi ment
t he t ube and at the maximum in t he ot her arm. The markers can be d t he temperat ure of a
re-set using a magnet. Look at Figure 9.3.3. chicken being cooked in a
restau ra nt
Digital thermometers
e t he freezing point of a
These give a read-out in numbers on a liquid-crystal-display. They are liquid that melts at - 15°C.
metal p robes, such as t hose used in cooking to insert into meat to
see hovv ho t it is inside.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define evaporation.
• Explain latent heat of
vaporisation.
• Discuss how sweating helps
to cool the body in terms of
latent heat of vaporisation.
• Discuss the concept of
metabolic rate in relation to
heat generation in the body.
__.,/' Cotton wool
'\ soaked in ethanol
'
Figure 9.4.2 Measuring the cooling
effect of evaporation
Evaporation and
cooling
Evaporation and latent heat of vaporisation
Why do puddles of water on a concrete path exposed to sunlight
seem to disappear? Evaporation is the change of state when a liquid
turns into its gas (or vapour). Liquids do not have to boil in order to
change from a liquid to a gas. Even at roo m temperature, liquids,
such as water, a re evaporating.
In any substance, at any temperature, the particles will have a range
of energies. A few have low energy, a few have high energy and most
have energies somewhere in between. It is the high-energy particles
that evaporate off. They have enough energy to escape from the
surface of the liquid.
The temperature of a liquid depends on the average energy possessed
by its particles. If some of those with the highest energy escape
during evaporation, the average energy of the particles remaining will
be lowered. Therefore, the liquid's temperature is decreased.
Vapour'\_
Fast-moving
molecule
escaping 0
Forces of attraction
between molecules
in the liquid
Liquid
Figure 9.4.1 Evaporation ca uses cooling
You can measure the temperature decrease in a practical test like the
one shown in Figure 9.4.2 opposite.
The forces of attraction between the particles in the liquid are
indicated by its latent heat of vapori sation . This is the amount of
LINK %
energy needed to va porise a kilogram of the liquid without changing To remind yourself about
its temperature. At its boiling point, you can carry on heating a liquid changes of state, see 1 .1 'States
as it boils away, but its temperatu re does not rise. That's because the of matter'.
energy supplied is being used to brea k the attractive forces between
the particles in the liquid as they escape as a gas. The weaker the
fo rces of attraction between its particles are, the faster a liquid
evaporates.

KEY POINTS

1 Evaporation cools a liquid

down as its most energetic
particles escape.
2 The higher the latent heat
of vaporisation, the stronger
the forces of attraction
between particles in a liquid.
This mother is cooling do\,vn her baby by rubbing alco hol on his
...._-=-------' back. As the alcohol evaporates it absorbs energy from the baby's 3 Water evaporating from
body, lo,Nering h is temperature. sweat helps to cool down
the body.
Cooling your body down
Our bodies rely on many complex chemical react ions to function
properly. All of these reactions make up our metabolism. The speed SUMMARY QUESTIONS
at which these react ions take place is called our metabolic rate. The
faster yo ur metabolic rate, the more heat energy is released and the 1 Describe what happens to
hotter you get (as when exercising). the particles in a liquid \/\/hen
it eva porates.
Your body cools itself by sweating. Sweat glands near the surface of
your skin release svveat. The \/\later in the sweat evaporates, absorbing 2 Why does sweating help to
energy fro m your body as the water particles escape, cooling you cool us down?
down. 3 Explain how rubbing on
You can lick the back of your hand to feel this cooling effect caused alcohol can help to lower t he
by evaporatio n. Blowing across the back of your hand speeds up the body temperature of a baby.
evaporation and makes your skin feel even colder.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain relative humidity and
its effect on the body.
• Discuss t he physi olog ica I
effects of exposure to the
sun.
• Descri be what is meant by
good vent ilation.
• Descri be how ventilation
can be improved by air
conditioning and
dehumidifiers.
Humidity and
ventilation
In 9.4 we saw how t he fo rces between t he particles in a liquid
(as indicated by its latent heat of vaporisation) affect the rate of
evaporation.
The ot her factors t hat affect the rat e of evaporation of a liquid are:
• temperature (the higher the temperature, t he faster the liquid
evaporates)
• surface area of liquid (t he larger t he surface area, t he faster the
liquid evaporates)
• t he humidity (wa ter vapour content) of the air above the liquid (t he
lower t he humidity, t he faster t he liquid evaporates).
Relative humidity
Hot and humid days are often described as 'sticky' days. The relative
humidity will be high. This is t he amount of wat er vapour in t he air
measured as a percentage of the maximum amount of water vapour
the air could hold on a particular day.
On these days your clothes tend to st ick to your skin because t he
wa ter in your sweat f inds it difficult to evaporate off. Therefore, its
cooling effect is limited. So w hen t he relative humidity is high, people
can suffer from heat exhaust ion. Their bodies can get dehydrated if
t hey do not replace the wat er lost as sweat. The body will continue
t o sweat as your core body temperature rises even though not much
evaporation takes place.
Evaporat ion of the water from sweat is slovv on a humid day because
the air is almost saturated in \/\later vapour. It cannot hold much
more. This is w hy fa ns help. They blow away the air next t o the skin,
lowering t he humidity long enough for wa ter to evaporate f rorn your
skin, absorbing heat energy f rom your body.
Too much sun
The Sun's rays carry harmful ult raviolet radiat ion t o Earth. If you
don't apply suntan lotion of sufficiently high factor or sun-screen
or sun-block, you risk getting sunburnt. The ult raviolet radiation will
burn your skin, especially pale skin, which w ill blister and peel. The
dark colouring in skin is formed by t he body's natural protection,
called melanin.
Heatstroke is w hen your core body t emperature rises to dangerous
levels. If it ri ses t o about 42°( it can be fat al. The heat we generate
in metabolic reactions is usually t ransferred f rom our skin as radiated
hea t energy or as heat energy absorbed by t he water in swea t
evaporating. But in extremely hot weather or in high humidity, you
might not be able to get rid of t he hea t energy quickly enough.
Victims of heatst roke can feel sick, tired and weak, and m ight also
suffer fro m dizziness, vomiting, headaches and muscle cramps.
When t he core body temperat ure rises too high, people can behave
strangely, t heir pulse w ill race and breat hing will become difficult. In
severe cases t he person w ill fall into a coma.
Athletes in endurance event s are at risk of heatst roke w hen t hey
compete in hot or humid wea ther. They might not be able to
dissipate t he hea t energy f rom t heir body quickl y enough to maintain
a normal bod y temperat ure and t hey can collapse.

The importance of good ventilation

Buildings need to be well-ventilated to keep t heir occupants
comfortab le and healt hy. If air is not allowed to circulate, and fres h
air int roduced, t he air inside t he building \/\fill get stale. Humidity w ill
rise if lots of people are inside as t hey breat he out water va pour that
cannot escape. In t hese conditions, microorganisms can fl ou rish.
These can cause respiratory problems and make people feel ill.
Good vent ilation can be as easy as opening the correct w indows to
ensure a good f low of air. You want warm, stale air to leave and be
replaced by cool, f resh air. As you know, warm air rises so it is best Warmer air
to have an upper w indow open as well as one at a lower level. Then leaves room
through Air from
convection can take place. upper outside drawn
Air-condit ioning units use pumps and fa ns to help int roduce cool, window into room through
f resh air into a building and get rid of, or clean and recycl e, stale air. lower window

Humidif iers introduce water vapour into a building if t he air gets too Figure 9.5.1 Windows provide good
ventilation
dry. Dry air can make people uncomfortable. Humidifiers can help
maintain an opt imum level of water vapour in t he air so people can
work comfortably. LINK ('~
In very humid Caribbean territories such as Trinidad and Guyana that To remi nd yoursel f about
are outside of t he norrnal hurricane path, many houses are built wit h convection, see 9.2 'How is
air vents just below t he eaves of t he roof to allo\1\1 warm air to leave energy t ransferred in flu ids?'
as it rises. This type of construction, however, is not suitable for ot her
territories affected by hurricanes.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 a Design an experi ment to show how temperature affects t he 1 The body sweats more in
ra te of evaporation of wa ter. hot, humid conditions, but
high humidity stops the
b Give two ot her factors t hat affect t he rate of evaporation.
water evaporating off the
c Choose w hich type of day is best for drying clot hes on a skin, reducing its cooling
washing line and explain w hy. effect.
A a cool day
2 Effective ventilation is
B a hot , humid day needed in buildings to make
C a hot, dry day them comfortable to live
2 Describe w hat happens to a person who gets heatstroke. and work in.

3 Buildings with poor ventilation can develop 'sick-building

syndrome'. Explain why t his happens.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define and explain t he
concept of energy.
• Discuss t he conversion of
energy int o different fo rms.
• Discuss t he conservation of
energy (and mass in nuclear
reactions).
Figure 10.1.1 A bungee j umper in
action - \-vhy do they
eventually come to rest
if the conserva tion of
energy is true?
Energy
We can't do anything without energy. Energy is needed t o produce a
change. So energy makes t hings happen!
There are different forms of energy, w hich can be converted into each
ot her durin g changes. However, t he amount of energy before t he
change is t he same as t he amount of energy after the change. This is
called t he conservation of energy. So when people say t hat energy
is 'lost' t hat is no t really true. Energy gets more and more spread
out during energy conversions and is eventually transferred t o t he
environ ment as heat energy, w hich is no longer useful energy.
Forms of energy
Energy can be stored or t ransferred as different forms of energy.
• Chemical energy - t he energy stored in chemicals such as fuels
and foods. This chemical energy is released during any chemical
reaction.
• Kinetic energy (KE) - the energy an object has because of its
movement.
• Gravitational potential energy (GPE) - t he energy stored by an
obj ect because of its position, for example above ground level.
• Elastic (or strai n) potential energy - the energy stored in a material
under stress, for example in a stretched rubber band or spring.
• Electrical energy - the energy transferred by t he rnovement of
electrons in an elect ric current.
• Heat energy - t he energy of an object due to its temperature.
Other common forms of energy are sound and light energy in which
energy is t ransferred as \/\/aves.
Energy interconversions
Here are some examples of t he \/\lays energy can be t ransformed f rom
one form to another.
A battery-operated radio
chemical energy stored in t he ba tteries ➔ electrical energy ➔
sound energy ( + heat energy)
A bungee jumper
gravitational potential en ergy ➔ kinetic energy ➔
elastic potential energy ➔ GPE ➔ KE ➔ elastic potent ial energy ➔
etc. as t he person bounces up and down
In a computer
electrical energy ➔ sound + light energy + heat energy
A nuclear power station
nuclear en ergy ➔ heat energy in steam ➔ kinetic energy of
t urbi nes in generator (sometimes called mecha nical energy) ➔
electrical energy
In nuclear f ission reactions in a power sta tion large atoms are split
into smaller atoms. Scientists fi nd t hat t he mass of all t he particles
after t he nuclear reaction is slightly less t ha n t he mass before the
change. This is not the case in chemical reactions. They conclude t hat
the small amount of missing mass has been converted into energy. In
a nuclear reacto r in a power stat ion t he fission is caref ully cont rolled.
However, in a nuclear bomb these reactions are t riggered to happen
very quickly, producing a massive explosion.
Solar energy is produced on t he Sun by nuclear
reactions. They are fusion reactions in w hich
small atoms join to make larger atoms.

The unit of energy

Scientists measure energy using the u nit called
joules, J. It is t he energy used w hen a force of
one newton, N, is exerted over a distance of
one metre (see 12.2 page 112).
(1000 J = 1 kJ and 1 000 000 J = 1 MJ, w here
kJ are kilojoules and MJ are megajoules)

Figure 10.1.2 The Doel nuclear power station in Belgium

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 Show t he energy interconversions (transformations) in t he 1 Energy is needed to produce

followi ng: a change.
a a swing in action at t he park 2 Energy is conserved before
b a TV set and after a change.
c a moving car 3 A small amount of mass can
d photosynt hesis. be converted into a lot of
energy in nuclear reactions.
2 In chemical reactions t he mass of reactant s before t he reaction
equals t he mass of products after t he reaction. Explain w hy
t his is not the case in a nuclear reactio n.
3 If t he conservation of energy is t rue, w hy should we bot her to
conserve energy in ou r everyday lives?
4 How many joules are there in:
a 5.2 kJ
b 75 MJ.
 Energy on the move
and momentum

LEARNING OUTCOMES Movin g energy

• Discuss ways in w hich energy
is transported or t ransferred.
• Explain t he principles of
moment um.
We have already seen how energy can be t ransferred from one place to
another by conduction, convection and radiation. Waves are another
way of t ransferring energy from place to place. They can be used to
t ransmit messages as light waves through optical fibres. Remember
that light forrns part of t he electromagnetic spect ru m of waves. Ot her
electromagnetic waves used to transfer energy in t he commu nicat ions
industry are infrared rays, microwaves and radio waves.
We have also seen how energy is moved from place to place by
waves in the sea. Sound waves are another vvay t hat energy is
transferred.

b .,_.., Direction of travel - - •

Compression Compression Compression

Compression Compression
Hand moved backwards
and forwards along the
line of the slinky
Figure 10.2.1 a Electromagnetic vvaves are examples of transverse vvaves
b Sound waves are exam pies of longitudinal 'Naves

We can also focus energy to concent rate it w hen we use solar povver
to generate electricity or fo r cooking. The use of a curved reflective
Figu re 10.2.2 This solar cooker su rface can also re-direct light energy in car headlights w here t he
concentrates solar energy
light emerges as parallel bea111s.
on to the cooking pot

Momentum
Any object that is moving has momentum. The more moment um it
has, t he hard er it is to stop. Objects with a lot of moment um have a
large mass and/or a large velocity.
momentum = mass x velocity, w ritten as p = m x v, where the
units are: momentu m in kgm/s; mass in kg; velocity in m/s.
Scientists have fou nd that in any collision t he moment um is t he
same before and after t he collision. This is called t he conservation of
momentum. We can demonstrate t his in t he suspended metal balls in
a 'Newt on's cradle' (see Figure 10.2.3).
We can carry out experiments in t he lab using t rolleys to invest igate
collisions. We fi nd t hat when a t rolley moving at a certain velocity
hits a stationary trolley of t he same mass, t hey move off together,
at half the original velocity. This shows that momentum is conserved.
In a car crash, momentum is also conserved so a car hitting a sta tionary
line of cars vvill transfer its momentum down the line. Momentum,
like velocity, has both size and direct ion, which is important when
considering changes in momentum w hen objects collide.

Figure 10.2.4 Momentum tra nsferred in a car crash (The law o f conservation of
momentum states that total momentum before collision = total
momentum after collision.)

Worked example
An athlete in t he hundred metres has a mass of 75 kg and is
running at 10 m/s. Calculate t he momentum of the sprin ter.
moment u m = mass x velocity
= 7 5 kg x 10 m/s
= 750 kgm/s
Figure 10.2.3 Ne\~~on's cradle illustrates
the conservation o f
SUMMARY QUESTIONS momentum

1 Give t hree examples of how energy is tra nsferred from place t o

place using waves.
2 Describe hovv a solar cooker works. KEY POINTS
3 a What is meant by the 'conservation of momentum' ? 1 Energy can be t ransferred
b i W hich of t hese t hree cars has t he greatest moment um f rom one place to another
vvhen t ravelling at 20 m/s? by waves. It can also be
car A of mass 1000 kg redirected using reflective
car B of mass 1100kg surfaces (or lenses in t he
case of light).
car C of mass 1200 kg
ii Which car would have t he greater momentum - car A 2 Any object t hat is moving
t ravelling at 20 m/s or car B t ravelling at 40 m/s? Explain has momentum. The
your answer. amount of momentum
depends on t he object's
4 A railway t ruck t ravelIi ng down the track at 4 m/s bumps into mass and velocity.
an ident ical t ruck t hat is stationary. In t heory, at w hat speed
should both t rucks continue down the track fo llowing t he 3 momentum (p) - mass (m)
collision? x velocity (v)
5 Calculate the momentum of a t ru ck of mass 2500 kg 111oving 4 Momentum is conserved in
at a velocity of 15 m/s. a collision.
 •
Electricity

LEARNING OUTCOMES Conductors and insulators

• Explain the difference
between conductors and
insulators.
• Descri be the differences
between series and parallel
circuits.
• Explain the relationship
between voltage, current and
resi sta nee.
Electricity can only flow if there is a complete pathway, called a
circuit, for it to pass around. The electricity itself is made up of
moving electrons (the tiny negative particles from inside atoms). Look
at the simple electrical circuit in Figure 11 .1. 1.
We use circuit diag rams to represent circuits. The components in t he
circuit are each given a symbol.
Materials that let electrons flow through them are called electrical
conductors.
Materials that do not let electrons pass through them are called
electrical insulators.

t
- -- The circuit to test which materials are conductors and which are
insulators is shown in Figure 11 .1.2.
We find that all rnetals are good conductors of electricity, whereas
most non-metallic materials are insulato rs. Carbon in the form of
graphite is an exception, as it is a non-metal that does contain
Electrons
electrons that are free to move through its structure.
Figure 11.1.1 A simple circuit diagram
showing electron flov, There are sorne materials, such as silicon, that will conduct elect ricity
slightly (not as well as a metal, but better than an insulator). These
Cell are called semi-conductors. They are used to make components for
computers.
\
Series and parall el circuit s
Bulb
Electrical components, such as lamps, can be arranged in series or
parallel circuits. In a series circuit t he components are connected in
line with each other. Look at Figure 11. 1.3.
The current flows th rough one lamp then the next . We can measure
the current using an ammeter. An ammeter connected into a series
Material to
be tested Crocodile clip circuit in any position gives the same reading. This shows that the
current is the same at any point in a series circuit.
Figure 11.1.2 The material being tested
is put across the gap in If one of the lamps in series is unscrevved or blows, the other lamp
the circuit to see if the goes out too. There is no pathway for t he current to make its way
lamp ligh ts up
back to the other end of the cell. Compare this with the parallel
circuit shown in Figure 11. 1.4. The current leaving the cell, or battery,
is split between the branches of the parallel circuit before rejoining
again on the way back to the cell.
In the parallel circuit if one lamp blows, the ot her stays lit. That's
because there is still a complete circuit vvithout the current having to
Figure 11.1.3 Two lamps in series
go through the broken branch in the circuit.
Current, voltage and resistance
Electrical current is the rate of flow of charge around a circuit. It is
measured by an ammeter (connected in series). Its units are amps (A).
Electromot ive force (e.m. f.) is a measure of the 'pushing power' of
a cell or bat tery. It is measured by a vol tmeter (connected in parallel
across the cell), in units called volts (V).
The electrons, pushed around by t he cell, carry energy t ransferred
f rom the chemicals in t he cell. As t hey pass throug h the thin wire in a
lamp t his electrical energy is t ransferred to hea t and light is released
by t he lamp. There is a difference in energy before and after each
elect ron passes t hrough the lamp. We call this a potential difference
(p.d.), which is also measured in volts.
Figure 11.1.4 Two lamps in parallel
The resistance of a component is a measure of how difficult it is fo r
current to pass through it. We can calculate t he resistance, knowing
t he current and voltage using t he equa tion:
. t R p.d. across the component, V
res1s ance
,
=- ~ -------~----
current through the component, 1
w here p.d. is measured in volts (V), current in amps (A) and
resistance is in units called ohms, (Q).
The equation is often rearranged and quoted as V = I x Rand is
known as Ohm's law. We can say that at constant temperature t he
current is proportional to the potent ial difference.

Worked example Figure 11.1.5 Measuring the potential

A current of O.OSA, supplied by a 3 V battery, passes through a difference (p .d.) across a
resistance w ire. W hat is t he resistance of the wire? la mp . In parallel circuits,
the p .d. across each
I = O.OSA, V = 3V componen t is the same.
so In a series circuit, the p .d.
3 of the ba ttery is shared
R = 0.05 bel\veen the compo nents.
= 60 0 (ohms)

KEY POINTS
1 Conductors allow electrons
to flow t hrough them.
Insulat ors do not as t hey
have no free electrons.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 Series circuits have
components connected one
1 a Draw a circuit diagram with one cell and t hree lamps after t he other, in line.
connected in parallel.
3 Parallel circuits have points
b What would happen if the middle lamp blew and went w here t he circuit splits off
out? Explain your answer. into two or more branches.
2 A w ire is connected to a 1. 5 V cell and has a 0.2 A current
passing t hrough it. What is t he resistance of t he wire? 4 Resistance = vol tag~
curren
3 An electrical circuit has a resistance of 20ohms and a current
of O.OSA. What voltage is applied in t his circuit?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain how a fuse works as a
safety device.
• Use the form ula I - W -;- V
to calculate current, and
rea rrange it to calculate
wattage.
• State the correct colour codes
for wires in a 3-pin plug.
ratings depending on the
power needed to work
the appliance. This type o f
fuse is used inside plugs.
Fuses and cables
(flexes)
The fu se as a saf ety device
Electrical appliances are very useful, but if too much current flows
into them they can overheat and cause fi res. This is why we use fuses.
A fu se contains a thin wire that melts and snaps if too rnuch current
passes through it.
The correct fuse ra ting (for exarn pie, 3 A, 5 A or 13 A) is calculated
from the wattage (power is measured in watts (W)) of the appliance
and the mains voltage. To calculate the current needed to run the
appliance, we use the equation:
/ (current) = W _(power)
V (mains voltage)
Then we choose a fuse that will allovv this current to pass through,
but vvill 'blow' (melt and sna p) if more than that current surges into
the appliance.
Worked example
a If yo u have an appliance t hat has a power rating of 250W
on an island with a 11 0 V mains supply, what current will the
appliance use?
b Using your answer to a, what fuse should be used with this
appliance?
a I (current) = 250W
11
OV
= 2.3A
b Therefore, you would need to use a 3 A fuse.
The equation I (current) = W (power) -;- V (mains voltage) can be
rearranged to calculate the power of an appliance in watts (W), given
the current and voltage supplied:
power (in watts) = / (in amps) x V (in volts)
Plugs
Appliances with metal cases will be attached to their plugs by three
.
wires:
• the live wire (brown)
• the neutral wire (blue)
• the earth wire (yellow and green).
These are all encased in an outer plastic cable. The wires themselves
are made of copper metal. Look at Figure 11.2.2 to see the correct
wiring of a 3-pin plug.
 EARTH _-/t-t--;..-r',=:J Fuse
(green and yellow wire}

NEUTRAL LIVE
(blue wire} (brown wi re)

grip

Figure 11.2.2 A 3-pin plug wi th its top cover removed

The fuse is placed between the live pin of the plug (hidden under the
fuse) and the brown live wire that ru ns to the appliance. The earth
wire is needed for metal-cased ap pliances. The earth pin is attached
via the socket circuit to the ground in case the live wire touches the
metal casing. Appliances with plastic casing, such as a hairdryer,
only need a two-core cable and in their plug there is no connection
to the earth pin.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a What is the function of

fuse wire?
b Explain how t he fuse in a
plug works.
2 a The mains voltage on a
particular Caribbean
island is 220 V. An
appliance has a power
rating of SOOW. Calculate
t he size of fuse that
This is a cable used to carry mains elec1rici1y into homes. It has thick should be used in its plug.
' --"--- - - - ' copper wires inside - the thicker the wire, the lower i1s resistance,
so the cable does not heat u p as much, \"lhich would \"laste energy. b What could happen if
Overhead and underground power cables from po\"ler stations have someone used a 1SA fuse
even thicker copper cores. in this appliance?
KEY POINTS 3 An electrical appliance is
designed to ru n on a voltage
1 Fuses act as safety devices. of 240V and a current of
2 You can calculate the fuse needed in the plug of an appliance O.SA. What is the power
. h . W supplied to the appliance?
using t e equation / = V
4 Why do overhead power
3 There are two-core, three-core and thick overhead/ cables have thick copper
undergrou nd cables fo r different uses and appliances. cores?
 Energy consumption

Most people now rely on electrical appliances to give us t he modern

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Calculat e t he energy
consumed by different
household appliances.
• Descri be how to read
electri city meters.
• Calculat e household energy
bills.
• Discuss \Nays to conserve
energy.
conveniences we have come to expect. Ho\/\/ever, t he electrical energy
we use has to be paid for. Therefore, t he less energy \/\le consume, the
lower our electricity bills. It can also benefi t the environment as the
electrical energy you use is typically generated from fossil fuels.
We can use t his equation to calculate our energy consurnption w hen
using an appliance:
energy consumption = power x time
(in joules, J) (in watts, W) (in seconds, s)
Worked example
A 60 W light bulb is left on f or 5 minutes. How much energy does
it use?
First of all change the minutes into seconds to use in the equation
above:
Smin x 60 = 300s
Energy consurned = 60W x 300s
= 18000J
The amount of energy a home needs when quo ted in joules is very
large. Even using kilojou les (where 1 kilojoule, kJ, is 1000 J), it is still a
large number on a bill for a t hree-month period. So elect ricity boards
fi nd it better to use a unit of energy called a kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh is the energy supplied to a 1 kW (1000 W) appliance
for 1 hour.
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the unit shown on electricity bills and
t he unit shown on electricity meters. Your electricity can show an
analogue display (where dials rotate for each digit - see Figure 11 .3.1)
or a digital display (where numbers change and can be read directly -
see Figure 11.3 .2).

10000 1 000 100 10 1

9 0 1 1 0 9 9 o 1 1 0 9 9 0 1
8
7 ---
6 S 4
2
3
2 "--.
3
4 5 6
8
7 -
8
7
6 S 4
2
3
2
3
4
/ s
5 6
7
8
7/
6 5 4
2
3

kWh
Figu re 11 .3. 1 Reading an analogue electricity meter. This reading is 71 787. The
rules for reading an analogue meter are: a Read from left to right;
b If the pointer is between two numbers, record the lower one;
c If the pointer is directly opposi te a number, record that number,
and d If the poin ter is between '9' and 'O', record '9' then take one
away from the number recorded for the dial on its left
The elect ricity supplier will read your meter, perhaps every
month, or you can read it and send in t he reading yourself.
They w ill charge you for the number of kilowatt-hou rs
used, vvit h an addit ional charge for any units over 100 units
consumed per month. The units up to 100 are charged at a
variable rate. In t he w orked example bill f rom Dominica below,
t he charge is divided into two ra tes called Block 1 and Block
2. A fuel surcharge is also applied to t he energy consurned
fo r t he first 100 units. Some companies also make a standing
charge t hat must be paid even if you use no electricity. There
is also Value Added Tax (1 5% at present) t o pay on any units
consumed over 100 kW h.

Worked example
A consumer used 100 units (kW h) of electricity in
a mont h. 50 units were charged on a Block 1 tariff
of 57.8 cents per kW h and t he next on Block 2 at
67.0 cents per kWh. The fuel surcharge vvas 34.3 cents
per kW h used . W hat did t he consumer pay for t heir Figure 11.3.2 A digital electricity meter
electricity?
Block 1 charge = 57.8 x 50 = 2890 cents = $28.90
Block 2 charge = 67.0 x 50 = 3350 cents = $33.50
Fuel surcharge = 34.3 x 100 = 3430 cents = $34.30
Total $96.70

Electricity is a major household bill. You can conserve energy and

reduce your electricity bills by turning appliances off w hen not in use,
and choosing energy efficient devices w hen buying new appliances.
All electrical goods have efficiency rat ings. You can also use energy-
saving light bulbs in place of t raditional f ilament bulbs w hich waste a
lo t of energy as heat.

KEY POINTS
1 The unit of electrical energy
consumed is called t he
kilowatt-hour (kW h).

SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 You can calculate t he

electricity used in a certain
1 Calculate t he energy consumption in joules for: period by reading t he
electricity meter at t he start
a a 500 W electrical heater left on for 10 minutes
and end of the period, and
b a 60 W bulb left on for 5 hours. subtracting the readings.
2 An electricity meter rea d on 1s1 October was ' 1108' units. 3 Your electricity bill is
W hen it w as read a mont h lat er it w as ' 1192' units. The cost calculated from the units
of t he fi rst 50 units vvas 55 cents per kW h and any units over (kWh) used multiplied by
t hat , up to 100 units, was 65 cents per kW h. Calculate t he cost the cost per kWh.
of t he electrical energy consumed during t hat month.
4 It is important to conserve
3 List three w ays in w hich you could reduce t he electrical energy energy to reduce bills and
you use at home. help the environment.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Dist inguish between natural
and artificial lighting.
• Explain shadow formation
and t he problems of poor
light ing.
• Discuss the energy efficiency
of appliances.
Efficient lighting
More efficient display screens
People are keener t han ever to use energy efficient appliances around
the home to reduce their energy bills. For example, the screen you
use for your TV or computer display is changing fro rn a traditional
ca t hode ray t ube (CRT) t o a light emitting diode (LED), plasma screen
or a liquid crystal display (LCD). In general, the LEDs are the most
eff icient, and are getting cheaper in price too, although plasma and
LCD also offer significant energy savings over the old CRT screens.
More efficient lighting
Traditionally, f ilament light bulbs have been hung frorn ceilings and
attached to fi ttings on walls. There is a choice of bright ness available
in different filament lamps. The bulbs come in 40W, 60W and 1OOW
sizes, wit h 100 W giving off most light, but also being t he most
expensive to run.
The main problem vvi th f ilament lamps is t he amount of energy t hey
waste. As much as 95J of heat energy is produced for every SJ of
light given out. The elect ricity passes through the t hin metal wire
filament. There is quite a resista nce to t he passage of electrons
throug h such a narrow wire and heat energy is released. This heats
the tungsten \II/ire up to 'white heat' and t his glow is the light we see.
f ila ment la mps waste u p to 95% o f the electrical
'--" ' - - - - - - '
energy supplied to them by h eating u p the fila ment
and its su rroundings
We are now much more conscious of t he environrnental impact of
wasting energy like t his. Therefore nevv energy-saving light bulbs are
becoming more popular with plans to phase out fila ment lamps. The
energy-saving bulbs are derived f rom fluorescent t ube light ing. They
use 4 to 6 t imes less energy t han a f ilament lamp t hat would give
off t he sarne light. Fluorescent t ube lighting is given off by t he long
t ubes you see in many shops and public buildings. They do not get as
hot as fila ment lamps.
Fluorescent tubes have electrodes at each end vvit h electrons jumping
between t hem. These pass energy onto t he rnercury atoms inside t he
long tube. When t he mercury atoms go back to t heir original energy,
t hey release ult raviolet light. This interacts w ith t he lining of the long
tube, which gives off visible light energy. The tube emits light along
its whole lengt h. It is not a point-source of light like t he fila ment
lamp. This results in very diffuse shadows being fo rmed in fluo rescent
lighting compared w ith the sharper shadovvs in fi lament lighting. So
there are fewer areas of dark shadovv in rooms wit h fluorescent tube
lighting.
The new energy-saving light bulbs are called compact fluorescent
lamps (CFLs). They are more expensive t han fila ment lamps, but last
much longer. They also take a little t ime to give off their maximum
light, w hereas a f ilament lamp lights up fully as soon as you switch
it on. The fila ment tubes also contain mercury, w hich is a toxic heavy
metal. However, t hese can be recycled and t he mercury is collected
to use again in new low-energy lighting units. Any disadvantages of Figure 11.4 .2 Fluorescent tube lighting
the CFLs must be weighed against t he energy savings t hey offer. They is much more efficient
only use between a fift h and a quarter of t he energy of t raditional than filamen t lamps
f ilament lamps of the same light outpu t. Therefore, they w ill be t he
future of light ing along w ith other new developments.

KEY POINTS
1 Modern LED, LCD and plasma screens are much more energy
efficient than older, traditional CRT TVs and computer
monitor screens.
2 Filament lamps are very inefficient , wasting 95°/o of t he
electrical energy supplied t o t hem as heat energy.
3 Low energy compact fluorescent lighting (CFL) is t he
environmentally friendly option.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Which one of the fo llowing types of display screen is

generally considered the most energy efficient to use?
Plasma; CRT; LED; LCD
2 How does a f ilament lamp give out light?
3 How does fluorescent tube lighting give off light?
4 Draw a table comparing t he benefits and drawbacks of
filament lamps compared w it h fluorescent tube lighting or
compact flu orescent lighting.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain t he principles of
fighti ng different types of fire.
• Describe first aid methods
for different accidents, for
example electric shock, burns
and cuts.
Be prepared in an
emergency
Fire fighting
For a fi re to keep burni ng it must have three t hings present :
• fuel
• oxygen
• heat energy.
W it hout any one of t hese t hree things, the fi re will go out. This is the
basis of f ire f ighting. For example, a f ire starting in a waste paper bin
can be put out vvith water. Spraying wat er onto t he paper fi re takes
away t he heat and t he f ire goes out. Alternat ively, a heat-proof cover
could be put across t he t op of t he bin. This extinguishes t he fi re by
cutting off its su pply of oxygen.
However, water cannot be used on all fi res. In electrical fi res and f ires
involving burning metals or oil, water can make t he f ire worse. So
t here are different fi re extinguishers to tackle different types of f ire.
In f ires involving gas, t he best way to pu t out the f ire is to remove t he
f uel by t u rning off t he gas. Carbon dioxide extinguishers are used for
electrical fi res. The same gas is fou nd inside foam extinguishers used
outdoors w here t he carbon dioxide might ot herwise be blovvn away
f rom t he f ire. Carbon dioxide deprives a f ire of oxygen.
First aid
If an accident happens, it is useful t o know how to treat someone in
an emergency.
Electric shock
In a case of electric shock, t he f irst thing to do is t o cut off the elect ricity
if th e patient is still in contact with the supply. If possible, turn off at t he
mains switch. Phone the emergency services immediately. Do not touch
the person if t hey are still in contact with the faulty equipment as you
w ill also be elect rocuted. Follow instructions from the emergency
services vvhile you wait for t hem to arrive. If the current can 't be
switched off and there is an insulator at hand, t hey might tell you to
push the victim away from the source using the insulator.
In severe cases, the person might stop breathing. Then you should try
mout h-t o -mouth (or mouth-to-nose) resuscitation. This is also called
CPR (cardio-pulmonary resuscitation). First of all loosen any clothing
arou nd t he neck and chest. Then lay t he victim on t heir back and tilt
their head back slightly. Press down on t he chest 30 t irnes at a steady
rate of just over one compression per second. Make su re t heir mouth
is clear. If it is, pinch t heir nostrils toget her and blow into their mouth
twice. Your mout h should fo rm a seal around t heirs fo r this to inflate
the lu ngs. Repeat the 30 chest compressions and two rescue breaths
until t hey start breathing again or emergency services arrive. Then
place t he person in the recovery posit ion (see Figure 11.5.2).
 a

I
I

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Figure 11.5.2 a Carrying out chest compressio ns
b Giving a rescue breath 1 a A pan of oil used for deep
c The recovery position frying can catch fi re if it is
allowed to get too hot. It
Burns can be put out by placing
In some accidents, including electric shocks, people receive burns. a damp cloth over the top
To t rea t a burn, hold the affected area under cold run ning water of the pan. Explain how
fo r at least ten minutes. Then cover the burn in cling film (do not t his method works.
use fl uffy materi al). Raise t he affected limb to reduce swelling vvhile b Explain how a fi re-break
waiting for medical assistance. works t o prevent a bush
fi re spreading.
In a science laboratory, there a re plenty o f risks of inj ury because you
\Nork with glassware, some hazardous chemicals, and sources of heat 2 If t here is an accident in t he
and electricity. However, every school has ru les to follow in a science science lab and someone cuts
lab to reduce t he risks and make accidents a rare event. Look at your t heir hand, t hink of two ways
lab rules and think how each one reduces t he risk of an accident. t hat you could reduce t he
bleeding f rom the wound .
KEY POINTS 3 W hen you are doing an
experiment that needs a
1 A fi re needs fuel, oxygen and heat energy to keep burning. Bunsen burner, if it is lit bu t
Removing any one of t hese can put t he fi re out. not being used for heating,
2 There are different types of fi re extinguisher for different types how should t he burner be
of f ire. Ieft? Explain w hy.

3 Basic first aid is useful in case of an accident and can even 4 W rite a step-by-step guide
save a life in a serious case. on how to revive t he victim
of an accident using mouth-
t o-mout h resuscitation (CPR),
including chest compressions.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Ident ify and discuss types of
accidents in the home and
workplace, their causes and
precautions t o avoid them.
• Ident ify safety symbols.
• Discuss t he importance of
different items of pro tective
clothing.
Safety first
Types of accide nts
You should feel safe in your home, but most ad missions to ernergency
medical departments in hospitals are the result of accidents at home.
People have accidents involving:
• electric sho cks and fi res from fa ulty or incorrectly used electrical
appliances (appliances should be checked regularly and never used
if a bare w ire or damage to casing is seen - an electrician shou ld
repair t he fa ulty equipment)
• f ires and in halation of fumes, such as toxic carbon monoxide, from
fau lty gas appliances
• sprains and broken bones f rom fa lls or maintenance tasks
• cuts from sharp objects, such as kitchen knives.
At the w orkplace, hazards can be more serious, but workers are
t rai ned and should be aware of them. As well as the same hazards
listed above, workplace hazards include:
• toxic gases
• flam mable substances
• corrosive substances
. .
• excessive noise
• food contamination
• heavy machinery
• lift ing heavy objects
• infection by pathogens.
Avoiding accide nts
In the workplace, including school laboratories, you will see safety
symbols that give advice, such as symbols for \/\fearing eye protection.
Here are some safety syrnbols you might see.
First aid Eye wash Emergency shower Fire alarm point
Figure 11.6.1 These safety signs indicate w here the first aid , eye wash, emergency
shower and fire alarm poin t are found in the workplace
Some substances used at home are hazardous. For example, bleach,
drain cleaners and oven cleaners. These carry hazard signs on t heir
labels to warn householders of the dangers 1/\lhen using t hem.
The commonly used hazard symbols fo und on domestic products or
in the workplace are shown in Figure 11.6.2.

A
HIGHLY
BIOHAZARD FLAMMABLE
Biohazard Toxic Electrical Dangerous for Highly
hazard the environment flammable

Explosive Harmful/irritant Corrosive Radioactivity Oxidising

Figure 11.6.2 The common hazard signs

In the workplace, chemicals can be used t hat are fa r more hazardous KEY POINTS
than those we use at home. Therefo re, workers need special
1 Accidents can happen at
protective gear. To remind them that they should be protecting
home and in the workplace.
themselves the fol lowing symbols are displayed.
2 Safety symbols and hazard
signs help to warn of the
dangers present.

e ,......._
0
3 Electrical equipment should
be checked regularly for
signs of damage or wear
Breathing Eye Ear Hand and tear.
protection protection protection protection
4 Workers in hazardous jobs
Figure 11.6.3 Prominent safety symbols help to keep vvorkers sa fe in hazardous often wear special protective
environments
gear.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 A person tu rns on a gas oven but realises there are no

matches. They go to get some from another room and return
to light the gas. Why is this dangerous?
2 Which toxic gas is given off from a faulty gas boiler that does
not mix enough air with the burning gas?
3 Sketch the hazard signs for:
a harmful b corrosive c flammable d explosive.
4 a Make a list of protective gear that would be useful in the
construction industry.
b Find out what special safety equipment is used by
radiographers in hospitals.
 ..
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List and discuss t he different
types of simple machines.
• Descri be t he parts of a lever.
• Give examples of levers and
classify them as Class 1, 2 o r
3 levers.
Simple machines
Machines are mechanisms t hat help us do a task more easily. Some
simple machines t hat you will know are levers, pulleys and inclined
planes (or slopes). These all make work easier. Ot her simple machines
include gears, w hich use d ifferent ly sized cogs.
These machines usually allovv you to apply more force to an obj ect
t han you actually apply. They a re examples of force mult ipliers. For
instance, you ca n use a pulley system w hen lifting heavy f urn itu re to
an u pper floor in a house.
Or you ca n use a spanner to undo a nut on a bolt. A car mechanic
w ill use a longer spanner to f ree a stubborn w heel-nut. If it still vvon' t
move, they ca n use an even lo nger ho llow steel tube over the spanner.
Examples of different types of lever
A crowbar is a simple example of a lever used to move a heavy object.
This is an example of a Class 1 lever where t he fulcrum (or pivot point) is
nearer to t he load than the effort. Look at the example in Figure 12.1.1.
Safe
Crowbar
~
Push Fulcrum (pivot) Load
Figure 12.1.1 A crovvbar is a force multiplier. It is a Class 1 lever.
By pushing down o n the crowbar, the man can use his weight as well
as his muscles to move t he safe. As in all force mult ipliers t he effort is
less tha n the load. However, t he d istance t he effort fo rce m ust move is
greater t han the d istance t he load moves. This is the payback fo r using
less force in moving t he object. Using a claw hammer to remove a nail
f rom a piece of vvood is anoth er example of a Class 1 lever.
Many people in the Caribbean, rather than use expensive cranes, still
shift small wooden ho uses and other structu res by using a Class 1
lever. This is j ust a beam of wood wedged under t he house o r
st ruct ure and levered f rom the ot her end by men . Blocks or a d ru m
may be used as a fulcru m .
A w heelbarrow is a Class 2 lever. In t hese levers bot h t he load and t he
effort are on t he same side of t he fu lcrum, with the load nearer to Effort -
t he fu lcrum (see Figure 12. 1.2).
In a Class 2 lever, the load and effort force are shared out by the
fulcru m, so t he force needed to lift t he object is less t han t he load Centre of mass
fo rce. So a Class 2 lever also acts as a force multiplier. A nut-cracker is
ano ther example.
Tweezers are an example of a Class 3 lever. These are like Class 2
levers, but t he f ulcru m is nearer the effort t han the load. In a Class 3
Fulcrum
lever the effort is greater t han t he load, so t hese levers are used vvhere Load
you want to pick up delicate or small object s (see Figure 12.1.3).
Figure 12.1. 2 A wheelba rrow is a Class
2 lever
Levers in the body
Bending your arm to lift an apple is an example of using levers. Here
t he fu lcrum is your elbow, the effort is t he relat ively small contraction
in your bicep muscle and t he load (apple) is moved a much greater
distance t han t he effort force in your bicep. This is called a distance
multiplier rather t han a fo rce multiplier.

The inclined plane

It is easier to push a load up a slope to raise it a certain distance t han Figure 12.1.3 A pair of tweezers is a
it is to lift the load vertically straight up, but you do have to push it Class 3 lever
fu rther than lifting it vertically.

KEY POINTS
1 We use simple machines such as levers, pulleys, gears, ramps
and wheels every day.
2 Simple machines can make moving large loads easier.
3 There are t hree classes of lever dependent on t he relative
positioning of t he effort, load and fulcru m.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Define t he words, a effort, b load and c fulcrurn.

2 Describe how a Class 1 lever vvorks. Use the example of prizing
off the lid f rom a can of paint using a screwdriver, drawing a
diagram and labelling the effort, load and f ulcrum.
3 Wha t do we mean when we say that Class 1 and Class 2 levers
are force multipliers?
4 Use an inclined plane to show t hat there is always a t rade-off
between t he energy saved using a slope and the distance you
have t o move t he load.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• State the formu la for work
done (which is t he same as
energy converted) and carry
out calculat ions.
• State the formu la for
mechanical advantage and
carry out calculations.
• Explain t he factors that
can make machines work
inefficiently and how t o
improve efficiency.
Using machines
Doing work
Whenever we move an object, vve are doing work. In t he process of
doing work we are t ransferring energy f rom one form to another. For
example, if you lift a box f rom the floor onto a table it req uires you to
do work.
To do t he work on the box you need to t ransfer chemical energy f rom
the food you have eaten into kinetic energy as t he box moves. On t he
t able t he box has gravitational potent ial energy w hich is stored as it is
above ground level.
The heavier t he box the more work you have to do to lift it. The
higher t he table, t he more vvork too. We can show this in an
equation:
work done (or energy converted) = force x distance
(in joules, J) (in newtons, N) (in met res, m )
So it takes 1 joule of energy to move a force of 1 newton through
1 met re (in the direction of the force).
Worked example
A worker pulls a 20 kg crate across a yard 5 m wide.
How much work was done?
The crate has a mass of 20 kg. To change that into its weight in
newtons, we mult iply t he mass by 10. So the 20 kg mass has a
weight of 200 N.
Now substitute the values into t he equation:
work done (in J) = force (in N) x distance (in m)
= 200 N x Sm
= 1000 J (or 1 kJ)
M echanical advantage
The mechanical advantage of a simple machine, such as a lever or
inclined plane, is t he factor by which the effort is multiplied by t he
machine. It is calculated as:
. load
mechanical advantage = effort
 Worked example
Consider using a 4 m ramp t o raise a load of 150 N by 2 m.
Effort

The work done in raising t he 150 N by 2 m w ill be t he same

whether we use t he ramp or lift t he load straight up.
Lifting the load vertically:
vvork done (or energy converted) = force x distance
= 150 N x 2m
= 300 J
Using t he ramp, the work done will also be 300J.
300 J = effort (in N) x 4 m
300
= effort = 75N
4
So t he mechanical advantage of using t he ramp = ~~~~
150
= -rs = 2

So if you double the distance over w hich the effort force acts compared
to a vertical lift, you halve the force needed to complete the task.
However, mechanical advantage is a t heoretical number as in reality
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
energy is wasted in all machines. They are never 100°/o efficient, so
you have to put in more energy than you get out. So more than
1 a Calculate the energy
75 N would actually be needed t o push the load up t he ramp in t he
converted in a machine
example above. That is because there is always friction in t he moving
when:
parts of a machine. This causes the machine parts to heat up and
energy is t ransferred t o t he surroundings. a load of 350 N is
raised by 2. 5 m
To reduce t his friction you need to keep machine parts well-lubricated
ii an effort of 100 N is
with oil or grease, for example a bicycle chain . A neglected machine,
applied t hrough 7.5m.
such as a lawn mower left over winter, w ill rust up. This will cause
even more friction betvveen its moving parts and result in more b What would be the
wasted energy. mechanical advantage of
t his machine?
KEY POINTS 2 Explain w hy t he theoretical
mechanical advantage of a
1 Work done (or energy converted) = force x distance moved
machine is never achieved in
in direction of t he force.
real life and how we can

2 Mechanical advantage of a machine = ~~~~t make machines as efficient as

possible.
3 There is always f ri ction between t he moving parts of 3 Calculate the work done
machines resulting in inefficiency. Lubrication with oil or when a 50 kg rock is raised
grease helps to minimise wasted energy. by 50cm.
. r 1·3 ·:Metals alild non-metals
.· - -' =-.-~..,,,.-_...., --C: ;;,,q

13.1 ,(t
Metals and non-metals

LEARNING OUTCOMES Properties of metals

Many properties of metals are very useful when making a great variety
• List examples of metals and
of objects. Figure 13.1 .1 shows the general properties of metals.
non-metals, and compare
their properties.
good conductors
11 ■d ~ d lleat
• Evaluate the advantages of e lectricity
and disadvantages of using 6 -.-rrhrrr;-;-'.""'.11
plastics. @Ba~ww These are

-uo~,';~
~
Can be hammef8d @l[l.;Oa,1111 o~ cobalt
nickel
tnto sMpe without Can be drawn out inlo wire
Rings when
oraeking struck

Figure 13. 1 .1 The properties of metals

The rnetal copper is a very good conductor of electricity and it can

be drawn out into wires (is ductile). Therefore, we use copper fo r
electrical wiring in houses. Why do we use copper fo r water pipes?
Properties of non-metallic materials
There are many non-metallic substances that we use in our everyday
lives. Their properties are very varied. Although metals are all good
conductors of electricity, most non-metallic materials are not. So we
use non-metallic materials as electrical insulators. We also use them
as thermal insulators, especially if gas is trapped inside a foa m. Here
are some general properties of non-metallic elements.

poor conductors of electricity

poo, conductor■ of heat

6
@!MOO
Figure 13.1.2 The properties of non-metals

Wood
Some non-rnetallic materials occur naturally, while others are
synthetic. Wood is a useful naturally occurring material. There are
different types of wood, such as soft, low density balsa wood and
hard, dense mahogany. Wood is made of long fibres of cellulose.
The wood can be split along its grain, as when chopping firewood.
However, it is much to ugher to cut across its grain .
Plastics
Many different types of plastics have been developed over the last
cent ury. Their properties depend on:
• the start ing materials
• the conditions used in the reaction to make t hem
• how t he plastic is processed.
Some plastics are flexible and melt or soft en at low temperatures.
They can be recycled and remou lded to make new objects. Other
plastics are hard, rigid and are heat resistant .
Soon we will have to thin k of new ways to make plastics. That's
because crude oil is t he main raw material for rnaking most plastics at
present. Crude oil is a fossil fuel that is running out, so we 1rvill need
new ra1rv materials, such as plants, to make ou r plastics.
Anot her p roblem w ith plast ics is t heir disposal. Most of t hem are
thrown away as rubbish and get taken to landfill tips. However, a
useful property of plastics (their lack of reactivity) beco111es a
disadvantage w hen we t ry to get rid of t hem. Many plastics last
This produce container
fo r hundreds of years before t hey are broken down completely by '--"------'
is mad e of polystyrene
microbes in soil. So t hey take u p valuable space in our landfill sites. as shown by its recycling
symbol
Nowadays scient ists are making more plast ics t hat will ro t away in
t he soil when we dump them. These biodegradable plastics can be
broken down by microbes more quickly. For instance, scientists can
build granules of starch into the plastic t hat t he microbes feed on.
There are also some plastics that can be broken down by sunlight.
Some countries burn plast ic 1rvaste and use the energy given out to
generat e electricity (saving fossil f uels). However, plast ics, such as PVC,
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
produce acidic hydrogen chloride gas when bu rned. Also, burning
plastics t hat contain nitrogen makes toxic hydrogen cyanide gas.
1 Name t he most useful
property of a metal chosen
Recycling some plastics rather t han t h rowing t hem away can also for the f ollowing uses:
help solve t he problems of disposal. Ho1rvever, recycling plastics needs a wires inside a set of
more sorting than t he recycling of iron, aluminium, glass or paper. headphones

An example of plastics in sport b cooking pans

c steel drums
Kevlar is a special plastic, discovered about 40 years ago. It has some
very useful properties, such as high tensile strength (difficult to pull d wire fencing
apart), low d ensity, high toughness and durability, abrasion and cut e jewellery.
resistance, and flame resistance. This has led to its use in making kayaks 2 Explain w hy disposing of
and oars, tennis racket frames and strings, volleyball nets, fencing suits, waste plastic is a problem fo r
f ire-proof suits for racing drivers and 'leathers' for motorcycle racers. society?
3 List t he advantages and
KEY POINTS disadvantages of using paper
carrier bags and polythene
1 Metals have useful properties, such as t heir tensile strength
(plastic) carrier bags. Evaluate
(for example, when making suspension bridges).
which would be better fo r
2 Non-metallic materials also have many uses with t heir supermarket shopping,
different set of properties. For example, plastics are widely justifying your answer.
used in sports nowadays.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Write word equations to
show t he reactions of metals
with oxygen, acid, alkali,
water and steam.
• Evaluate the advantages and
disadvantages of cooking
utensils or canning using
alumini um.
Ma ny metals will react
- =-------' with dilute acids, fizzing
as they give off a gas.
What is the name of
the gas?
Reactions of metals
The reactivity of meta ls
Water pipes are often made of copper. Copper is a suitable metal
because it can be bent easily so that the copper pipes can be shaped
by plumbers. Also, copper metal does not react with water.
We can compare the reactivity of rnetals by looki ng at their reactions
with other substances. For example, we can compare their reactions
with:
• oxygen (the reactive gas in the air)
• \/\later
• dilute acid and alkali.
All these substances are found around the home and in the
workplace so metals are likely to come into contact with them.
Not all metals react with dilute acid. Copper, silver, gold and platinum
are so unreactive that there is no reaction with dilute acids. However,
many metals will react.
If a metal reacts with a dilute acid it gives off hydrogen - a flammable
gas. This is the general word equation for the reaction:
metal + acid ➔ a salt + hyd rogen
Different acids will fo rm different salts \/\/hen the hyd rogen in the acid
is replaced by a metal.
• Sulphuric acid forms salts called sulphates.
• Hydrochloric acid makes chlorides.
• Nitric acid forms salts called nitrates.
For example, in the reactions between iron and the three acids above:
iron + sulphuric acid ➔ iron sulphate + hyd rogen
iron + hydrochloric acid ➔ iron chloride + hydrogen
iron + nitric acid ➔ iron nitrate + hyd rogen
By seeing how quickly the hyd rogen gas bubbles off the metals, we
can put them into an order of reactivity. Look at Table 1, which also
contains the reactions of the metals with dil ute alkali such as sodium
hydroxide solution.
Table 1

Metal (in order Reaction w ith dilute Reaction with dilute

of reactivity) acid alkali
Aluminium Gives off hydrogen gas Dissolves, giving off
and a salt is form ed hydrogen gas.
(but only if t he surfa ce
is cl eaned fi rst).
Zinc Gives off hydrogen gas Dissolves, releasing
and a salt is formed. hydrogen gas.
Iron Gives off hydrogen gas No reaction.
and a salt is produced.
Tin Only reacts slowly w hen Reacts slowly.
t he acid is warm.
Copper No reaction. No reaction.
Silver No reaction. No reaction.

Table 2 shows the reactio ns of t he same metals wit h oxygen and

water.
Table 2

Metal (in order Reaction w ith oxygen Reaction with wat er

of react ivity)
Aluminium Rap idly t arnishes in t he
cold. A thin coating of
tough aluminium oxide
forms (which protects
its surface).
Zinc Zinc oxide forms on its
surface, slowly in the
cold, but more ra pidly
vvhen heated.
Iron Forms an oxide if
heated. Rusts in the
cold, if water is also
present
Tin Forms an oxide w hen
heated.
Copper Forms black copper
oxide, but must be
heated strongly.
Silver Forms silver oxide
(tarnishes).
(or steam)
If t he oxide coa ting is
removed, it w ill react
wit h water, giving off
hydrogen and releasing
a lot of heat.
Hydrogen released
from steam. Zinc oxide
formed.
Reacts with steam t o
produce hydrogen. Iron
oxide formed.
No reaction wit h cold
water and only a slight
reaction w it h steam.
No reaction.
No reaction.

Metals react wit h oxygen in t he air at different rates, if at all. Gold

is so unreactive t hat it doesn't tarnish. It remains shiny in air.
Tarn ishing is when a metal gets covered by a layer of its oxide on its
surface.
Continued
When the metals react w it h oxygen, they form a metal oxide. For
example:
zinc + oxygen ➔ zinc oxide
This is called an oxidation reaction. We say t hat t he zinc has been
oxidised.
Metals of medium reactivity may react slowly with water, but w ill
react w hen heated with steam. For example:
zinc + steam ➔ zinc oxide+ hydrogen

A closer look at alu minium

Aluminium metal is protected on its surface by a tough layer of
aluminium oxide. This oxide layer is impermeable, i.e. it does not let
wa ter t hroug h to react with t he metal. This is w hy t his fairly react ive
metal can be used in making drink cans, ladders, pat io doors and
window f rames, w ithout corroding.
Many pots and pans are also made f rom aluminium. This makes
use of aluminium's good t hermal conductivity and low density.
However, the aluminium oxide layer that forms on t he pans and
protects t he aluminium, can react w ith bot h acids and alkalis. So
there is a potent ial hazard w hen aluminium pans are used under
these condit ions. For example, you might boil up acidic foods, such
as tomatoes, rhu barb, cabbage or soft f ruits, in aluminium pans. The
protective oxide layer will also be attacked by hot alkaline mixtures. It
might also be removed by vigorous scouring \A/hen cleaning pans.

- •
........, •
Figure 13.2.2 Aluminium is a popular choice in pans because of i1s high thermal
conductivity, lovv density, corrosion resistance and shiny appeara nce
Without its oxide layer, alurni nium metal can react vvith liquids and
dissolve in t he food. There is some evidence t hat dissolved aluminium
in t he body is Ii nked to Alzheimer's disease. This brain disease is t he
most common form of dementia.
So it is not a good idea to store acidic food in uncoated aluminium
cookware. That is because over time t he dissolved aluminium w ill
build up. However, scient ific research differs on t he safe limits of
dissolved aluminium. Using coated (non-st ick) or sealed (anodised)
aluminium pans is sa fe in any conditions. The acid or alkali canno t
get t hrough t hese coa tings to react with t he bare aluminium metal.

KEY POINTS
1 If a metal reacts wit h a dilute acid, it produces a salt and
gives off hydrogen gas.
2 A metal t hat reacts with oxygen in the air fo rms an oxide. Its
surface w ill tarn ish as the metal is oxidised.
3 Aluminium is a fairly reactive metal, but is protected against
corrosion by the impermeable aluminium oxide layer on its
surface.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Write a word equation to show the reactio n between:

a iron and nitric acid
b zinc and hydrochloric acid.
2 a Lead is a metal t hat is more reactive than copper, but is less
reactive t han t in.
Use Table 2 to predict w hat would happen in any reactions
between lead and oxygen or cold water. Write a word
equation for any reactio ns you predict would happen.
b Lead will react vvith warm dilute hydrochloric acid, but only
very slowly. W rite a word equation for the reactio n.
3 Using t he words listed belovv, ident ify t he missing words a
to g.
corrosion density power melting
order conductivity cooking
Aluminium is a very useful metal, mainly because it has a low
a ....... for a metal and it is resistant to b ....... so it keeps
its silvery appearance. Its lack of reactivity w ith oxygen and
water might seem st range at f irst sight. After all, aluminium
lies above zinc in c ....... of reactivity. Aluminiurn's high d
....... point and malleability makes it useful as e ....... foil. Its
ductility and good elect rical f ....... means t hat it is also one of
t he metals used in overhead g ....... cables.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Ident ify and describe
met hods of cleaning metallic
household goods.
• Define an alloy, listing
some examples and their
components.
• Explain t he advant ages of
using alloys over pure metals.
• Discuss t he benefits of
electroplating a metal.
Alloys at work
Clea ning meta ls
Aluminium pans can be cleaned by boiling some vinegar with
wa ter in t he pan for about 10 minutes. The acid will react wit h
the protective aluminium oxide layer. However, this means that
aluminium is more likely to dissolve into food. The use of abrasive
cleaners is not recommended. This will scrape off t he oxide layer and
will also scratch t he relatively soft aluminium, marking t he pans.
Other household metals t hat need cleaning are shown in t he table.
Met al How t o clean t he tarnished su rf ace of the metal
Iro n Rust can be removed by scouring. You can use steel
wool or a scouring povvder. However, if an uncoated
cooking utensil is scoured, t he surface vvill have to be
pro tected with a thin layer of oil or fa t.
Tin If t he very t hin layer of tin used to coat objects is
scratched by using abrasives, t he iron or steel beneath
it w ill rust. Make sure a very fi ne steel wool is used.
This w ill avoid further damage to the tin coating.
Copper Make a paste out of lemon juice and salt. Rub it on
t he copper wit h a soft clot h then rinse with water
and dry.
Brass (alloy Use a metal polish containing:
of copper • solvents and detergents to remove the tarnish
and zinc) • mild abrasives to polish t he metal
• oi Is to act as a barrier between the exposed metal
and air.
Silver Sprinkle baking soda on a damp cloth and rub t he
tarn ish off, t hen rinse vvith wa ter and dry.
Vinegar and lemon juice are weakly acidic. They use chemical
reactions to get rid of the basic metal oxide tarnishes. Acids and
bases react together in neutralisation reactio ns.
Neut ralisation can be used to remove rust stains from clot hing. Rust
is hydrated iron oxide. It will react and dissolve in acidic solutions. So
t ry rubbing the stain w it h lemon juice or w hite vinegar, mixed vvit h
salt to make a paste. This will help dissolve t he rust marks. Then the
clothes can be rinsed wit h water.
Abrasives remove anything on the surface of a metal. Metal polishes
contain a fi ne suspension of fi ne abrasive particles t o remove
tarnishing. They also contain oils to protect t he shiny metal surface
w hich is exposed.
Alloys in the home
Steel is an example of an alloy of iron. An alloy is a mixture of a metal
wi th one or more other metals (or non-metals, such as carbon in steel).
We make alloys to improve the properties of metallic elements. Pure
metals are relatively easy t o stretch and hammer into shapes.
However, we can make stronger and harder metals by alloying. The
alloy can resist stretching and impact forces more effectively.
Steel is an alloy made mainly of iron w ith small percentages of
carbon (for example, between 0.2% and 1.5%). It somet imes has
other metals added t o adjust its properties. For example, a very hard
and tough steel is made by adding a little t ungsten. It can be used
to make drills, hammers and other tools. Stainless steel, w hich does
not rust, is made by adding nickel and chromiurn. It is used to make
cutlery and surgical inst rurnents. Vari ous types of steel are used for Brass is a shiny, hard
'--"--- - - - '
car bodies, w ires, pipes, bicycles, girders and springs. alloy of copper and zinc.
Which more expensive
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc. It is an attract ive golden colour metal does it look like?
and is much harder t han either copper or zinc. These properties make
it ideal for door fi tt ings, w hich need to w ithstand a lot of wear and
tear, and it also looks attractive.
Soft solder is an alloy of lead and tin. It is melted easily to connect
components in an electrical circuit. The heat to melt t he alloy is
supplied by a soldering iron. The molten solder solidifies to make the
connections.

Electroplating
Electroplat ing is t he process w hereby a metal object is coated in a
thin layer of anot her metal using electri city. It can be used to protect KEY POINTS
t he metal beneath from corroding; make an object look more
1 Tarni shing is an oxidation
attractive/shiny; increase t he hardness of t he surface or make it more
resistant to scratching; save money by using a thin layer of a precious reaction in w hich an oxide
metal instead of using t he pure expensive metal. Iayer coats the surface of a
metal.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 Metal oxides tend to be

basic so w ill react and
1 a Explain vvhy vinegar is used to clean rust from iron. dissolve in acids. This is why
vinegar and lemon juice are
b Name another household acid that could be used to get ri d used to clean metals.
of rust.
3 Alloys are mixtures of metals
2 a Why are oils an essent ial part of a metal polish? (and sometimes non-metals,
b Which part of a metal polish is used to clean t he surface of such as t he carbon in steel).
the metal?
4 Alloys can be made w ith
3 a Explain w hy so-called 'copper' coins are made of an alloy particular uses in mind, such
of copper w it h other metals, such as zinc and t in, and are as soft so Ider w hich melts at
not made of pure copper metal. a low temperature.
b Why is brass used to make door handles? 5 Electroplating uses an
c Which metals are used to make soft solder? Explain how it electric current to coat a
is used in an electrical circuit. metal in a thin layer of
d Give t hree reaso ns to electroplate a metal object. another metal.
 Taking care of iron or
steel

LEARNING OUTCOMES Rust ing

Iron, often in t he form of steel, is t he most widely used metal in t he
• Explain t he chemical
construction industry. The tarn ishing, or corrosion, of iro n is called
processes of rusting.
rusting. The ru sting of iron (and steel) costs society millions of dollars
• Ident ify t he factors that affect each year.
rusti ng.
Iron objects rust faster if t hey are left outdoors in damp condit ions.
• List and discuss methods used
We can investigate rusting in an experiment like t he one shown
to prevent t he rusting of iron
below.
or steel.

Tube A TubeB Tube C

, - Layer of
Iron nail ..... paraffin oil
-1_,_ ,.,... Cotton
Anhydrous t,.,<., wool / Boiled water
,
calcium (to remove
chloride )
....,, l dissolved air)
.._.,
Water

Figure 13.4.1 I Setting up a rusting investigation

The test tu bes are left for several days.
It is fou nd t hat iron needs bot h air (oxygen) and water in order to
rust. The iron corrodes to fo rm a layer of hydrated iron oxide t hat we
call rust. The ru sting of iron is an example of t he oxidation of a metal.
iron + oxygen + wa ter ➔ hydrated iron oxide
(rust)

The rust is a crumbly substance. It fla kes off to expose fresh iron to
attack so t he iron can corrode completely over t ime (unlike aluminium
w ith its protective oxide layer). So stru ctures containing iron are
severely weakened by rusting.
People w ho live near t he coast f ind t hat rusting occurs more quickly
than in areas inland. Scientists have also found t hat rusting takes
place faster in t ropical climates where it is warm and humid, w ith
lots of water vapour in t he air. As well as near t he sea, areas around
indust rial plants, such as power stations and metal smelting plants
that give off acidic gases, also suffer from t he effects of rust ing.
From t heir observations, scient ists conclude t hat rusting is speeded
up by:
• high temperat ures
• salt (sodium chloride)
• acid.
Preventing rust
We can protect iron and steel f rom rusting by keeping the metal
away f rom air and wa ter. A barrier on t he su rface of the iron can be
made by:
• covering w it h oil or grease
• paint ing
• coating in plastic
• coating in tin
• coating in zinc (or attaching bars of a metal more reactive than
iron, fo r example magnesium).
Tin cans are steel cans t hat have been coated wi th a very t hin layer of
tin. The layer of tin keeps air and \Nater f rom the steel. It is applied to galvanised as protection
t he steel by electroplating (see page 121). However, if t he t in gets against rust. Mag nesium
scratched, t he steel beneath w ill start to rust. is used as bars bolted o n
to iron in extreme
A better way to protect iron or steel is to coa t them wit h a more conditions, for example in
reactive metal, such as zinc, instead of t he less reactive t in. We call the sea or in u nderground
t his process galvanising. Remember t hat zinc is more reactive t han pipes. Ships have
magnesium blocks bolted
iron. So t he air and water will at tack t he zinc rat her t han t he iron. to their hulls.
Bins are oft en made from galvanised steel because t hey are likely to
get knocked about when they get empt ied. But even w hen the layer
of zinc gets damaged, it still prot ects t he exposed steel undernea th.
This is called sacrificial protection.
Adding nickel and chromium to molten steel forms a rust-proof alloy
called stainless steel. However, it is expensive so we still use cheaper,
bu t less effective, rnethods like paint ing, for large scale protection.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS KEY POINTS

1 Look at Figure 13.4 .1, t hen answer questions a to d . 1 Iro n is tarnished by formi ng
ru st, a fo rm of hydrated iron
a Why do we need to boil t he water in test t ube B? oxide.
b Why do we use a layer of paraffin oil and a stopper in t est
tube B? 2 For ru sting to take place iron
(or steel) must be in contact
c Why do we add anhydrous calcium chloride to test tube A? w ith air (oxygen) and water.
d What conditions are needed fo r iron to rust?
3 Iro n can be protected
2 a Which substance is oxidised in the process of rusting? against rusting by coat ing
b Explain t he differences you would see if an aluminium rod it with a layer of another
and an iron rod were left outside for a year. substance to stop air and
water getting to t he iron.
3 Explain how blocks of magnesium attached by wires to an
underground iron pipeline can stop t he pipes rusting. 4 A more reactive met al, such
as zinc used in galvanised
4 Plan an investigation under controlled conditions to f ind out:
steel, protects iron even
a if salt makes iron ru st more quickly \II/hen the iron is exposed to
b which ,nethod of preventing rusting is most effective. air and water.
14 Acids,
14.1 Household chemicals

We don' t always t hink of t he substances we use at home as

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List the uses of some
common household
chemicals.
• Classify household chemicals
as acids, bases and sal ts.
• Explain the use of
neutralisation in stain removal.
• Discuss t he safe and
economic use of household
chemicals.
'chemicals', but all substances are chemicals. Some common
household chemicals would be:
• water (used as a solvent)
• caustic soda (used in cl eaning pro ducts)
• bleach (used to disinfect areas)
• ethanol (used as a fuel or a solvent)
• methane (used as a fuel)
• bicarbonate of soda (sodiu m bicarbonate, or baking soda, used in
cleaning and cooking)
• salt (used to flavou r and preserve food)
• ethanoic (acetic) acid (used in vinegar to f lavour and preserve foods).

Universal indicator solution Compo und s and mixtures

Very All t he chemicals listed above are examples of compounds.
Hydrochloric acid acidic
Corn pou nds contain two or more different types of atom chemically
Lemon juice bonded to each ot her.
Orange juice
Vinegar Many household products are not pure compounds, but are mixtu res
4 of compounds. In a mixture of compounds, t he different compounds
Slightly
~
p resent are not chemically bonded to each other. Therefore, 1'llixt u res
5 Black coffee acidic can be separated by p hysical means, such as fil tering, evaporation or
6 Rainwater dist illat ion.

Pure water Neutral The composition of a mixture can vary depending on t he amounts of
each compound mixed together. On t he ot her hand, a compound
Baking soda
Milk of magnesia
'1J;) Slightly will always have a f ixed proportion of each element in it. For example,
alkaline pure water will always have twice as many hydrogen atoms as oxygen
Soap
atoms in it. However, aqueous solutions, made up by dissolving
compounds in water, can vary in t he ra tio of vva ter to compound(s)
p resent . The solut ion might be concent rated (with a high rat io of
Washing soda compound to \11/ater) or dilute (wit h a high ratio of water to
compound).
Very
Oven cleaner alkaline
Sodium hydroxide Acids, base s and sa lts
Figure 14.1.1 Some common substances As well as classifying household chemicals as mixtures or compou nds,
and their pH values. The we ca n also sort t hem into groups of acids, bases or salts.
lower the pH value is, the
more acidic the solution. If t he chemicals dissolve in water we can test t he solution \11/it h
The higher the pH value Universal Indica tor (UI) paper or solution. This is a mixture of indictors
is, the more alkaline the that can be a ra nge of colours depending on t he acidity or alkalinity
solution. What do 'Ne call of a solution. The colour is matched to a pH value on the pH scale,
a solution that is neither
f rom pH O t o 14.
acidic nor alkaline?
• Acids have a pH value below 7.
• Alkalis have a pH value above 7 (an alkali is a base that is soluble in
LINK %
water). To learn about the da ngers
associated with the use of
• A solution with a pH value of 7 is called neutral. Salts made from
household chemicals and see
strong acids and strong bases, such as hydrochloric acid and
the corresponding warni ng
sodium hydroxide, are neutral.
labels, see 11 .6 'Safety fi rst '.
Acids and bases (or alkalis) react to make a salt and water. The
reaction is called neutralisation. For example:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hyd roxide ➔ sodium chloride+ water
acid base (alkali) salt
In this reaction, if just the right amount of acid and alkali are added
KEY POINTS
together, a neutral solution of the salt sodium chloride is fo rmed.
We can use neutralisation reactions to remove stains. For example, 1 Household chemicals can
if fru it juice is spilt on a shirt you can add bicarbonate of soda to be classified as mixtures
remove the stain. The fruit juice is weakly acidic and the bicarbo nate and compounds or as acids,
of soda is weakly alkaline. Therefore, neutralisation takes place when bases and salts.
they are mixed. Borax is another alkaline substance that can be used 2 The pH scale can be used to
to neutralise acidic stains, for example tea or wine stains. determine how acidic or
Disinfecta nts and antiseptics are other chemicals commonly used at alkaline a solution is.
home. Both of these kill microorganisms that can cause infections. 3 pH values below 7 indicate
Hovvever, only antiseptics a re used on living tissue, as disinfectants an acid and above 7 an
are too harsh and will cause injury. Mouthwash is an example of an alkali. If the solution tested
antiseptic, whereas toilet and bathroom cleaner is an example of a has a pH of exactly 7 then it
disi nfecta nt. is neutral.
When using these products it is important to read the instructions 4 Neutralisation reactions can
on the label. Often they should be diluted down, depending on their be used to remove stains at
use. Not only does dilution make them safer to use, it also saves you home.
money.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Make a table to show five common household chemicals and

what they are used for.
2 A group of students did an experiment to follow the pH of an 14+-- - - ~
alkaline solution as acid was added, 1 cm 3 at a time. Look at 13·
12
the graph showing their results. 11
a How much acid was added to neutralise the alkali? How 1O·
g.
did you decide? Q.)
:::,
;;; 8·
b The acid used was hydrochloric acid and the alkali was > 7·
::;§.6
sodium hydroxide. Write a word equation to show the 5
reaction. 4·
3.
ii What do we call this type of reaction? 2-
111 Classify each of the chemicals in the word equation as
1.
acidic, alkaline or neutral. 0
a· · · · s· · · ·1'o · · · ·1's· · · ·io
3 What is the difference between an antiseptic and a disinfectant? Volume of acid added (cm 3)

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Classify household chemicals
as solutions, colloids and
.
suspensions.
• Explain t he action of a solvent
in stain removal.
• Discuss t he usefu In ess of
aqueous and non-aqueous
solvents.
EXAM TIP
"".'" ~e sur-e !jOu ca 111,
chsti111,gu~sn betwee111, ci
colour-Less soluti.0111, (sucn
a s sugar- di.ssolved ~111,
water-) '1111,d a tr-ci111,spcir-e111,t
soluti.0111, (tnat l¾a ti or-
l¾LIt, 111,o t be colour-less) .
Copper- sulpl'late
soluti.0111, i.s '1111, exal¾ple
of " tr-a 111,spa r-e 111,t, bLue
soluti.0111,.
Solutions, suspensions
and colloids
Classifying mixtures
Ano ther way in which vve can classify household mixtures t hat
include a liquid is as:
• solutions
• colloids
.
• suspensions.
These mixtures can all have particles of a solid dispersed t hroughout
a liquid, but the difference lies in the size of t hose particles. In a t ru e
solu t ion, such as salt or sugar dissolved in water when cooking, we
have a soluble substance dissolved in a solvent. Individual particles
(atoms, molecules or ions) of the soluble substance are spread out
and mixed completely with t he liquid. The particles are too small to
be seen, even w it h povverful microscopes, and pass straight t hrough
fil ter paper. Light passes t hrough t he solution so it is t rans parent.
In colloids (sometimes called colloidal solutions) t he particles are
larger. They are still t oo small to be seen with normal microscopes,
but can be seen using t he most powerful ones. These particles
are not dissolved in t he liquid as in solutions - t hey are dispersed
throughou t t he liquid.
Light canno t pass straight through t he liquid in a colloid. It is
t ra nslucent rather t han t ransparent. Translucent means t hat some
light passes through t he colloid, but you cannot see a clear image
f rom the other side of it.
Like solutions, t he particles are small enough to pass t hrough f ilter
paper. However, unlike solutions, t he part icles cannot pass t hrough
membranes.
Other colloids are formed w hen liquids that do not dissolve in each
ot her are mixed. These mixtures are called emulsions. These include
milk, some paint, cosmetics, shaving cream, mayonnaise, salad cream
and even disinfecta nts like Dettol.
We also get colloids in w hich a liquid is spread t hroug hou t a solid.
These are called gels. Examples are jelly, cheese and butter.
In suspensions, t he particles are larger still and are visible to t he
na ked eye. They are opaque as light bounces off the insoluble
particles of solid. W hen f iltered, a solid residue will be left on the
fil ter paper. A suspension is made if you stir up chalk dust in water. In
the home, metal polish is a suspension of abrasive particles in oils.
How solvents work
A solvent is a liquid that dissolves another substance. Water is often
described as the universal solvent. That's because it is so good at
dissolving many substances. When a liquid dissolves a solid, its
molecules attract the particles (atoms, molecules or ions) that
make up the solid. If the attraction is strong enough, the solvent
molecules 'pull' the particles of the solid away from its neighbours
on the surface. Once separated, the particles of the solid become
surrounded by the solvent molecules. They are then free to move
around within t he solution formed .

, ••
, ••
•
'
''
'''
•
•'
'•
•
'• ,•
• ,
''
'' H H ,,• •
•

Figure 14 .2. 1 I Io ns (charged particles) surro unded by \'Vater molecules in a solution

Water is called a polar solvent. Its molecules have an imbalance of

elect rical charge within them. One end of the water molecule
carries a slight positive charge and the other end is slightly negative.
Therefore, it attracts solids t hat have positive and negative particles
Figure 14. 2.2 Nail polish does not
(ions) or similar molecules to water itself. So water is good at dissolve w ell in \'Va ler, bu t
dissolving salt and similar solids made of ions, as well as sugar and it does in acetone, a non-
other substances made of molecules with an imbalance of charge. aqueous solvent

Other solids and liquids are made of molecules with their charge
evenly spread. Water is not good at dissolving substances like this.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
However, other solvents with similar molecules will dissolve them.
So we have non-aqueous solvents, such as turpentine (for dissolving
1 Draw a table to show the
paint from brushes) and acetone (for cleaning off nail polish).
properties of solutions,
We find that 'like dissolves like'. Solvents dissolve substances with colloids and suspensions.
similar particles to their own. Dry cleaning uses non-aq ueous
2 Give some examples of
solvents, which are good at removing greasy stains from clothes.
household colloidal mixtures.
3 Explain how water dissolves
KEY POINTS a solid such as salt (which
is made up of positive and
1 We can classify mixtures as solutions, colloids and
. negative ions). Include a
suspens10 ns.
diagram in your answer.
2 Solvents dissolve substances made of similar particles to their 4 Why is tu rpentine (a non-
own.
aq ueous solvent) used to
3 We need water and non-aqueous solvents to dissolve the clean gloss paint (which is an
whole range of different stains we need to remove in oil-based paint) from paint
cleaning. brushes?
 Hard and soft water

LEARNING OUTCOMES W hat is t he difference between hard and soft

water?
• Dist inguish between hard and
Some water is easy to form a lat her w ith w hen you wash with soap.
soft water.
This is called soft water. However, in some regions, it is difficult to
• List the advantages and form a lather w ith soap and a scurn forms in the water. This is hard
disadvantages of hard and water.
soft water.
If your water supply has flowed th rough chalk or limestone (calcium
• Dist inguish between
carbonate) it \/\/ill be hard. Ot her rocks t hat contain calcium or
soapy (soap) and soapless
magnesium also cause hardness. Gypsu m (calcium sulphate) is an
det ergent s.
example. Calcium sulphate is slightly soluble in water. W hen a river
flows over gypsum, it dissolves some of t he rock. Therefore, calcium
ions get into the water.
Disadvantages Advantages of
of hard water hard water However, the calcium carbonate in limestone and chalk rock is not
Difficult to form Calcium in t he soluble in wa ter. Wat er does not dissolve chalk or limestone rock.
lather with soap. water is good But rainwater dissolves carbon dioxide - a weakly acidic gas - as it
for t he teeth falls t hrough the air:
and bones of \/\later + carbon dioxide ➔ carbonic acid (a weak acid)
children.
Scum forms in Some people This weakly acidic solution reacts wit h and dissolves away t he
a reaction t hat prefer the taste. Ii mestone or chaIk:
vvastes soap. calcium carbonate + carbonic acid ➔ calcium hydrogencarbonate
Scale (a hard Helps to reduce
Calcium hydrogencarbonate is solu ble in wa ter. Therefore, the
crust) forms heart disease.
calcium ions get into the water, 111aking it hard. These calciu m ions
inside kettles.
react with ions from soap (sodium stearate) to form t he scum seen
This wastes
w hen washing in hard water. Scu m is insoluble calcium stearate. In
energy when you
some Caribbean territories, people still wash in rivers and st reams.
boil vour kettle.
Scum can t hen be seen on t he water.
Hot water pipes The coat ing of
'fur up' on t he scale (sometimes
inside. The scale called limescale) Removing hardness from water
formed can even inside copper or
If we remove t he calcium (or magnesium) ions from t he water, we
block up pipes lead pipes stops
will get rid of t he hardness. Hard water f rom limestone regions,
completely. poisonous salts
w hich contains dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate, is called
dissolving into
temporary hard water. W hen t his solut ion is boiled, the calcium
our water.
hyd rogenca rbonate tu rns back into the insoluble calciu,11 carbonate.
Therefore, t he dissolved calcium ions are removed from t he \/\later.

EXAM TIP heat

calcium calcium carbon
hydrogencarbonate carbonate
+ d.IOXI·c1 e + water
;ne "1a rcl111,ess of water-
scale
is ofte111, q l,(_otecl as pp1¾
(or limescale)
(par-ts per- l¾iLLi.0111,) of
ca LciL<.I¾ io111,s. So, temporary hard \/\later can be softened by boiling. The calcium
carbonate fo rmed is t he limescale you get inside kettles and hot-
wa ter pipes.
However, not all hard water can be softened by boiling. Other
calcium compounds, such as calcium sulphate from gypsum, are not JHard water in I
removed by boiling. These form permanent hard water. Perma nent
hardness can be removed by the following.
1 Distillation
(; Calcium ions
in hard water
To collect the softened water you can distil hard water. But do
you think this is a cheap way to get rid of hardness? Calcium ions (Ca2+) get
stuck on the resin
2 Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
When you add washing soda to hard water, the calcium ions are Ion-exchange resin
removed. They react vvith the carbonate ions from the washing - when all the sodium
soda. This forms insoluble calcium carbonate. Most rnodern ions (Na+) have been
washing powders have their own water softeners added. washed out, the column
can be recharged by
3 Ion-exchange column running salt water
This method is more suitable for large-scale treatment of hard (sodium chloride)
water. A colum n is filled with a resin vvhich holds plenty of sodium through it
ions. Hard water goes in at the top. On the way down, the calcium
ions are swapped for sodium ions. The calcium ions get stuck on ISoft water out I
the resin. Sodium ions, which don't cause hardness, come out at
the bottom in the softened water (see Figure 14.3 .1 ). Na" ions replace
Ca2+ ions to soften
Soapy and soapless det ergents the water
Figure 14.3.1 An ion-excha nge column
Soaps are detergents (or cleaning agents). Traditionally, these soapy
softens hard water
detergents are made from animal fats and plant oils. Using soap in
areas vvith hard \11/ater causes 'scum' to form. The white bits of 'scurn'
can stick to clothes when they are being washed. LINK %
However, nowadays soapless detergents made from crude oil do not To fi nd out more about
have this problem. Soapless detergents do not make 'scum' in hard eutrophication, see 17.4 'Water
water. No detergent is wasted reacting with the hardness, so you pollution'.
save money as well.
About 80% of all detergents made are now soapless detergents.
However, soapless detergents are one cause of eutrophication. They SUMMARY QUESTIONS
often contain phosphates that act as fertil isers for algae if they are
discharged into waterways. To make matters worse they are non- 1 Limestone is insoluble in
biodegradable so they persist in t he environment, unlike soapy water. However, water
detergents which can be broken down by microorganisms. flowing th roug h limesto ne
becomes hard.
KEY POINTS a Explain how calcium ions
1 With hard water, it is difficult to form a lather with soap. A
get into the water.
scum is fo rmed as it reacts and wastes the soap. b List the advantages and
disadvantages of hard
2 Calcium or magnesium ions dissolved in water cause water.
hardness.
c Explain how adding
3 Temporary hard water can be softened by boiling. Distillation, washing soda removes
washing soda and ion-exchange columns can remove hardness from water.
permanent hardness (although distillation would be expensive
because of t he energy that is needed). 2 Give an advantage and a
disadvantage of using a
4 Soapless detergents can be used with hard water without soapless detergent in an area
forming scum, but they can cause eutrophication in waterways. with hard water.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain how detergents
remove grease from materials
such as clothing.
• Explain the cleaning actions
of scouring powders.
• Discuss the effectiveness of
various abrasive materials.
OXIDISING AGENTS
Washing powders contain
oxidising agents to form
bleaches to react with stains on
clothing.
Household cleaning
products
How det ergents work
Detergents are substances that help the cleaning action of water.
Water is good at dissolving many things, but it cannot dissolve oil or
grease. This is where detergents help. They act as em ulsifie rs. They
remove grease and keep it dispersed in water.
The 'head' of a detergent molecule is strongly attracted to water. It
is called 'hydrophilic' which means water-loving. The 'tail' is
a long hydrocarbon chain vvhich dissolves in grease. It is called
'hydrophobic', meaning water-hating - see Figure 14.4. 1.
The 'head' of the The 'tail' is a long hydrocarbon
molecule is strongly chain which dissolves in grease
attracted to water
Figure 14.4.1 A detergent molecule with its hydroph ilic 'head' and hydrophobic
'tail'
The 'tails' of the detergent molecules dissolve into the grease. The
charged 'heads' stick out and are pulled towards the polar water
molecules. The grease then floats off into the water. The detergent
molecules form 'micelles' with the dro plets of grease. The micelles
repel each other and so remain dispersed througho ut the water and
they can be ri nsed away - see Figure 14.4.2.
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . . .. .. . .. .... .... .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
Detergent
molecules- j '- '- ....... ✓ ,Water
...... ✓
! !
_..... • • • • • • Grease
.....-.... \\/1,- ✓
.......
.vi - ; -' \~ \
/
,
Cloth/
. .. .. .. .. .. ,. ...... .. .. ..
✓ - -
r
,._ / :) , ' . - A micelle
l •<1 \. . . . . . . .
-
Figure 14.4.2 J Hovv a d etergent molecule works
Detergents also help water to soak into clothes when you wash them.
They form a thin 'skin' on top of the water. This breaks down the
strong fo rces of attract ion between water molecules at the surface,
which is called its surface tension. Detergents reduce the water's
surface tension. This enables the water to spread out more easily.
That's why detergents are called wetting agents.
Scouring powders
Scouring powders contain fi ne abrasive particles mixed with other
powders designed to aid cleaning of stubborn stains. The abrasive
can be crystals of silica, a very hard compound . This is an irritant
to eyes, skin and lungs. Among the other substances, you often
find sodium carbonate, an alkali, which will attack greasy stains
and chlorinated detergents, such as trichloroisocyanuric acid. These
chlori nated compounds make the products harmful to aq uatic
organisms and may have long-term effects on vvaterways. They can
also cause the corrosion of the surfaces they are scru bbed on to.
Some scouring cleaners also contain sodium hydroxide or bleach.
These can irritate mucous membranes, and can cause liver and kidney
damage.

KEY POINTS
1 Detergent molecules have
Figure 14.4 .3 Scouring powders are mechanical cleaners, \,vhich physically brea k one end that is attracted to
down stubborn dirt and stains. However, you must follow the
water and the rest of the
instructions on the label carefully. The hard abrasives can scratch
and damage polished surfaces, even those made of steel. molecule t hat is attracted to
grease.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS 2 Detergents disperse grease

throug hout water formi ng
1 a Draw a labelled sketch of a detergent molecule. an emulsion.
b Explain hovv detergent molecules act as cleaning agents. 3 The abrasives in scouring
Include diagrams in your answer. powders are mechanical
cleaners, rub bing stains off
2 A scouring powder cleans mainly 'by mechanical means'. What
surfaces. However, their
does this mean?
harsh action can scratch
3 Scouri ng powders can be corrosive and toxic. Which chemicals surfaces and they can also
in the mixture are responsible for these drawbacks to the use contain some other harmful
of scouring powders? Why are they added? substances.
Section B . :Pr"t-:tice exam questions

SECTION B: Multiple-choice questions

1 How is heat energy transferred from the Sun 6 The following are the pH values of various
to the Earth? solutions.
a Conduction 1.2
b Convection II 4.5
c Evaporation Ill 7.0
d Radiation IV 11.3
2 We often get a sea breeze on the coast. Which solutions are acidic?
Which process causes the sea breeze on a a I only
sunny day? b I and II
a Convection c II and IV
b Conduction d I, II, II and IV
c Radiation
7 Which substance can be used to soften hard
d Reflection water?
3 Which of t he following types of day is MOST a Common salt (sodium chloride)
likely to cause a person to produce most b Limestone (calcium carbonate)
sweat? c Vinegar (ethanoic acid)
a Hot and humid
d Washing soda (sodium carbonate)
b Hot and dry
8 Desalination converts seawater into drinking
c Warm and dry water. Which process is used to achieve t his in
d Warm and humid a desalination plant (see page 159)?
4 Which one of the following is an electrical a Chromatogra phy
safety device? b Filtration
a A variable resistor c Distillation
b A voltmeter d Crystallisation
c An ammeter
9 A 500 kg object is travelling at a speed of
d A fuse 5 m/s. What is its momentum?
5 A potential difference of 2 volts is applied to a 2500 kgm/s
a circuit with a resistance of 5 ohms. What b 505 kgm/s
current flows around the circuit?
c 495 kgm/s
a 10 amps
d 100 kgm/s
b 3 amps
c 2.5amps
d 0.4 amps

Fu rt her practice questions

and examples can be found
on the accompanying website.

132
-
 SECTION B: Short answer questions

10 The rusting of iron costs society many millions
of dollars every year.
The experiment below shows an investigation
into the factors that are needed fo r iron to
rust.
h The hull of a giant oil tanker has blocks
of magnesium metal bolted to it. This
prevents the ship from rusti ng. What do
we call this type of protection and explain
how it works. (2)

Tube A TubeB Tube C 11 aState two differences between an acid and

f = y l ayer a base. (2)
of oil
Iron nail b Kha ra noticed that her ski rt has a rust stain
Cotton Boiled after sitting on an old metal bucket.
wool water
What is the name of the chemical
Calcium
chloride found in rust? (1)
..II In which one of the following
a Which test tube shows an iron nail in categories does rust fal l, a base or an
contact with: acid? (1)
i only air 111 Which type of chemical would be most

ii water and air suitable for the removal of rust stain

and suggest a household chemical that
iii only water? (1) may be suitable. (2)
b Why is the \11/ater in Tube B boiled? (1) iv Give the name of t he chemical reaction
c Explain why the nail in Tube A is that takes place if the rust stain is
suspended on cotton wool above the removed. (1)
calcium chloride in the bottom of the c Some insect stings, such as bee stings,
tube. (1)
are acidic. Calamine lotion is usually
d What will be the conclusion drawn from prescri bed by docto rs to soothe the pain
this experiment? (2) caused by the sting.
e i Car owners who live near the coast Explain why calamine lotion is used on
often complain that their cars have bee stings. (1)
more problems with rust than those in ii Suggest why vinegar may not be
other places. suitable to soothe bee stings. (1)
Which chemical compound causes
their cars to rust more quickly? (1) d Write the general word equation for the
chemical reaction between an acid and a
ii Describe a simple experiment that you base. W
could do to show that the substance
in part i makes an iron nail rust more
quickly. (2)
f Name the method used to prevent rusting
in order to protect:
i a bicycle chain
ii a food can
iii an underg round pipe. (3)
g Steels are alloys of iron.
i What is an alloy? (1)
ii Stainless steel is used to make cutlery.
Why is it used instead of cheaper types Further practice questions
of steel? (1) and examples can be found
on the accompanying website.
Section C Earth's place in the Universe
15 lilie IUniMer.se anfl 0111r. Solar. S1sll:em
15.1 Our place in the Universe
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify the location of Earth
in the Universe.
• Descri be t he Milky Way.
• Define a galaxy.
• Discuss the exploration of
space.
LINK
For more information on each
planet orbiting the Sun, see
15.2 'The Solar System'.
Our planet, Earth, might seem a big place to us, but it would be just
a tiny speck if we could draw a picture of the whole Universe.
The Universe is made up of billions of galaxies. Each single galaxy
can contain billions of stars. The stars, such as our Sun, can have
planets orbiting them and planets can have moons orbiting them in
turn.
The Earth has one orbiting moon and orbits one star (which vve call
the Sun). There are eight planets orbiting the Sun.
The Sun is just one of the billions of stars in the galaxy called the
Milky Way. If we could look down on the whole Milky Way, this is
what it wo uld look like:
C'"o
Figure 15.1.1 The shape of 1he Milky Way, our galaxy
The Milky Way is like a massive disc, spinning as it travels through
space, with fo ur arms spiralling out from its centre. The Ea rth and our
Solar System are a tiny part of one of these arms. The Milky Way is so
large that it takes light about 100,000 years to travel right across it
... and remember that it is just one of billions of other galaxies in the
Universe !
Exploring space
Hu man exploration of space started in the late 1950s vvith t he first
manned rocket sent into orbit around the Earth. Since then there
have been great technological advances, with the first men landing
on the Moon in 1969, follovved in 1981 by the fi rst launch of t he
space shuttle STS-1 (a spacecraft t hat could land back on Earth on
a ru nway, like an aeroplane). The space shuttle vvas able to take
men to and from a space station that constantly orbits the Earth.
Scientists can conduct experiments that can only be carried out in the
weightless conditions on the space station.
There have been no manned space flights to other planets, but
there have been many unmanned spacecraft sent to other planets
and beyond. These 'probes' are loaded with sensors and analytical
instruments to send back da ta to Earth.
In the 2014 Rosetta mission, a probe was actually landed on the
surface of a comet. Scientists can collect data from these unmanned
fl ights that would be impossible to gather from Earth.

The first space shuttle was

'--=-----' launched into space in
1981. The space shu ttle
vvas connected to a la rge
rocket to take off, but
vvas able to la nd and be
re-used many times. The
last space shuttle mission
\<Vas in 2011 after 135
shuttle voyages, shared
be1'Neen six different
space shuttles.

KEY POINTS
1 The Universe is made up of billions of galaxies.
2 Each galaxy is a collection of millions or billions of stars.
3 The Earth is located in t he Solar System.
4 Earth is a planet orbiting one star (the Sun) in the galaxy
Many important
known as the Milky Way. - -=----_J discoveries have been
5 Human exploration of space is expensive to fu nd, but has made by scientists visiting
the International Space
resulted in many new scientific discoveries. Station; launched in
1998, it is still in orbit
and in use. However, the
high costs of the space
SUMMARY QUESTIONS programme should be
\<Veighed carefully against
the benefits of the
1 What is a galaxy? resulting research.
2 a Which galaxy is the Earth found in?
b Describe the shape of this galaxy.
3 What is the name given to the Sun and its planets, including
the Earth?
4 Give one argument for the continuation of the space
programme and one argument against it.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he Solar System.
• Analyse data abo ut t he
planets in the Solar System.
The Solar System
The Sun is at the centre of the Solar System. The Solar System consists
of our Sun plus a very large nurnber of differently-sized objects that
orbit around it.
Of the larger objects, there are eight planets that orbit the Sun. We
can observe the planets with telescopes using reflected light from the
Sun.
The eight planets of the Solar System (distances not drawn to
-=------' scale). Between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter there is a ring of
Irregular sized objects around the Sun called the 'asteroid bel t'.
The planets
The inner planets
The four planets nearest the Sun are called the 'inner planets'. They are
Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. These planets all have surfaces made
up of solid rock, so they are also known as the 'terrestrial planets'.
Mercury is the nearest planet to the Sun and is the smallest of all
eight planets. It has a very high temperature at its surface because of
its position close to t he Sun.
Venus is similar in size to the Earth. Its atmosphere contains a much
higher proportion of carbon dioxide gas than Earth's atmosphere.
The carbon dioxide traps energy through a process called the
greenhouse effect. This makes Venus the hottest planet even tho ugh
it is further from the Sun than Mercury.
Earth is the planet we inhabit. It is at just the right distance from
the Sun to have tempera tures which are between the freezing and
boiling points of water. So we have liquid water covering most of the
Earth's surface. Liquid water is essential for life as we know it to exist.
Mars is not as big as the Earth. It appears reddish in colour and is
knovvn as the 'red planet'. Its colour is caused by the iron(III) oxide in
its soil. It is a planet that has had many unmanned probes from Earth
on its surface. The robotic probes can collect rni neral samples and
KEY POINTS
test t hem, relaying the results back t o Eart h.
1 There are eight planets in
The outer planets the Solar System.
The four outer planets are nothing like the 'terrestrial' inner planets. 2 There is an asteroid belt
They are very much larger t han t he inner planets and do not have between Mars and Jupiter.
solid surfaces. They are made up of very cold gases, such as hydrogen
or helium, and super-cool liquids, such as ammonia (which is a gas at 3 The inner four planets
temperatures found on Eart h). are mainly made of rock,
w hereas the out er four
Jupiter is t he largest planet in the Solar System, w ith a surface planets are mainly made of
made up of bands of t urbulent gases. These cause huge storms. The gas.
red spot observable on Jupiter is a storm that has lasted for t hree
hundred years. This largest of the planets has 67 knovvn moons.
Saturn is anot her 'gas giant' like Jupiter, but it is famous fo r its
' ri ngs'. The rings are made up of t iny particles of dust and ice that
orbit around the planet. Saturn has 62 known moons.
Uranus is a smaller gas giant. It is much colder than Jupiter or
Saturn because it is further from t he Sun. Its at mosphere is so cold it
contains solid amrnonia. It looks like a smooth blue sphere.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Neptune is the furthest planet from the Sun and it has t he coldest 1 Name t he main featu res of
surface of all eight planets. It is very similar to Uranus, but its t he Solar System.
atmosphere shows evidence of a more turbulent atmosphere, wit h its
2 Give two differences between
w hite 'clouds' and dark spots caused by storms.
t he 'inner planets' and the
'outer planets'.
Planetary data
3 Using t he table above,
The table below shows some observable data t o compare t he eight identify tvvo consistent t rends
planets of t he Solar System. The planets in t he Solar System ro tate (pattern s) that occur as the
around t he Sun in elliptical orbits (like slightly squashed circles). The distance f rom the planet to
time it takes a planet to travel one complete orbit around t he Sun t he Sun increases.
is the length of t he planet's 'year' (see 'Orbit al period', measured in
Earth years):

Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune

Diameter /km 4 878 12 104 12 756 6 787 142 800 120 000 51 118 49 528

Distance from the 0.39 0.72 1 1.52 5.20 9.54 19. 18 30.06
Sun (compared to
Earth)

Surface 180 to 465 - 89 to - 82 to 0 - 150 - 170 - 200 - 210

temperature f C 430 58
Orbital period/ 0.24 0.62 1 1.88 11 .86 29.46 84.01 164.8
Earth years

Rotational period / 58.65 243 1 1.03 0.41 0.44 0.72 0.72

Earth days

Number of moons 0 0 1 2 67 62 27 13
 The Earth, Moon and
Sun

The planets in t he Solar System rotate around t he Sun in elliptical

LEARNING OUTCOME
• Explain how the Earth is
affected by ot her bodies.
orbits and do not fly off into outer space. That is explained by the
gravitational forces of attraction t hat all objects have fo r each other.
The more massive t he object, the greater t he fo rce of attraction. The
nearer the objects are to each other, the greater the attraction. So
planet Earth experiences its main attra ctions f rom the Sun, because
it is so large, and f rom the Moon, because it is relatively close to t he
Earth (see 16.6).

Daytime - Horizontal Night-time

Sun
Figure 15.3.1 The Ear1h spinning con tinuously about its slightly titled axis causes day and night, and 1he apparent
motion of the Sun across the sky during t he hours of dayl ight

Day and night

As t he Earth orbits t he Sun, it is also spinning around continuously. It
spins about its axis (see Figure 15.3. 1) in an ant iclockwise direction.
So at any t irne, t he side of t he Earth facing t he Sun receives sunlight
and experiences daytime. The other side of the Earth, facing avvay
f rom t he Sun, is in night-tirne and no sunlight fa lls on it. It takes the
Earth 24 hours to spin around once on its axis - t he length of one
Earth 'day'.

Solar eclipse
The Moon orbits the Eart h continuously (taking about 28 days for
one complete orbit). These movements of t he Moon around the
Earth, and the Eart h around t he Sun, mean t hat occasionally the
Earth and Sun line up to cause an eclipse. During an eclipse, all or
part of t he Moon or t he Sun are covered by a shadow.
The Moon is about 400 times smaller t han t he Sun, bu t it also just
ha ppens to be about 400 t imes closer. The result is that f rom Earth,
t hey appear to be t he same size. And w hen its orbit around Earth
t akes t he Moon directly between Earth and the Sun, the Moon
blocks our view of t he Sun in what we call a solar eclipse (see
Figure 15.3 .2).
 Penumbra

Umbra

Moon
Sun Earth

Figure 15.3. 2 A solar eclipse

Because t he Sun is not a point source of light, there are areas around
the position of total darkness t hat have reduced light intensity (in t he
penumbra), experiencing a partial eclipse.

Lunar eclipse
Sometimes t he Sun. Earth and Moon line up precisely, w ith t he Earth
in t he middle (see Figure 15.3.3). The Ea rth t hen blocks the light
fro m t he Sun, stopping it reaching the Moon. That's a lunar eclipse.
During a lunar eclipse. parts of t he Moon's surface seem to vanish
as t he Moon passes throug h t he Earth's shadovv. When t he Moon is
completely in the shadow, the surface can only just be seen as it is
lit up by light refracted (changed direction) as it passes t hrough t he
Earth's atmosphere.

Penumbra

Umbra '

0
I
I KEY POINTS
Sun
1 The Earth spins
anticlockwise about its
Figure 15.3.3 A l u nar eclipse axis, making one complet e
rot ation every 24 hours.
2 The parts of Earth facing t he
Sun at any t ime experience
day, w hile t he parts faci ng
SUMMARY QUESTIONS away experience night.
3 W hen the Sun-Moon-
1 Define an 'Earth day' in terms of movement of the planet.
Earth line up, you have a
2 Explain w hy at any instant . parts of Earth are experi encing day solar eclipse.
and in o ther parts it is night.
4 W hen the Sun-Eart h-
3 Explain t he difference between a solar eclipse and a lunar Moon line up, you have a
eclipse. lunar eclipse.
 Soils

All soils contain t iny pieces of rock, often formed f rom t he

LEARNING OUTCOMES
breakdown of the bedrock beneath it.
• List and explain the types of Weathering is the breakdown of a rock in nature.
weathering that affect the
formation of soils. Chemical weathering
• Compare the types of soil
Rainwa ter is slight ly acidic and t hat is not just because of pollution
in terms of drainage and air
f rom acid rain.
content.
Carbon dioxide gas in t he air dissolves slightly in water, forming a
•' weakly acidic solution. Over time, t his acid can attack some of the
.
y'
. . .. mineral compounds in rocks.
,

~ .....· . Limestone rocks, common in the Caribbean, contain the mineral

' '
• ~- calcite. Its chemical name is calcium carbonate (CaCO). Acids react
with carbonates. They form a salt. plus carbon dioxide and water. So
t he limestone breaks down into solution. It is weathered by rainwater.

.•·~;,.
\. '
limestone is chemically
Granite rock is a mixture of three rninerals - quartz, feldspar and mica.
The acid in rainwater attacks t he feldspar and mica minerals. Event ually
the granite is weathered into small part icles of clay. These are carried
' --"--- - - - '
weathered by rainwater and away, along with t he compounds in solution, by the water. The
over millions of years forms breakdown of rock by react ions is called chemical weathering.
underground caves such as
the caves in Curacao Chemical weat hering will take place more quickly if you have more
concentra ted acid. This could be in areas affected by acid rain or in
Rainwater Temperature falls t he ground beneath vegetation. High rainfa ll and high temperatures
gathers in below 0°C
crack will also aid t he breakdown of rocks by acidic solutions.
Ice

i Water freezes
and expands
Physical weathering
As well as wea thering by reactions w it h acid, water and oxygen,
The crack- f-7 rocks are also broken down by forces resulting from physical
gets bigger weathering processes.
1 2
Freeze/thaw

Eventually a Water expands w hen it f reezes to form ice. This causes physical
piece of rock weatheri ng of rock.
breaks off
Water collects in cracks in rocks w hen it rains. If the temperat ure
drops to 0°C or below, the water f reezes. As it turns to ice, it expands
and opens the crack a little \rvider. W hen this has been repeated
many times t he crack gets big enough to physically break off a rock
3 f ragment. Look at Figure 16. 1.2.
Figure 16.1.2 Physical 'Neathering of rock
Temperature changes
As you know, w hen solid materi als get hot they expand. W hen they
cool down t hey contract. Rocks are mixt ures of minerals. Durin g
heating and cool ing, each of t he minerals expands and contra cts
by different amou nts. This sets u p stress forces withi n t he ro ck t hat '
-Humus
eventually ca uses the surface to crack and peel away. This is called
exfoliation (or 'onion-skinni ng'). If t he climate is right, t hese cracks
ca n also be subject to t he fo rces of f reeze/thaw weat hering.

It is im po rta nt t o realise t hat rocks w ill undergo m any types of - Water

-
weat hering at t he same time. For example, o nce cracks open up,
chemical weathering w ill also have a g reater effect as t he rock \Nil l
have more su rfa ce area exposed t o attack.

Biolog ica l w eathering ~ Clay

-
Rocks can also be broken down by the actions of animals o r plants. - Silt
- -Sand
This is called biological weathering. For example, the roots of
a t ree g rowing in a cra ck in a rock ca n split t he rock physically. , \

Burrowing animals also break do\rvn rock, as do some microorganisms Figure 16 .1 .3 I Sedimentation test: stir .
that feed on minerals in rock. two large spatulas of SOIi
in a measuring cylinder of
wa ter then leave it to stand
Types of soil overnight
The characteristics of each type of soil are determined by:
KEY POINTS
• t he size of t he rock frag rnents it co ntains
• t he chemica l composition of t he rock fragments 1 Rocks can be bro ken down
• t he amount of other o rganic materials mixed in it. This organic over time by chemical,
material is called humus and o riginates from living organisms. physical and/or biological
weat hering to form the
Some people classify soils into six m ain types:
g rains that are found in soils.
• clay • peat
2 There are t hree types of soil
• sandy • chalky - clay, sandy and loam.
• silt • loam.
3 Clay co ntains t he smallest
But o thers simplify this to just th ree catego ries of soil: grains and sand contains
• clay the largest. Loam contai ns a
• sandy more even mixt ure of grains
(as well as m ore humus).
• loam.

A clay soil contains very t iny pieces of weathered rock. This means
t hat t here are few gaps between particles for \/\later to d rain t hroug h. SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Therefore, clay soil ca n get waterlogged in t he rainy season. It contains
little air, especially w hen wet, because there is not much space between 1 Explain how limestone is
its small part icles. You can recognise clay soil as it is lumpy and sticky wea thered by rainwater.
when wet , but tu rns rock-hard and can crack w hen dried out. 2 Explain how rocks can be
Compare t his w ith a sandy soil, which feels g rit ty to the t ouch, and physically weat hered.
d ra ins water q uickly because of it s larger g rains of rock. This also 3 W hat else, besides deposited
means t hat t here are more gaps between soil particles fo r air (\rvhich rock f ragments, do we fi nd in
is needed by organisms t hat live in the soil, for example t he roots of soil?
pl ants). The sandy soil does have a d isadvantage in t hat heavy rain
ca n wash away t he soluble nut rients f ro m the soil. We say t hat t he 4 Draw a table to compa re t he
nutrients are leached f rom t he soil. grain sizes, water retentio n
properties and t he amount
Loam soil has a more equal m ixture of small and large g ra ins of rock. of air in clay, sandy and loam
This means t hat it can retain water w ithout get ting w aterlogged. It soils.
also conta ins more humus tha n cl ay or sandy soil.
 The importance of soil

Soil is vitally important because it is the mediu m in w hich plants grow

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Discuss t he general
importance of soils.
• The role of earthworms and
nematodes in improving soil
fertility.
• Explain the chemical and
physical properties of
soils and the facto rs t hat
determine t hem.
• Discuss how the chemical
and physical propert ies of soil
det ermine its fertility.
Water
Funnel
and plants are needed as a food source fo r living things. Plants use
th e soil to anchor t hemselves in a stable position. They also get their
nutrients from soluble minerals in the soil, w hich are absorbed by t heir
roots.
The amount of nut rients in the soil d epends to some extent on the
populat ion of earthworms and nematodes (tiny worrns about 1 mm
long) in t he soil. Earthworms feed on organic matt er, breaking it dow n
and helping nut rients in the organic matter to become available for
plants. Likewise with most nematodes. They increase t he availability of
soluble mineral ions. However, larger nematodes feed on plant roots, so
they can damage crops, acting as parasites (see 8.2). Earthworms also
break u p the structure of the soil by their bu rrowing activity.
Physical properties of soil
We have looked at sorne of t he physical properties of soils in 1 6.1.
Permeability is measured by the rate at w hich wat er can drain
t h rough a soil. This is shown in Figure 16.2 .1.
The amount of wa ter held in t he soil depends not only on its particle
size, but also on t he percentage of hu mus. The more humus, the
better t he soil can retain water fo r use by plants. Not only t hat, t he
humus also provides most of the nutrients a plant needs. It is where
the recycling of organic materials takes place. It is made f rom dead
plant material and animal waste, as well as their decomposing bodies.

°41i::_:Soil We can work out t he amount of humus in the soil by this metho d.
II -i Plug of
-i cotton wool 1 Warm a sample of soil to evaporate off any water.

1 2 Weigh t he dry soil.

3 Then heat t he dry soil strongly to burn off any hu mus in t he soil.

1-l 1r--- Measuring

-i
cylinder
This is best done in a fume-cupboard because of t he smell.
4 Re-weigh t he sample when cool and calculate the percentage of
hurnus in dry soil.
-I
-i
Chemica l properties of soil
1m Stopwatch
The pH of different soils can also vary. For example, soil w ith a high
percentage of its humus as peat is often acidic, i.e. pH below 7.
Peat is a partially decomposed plant material which fo rms a brown
Figure 16.2.1 Measuring the permeabili ty
spongy layer in t he ground. This type of soil contains lots of organic
of soil
material because it doesn't ro t down in t he acidic conditions. The
bacteria t hat aid decomposit ion cannot t hrive in t he acidic soil.
So you might expect a peaty soil to be rich in nutrients because of
t he plants returning their nutrients to the soil. However, these tend to
be 'locked up' in the organic matter as it doesn't decompose readily.
Therefore, you need to add fertil isers. Then you have an excellent soil
for growing plants because pea ty soil holds moistu re well.
If you have a chalky soil you w ill fi nd t hat its pH is 7.5 or above. This
is of ten a stony soil t hat drains well. It is usually found above beds
of chalk or Ii mestone rock. The alkaline nature of t he soil means t hat
sorne essential minerals needed for plant growth, such as manganese
and iro n, cannot be absorbed. This results in plant s t hat have
yellowing leaves (chloro sis) and poor growth. You can rectify t his by
adding fertilisers containing t he missing minerals.
Most plants grow best in soil vvith a pH value between 6.5 and 7.0.
That is because t heir minerals are most easily absorbed w it hin t his
range. However, some plants prefer more acidic or alkaline
conditions. Look at some examples in t he t able belovv.

Plants that grow well in acidic Plants that grow well in alkaline
soil soil
Camellia Brassicas (cabbage family)
Rhododendro n Lilac t ree
Azalea Madonna lily

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 W hich part of a soil

Figure 16.2.2 The Bird of Paradise plant grows well in acidic soil determines its fertility?
2 W hich rock f ragments can
KEY POINTS make a soil alkaline?
3 Describe how you w ould
1 A soil's physical properties are determined by its particle size,
determine t he percentage of
and its water, air and humus content .
humus in a soil sample.
2 In general, earthworms and nematodes have a beneficial
effect on t he ferti lity of soil.
4 Describe how t he presence of
earthworms and nematodes
3 A soil 's chemical properties are determined by its pH and can improve the fertility of
mineral content. t he soil.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Draw flow diagrams of t he
nitrogen, oxygen and carbon
cycles.
• Explain t he importance of
t hese natural cycles to plants
and animals.
LINK
For more informat ion about
plant growth, see 3.2 'Crop
production'.
EXAM TIP
, \'-'---- ~
• Nitr~geV\, £s V\,eeded for
proteiV\, st! V\.tviesLs, but
CtlV\.V\.Ot be absorbed
dLrectLt:J frolll,\, tvie
tltlll,\,ospviere bt:J l¾ost
-pLtlV\.ts .
• We reLtJ OV\.
pvi otost! V\.tvi es£sLi,,,,g
pLaV\.ts t!V\.d aLgae to
r:PLeV\,£svi oxt)geV\, LV\, tvie
tlit:
Natural cycles
The gases nit rogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide are t he most
important ones in our atmosphere. Their levels are kept roughly
constant at 78% nitrogen, 21 °/o oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide by
the reactions t hat take place in t heir cycles.
The nitrogen cycle
The nit rogen in the air cannot be used directly by most plants. They
need to take in nitrogen in soluble form, as nitrate ions, t hrough
their roots. Turning nit rogen gas into nit rate ions that plants can
use is called nit rogen f ixation. This is done du ring t hunderstorms by
light ning or by nit rifying bacteria in t he soil. We also saw that unlike
most plants, clover can use nit rogen gas f rom t he air. Clover, along
wit h peas and beans, has nodules on its roots w hich contain bacteria
t o fix nitrogen gas.
Nitrogen is important in living t hings as it is a key element in proteins.
It is returned to the air as nit rogen gas w hen t hose living t hings
decompose after death by t he act ion of de-nit rifyi ng bacteria.
Nitrogen in the air
Bacteria change
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria nitrates back to
C'O change nitrogen gas to nitrogen gas
nitrates Plant proteins eaten
by animals
Dead plants, dead animals
Bacteria nitrat~s ,- 1, and animal wastes are
in nodules ~ ~' decayed by bacteria
and in Plant rodts take to make nitrates
the soil up nitrates - - - -
Figure 16.3.1 The nitrogen cycle
The oxygen cycle
The key reactions in t he oxygen cycle are:
• t he removal of oxygen f rom the at mosphere by living things, using
it in respirat ion to release t he energy stored in glucose
• t he return of oxygen to t he air w hen plant s photosynt hesise.
 LINK %
Plants use
Burning of fuels oxygen for For more info rmation about
uses oxygen Oxygen respiration another important natural
Animals from plants in cycle, the water cycle, see 17. 1
use photosynthesis
Used up by 'Water and life'.
oxygen
for
respiration

i
KEY POINTS

1 Nitrifying and de-nit rifying

bacteria play important roles
Soil organisms in the nitrogen cycle.
use oxygen In Dead organisms and wastes
......... / Plant roots 2 Photosynthesis and
respiration
Decay bacteria use oxygen respiration play important
use o en in respiration roles in t he oxygen cycle and
Figure 16.3.2 The oxygen cycle the carbon cycle.
3 Human influences can
The carbon cycle disturb the natural bala nee
of gases in the air and
Carbon is an important element as it is present in all org anic nut rients in the ground.
compounds, which make up all living material. It is not recycled in
nature as carbon, the element, but in organic compounds, carbonate
rocks and carbon dioxide gas. In t he opposite reactions to t he oxygen
cycle, carbon dioxide is removed f rom t he air in photosynt hesis and
return ed to t he air in respiration.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Human activities, such as deforestation, t he burni ng o f fossil fuels
and intensive farming, are now disrupt ing these natural cycles. 1 In t he nitrogen cycle:
a W hat pa rt of t he cycle do
Carbon dioxide in the air,~ ~ Carbon dioxide from fa rmers disrupt w hen t hey
Burning of fuels harvest t heir crops?
soil organisms
produces
carbon dioxide Carbon b W hat do we call t he
Plants use dioxide from
up carbon bacteri a that f ix nit rogen
plant respiration
dioxide in f rom the air?
c W hat do living t hings use
From
decay
'"°1''·=;~~~?,;:,, nitrogen to make?
2 Explain a human activity
t hat could interfere with t he
replacernent of oxygen gas
Plants are back into the atmosphere.
eaten by animals
3 Explain which human activity
Plants roots ✓-­ has caused t he recent
respire and add increases in levels of carbo n
~'L carbon dioxide dioxide in our atmosphere so
Wastes and dead organisms to the soil Soil organisms t hat people are concerned
are decayed by
produce carbon
decay bacteria, which about an enhanced
dioxide in
produce carbon dioxide greenhouse effect on t he
respiration
Earth's clima te.
Figure 16.3.3 The carbon cycle
 Air masses

Air masses are huge volumes of air t hat form around t he world.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
They can be t housands of miles across (see Figure 16.4.1 ). The
• Descri be what an air mass is. t emperature across t he air mass is similar, as is its pressure, at a given
• Explain how air masses affect altitude, as well as its humidity (its water vapour content).
the Cari bbean.
• Discuss t he effect s that an air
mass can have on an area's
weather.

COLD
AIR MASS

WARM
AIRMASS

Figure 16.4.1 Air masses

An air mass forms when a large body of air remains roug hly in one
position over t he Eart h for a period of t ime. If it is over a polar region
it will fo rm a cold air mass. If that area is over a cont inent t he air
mass will not hold much water vapour - t he air will be cold and dry.
These air masses are called polar continental air masses such as t hose
formed over North America.
On the ot her hand, an air mass formed over t ropical seas will be
warm and very humid. We call t hese t ropical maritime air masses, for
example t hose f rom the Atlantic.
Other air masses can be polar (cold), maritime (moist, relatively
humid), t ropical (warm) or continental (dry).
M oving air masses LINK %
The movement of these huge air masses around the globe dictates For more info rmation about
our weather. The moving of the air masses means that air from the effect of moving air masses
one part of the world circulates to another region. This can have on the weather, see 16.5 '.6.ir in
unfortunate consequences. For example, pollutant gases released in motion'.
one country can end up having a greater effect in another country
hundreds or even thousands of rniles away.
Air masses can also carry nuclear fallout, as in the accident at the
Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986. The accident happened in
Ukraine (Eastern Europe), but the radioactive pollution was carried
right across Eu rope and fell to earth wherever it rai ned. Other man-
made pollutants to be carried by air masses are waste gases from
industry (such as sulphur dioxide, which causes acid rai n) and fu rnes
from landfill sites where rubbish is tipped.
The air 111asses also transport particles of dust around the
atmosphere. In the Caribbean, sand from the Sahara desert in Africa
is deposited as a fi ne dust. We also find that after a large volcanic
eruption, dust affects sunsets around the \No rid.

KEY POINTS
1 An air mass is a large
body of air with similar
SUMMARY QUESTIONS temperature and pressure at
a given height.
1 Imagine taking measurements across an air mass at 200 m 2 Examples of air masses are
above sea level. What facto rs would remain roug hly constant tropical maritime from
across the air mass? the Atlantic and polar
2 What is the name given to an air mass that : continental over North
America.
a is cold and dry
b is warm and humid 3 The energy from an air
mass can transport volcanic
c is warm and dry? dust, radioactive fallout and
3 Make a list of the possible pollutants transported and industrial pollution over vast
deposited by air masses. distances.
 Air in motion

LEARNING OUTCOMES Local weather f ronts

• Draw t he symbols for local
weather f ronts and the
weather associated w ith
them.
• Descri be, with the aid of
diagrams, the characteristics
of cyclonic systems.
• Discuss evacuation and
safety procedures during a
hurricane.
You have probably heard weat her reporters on TV talking about
'fronts' on a weather map. These fro nts are the boundaries between
.
air masses.
• If a cold air mass is moving towards a warm air mass, the area or
plane w here t he cold air is replaced by t he warm air is called a cold
front.
Cold air is denser t han warm air. So when cold air meets vvarm air,
t he cold air burrows under t he \II/arms air, forcing it upwards. If t he
warm air is humid, t he water vapour cools as it rises and condenses
to fo rm clouds and rain, possibly stormy showers. The sky then
clears and there is a sharp change in the direction of a cooler
\II/ind. The Caribbean is norrnally affected by cold f ront s f rom North
America during t he northern winter.

~
1 • If a warm air mass is moving towards a cold air mass, the area,
or plane, where the warm air is replaced by t he cold air is called a
Low pressure warm f ront.
When these air masses meet, t he warm air mass slides gradually up
and over the cold air mass. Clouds w ill fo rm more slowly than at a
cold front and it may well cause it to rain. The weather change is
not as violent as at a cold front . A period of warmer weat her follows
behind t he front.
• Occasionally we get a f ro nt that does not move much at all and
t hese are called stationary fronts.
2 /
This will bring w it h it a period of weather t hat rernains unchanged.
/ a
Low pressure --
..
a.__ , • If a cold f ront catches a warm front, \11/e get an occluded f ront.
In this case t he warm f ront is forced upwards as it gets caught
bet\11/een the rapidly approaching cold front and t he cooler air mass
in f ront of the warm f ront (see Figure 16.5.2). Rain clouds cont inue
to fo rm and bring mature storms t hat have almost run their course
along the occluded front.

3
/
Low pressure

Cold front
catches up
the warm front Cold front Warm front Stationary front Occluded front
Figure 16.5.1 Symbols for different fron ts used on weather maps
Figure 16.5.2 How an occluded front
forms
How hurricanes form
When you see low pressure
Hurricanes are areas of very low pressure in t he tropics. Low pressure on a weather map
is found w here warm air rises at a weat her f ront (where cold air Don't forget to pack you r
descends we get high pressure). The hurri cane originates over t he sea mac
(tropical marit ime air mass). The w ind will be swirling
into the skies
Hurricanes produce damagingly strong winds and torrent ial rain. But in which direction?
Along with 1rvind damage and flooding from heavy rain. hurricanes Anti-clockwise !
can produce exceptionally high sea levels. This is because of t he very
Figure 16.5.4 1This poem works in the
low air pressure above t he sea, w hich causes rnore floodi ng. Caribbean, but in the
southern hemisphere
As warm, humid air rises it cools, forming water droplets and
the wind goes rou nd an
releasing energy (latent heat of condensat ion), w hich keeps t he area o f low pressure in a
hurricane gro1rving in strength unt il it gets over land when its energy clockwise direction. This
dissipa tes. So damage from a hurricane w ill be 1rvorse near t he coast swirling of winds is caused
(see Figu re 16.5.3) by the rotation of the
Earth, just like wa ter going
d own a plug hole.

KEY POINTS
1 There a re fou r types of Iocal
weather f ront: cold, warm,
stationary and occluded.
2 A cyclonic storm in the
Caribbean is a low pressure

r area w ith an anti-clockwise

circulation of winds.

Eyewall Eye
\/ Rain bands
3 A cyclonic storm becomes
a hurricane w hen the w ind
Figure 16.5.3 The structure of a hurricane. Notice the 'eye' at the cen tre- an area speed exceeds 120 km per
of clea r sky where the strong winds die down until it passes over. hour (about 70miles per
hour).
Hurricanes are extreme examples of cyclonic storms. A storm
becomes a hurricane 1rvhen the wind speed exceeds 120 km per hou r
(a bout 70 miles per hou r).
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Hurricane precautions
1 Draw the wea ther symbols
Meteorologists are constantly improving t heir powers to predict t he for:
paths of hurri canes, but they can be unpredictable. a a warm front
W hen t he t hreat of a hurricane has been ident if ied, b a cold f ront
• a battery operated radio is needed in preparation for a hurricane as c an occluded front
the po1rver may be cut off d a stationary front.
• windows should be boarded up and taped and any moveable 2 a How are cyclonic storms
objects placed indoors formed in t he Caribbean?
• a source of lighting, such as a torch, 1rvill be useful as will a supply b What distinguishes a
of bot tled water, some canned food and a camping gas stove cyclonic storm from a
• evacuation to a safe area may be necessary in extreme cases. hurricane?
Remember that when t he 1rvind drops, it might just be the eye of t he 3 List five things to do in
storm. Your radio will tell you w hen it is safe again . preparation for a hurricane.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be how tides occur.
• Discuss and compare the
different tides with phases of
the Moon.
• Explain how a tidal wave
forms.
• Disting uish between a tida I
wave and a tsu nami.
QMoon
Earth
Sun
Figure 16.6.3 Neap tides occur in the
qua rter phases of the
1\/loon when the Moon and
Sun's gravi tational pull
on the Earth oppose each
o ther
Tides and tidal waves
Tides
You will have noticed the tides rise and fa ll regularly around the
coastline. Tides are caused by the gravitational fo rces of attraction
between the Earth (and its oceans), the Moon and the Sun. Look at
Figure 16.6.1 to see how the Earth and the Moon interact.
Gravitational
attraction
I
0 Moon
Earth
Figure 16.6.1 Effect o f the Moon on tides
The rotation of the Earth means that the tide comes in and goes out
roug hly twice a day. The highest of the high tides (and lowest of the
low tides) comes when the Sun and Moon line up with the Earth,
either the new moon or fu ll moon. These are called spring tides (see
Figure 16.6 2).
0 -►
..
Moon
Earth
Sun
Figure 16.6.2 The combined gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun causes spring
tides about every two weeks
When the Moon and Sun are at 90° (right angles) to the Earth we get
the lowest of the high tides (and highest of lovv tides). This is when
the Moon is in its quarter phases. These are called neap tides (see
Figure 16.6.3).
Tidal w aves
These are larger than normal waves caused by the tides that come
ashore. They are most likely to occur at spring high tides in a cyclonic
storm. If the strong winds are blowing the waves on-shore, coupled
with the low pressure above the sea and spring tide, then a tidal
surge can happen producing large tidal waves that will flood low-
lying land.
Tidal waves can also arise from natural 'funnels' on the coastline,
such as a narrow estuary. An exceptionally high tide will cause a tidal
surge up the river called a bore tide.

Tsunamis
Tsuna mis are a series of large waves that result from the sudden
movement of the ocean floor or from a huge landslide. A volcanic
eruption beneath the sea can also cause tsunamis and so could,
according to scientists, large meteors from space landing in the sea.
The resulting tsu nami can be hundreds of miles away from its source.
If an earthquake beneath the ocean suddenly lifts a section of the KEY POINTS
seabed a couple of metres, a wave a couple of metres high will form
at the surface and start ri ppling outwards. When this powerful wave 1 The gravitational pull of
reaches the shallow vvaters near a coast its energy will cause the the Moon and, to a lesser
height of the wave to increase. extent, the Sun on the
Earth's oceans causes the
Then when it hits the shore, the tremendous energy of the water in regular tides on coastlines.
the tsu nami smashes and carries almost everything in its path. The
objects it carries along make it even more destructive until its energy 2 Tidal waves cause flood ing
is dissipated. Then the water retreats back to the sea leaving chaos when conditions coincide
and death behind. to produce large incoming
waves.
3 Tsunamis are caused by
shocks on the surface or
beneath the surface of
oceans, such as earthquakes.
They can travel over great
distances before meeting
land and causing devastation.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a Explain what causes a

high tide.
b Explain how spring tides
and neap tides arise.
2 How can a hurricane cause a
tidal wave?
The incredible power of a tsuna mi causes massive destruc1ion . This 3 In what ways do tidal waves
earthquake, follo\'ved quickly by a tsunami, caused 1housands of and tsunamis differ?
deaths and devastated the nort h east coas1 of Japan in 201 1.
 Volcanoes and
earthquakes

The Earth's surface is divided into massive slabs of rock called

LEARNING OUTCOMES
tecto nic plates (see Figure 16. 7 .1). These plates are moving very
• Sriefly explain the causes of slowly, at about the rate your fi ngernails grow. They move because
earthquakes. of convection currents deep underground, driven by the heat energy
• Discuss the relationship released by radioactive rocks.
between earthquakes and
volcanoes. Key
• Describe some ecological • Mountain ranges - Plate boundaries - Direction plate is moving
effects of volcanoes.
North Eurasian Plate ',,,.
• List the different types of American
Pacific
volcano and how each is Plate,
" - Plate
formed. ine Plate
Pacific African
Plate, South
American ,.,,,
Plate
Inda-Australian I

-
Plate Plate /

Figure 16.7.1 The Ear1h's tectonic plates

It is interesting to see the world's earthquake and volcanic activity

plotted on the same map (see Figure 16.7.2).

Key
- Earthquake zones
••••• Volcanoes _._
Asia .,...,

Figu re 16.7.21 The Earth' s earthqua ke zones and volcanic activi ty

Notice how the earthq uakes and volcanoes are sited at the
bounda ries between tectonic plates. The plates sometimes get stuck
in positions above the convection currents. The stress builds up at the
plates until suddenly the forces are released and the plates slip past
each other. This sudden jarring movement causes an earthquake.
Vibrations spread out from the focus to the su rface. They are
strongest directly above the focus vvhere the slip occurred, at the
epicentre, but spread out in all di rections. They can be detected
thousands of miles avvay as slight tremors. However, buildings near
to the epicentre can be completely flattened .

•
In 2010 a devastating earthquake hi t Haiti, killing over 100000
people. The epicentre \<Vas near the cap 'tal Port-au-Prince \<Vhere the
Caribbean pla te moves relative to the North American plate by a
couple o f centimetres a year.

Measuring the strength of earthquakes

The strength of the vibrations following an earthquake is measured
by a seismometer. This is a sensitively balanced instrument. It draws a
straight line until it is shaken vvhen the line shows the movement felt.
A line traces the size of the vibrations on a seismograph (see Figure
16 7 .4)

Continued
The magnit ude of vibrat ions is compared on a scale called the Richter
scale. The higher t he number, t he larger the vibrations detected. The
earthquake that st ruck Japan in 20 11 was 9 on t he Richter scale and
was one of t he largest ever recorded. The damage caused in t he
Haitian earthquake in 20 10 resulted from an earthquake of
magnitude 7 on t he Richter scale (see Figure 16.7.3).

Types of vol cano

At tectonic plate bou ndaries, t he friction betvveen t he pla tes causes
t he rocks to heat up and possibly melt. The molten rock benea t h
t he ground is called magma. The 111agma is less dense than the
surrounding rock so tends to rise tovvards t he su rface. When it breaks
t h rough to the surface vve have a volcanic eruption. The molten rock
is cal led lava.
Lava can be different in different places. It can vary in its t emperatu re,
the a mount of gas dissolved in it and t he mixt ure of minerals it
contains. These factors affect the thickness of t he lava. Some lava is
thick and gooey like molasses, w hereas ot her lava is rnuch runnier.
This alters t he shape of a volcano and t he type of eru ption t hat takes
place (see Figure 16 7. 5).

Runny lava flow

Vent

200 km
Ash cloud -

1.5 km

8 km
Figure 16. 7. 5 Runny lava pours smoothly out from a volcano' s vent. However, thick
lava tends to block up the vent. \IVith thick lava, the pressure bu ilds
up inside the volcano until magma bursts out in a violent eruption.
The volcano' s sides are built u p from layers of rock formed from
each eruption .

Violent volcanic eruptions dest roy the surrounding area covering

t he landscape in lava, w hich solidifies back to rock, and in t hick ash.
Animals lose their habitat and plants cannot photosynt hesise because
they are burnt or coa ted in ash. However, over time, t he slopes of
a volcano weat her down to form fertile soils. Therefore, you always
fi nd some people willing t o risk anot her eruption in order to fa rm
near volcanoes despite the dangers.
 ' •
Anegada 64° 62° ■ Islands with live
c::;,
• • volcanoes
aoQef!?" 0
Anguilla
Virgin Islands ~1 Martin
~ St Barthelemy
~ Saba .
St Eustatius • ,
t:J
Barbuda
St Kitts f
Nevis Cl Antigua Atlantic
Montserrat 4 Ocean
Guadeloupe , ~ <P

•• 6 Marie Galante 16° ·

' Dominica

Caribbean Sea
\ Martinique

f St Lucia

Kick 'em
f,, St Vincent (\.,
v
Jenny ,• Barbados
~ J Grenadines

- 12° D Isla La Blanquilla J Grenada 12° ·

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a Where do we fi nd
~ obago
earthquakes and
volcanoes around the
Trinidad
0 50 world?
Venezuela
64° Miles b i What instrument do
vve use to measure
Figure 16.7.61 Here are the Ca ri bbean islands vvith live volcanoes. Kick 'em Jenny the intensity of an
1s an u nderwater volcano o ff Grenada. It eru pts regularly, bu t 1s still earthquake?
180 metres below the surface o f the sea.
ii What scale is used to
measure the size of
KEY POINTS the vibrations from an
earthquake?
1 Sudden movements of the Earth's tectonic plates cause
earthquakes at the boundaries between plates. Volcanoes are 2 Explain why some volcanic
also found at these plate boundaries. eruptions are fa r more
da ngerous than others.
2 The strength of an earthquake is shown on a seismograph
and is measured on the Richter scale. 3 A volcano that has not
erupted for a long time is
3 Runny lava spews smoothly out of volcanic vents, whereas
described as dorma nt. What
thick lava explodes out violently.
are the advantages and
4 Many Caribbean islands are volcanic. This can cause natural disadvantages of living near a
disasters, but produces very ferti le soils. do rmant volcano?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Explain the role of wat er
in life processes such as
respiratio n, gaseous
exchange, excretion, blood
circulation, photosynthesis
and temperature control.
• Draw a diagram representi ng
the wat er cycle and discuss
its importance in providing
a continuous supply of fresh
wat er.
Water and life
Water is one of t he most important substances on Eart h. It is vital in
many of the processes of life. For example, water plays a role in t he
reactions needed for respiration and photosynthesis. It helps cont rol
ou r body temperature when it evaporates f rom t he sweat on our
skin. It is also t he solvent t hat carries substances around the body in
blood. It dissolves nut rients in digestion and is used in the exchange
of gases in the lungs.
W it hout wa ter ou r cells would lose t heir shape and metabolic
reactions would be impossible. In fact , over 60% of our body mass is
water. We need to drink plenty of water to avoid dehydration.
Water is also essential in everyday life. Look at t he table to see how
many lit res of water are used in domestic activities.
Use Approximate volu me of
water-use (lit res)
Shower 27
Power shovver 80
Bat h 80
Flushing toilet 9
Brushing teet h, \/\/ashing hands 4
Washing machine 80
Dishwasher 30
Washing dishes by hand 7.5
In a garden, a hosepipe uses about 15 litres of water per minute and
a sprinkler uses about 9 litres per minute.
The water cycle
The water cycl e shows ho\/\/ water is recycled in nat ure (see Figu re
17. 1.1)
Energy from the Sun drives t he water cycle as it causes evaporat ion
of wa ter from t he sea. Water vapour also enters t he air from
other sources. For example, water evaporates from t he soil, plants
(especially t rees) lose water vapour t hrough transpiration and animals
brea the out water vapour.
As the water vapou r rises it cools down and condenses to form clouds
made f rom tiny \/\later droplets. It gets colder again as t he clouds are
forced to rise higher, for example over high ground or \/\/here air masses
meet. This causes more water to condense out, as t he air becomes
saturated, holding its maximum amount of moisture. So t he droplets
get bigger and heavier. They t hen fall as rain, hail or snovv. This is
called precipitat ion. Event ually t he water returns to the sea via rivers,
st reams and underground waterways. The water cycle ensu res t here is
a constant supply of fresh water, alt hough it is not distributed evenly.

It gets colder as the

Energy from the air rises. More water
Sun powers the
water cycle O /
condenses out. ~ ~
~he qrople s1get
bigger arid tieavier
asryin,J
0 Condensation of water
to form clouds made
from tiny water droplets
and tall
hail Qr/ sr·o'
)
1
/ 1
---

Evaporation \tl l Animals breathe

out water vapour
of water Some water
from the evaporates t I Plants (especially trees)
sea from the soil \ \ lose water vapour through
transpiration
Water returns to the sea via rivers and
streams and underground water
Figure 17.1.1 The water cycle

Conserving our water supplies

The act ual proportions of \11/ater used in farming, in industry
(including generat ing electricity) and at home differ f rom country
to cou ntry. For example, some Af rican nations can use almost 90%
of t heir wa ter in farming. That's because t hey need to irrigate t heir
crops as t he climate is dry, whereas in European countries, the
proport ion used in industry and in producing energy is likely to be
over 50%. The percentage of \11/ater used in industry can be used as a
measure of how developed a country is.
The individual usage of water (average per person) also varies w idely.
A person in the USA is likely to use at least 20 t imes as much wa ter
as a person in Africa each day.
Once we have used water, we can't just dump dirty \11/ater directly into
rivers and seas. Cleaning up our waste water costs us money. As t ime
passes t here \Nill be more and more people competing fo r the planet's
water. So we need to conserve our water and do even more to restore
its quality after use. By saving energy, we are also helping to conserve
water. That's because power stat ions use large volumes of water. KEY POINTS

SUMMARY QUESTIONS 1 Water is an important

biological compound acting
1 Using t he t able on the previous page, estimate how many as a solvent and a medium
litres of water your family uses in a week. for metabolic reactions to
take place.
2 a How does water vapour get into the atmosphere?
2 The water cycle describes
b Explain w hy it rains w hen clouds rise.
how water moves t hrough
3 Why do people in developed countries use a lot more domestic the environment, providing
wat er t han people in developing nations? Discuss t he issues a continuous source of f resh
involved . water.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he physical and
chemical properties of water.
• Descri be methods used to
purify water.
• Select appropriate methods
of purifying different mixtures
containing water.
Purifying water for
drinking
Wat er's properties
Water is an odourless, colourless liquid. Its melting point (and f reezi ng
point) is 0°( and its boiling point is 100°(. It is an excellent solvent,
dissolving many salts and also some organic co mpou nds such as
sugars and alcoho ls. It is chemically neut ral w hen pu re, being neit her
acid ic nor alkaline. Water does react with more react ive metals and
ca uses the important metal iron to rust (when oxygen is also present).
These properties make it an ideal medium for many chemical
reactions to take place in solut ion . Unfo rtunately its ability to dissolve
things means that water is easily polluted with d issolved su bstances.
This is vvhy we need to purify our d rinki ng wa ter.
The vast majority of aquatic life live in seawater and can tolerate t he salt
concent ratio ns. Their bodies have quite high concent rations of sodium
and chloride ions so no more wi ll diffuse into their cells from t he sea.
Freshwa ter creatures cannot live in salty conditions as t his wo uld d isrupt
their exchange of ions across membranes in cells. The sodium and
chloride ions diffusing into their cells would be fa tal. However some
fish, such as salmon, can survive in both seawater and fresh water.
Sources and treatment of w ater
About 97% of t he water on Earth is in t he salty oceans. However, we
can use f resh water d rawn f rom:
• lakes
• rivers
• aquifers (water held in underg ro und rocks)
• reservoirs (large lakes created for storing wa ter).
These are sources of fresh wa ter, but t hey still have to be purif ied to
make water f it for drinking.
Clear water Filtration Sedimentation
tank tank
Addition of
chlorine to
Storage kill bacteria
reservoir
Figure 17 .2.1 Treatmen t o f \'\later to make it safe to d rink
Water can be stored in a reservoir before being piped to homes and
KEY POINTS
industry. Before it gets there it goes t hrough several stages as shovvn
in Figure 17.2. 1. 1 Water is an excellent solvent,
Larger solid particles are allowed to settle at t he bottom of t he but t his makes it easily
sedimentation tanks. But there are still smaller colloidal particles of polluted.
clay dispersed in t he wa ter. The tiny particles are electrically charged 2 Water from natural sources
(negative). They stay spread t hroughout t he water because t hey
is usually t reated to purify
repel each other. So water companies add aluminium sulphate to it before we can drink it.
coagulate t he clay. The particles are attra cted to t he highly charged For example, chlorine (or
aluminium ions. They form clumps, w hich get heavy enough to settle boiling) will kill bact eria.
on t he bottom of the tank.
3 Flash distillation or reverse
Then t he water is filtered through layers of sand and gravel to make
osmosis can be used to
sure all insoluble solids are removed. These fil ter beds can also
desalinate seawater to make
contain carbon slurry to get rid of substances t hat would give the
it usable.
water an odd smell or taste.
Chlorin e is added t o kill bacteria in t he water. This prevents diseases.
The \/\later company will add enough chlorine to kill all the bacteria.
They remove any excess chlorine by treating t he water wi th sulphur
dioxide. This reacts wit h t he chlorine, getting rid of its smell and
taste. A little chlorin e is left in t he water to keep it free from bacteria
on t he journey to your t ap.
'
Other methods to purify water
For many hot countries, getting a reliable supply of fresh water is
difficult. W ith low rainfa ll, rivers and lakes run dry in hotter months.
However, these countries sometimes have large coastlines. They have A desalination plant uses
distillation to obtain pure
plenty of sea wa ter, but this salty water is unsuitable for most uses.
\'Valer from seawater. The
Special desalination plants (see Figure 17.2.2) can t ake most of the process req uires large
amounts of energy to boil
dissolved salts out of seawater or f rom brackish water f rom marshes.
the sea\,vater
In distillation, wa ter is evaporated, t hen cooled and condensed to
separate it from dissolved solids. The process used in some
desalination plants is based on distillation. SUMMARY QUESTIONS
In a desalination plant, t he pressure above t he water is reduced. This
1 Why can most freshwat er f ish
lowers t he boiling point of t he seawat er. The process is called f lash
not survive in seawat er?
distillat ion.
2 Give t he melting point,
Another process called reverse osmosis is getting more popular.
boiling point and pH of pure
This uses a membrane to separate t he water and the salts. There
water.
is no heating involved so it uses less energy t han distillation.
However, energy is still needed to pressurise t he \/\later. 3 Draw a flow chart to explain
how \/\later is t reated to make
Modern membranes can remove 98°/o of dissolved salts from
it fit to drink.
sea\rvater. However, corrosion of pumps and pipes is a problem.
Desalination is used in Middle Eastern count ries t hat can use money 4 In a desalination plant using
f rom t heir oil to pay t he costs. In the Virgin Islands, in t he Caribbean flas h distillation:
Sea, 90% of water used is desalinated as t hey have no source of fresh a Why is it important to
water other than any rainwater t hey can collect. lower t he boiling point ?
b What would be t he main
costs in t his type of plant?
 Flotation

Some materials float in water and some sink. The property which
LEARNING OUTCOMES
determines this behaviour is the density of the material.
• State the conditions fo r All objects experience a force upwards when placed in water. You
flotation in terms of upthrust have probably noticed this when you walk out into deeper water
and density. in the sea or in a swimming pool. Your body seems to get lighter
• Draw a diag ram showing the the deeper you go. When yo u lie on your back and float, you feel
forces acting on an object as weightless.
it floats or sinks.
This is explained by Archimedes principle. It states that an object
• Explain the importance of immersed in a fluid is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the Plimsoll line to boats and fluid displaced by the object.
ships.
The force of water (or any other fluid) on an object acts upwards and
is called upthrust.
You can measure the upthrust using a newtonmeter as shown in
Figure 17.3.1.
weight of \rveight of
Upth rust = object -
in air object in water
0 When the upthrust is equal to the weight of an object, the object will
•'
~
float . The upthrust, acting up\rvards, will balance the weight of the
••
4
object, acting downwards. However, if the weight is greater than the
' upthrust, t he weight pulls the object downwa rds and the object sinks
i·o (see Figure 17 3.2).
The density of water is 1.0g/cm3 • Any material with a density of less
than this will float on top of the water. Any material \rvith a density
greater than 1.0g/cm 3 will sink. We can calculate a material's density
using the equation:

dens1.ty (.1n g/cm3) = vo1mass (in g)

(. 3)
ume 111 cm
(Alternatively, density can be expressed in units of kg/m 3 .)

Figure 17 .3. 1 The upthrust experienced Upthrust Upthrust less

by the block is 3 N. i.e. equals weight than weight
(1 0 - 7)N

Figure 17.3.2 f or an object to float, the upthrust must equal its vveig ht
Finding the volume of a block of mat erial is easy. You just measure
Displacement can Measuring
t he length, t he breadt h and the w idt h and mult iply t hem toget her.
So if a block of iron has t he dimensions 3 cm by 4 cm by 4 cm, its \ cylinder

volume is (3 x 4 x 4) = 48 cm 3•
-
If an obj ect has an irregular shape you can fi nd its volume using a Water
measuring cylinder and a displacement can. Look at Figure 17.3.3. ' r-... ' ...
If you then f ind t he mass of t he block on a balance in grams (g),
you can w ork out t he density in g/cm3 • The iron block has a mass of
384 g. Therefore, its density is mass (384g) -;- volurn e (48cm3)
i)
= 8g/ cm 3 .
This means t hat t he block of iron w ill sink in water. Yet , iron ships
1
j

weighing t housands of tonnes can f loat. Here we must not confuse

:I
Rock -I
' "
a material w it h objects made from t hat material. A ship is shaped
so that t he majority of it is act ually air, and all gases have very low
densities. The density of air is 0.001 3 g/cm 3• So t he combined density
i: "'
.. t 1
-t

of the iron and ot her solid materials in t he ship, plus t he air inside is Figure 17.3.3 Fill the displacemen t can
to its spout then lower in
less t han 1.0 g/cm3 .
the obj ect. The volume o f
The upthrust on an object depends on t he mass of liquid it displaces. \'\later that spills over into
the measuring cylinder
If you fil l a ship w it h too much cargo, t he ship will need to sit lower
tells you the volu me of
in t he wa ter to get t he extra upthrust to keep it afloat. But if too the obj ect.
much is pu t aboard, it can get dangerously low in t he water and risk
sinking. That's w hy ships have a Plimsoll line on the side - to check
that t hey are carrying a safe load (see Figure 17 .3.4).
The same ship can carry a larger load in seawater t han in fresh water.
That is because t he upthrust experienced by an object in seavvater is
greater t han t he upthrust in fresh \11/ater as seawa ter has t he higher
density. So the sa me mass of cargo w ill make t he ship go lower in
f resh water to get t he same upthrust as in seawater.
Submarines use their ballast tanks to change t heir density. The
submariners can allow \11/ater int o t he tanks to dive dow n (increasing
t heir mass and hence t heir density) or can pum p water out of t heir
tanks to rise up to t he surface again. Bony f ish use a similar principle, KEY POINTS
using t heir gas-filled swim bladder.
1 Objects will float if their
density is equal t o, or less
than, t he density of the
SUMMARY QUESTIONS liquid t hey are placed in.
2 W hen an object floats, its
1 Draw a diagram showing the forces act ing on a f loating weight and t he upthrust
object. it experiences from t he
2 A volume of 2.5 cm 3 of lead rnetal has a mass of 27.5 g. W hat displaced liquid are forces of
is t he density of lead? equal size acting in opposite
directions.
3 A piece of wood has a density of 1. 2 g/ cm 3 • Explain w hether
t he wood will float or sink in wa ter. 3 It is easier for an object to
float in a denser liquid.
4 a Expl ain how a submarine rises to t he surface. So seawa ter provides greater
b Explain t he difference in ballast tanks of a submarin e w hen upthrust than an equal
it dives in seawater compared w ith the same dive in f resh volume of displaced fresh
wat er. water.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Identify sources of water
pollution.
• Descri be t he effects of water
pollution.
EXAM TIP
Note that fi..sn L.<.Se oxt,geV\,
(fl"'DIM, t he ai.1"') whi.ch nas
di.ssolved LIi\, watel". Tviet,
?o NOT L.<.Se t ne oxt,geV\,
i111, watev,: H-~o , 1M,olecKLes!
Water pollution
Are you concerned abo ut the pollution of our rivers, lakes and seas?
It is not possible to get absolutely pure water in nature because water
is so good at dissolving things. This is often useful to us, but also
makes it easy to pollute water.
Eutrophication
Sometimes fa rmers will add too much nitrate fertiliser to t heir soil
or it is added at the wrong time of year. This can cause pollution in
rivers and creeks.
Some nitrate fertiliser is washed down th rough the
soil by rain. We say that it is leached out of the soil.
The dissolved fertiliser drains from the fields into
rivers and other waterways. Phosphates also get
into the waterways from fertilisers as vvell as from
detergents. This starts off a chain of events called
eutrophication .
1 Tiny water plants, called algae, thrive on the
nitrate or phosphate cornpounds in the leached
fertilisers.
2 The algae start to cover the su rface of the
water. This cuts off light to other living t hings in
the river.
3 Plants on the riverbed die, along with sorne
algae, so bacteria decompose them.
4 The bacteria multiply quickly vvith so much
food. They use up much of the oxygen dissolved
in the water.
5 This means that fish and other water animals
cannot get enough oxygen. Soon they start
dying.
Untreated sewage in waterways also causes eutrophication, but
brings with it the risk of bacterial infections as well. We tend to fi nd
eutrophication in areas of the stream where water flow rate is very
slow (as fast-flowing water dissolves fresh oxygen gas more quickly).
Nitrate fertil isers are very soluble. They are fi nding their way into our
drinking vvater. People are starting to worry about the possible health
risks. There is concern abo ut stomach cancer and 'blue baby' disease
(when a newborn baby's blood is starved of oxygen). However, others
argue that there is no evidence. Links between the levels of nitrate in
our water and disease have not been proven. Still, most people agree
that it is wise to limit the amount of nitrate we drink.
Thermal pollution
Besides its use as a solvent, water is also used in ind ustry as a coolant .
It transfers energy avvay fro m a reaction. This raises the temperature
of the water. An example is its use to transfer energy in power
stations. The water is not polluted when it is passed out into a nearby
river. However, it is warmer than the river water.
This can affect the delicate balance of life in the river. Remember that KEY POINTS
aquatic animals rely on oxygen gas dissolved in the water. Gases get
1 Water can be polluted
less soluble in water as its temperature rises. So not as much oxygen
by fertilisers, sewage,
dissolves in the warmer water and aq uatic animals die. detergents, pesticides, oil
Many coral reefs are also destroyed by thermal pollution as water slicks and other industrial
used for cooling large machinery is expelled into the sea. waste.
2 Eutrophication happens
Pesticides when substances that
Pesticides in drinking water are another problem that water promote the growth of
companies are tackling . Pesticide residues can get into waterways algae get into waterways.
from crop spraying in nearby fields. The concentration of the toxic 3 Pesticides can build up in
substances builds up in organisms the higher up the food chain food chains in waterways as
yo u go. Our drinking water is now checked for acceptable levels of well as on land.
pesticides.
4 Oil slicks can affect huge
areas of water and the
Oil spills coastline they are washed
Crude oil is transported aro und the world in giant oil tankers. If these up on.
ships have an accident, the crude oil can escape. It floats on top of
the sea, forming an oil slick.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 a What is the name of the

type of pollution caused
by excess fertiliser being
leached out of the soil
- into a river?
b Draw a flow chart to
explain what happens
when waterways are
polluted by nitrates and/
or phosphates.
2 Why do you think that
pesticide residues are found
in higher propo rtions in the
tissues of animals higher up
the food chain?
3 Carry out some research into
This oil slick resulted from an accident on the sea bed w hen drilling
' -"--- - - - '
for oil in the Gulf o f Mexico. It took months to stop the flow of oil
an oil spill. Find out about
in to the sea . t he harm it caused to the
aquatic environment and
Soapless detergents are used to clean up the mess. The detergent how the oil slick was treated
breaks up the slick. Then the oil is spread out by the action of the after t he event.
waves, but not before harrning the aquatic ecosystem.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Describe t he va rious methods
used locally for fishing.
• Evaluate the various methods
used locally for fishing.
Fishing
Fishing is an important industry in the Caribbean. There is a great
variety of fish in the seas, but caution is needed to guard against
overfishing. Taking too many fish (especially young fish) will mean
that stocks cannot recover. The ind ustry, as well as t he ecosystem,
will suffer so fishing has to be sustainable. That is vvhy governrnent
fisheries set rules, such as:
• banning foreign fishing vessels from their waters
• defining net sizes so that young fish can fit through
• setting limits on the catch taken.
They also take measures to avoid enda ngered species being killed
when t he target fish are caught. For example, nets can be fitted with
devices that emit sounds to keep dolphins and porpoises away.
Here are some of the methods used to catch fish and shellfish.
By hand
This is a highly selective method as fish are caught one at a time
and can be put back into the sea if they are not the target fish. The
bait on the line can be chosen to attract certain fish. This is a time-
consuming method, but useful for large fish, which command a high
price, such as t he bluefin tuna . The catch is good quality, as it comes
aboard alive. Spears or harpoons can be used for larger fish.
Long-lining
This is a commercial version of fishing by ha nd, but many lines are set
all at once, hanging from a main line (see Figure 17.5.1). The method
is used to catch tuna and svvordfish, or it can be set so the bait is
near seabed depth for cod. However, it does kill sea birds and turtles,
but it is not as destructive as some other methods, such as dredging.
,, Q Radio beacon
'
~
n. """
~ ,
\
/
v Buoy Main line, ~
line .,,,
-
~ Baited hooks
' l • Snoods
• ~
Figure 17.5.1 l ong-lining can have thousands of 'snoods' set at once, at varying
depths to target differen t species of fish
Purse seining
This method is used for fish that aggregate (swim in large shoals, EXAM TIP
quite near the surface), such as groupers and snappers.
you shouLc! be abLe to
The net is like a long fence with floats at the top and weights at the
bottom. The bottom of the net also has rings, through which a rope
expl.ciiV\, the i"¾portaV\,ce
is threaded. When the rope is pulled, the net acts like a drawstri ng c:f "¾Cl~iv.g the fi.s;hiv.g
purse, closing around the shoal of fish. iV\,c!ustr/j sustc,il/\,Clble.

Trawling
In this method the net is dragged along a smooth seabed by a fishing
boat called a trawler (see Figure 17.5.2). It targets fish that live at the
bottom of the sea, for instance cod, plaice and sole. As in all netting
methods, the size of t he net mesh is critical. The net \Nill catch fish
whose head fi ts through the net, but whose body does not. Then,
when the fish tries to 'back out', it gets trapped by its gills. Setting
the mesh at a large enough size will ensure young fish can escape
and go on to breed.

KEY POINTS
1 There is a variety of ways to
~ catch fis h. Some are more
indiscriminate than others,
Weights ~
killing species that are not
wanted for the market .
Smooth seabed 2 We have to have rules and
reg uIatio ns set to prevent
over-fishing and to protect
Figure 17 .5. 2 Trawling nets fish from the bottom o f the sea fish stocks for futu re
generations.
Dredging
Dredging is used for gathering molluscs such as oysters, clams and
scallops from the seabed. A dredge is a metal framed basket. Its
bottom is made of iron ri ngs or wire netting. The leading edge of the SUMMARY QUESTIONS
dredge has a raking bar. A small boat will drag a single dredge along
the seabed. Larger boats will tow ten or more dredges over each side. 1 Which method of fishing
Shellfish, such as crab and lobsters, are also caught in traps or pots a drags a metal cage along
left on the seabed and lifted to the surface to check the catch. the seabed
b traps shoals of fish
Fish farming c can ensure only the target
Certain species of fish or shellfish are commercially 'farmed'. Species fish is killed
such as salmon are grown in enclosures with their food provided for d is used to take fish at a
then1. Oysters can be cultivated on racks or lines lowered into the sea variety of depths?
and raised \II/hen the oysters are mature.
2 a Why is overfishing a
Fish farming helps conserve natural stocks, but there are some problem?
environmental drawbacks. For instance, fishmeal is used to feed b What can be do ne to
the fish. This is made from small fish that are not for human prevent overfishing?
consumption. Ho\11/ever, taking large quantities of t hese from near the
bottom of the marine food chain disrupts the \II/hole ecosystern.
 Navigation and safety
on the water

LEARNING OUTCOMES Navigational devices at sea

• Descri be t he various
navigational devices used at
sea .
• List safety devices for use on
the water.
• Discuss the hazards
associated with scuba diving.
It is easy to get lost once you are out at sea. There are no fea tures to
distinguish where you are once you are out of sight of land. So sailors
have used the Sun, stars and compasses to find their way around.
Nowadays, there are more complex and accurate satellite systems to
help.
The magnetic compass
A compass is a free-moving magnet that lines up vvith the Earth's
magnetic field, so that it points north- south. The end that points
north is called the North pole of the magnet, which in a cornpass is
shaped like an arrowhead .
Sailors used compasses to set their course until more modern aids
such as Global Positioning System (GPS) vvere invented.

Sonar and radar

Sonar is used on fishing vessels to locate shoals of fish. Pulses of
sound are sent out from the boat beneath the water. The echo from
the shoal is picked up by a detector, vvhich tells the operator the
depth of the shoal (see Figure 17.6.1 ).

Figure 17.6.1 The time for the echo to retu rn to the boat is shorter when the
shoal o f fish pass betwee n the boa t a nd the seabed
.
~

T o Radar uses radio waves instead of sound waves to detect objects,

t, ~ -.,,,,· such as other shi ps at sea.

"' .
r,r~,,..:t. ~ ._
~• ' ~- 'IJ GPS

• Modern vessels use GPS to locate their exact position. This uses radio
signals to and from satellites in space, 12 000 miles above Earth, to
give locations. The satellite signals from at least three satellites to
The time for the signal to your receiver can be used to calculate your position to great accuracy.
--=-----' return to the satellite g ives Then the system will calculate your desi red course when you set your
a n exact distance - so
once there a re three such destination. We call GPS global satellite navigation. It was fi rst used
d istances, the receiver can on vessels in 1985 and has made the sea a much safer place to travel
be pin-pointed (see Figure 17.6.2).
Water safety
The sea can be a dangerous place when t he weather turn s stormy
and the wind w hips up large waves. That is w hy safety equipment is
needed on vessels. Life j ackets should be worn on rivers and lakes,
as well as at sea w hen t ravelling on open boats vvhere t here is any
danger of falling overboard. The life jackets are buoyancy aids, like
infla table ri ngs, that people can use to float in water.
Modern life rafts inflate w hen a cord is pulled. They are sel f-ri ghting
and are almost impossible to t urn over in t he \rvater. Figure 17 .6.3 An inflatable life raft

Hazards of scuba-diving
KEY POINTS
With modern equipment and t raining, scuba-diving is a relatively safe
activity. It is popu lar w it h tou rists visiting t he Cari bbean. However, 1 The magnetic compass was
t here are some risks associated with scu ba-diving. Sarne of these are the main navigational device
linked to changes in pressure; increasing too rapidly as you descend at sea for hundreds of years,
or decreasing too quickly as you come back up to t he surface. but now sailors use sonar,
Changes in pressu re can affect any cavity in the body that is sealed radar and GPS.
off and fil led wit h gas. As pressure is increased when diving, gases 2 The sea is a dangerous place,
contract or as pressu re is decreased, they expand. The inner ear is one so t here a re safety devices
place affected, especially if you are blocked up with a cold or 'f lu. In in case of emergencies and
ext reme cases t he ear drum can burst. If you hold your brea th when ru Ies to prevent accidents.
ascending from a dive, t he alveoli in t he lungs can expand rapidly and
also be damaged as cell membranes burst. 3 Scuba-diving has hazards
associated with it, so well
We also have dissolved gases in our blood . More gas will dissolve as maintained equipment and
pressure is increased. Many divers use air, not pure oxygen, in their training are needed to keep
breathing tanks carried on their backs. The nitrogen gas f rom air, divers safe.
\rvhich dissolves in t he blood, causes problems for divers. If t hey dive
down too quickly, too much nitrogen dissolves in the blood. This
leads to a condition called nitrogen narcosis. Its effect s are similar to
drin king too much alcohol. The diver becomes careless and will take SUMMARY QUESTIONS
risks, even ignoring safety procedures as their decision making is
impaired. 1 a Explain how the captain
of a fis hing boat can find
Rising to t he surface too quickly could be one mistake a diver a shoal of fish.
suffering from nitrogen narcosis makes. If they do, the dissolved b What could the captain
nitrogen comes ou t of t he blood to fo rm bubbles in blood vessels, use to return to exactly
called embolisms. This causes soreness, dizziness and nausea and is the same place to fish t he
known as 'the bends'. It can be fatal if the air blockage reaches the
next \rveek?
heart or the brain.
2 If a vessel sinks at sea,
A recompression chamber (also called a decompression chamber) is
which two pieces of safety
used to t reat divers w it h t he bends. It is a st rong steel vessel w hich equipment could keep people
can wit hstand high pressure to re-dissolve any nitrogen bubbles in alive until rescuers arrive?
the blood. The pressure is gradually released to surface pressure in
stages. Pure oxygen can be used inside t he chamber, so no more 3 a Describe three conditions
nitrogen dissolves in t he blood during recompression. that scuba-divers could
suffer f rom if t hey rise to
the surface too quickly.
b What is the f unction of a
reco mpression chamber?
 ••
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Ident ify t he va ri ous types of
fossil fuels.
• Descri be how fossi l fuels are
formed.
• Ident ify t he energy obtained
from petro leum as stored
energy.
• Explain t he problems
associated w ith the use of
fossil fuels.
Dead sea creatures
and plants collected
on the sea bed
New layers of sedimentary
rock formed on top of the
original sea bed
Fossil fuels
Formation of fossil fuels
Most of our common fuels are fossil f uels. Coal, crude o il (which gives
us petrol) and natural gas are all fossil fuels. Peat is another fossil fuel.
Fossil fuels have taken m illions of yea rs t o fo rm. Coal came from
trees and ferns t hat died and were buried beneath swamps about
300 million yea rs ago.
Crude oil was formed from ti ny animals and plants w hich lived in t he
sea about 150 million yea rs ago. These were buried under layers of sand
and silt on the sea bed. They did not decay normally as t he bacteria
feed ing on them had litt le or no oxygen in these condit ions. As the
pressure and temperature slovvly increased, t hey were changed into oil.
Natural gas is usually fo und w ith t he crude oil (see Figure 18. 1. 1).
The plants and animals got t heir energy f ro rn the Su n. This became
stored (chemical) energy in the fossil fuel. So w hen you burn a f uel
you are using energy t hat started off in the Sun (see Figure 18. 1.2).
The plankton in the sea The trees that made the coal
which went on to make got their energy from the Sun
oil got their energy from (by photosynthesis)
the Sun
Oil started
to form Oil rig
Figure 18.1.2 The energy stored in fossil fuels originated from the Su n
Fossil fuels are called non-renewable fuels. That's because once we
use up o ur supplies o n Eart h t hey ca nnot be replaced (at least not for
m illio ns of yea rs).
Problems associated with fossil fuels
Most fossil f uels contai n sulphur in compounds present as impurities.
W hen we burn t he f uel, t he sulphur is oxidised. It tu rns into sulphur
dioxide (S0 2) gas. Power stations burning coa l or oil give off most
sulphur dioxide.
Sulphur dioxide is the main cause of acid rain. The gas dissolves
in rainwater, and reacts wit h oxygen in the air, to form sulphuric
LINK %
acid. Cars burn ing fuels distilled f rom cru de oil also make our rain For more information on t he
acidic. Most petrol is sulphur-f ree now. However, car exhausts give carbon cycle, see 16.3 'Natural
off nit rogen oxides. In the high temperatures inside an engine, even cycles'.
unreactive nit rogen gas will react with oxygen. These nit rogen oxides
make nit ric acid vvhen it rains.

The effects of acid ra in

• Forests - Trees are damaged and even killed.
• Fish - Hundreds of lakes novv have no f ish left in t hem at all.
Aluminium, which is normally 'locked' in t he soil, dissolves in acid
rain. It t hen gets washed into t he lakes, w here it poisons t he f ish.
• Buildings - Acid rain attacks buildings and metal structures.
Limestone buildings are most badly affected.

Global warming
The Earth's atmosphere acts like a greenhouse. It lets rays f rom t he
Sun t hrough to warm t he Earth. But gases, such as carbon dioxide
and water vapour, absorb some of the heat energy given off as the
Earth cools down. Therefore, t he heat energy gets t rapped and KEY POINTS
cannot escape out into space.
1 Coal, crude oil, nat ural
Without these so-called 'greenhouse gases', t he Earth would be
gas and peat are all non-
much colder and all our water would be frozen. How do you think
renewable fossil fuels.
that would affect life on Earth?
2 Fossil fuels are stores of
However, we are making more and more of t hese gases. W henever
chemical energy t hat
we burn a fossil fuel we make carbon dioxide and we are now
originated from the Sun.
burni ng up fossil fuels at an incredible rate. This disturbs t he natural
bala nee of carbon dioxide. 3 Burning fossil f uels causes
pollution problems, such
Although plants absorb carbon dioxide, we are cutting down huge
as acid rain and global
areas of forest every day. The t rees are often just burned to clear land .
warming.
for fa rming. This makes even more carbon dioxide. The increased levels
of carbon dioxide seem to be making the average t emperature of t he
Earth hotter. We call this global warming. There is great concern in
t he Caribbean over t he effects of global warming. People are worried SUMMARY QUESTIONS
by the predictions of increased frequency of hurrica nes due to warmer
seas and t he rise in sea levels due to the melting of t he polar ice caps. 1 Describe how crud e oil was
formed using a flovv diagram.
0.6 2 How can we say t hat when
we burn a fossil fuel we are
~

0.4
-c.,
0
Q)
Cl
C: 0.2
really using the Sun's energy?
3 Explain how burn ing petrol
"''-'
.c
or diesel in a car engine can
Cl.
E 0 contribute to acid rain and
-
Q)

Q)
Cl -0.2
global warming.
"'
~
Q) 4 Find ou t how peat and coal
~ -0.4 a re relat ed.
-0.6 ,___._ _.__ _.__,___._ _.__ _.__.____._ _._
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Year
Figure 18.1.3 The average glo bal tem perature seems to be rising, but some
people argue that these are just na tu ral variations that have always
hap pened. However, most scie ntists believe that hu man activit ies
are contributing to global \,varming.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• List alternative sources of
energy.
• Descri be how we can obtain
energy f rom alternative
sources.
LINK
You can f ind out more about
using energy from t he Sun in
18.3 'Solar energy'.
Alternative sources of
energy
We have seen that fossil fuels are non-renevvable sources of energy.
As t hese start to run out, alternative forms of renewable energy will
become increasingly important.
Solar energy
This is energy f rom t he Sun. It can be used in solar cells w hich
tra nsfer the Sun's energy to electrical energy. Alternatively it can be
used directly to hea t water for use at home in solar panels.
('~ Biofuels
Biofuels are derived f rom plants or animals, eit her directly or using
their products. For example, wood-chip can be used to heat homes
or generate electricity. New t rees are planted to replace t he ones cut
down to burn as fuels.
Biagas is made from the waste products of fa rm animals and
humans, as well as waste vegetation. The waste is collected into
special biogas generators w here microorganisms break down t he
waste materials (see Figure 18.2.1 ). In this process one of the gases
t hey give off is methane, the main constituent of natura l gas. This
burns well, and can be used for heating and cooking in individual
homes or ru ra l villages. On a larger scale it can be used to generate
electricity by using waste from huge herds of cattle.
m t lour!
• Methane for
• Dung from people cooking, heating
and animals or refrigeration
• Farm waste
• Garden rubbish
IOUTI
• Slurry, which can be
used as a fertiliser
Figure 18.2.1 A biogas generator can be installed beneath the g round where it is
well insulated as the genera tors \,vork best at about 30°C
Crops are also specially grown to make fuel fo r vehicles. Biodiesel is
a fuel made f rom vegetable oils extracted from crops such as maize,
oilseed rape and palm. This can be mixed w ith diesel from crude oil
t o make our limited su pplies last longer or can be used as 'biodiesel'
itself.
Ethanol is another biofuel. It is produced by the fermentation of
sugar from crops such as sugar cane using yeast. The ethanol is an
excellent fuel to replace petrol. Like biodiesel, it helps reduce carbon
dioxide emissions overall. The plants it is made from absorb carbon
dioxide as they grow, t hough t hey st ill give CO 2 off w hen t hey burn.
However, using crops to make fuels means t here is less land for food
crops. Also, if new land for growing the biofuel crops is created f rom
fo rests, this will destroy habitats for wildlife.

Wind energy
On high ground, near the coast or even in t he sea, w ind turbines
are becoming increasingly common. The huge blades of t he wind
t urbines can ro tate to face the wind and spin rou nd. This provides
t he energy to generat e electri city. The wind tu rbines only work w hen M ore \'Vind tu rbines are
there is sufficient wind. --=--------' being sit ed offshore. They
still have an impact on
Wave energy views, but issues of noise
pollution are reduced
The movement of waves across t he sea, caused by t he 11\find, can be as there are no near
used to make electricity. Floats can rock up and down to harness the neig hbours.
energy of t he waves as t hey pass, but each one can only generate a
small amount. So floa ts, stretching for several miles, would need to
be coupled together, to generate t he same po1/\fer as a power station.
KEY POINTS
Geothermal energy
1 There are several options
This uses energy f rom hot rocks beneath the Earth's surface. Water is for countries want ing to
piped down to areas where the hot rocks are not too deep and steam generate electricity using
ret urn s to t he surface. The steam is used to drive the t u rbi nes to renewable resources.
generate elect ricity as in convent ional fossil f uel power stations. These include solar, wind,
wave, hydroelectric and
Hydroelectric energy geothermal energy as well
Hydroelectric energy uses the gravitational potential energy stored in as biofuels.
water held in a dam. Large areas of land are often flooded to creat e 2 Each renewable source
t he dams. Hydroelectri c plants are often in mount ainous areas. The of energy has its own
water is allo1/\fed to fa ll to a 1011\fer level and on t he 11\fay down turns advantages and
the t urbines to generate elect ricity. disadvantages.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 What do we mean by a
'renewable energy source'?
2 Give a disadvantage of:
a wind energy
b hydroelectric energy
c wave energy
d biofuels.
3 Why do 11\fe need to f ind
alternative sources of
renewable energy?
Figure 18.2.3 A hydroelectric plant in Costa Rica

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Descri be t he uses of solar
energy.
• Discuss the variables affecting
solar energy.
• Appraise the usefulness of
solar energy.
EXAM TIP
Solar- ev-er-gi:j call\, be
storecl as neat ell\,er-gi:j Lil\,
SKbst~ "."ces wi.tn La r-ge neat
capacities, SKcn as r-oc~ or-
coll\,cr-ete.
Solar energy
Uses of solar energy
The Sun provides us with energy that we do not have to pay for. We
use it every time we hang clothes out to dry. In industry, salt can be
extracted from seawater in shallow pools left to evaporate in the
Sun's heat. Solar driers are also used to dry meat, fish, fru its or crops
such as coffee beans in Costa Rica.
Scientists continue to develop more ways to use this free energy to
do useful vvork.
Solar cells transfer energy from the Sun directly into electrical
energy. The cells are called photovoltaic cells. They are used in solar
powered calculators and for signs in remote areas that do not have
mains electricity. Lots of photovoltaic cells linked together can even
be used to generate electricity in a power station (see Figure 18. 3.1).
- -=-----' Inmains
sunny places photovoltaic cells can be combined to generate
electricity. However, you need a huge nu mber of them as at
present they are less tha n 20% efficient.
Another way to generate electricity is to concentrate the Sun 's energy
to tu rn water into steam to turn turbines in generators. These power
stations can use curved mirrors to track the path of the Sun across
the sky and focus the light on to a tower. They can store heat energy
in pressurised steam for a short time, but research continues to find
better ways of storage, for example in molten salt.
On a smaller scale the same principle is used in solar cookers where
the solar energy is concentrated by a shiny collecting dish onto a
focal point to cook food.
Solar panels heat vvater that flows th rough pipes in t he panels. The
panels are often installed on south-facing roofs to supply hot water
to a home. They are coloured black to absorb as much solar heat
energy as possible (see Figure 18.3.2). Heating systems can also be
run off solar power.

KEY POINTS

1 Solar energy is free and has

always been used by people
for drying and warming
things.
2 We have developed solar
panels and solar cells to use
the Sun's energy in homes
and industry.
Figure 18.3.2 Solar panels wa rm water 1hat passes 1hrough them
3 Although solar energy is
free, research continues to
Variables affecting solar energy transfer improve the efficiency of
To get the most out of solar power, any collection system rnust be set collection and storage of
up for maximum exposure to sunlight. This exposure will be affected solar systems.
by:
• the time of day
SUMMARY QUESTIONS
• the seasons of the year
• the angle of tilt towards the Sun (perpendicular giving maximum 1 Make a list of uses of solar
exposure) energy.
• the weather (high temperatures and clear skies a re best)
2 Explain how a solar cooker
• shading (for example by neighbouring trees) works.
• distance from the equator. 3 a There are two ways of
usi ng solar energy to
Advantages and disadvantages of solar energy generate electricity in a
In the Caribbean, which lies near the equator and has plenty of power station. What are
hours of sunshine per year, solar energy is an attractive alternative t hey?
source of energy. However at present it is the most expensive method b What would be the ideal
of generating electricity of all t he options available. It has high set location for a solar power
up costs and is less than 20% efficient. Although the energy can be station?
stored, research continues to find more efficient ways to do this and c Why are solar cells on
to make solar cells more effective. satellites the best way to
supply their instruments
with electrical energy?
4 Why is solar energy not more
widely used at present?

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Define fo rce.
• Discuss the principles of
forces.
NEWTON'S FIRST lAW
Newton's first law states that
an object will remain stationary
or continue moving in the same
direction, at the same speed,
unless an external force acts on
the object .
Principles of forces
A fo rce can cause a change in an object. The force may change its
speed, the di rection the object is moving in or its sha pe. But there are
still forces acting on objects that are not moving or changing shape.
Whenever yo u push an object t he object will push back on you with
the same size fo rce, but in the opposite direction. Newton called these
forces the action force and the reaction force. Newto n's third law of
motions says that action and reaction are always equal and opposite.
If a plate is placed on a table, a force acts vertically downwards from
the plate. This is t he plate's weight, measured in the units of force,
newtons (N). At the same time, the table pushes vertically upwards
on the plate with an equal force. In order to move the plate to
another position on the table, we must apply another force.
We can represent forces by arrows that point in the direction the force
is acting. The length of the arrow is drawn to scale to represent the
size of the force. The forces acting at a point can be added up to give a
resultant fo rce. If the fo rces cancel out to give a resultant force of zero,
the object is either stationary or moving at a constant velocity.
A jet plane moves fo rward because its engines push hot gases
backwards and the reaction force, called thrust, pushes the plane
forward. A space vehicle changes direction in space in a similar way
when it fi res its booster rockets.
Plane moving at Lift
constant speed
Drag
Thrust
Weight
Figu re 19.1.1 The forces ac1ing on a jet plane. li f1 (from t he air-flow around the
plane's wings) opposes 1he force of gravi1y (the plane's \,veigh1).
Thrus1 (provided by 1he jet engines) opposes drag (friction of the air
or air resistance). Planes ! ravel faster \,vith a strong !ail-wind behind
them, bu11he drag force also increases as veloci1y increases.
Friction is a hindrance in some ways, but is essential in others. We
have seen how t he moving parts of a machine waste energy because
of the heat energy released th rough frictio n. However, we would not
be able to walk without the force of friction between our feet and
the ground. As your foot produces a force backwards, it is friction
that stops it actually moving backwards and pushes you forward. If
friction is reduced, such as walking on ice, yo ur foot does move
backwards and walki ng becomes difficult.
The same fo rces apply when a car moves along a road. If oil is spilt on
a road, a tyre can no longer grip t he road's su rface and t he fo rce of
friction is reduced. The vvheels spin w ith no f riction opposing their
movement and t he car skids. The same t hing can happen on a vvet or
icy road or when t he t read of a tyre is worn down.

Figure 19.1.2 Wet road surfaces have less friction with tyres than a dry road
su rface
The drag experienced by cars is reduced by streamlining their shape.
This is important as it saves fuel, reducing the energy needed to
produce t he same speed.

KEY POINTS
1 Forces can change an object's speed, its direction of motion
or its shape.
2 Forces are balanced when an object is stationary or moving at
constant speed in a straight line.
3 Friction is a fo rce that opposes motion.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Tvvo people on roller blades pull on either end of a rope.

Explain w hat ha ppens.
2 a What forces does a book on a desk experience?
b Why does t he book remain st ationary on t he desk even
though it is experiencing fo rces?
3 Draw a diagram to show t he forces acting on an aeroplane as
it accelerates down a runway and is at t he point of taking off.
(There are four f orces to consider.)

4 Explain one example of f ri ction acting as a hind ranee and one

example of its usefulness.
 Gravity and stability

LEARNING OUTCOMES Gravity

Any tvvo objects tend t o attract each ot her. The larger the mass of an
• Define gravity.
object, t he stronger its attract ion fo r ot her objects. The objects we
• Explain stable, unstable and use in everyday life are too small to notice t his attraction. But w hen
neutral equilibrium. you consider an object t he size of a planet, t hen t hese forces become
• Discuss t he relationship signif icant. It is the force of attraction betvveen the objects on Eart h
between the centre of gravity and t he Earth itself t hat keeps everything on t he surface of the
of an object and its stability. planet. We call t his t he force of gravity. This force always acts towards
t he cent re of the Eart h.
The force of gravity acting on us is called our weight, measured in
Second p,:o;in~ ¥ ;;::;::.;;::;::.1 r ~ Stand nevvtons (N), where a mass of 1 kg has a weight of about 10 N. We can
think of t he fo rce of gravity or an object's \l\leight as acting through a
single point. This point is called t he object's centre of gravity.
We can f ind the centre of gravity of a flat object using a plumbline.
First
Look at Figure 19.2 .1.
point~
Card Centre of As in the experiment in Figure 19.2.1, whenever \l\le suspend an
---
Plumbline (a string with a
gravity object it \l\lill ahl\lays come to rest with its centre of gravity directly
below t he point of suspension. It is said to be in a position of stable
small weight on the end) equilibrium.
If \l\le move t he object sideways f rom it s equilibrium position, it will
experience a t urning force. The obj ect is unstable in t his position. Its
centre of gravity is raised and gravity will act to pull it down again.
The turni ng fo rce w ill return it to its position of equilibrium w here it
is stable again. Look at Figure 19.2.2.
Figure 19.2.1 Experimen t to find the
centre o f gravity of a piece
of card. For symmetrical
flat objects the centre o f
gravity will be their centre
o f symmetry.

Centre
of gravity

Weight of Weight of
basket basket

Figure 19.2.2 The hanging basket in a is in its position of stable equilibrium . In

b it experiences a turning force as g ravity tries to return it back to
its stable equilibrium position .
An unstable equilibrium is one in w hich any movement of t he
balanced object makes its cent re of gravity lower. The force of gravity
t hen makes the object carry on fa lling. An example is a ball balanced
on top of a hump. Once t he ball is moved to one side, it \/\/ill fa ll off -
it will not return to its equilibriu m position.
A t hird type of equilibrium is called neutral equilibriu m. If a ball
moves to one side on a flat surface, its centre of gravity does not rise
or fa ll. It stays at t he same level so the ball is displaced but remains in
a position of equilibri um.

Stability and centre of gravity

The location of an object's cent re of gravity affects its stability.
Stability, in t his case, is a measure of how difficult it is to make an Centre of
gravity
object topple over. How far do you have to t ilt an object before it falls
over? Look at t he block of wood in Figure 19.2.3.

a b ..' C
.,
.•
C7,entre of_. .,.. Centr~ of , ..
grati.ty · gravity-···
•
...•.. -·· ' .... ••
.' ...
I
'
~······· I j/
'

Fulcrum Fulcrum Fulcrum Weight

• • Figure 19.2.4 W hat would happen if
Weight Weight Weight
the tractor's centre of
Figure 19.2.3 The block of wood will topple over in c. In w hich posi1ion is the gravity vvas hig her and i1s
block o f wood balanced? \<Vheel base narrower?

An object topples as soon as the Ii ne of force of its \/\/eight acts

outside its base.
In experiments like this we f ind that:
• the lower t he cent re of gravity, t he more stable t he obj ect is
KEY POINTS
• the wider t he base of t he object, t he more stable it is.
This is important in vehicle design as some off-road vehicles, such as 1 The fo rce of gravity acts
tractors, have to t ravel across uneven land. That is w hy t hese have a towards t he cent re of t he
wide w heel base and a low centre of gravity. Earth.
2 An object 's weight can be
SUMMARY QUESTIONS thought of as acting
downwards f rom a point
1 Explain w hat we mean by 'the Earth's gravity'. called its cent re of gravity.
2 Wha t is t he weight of an object with a mass of 200 kg? 3 An object can be in a
3 a Describe an experiment to f ind the centre of gravity of an position of stable, unst able
irregular-shaped piece of card . or neutral equilibrium.
b Distinguish between stable, unstable and neutral equilibrium 4 The lower an object's centre
in terms of moving the height of an object's centre of gravity. of gravity and t he w ider its
base, the more stable t he
4 a When will an object topple over?
object is, i.e. the more
b Explain w hy a ten-pin bowling pin is easy to knock over. difficult it is to topple it over.
c How can we make a chair as stable as possible?
 Turning forces

LEARNING OUTCOMES The moment of a force

• Calculat e t he moment of a
force.
• Use the principle of moments
to solve problems involving a
balanced beam.
LINK
For more informat ion about
levers and force multipliers, see
12.1 'Simple machines'.
We have seen how usef ul levers are already.
If you undo a t ight wheel-nut on your bike, would you choose a
short spanner or a long spanner? We can work out t he t urni ng fo rce
or moment that t he long spanner and t he short spanner have using
t his equation:
perpendicular distance
moment of force force x from the fu lcrum to the
<'~ line of action of the force
(in newton metres, (in newtons, (in metres,
Nm) N) m)
We have tvvo spanners and we apply the same fo rce of 150 N t o the
end of each spanner.

Effor~ '; ...---,

150N ~ \

Effor~ )
150N
Figure 19.3.1 The turning effec1 (momen1) o f a force depends on both 1he effort
applied and the distance of the effort from the fulcrum

Applying t he equation above:

Forcef
= 56N for t he shorter spanner: for t he longer spanner:
moment = 150 N x 0.1 5 m moment = 150N x 0.2m
= 22.SNm = 30Nm
So the longer spanner enables a grea ter t urning force (moment) to
Distanced be applied to the nut.
= 25cm
Worked example
A clavv hammer is used to remove a nail f rom a piece of wood
(see Figure 19.3.2).

Fulcrum W hat is t he moment of t he force applied to t he nail?

Moment = fo rce x distance to f ulcrum
= 56N X 0.25m
Figure 19.3.2 A claw ha mmer removing = 14Nm
a nail
A balancing act
In the worked example with t he hammer, the turning force is being
applied in a clockw ise direction around t he fulcru m. When we have
weights on either side of a balanced beam, vve have turn ing forces
of equal size acting downwards on either side of the fu lcrum. On
one side of the fulcrurn the force w ill be tending to t urn the beam
clockwise and on t he ot her side t he force will be anticlockwise.
So w hen the beam is balanced we can say t hat:
the sum of t he the sum of the
clockwise moments anticlockwise moments
We call t his the principle of moments.
The t urn ing force on each side of t he fulcrum is calculated by t he
principle of moments equation. So in Figure 19.3.3 we can say t hat:

Fl X d, = F2 X d2

14
d, d

Fulcrum KEY POINTS

F,d , = F2d2
1 We can calculate the turnin g
effect of a force (called
Figure 19.3.3 Demonstrating the principle of moments its moment) using the
equation: moment - fo rce
x perpendicular distance
Worked example f rom its line of act ion.
In Figure 19.3.3, if F1 = 5.0 N, d 1 = 0.2 m, and F2 = 4.0 N, how fa r
from the f ulcru m (d) is t he weight F2 applied in order to balance 2 The principle of moments
t he beam? for a balanced object
states t hat t he sum of t he
F, X d, = F2 X d2 clockwise moments equals
5.0N x 0.2m = 4.0N x d 2 the sum of t he anticlockwise
Re-arranging the equation gives: moments about a fulcru m
(F x d 1 - F2 x d}.
5.0N x 0.2m = d
4.0 N 2

0 .25m = d2

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 A girl uses a spanner to undo a nut. She applies a force of 7 5 N at a perpendicular distance of 15 crn
f rom t he nut. W hat is the moment of t he fo rce t hat she applies t o t he nut, in newton metres?
2 Look at the children on the see-saw
opposite.
The girl weighs 450 N and sits 1 m
f rom t he fulcru m to balance her
younger brother w ho weighs 300 N.
How far f rom t he f ulcrum does her
brother sit?
 Circular motion and
satellites

Vehicles have to be stable when t hey go around bends. They are in

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Discuss cent ri petal force.
• Explain w hat a satellite is.
danger of toppling over if they take a sharp corner too quickly. W hen
they go rou nd a bend, they experience a centripeta l force t owards
the cent re of a circle. Their velocity is changing constantly as they are
turning, so vehicles going rou nd a bend are accelerat ing.
There is a natural tendency for any object travelling in a circular path
t o keep going in a st raight line. However, t he f riction between t he
road and t he tyres provides t he inward cent ripetal force. Formula One
racing cars have wide tyres to increase t he cent ripetal force needed
at high velocities. They are also low to the ground, with a wide w heel
base, to prevent t hem rolling over.

.. An object tends to fly out of a circular path

'
► .. ►
.... without a centripetal force pulling it toward
the centre of the circle

Figure 19.4.1 A racing car has a low centre of gravity and a wide w heel base to
keep it stable vvhen cornering at high speed

You can feel t he cent ripetal force when you w hirl an obj ect around
your head on t he end of a piece of string.
You are pulling inwards to keep the object flying around in a circle.
This centripetal force always acts tovvards t he centre of the circle. If
at any point you let go of t he st ring t he object will fly off in a straight
line at a tangent to its circular pa th. (Think of a hammer t hrower in
an athlet ics event.)
The centripetal force needed to keep an object travelIi ng in a circular
path is greater w hen:

Figure 19.4.2 Whirl ing an object aro und

• t he speed is faster
o n a piece o f string • t he circle is smaller
• t he mass of the obj ect is greater.
Satell ites
Satellites are objects that orbit a larger object. The Moon is a
satellite of the Earth. The Earth is a satellite of the Sun. The smaller
object stays in orbit because centripetal force is provided by the
gravitational attraction between the objects.
The speed at which a satellite orbits the larger object depends on
their masses and the distance between them. The larger the distance,
the slower the speed (as the gravitational attraction is weaker). The
more distant planets from the Sun travel more slowly in larger orbits,
so it takes them longer to circle the Sun.
Figure 19.4 .3 The Sun is at the centre
While it takes Saturn 29.5 of our years to orbit the Sun, it takes of our Solar System. The
Mercury (the nearest planet to the Sun) only about three months. Earth 's orbit is an almost
We also have man-made satellites orbiting the Earth. These are mainly circular path.
used for communication, such as TV and GPS (global positioning
satellites) receiving and transmitting signals from Earth. These
communication satellites orbit at the same rate as the Earth spins
round and in the same di rection, so they stay in the same position
relative to the Earth. They are called geostationary satellites.
Other satellites are used to monitor the Earth, fo r example for spying,
to monitor weather patterns or pollution. They usually orbit from
pole to pole so that they can take images of the whole Earth. They
also tend to travel in lower orbits, taking tvvo or three hours to
complete each orbit.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Explain why a racing car can

go round a tight corner much
more quickly than a dou ble-
decker bus without toppling
'---=-----' The Hubble satellite orbi1s the Earth taking fantastic images of over.
objects and events in outer space. As i1 orbits the Earth in space,
there is no interference from the atmosphere to distort radiation 2 a What is a satellite?
detected by the telescope. The International Space Station is b What fo rce keeps a
another sa tellite that adds to our scienti fic knowledge. Scientists
satellite in its orbit?
can observe experiments in zero gravity on the space station.
c Explain why
KEY POINTS communication and
monitoring satellites have
1 Centripetal force acts towards the centre of a circular path different orbits around
and keeps an object in circular motion. the Earth.
2 Satellites orbit larger objects. These can be planets orbiting 3 Why does Saturn take
the Sun, moons orbiting planets or man-made satellites longer to orbit the Sun than
launched into space at the correct speed to orbit the Earth. Mercury?
Section C . :Pr"t-:tice exam questions

SECTION C: Multiple-choice questions

1 What is responsible for day and night? 5 What is the moment of the claw hammer
a The position of the Sun relative to the shown in the diagram below?
other stars force
b The position of the Earth relative to the 40N
position of t he Sun
c The position of the Sun and the asteroids
relative to the position of the Moon
d The position of the Earth and the Sun 0.25m
relative to the position of the galaxies
2 The main reason not more wind energy is
harnessed today is because
a the wind does not blow enough at many
places.
b wind tu rbines are expensive and difficult to a 160N
build. b 40.25 N
c no good way has been found to change c 39.75N
wind energy to electricity.
d 10N
d wind tu rbines would pollute the
atmosphere. 6 Polluted ponds and rivers can suffer from the
effects of excess algae on the surface of the
3 There are many ways to catch fish water. What can cause this type of pollution?
commercially. The method used depends on
the habitat of the target species. I Fertilisers
II Sewage
Which one of the following methods catches
fish by surrounding them in a net? 111 Detergents
a Dredging IV Oil spills
b Trawling a I only
c Purse seining b I and Ill
d Long-lining c II and IV
d I, II and Ill
4 An object has a mass of 200 g and a volume
of 25 cm 3 . What is the object's density? 7 An object is travelling in a circular path. What
a 8 g/cm 3 do we call the name of the force that keeps it
on its circular path?
b 175 g/cm 3
a Centripetal fo rce
c 225 g/cm 3
b Kinetic force
d 5000 g/cm 3
c Resultant fo rce
d Stability force

Fu rt her practice questions

and examples can be found
on the accompanying website.
SECTION C: Short answer questions

8 The following chart compares a luna r and a solar eclipse. Write the words that belong in the lettered
boxes.

Lunar eclipse Solar eclipse

a Body that is hidden

b Body that causes the
shadow
C Body where the shadow fa lls
d When it occurs (day or
night)
e Size of shadow (large or
small)
f Appeara nee of shadows
edge (fuzzy or sharp) (12)

9 Most of the electricity produced at t he present 111What is the general pattern in the
time comes from fossil fuel power stations. results obtained by the research
a Name two fossil fuels. (2) company? (1)

b State two examples of environmental iv How would these results be best

problems caused by fossil fuel power displayed? Choose one of the options
stations. (2) below.
c Why are fossil fuels known as 'non- A Bar chart
renewable sources of energy'? (2) B Line graph
d Alternative forms of energy include t he use C Pie chart
of wind turbines to generate electricity. D Histogram (1)
i Give one advantage and one v What would be the main disadvantage
disadvantage of using wind turbines to of choosing to make wind turbines
generate electricity. (2) that give the maximum output? (1)
A research company was investigating how e The Sun's energy can also be used as a
the height of a wind turbi ne affects its source of energy.
power output. Here is a table of the results
Give two examples of how we can use
of one of the investigations.
solar energy as an alternative source of
Height of turbine Power output energy in the home. (2)
(m) (kW) f Geothermal energy is another source of
35 147 energy. Explain how this energy could be
40 194 used in a power station. (2)

50 225
60 252
70 280
80 303
85 310 Further practice questions
and examples can be found
ii What units are used to measure the
on the accompanying website.
power output? (1)
Note: Key terms (glossary terms) are blue 70 cyan 70
in bold type. brass 12 1 cyt oplasm 4
breastfeed ing 18
A advantages 18 D
absorption 35 breathing 56- 7 decomposers 28- 9
accidents 108 breathing d iseases 63 dental formulae 38- 9
avoiding accidents 108- 9 bungee jum ping 94 desalination 159
acid rain 169 detergents 130
acids 124- 5 C soapy and soapless detergents 129
active t ransport 8- 9 cancers 63 dialysis 65
aerobic respiration 58 capillaries 42 d iet 19
AIDS 47 carbohydrases 34 ba lanced d iet 30- 1
air masses 146 carbohydra tes 30 energy req uirements 32- 3
how hurricanes form 149 carbon cycle 145 food additives 3 3
local wea ther fronts 148 carbon dioxide 60 obesity 32
moving air masses 147 carbon monoxide 60-1 , 62 protein energy malnutrition
air pollu tion 60 cells 4 (PEM) 33
causes o f air pollution 60- 1 active transport 8- 9 dif fusion 6
respira tory disorders 6 1 animal cells 4 digest ion 34
alcohol 19 cell membrane 4 absorption and assimilation 35
alcohol thermometers 89 diffusion 6 chemical d igestion 34- 5
alloys 121 osmosis 6- 7 egestion 3 5, 64
aluminium 118-1 9 plant cel ls 5 mechanica l digestion 34
alveoli 54 cent re of gravit y 176 teeth 38- 9
gaseous exchange at t he alveoli 57 stability and centre o f gravity 177 varying pH in the d igestive system
anaerobic respiration 58 cent ripetal force 180-1 34- 5
fermentation 58 chemical wea thering 140 d ig ital thermometers 89
lactic acid prod uction 59 chlorophyll 24 disease
animal cells 4 chloroplasts 5 deficiency diseases 30
functions of t he cell parts 4 chromatography 7 1 diseases in pregnancy 19
antibodies 44 ch romosomes 4 im munity 46- 7
antigens 44 ci liary muscles 68 respiratory disorders 6 1
arteries 42 circular motion 180 sexua lly transmitted infections
narrowing arteries 62 circu latory system 42- 3 (STls) 20-1
artificial light 71 blood 42 smoking 62- 3
asexual reproduction 10-11 blood vessels 42 DNA4
assimilation 35 heart 43 domestic waste 78
atherosclerosis 48 clinical t hermometers 89 d redging 165
cold fronts 148 drugs 19, 50
B colloids 126 health and eth ica I issues 51
bacteria 20 colour 70 performance-enhancing drugs 50-1
ba lance 73 colour of objects 7 1 drying 37
princip le of moments 17 9 physically separating mixt ures of
bases 124- 5 pigmen ts 7 1 E
batteries 94 com passes 166 ea r 72
bimeta llic strips 88 com pounds 124 hearing loss 73
biod egradable waste 78 com puters 95 how we hear 73
biofuels 170- 1 concentration grad ients 6 maintaining balance 73
biological ~vaste 78 conduction 84 sound waves 72
biological weathering 141 conductors 98 Earth 134, 136
birth 15 conservation o f energy 94 day and night 138
birth control methods 16-1 7 contraception 16-1 7 lunar eclipse 139
b lood 42 convection 86 sola r eclipse 138- 9
blood groups 44 land and sea b reezes 86- 7 tides 150
blood pressure 48- 9 cornea 68 eart hq uakes 152- 3
blood transfusions 44- 5 crop production 26- 7 measuring streng th 1 53- 4
blood vessels 4 2 crop rotation 2 7 eclipses 138- 9
rhesus factor 45 cu rrent, elect rical 98, 99 egest ion 35, 64
e lectric shock 106- 7 fishing 164 household cleaners 13 0-1
e lectricity fishing by hand 164 human circulatory system 42- 3
conductors and insu lators 98 flota tion 160- 1 human ea r 72-3
current, vo ltage and resistance 99 fluids 86-7 human eye 68- 9
energy consumption 102- 3 food ad ditives 33 human g rowth 23
fuse as safety device 100 food chains 28 human reproduction 13
plugs 100- 1 food preservation 36- 7 birth control methods 16-17
power 100, 10 2 food tests 31 menopause 14
series and para llel circuits 98 food webs 29 menstrua I cycle 14
e lectroplating 121, 123 forces 174- 5 post-natal care 18
emergencies 10 6- 7 cent ripeta l force 180- 1 pre-natal care 19
emu lsifiers 130 gravity 176- 7 pregnancy 15
endocrine system 76 turning forces 178- 9 stages of labour and birth 15
hormones 77 fossil fuels 168 hu man respiratory system 54, 56-7
energy 94 al terna tives 170-1 human skeleton 52- 3
electricity 102-3 problems associated with fossil humid ity92
energy interconversions 94-5 fuels 168- 9 humus 141
forms of e ne rgy 94 fungi 2 1 hurricanes 149
momentum 96- 7 fu ses 100 hurricane precau tions 149
moving e ne rgy 96 hydroelectric energy 171
renewa ble energy sources 170-1 G hydrophiles 130
sola r energy 170, 172- 3 galaxies 134 hydrophobes 130
unit of energy 95 galvanising 123 hydroponic farming 26
energy requirements 32-3 gaseous exchange 56- 7 hygiene 79
energy transfer 84 fish 55
conduction 84 gases 2 I
fluids 86- 7 geostationary satellites 181 immunity 46
radia tion 85 geothermal energy 17 1 HIV/AIDS 47
variables a ffecti ng solar energy germination 22 immunisation 46
transfer 173 gills 55 immunisation of the baby in
enzymes 34 g lobal warming 60, 169 preg nancy 46
erosion 26 g lucose transport in plants 41 vaccination 46-7
eutrophication 162 GPS (G loba l Posi tioning Syste m) 166 inclined planes 111
evaporation 90-1 g ravity 176- 7 industrial waste 79
cooling your body down 91 stability and cen tre of gravity 177 inhala tion 56
excretion 64 g reen 70 co mparing inhaled and exha led
kidn eys 64- 5 g reenhouse farming 27 air 56
plants 66- 7 g reenhouse gases 60 inner planets 136-7
skin 65 insulators 84, 98
exercise 32, 49 H involun ta ry actions 75
exhalation 5 6 haemoglobin 42 iris 68
compa ring inhaled and exhaled air 56 hea ring 73 iron 122, 123
eye 68 hearing loss 7 3
defects 69 hea rt 43 J
eye lens 68 heating 37 joints 52- 3
focusing ligh t 68- 9 cooling your body down 91 Jupiter 137
ultraviolet or bright light 69 overheati ng 92-3
high blood pressure 48 K
F effects 49 Kevlar 1 15
fats 30 reducing 49 kidneys 64-5
food tests 31 HIV 47 dialysis 65
fermentation 58 homeostasis 64
f erti lisation 12, 13 hormones 14 L
fibre 31 e ndocri ne system 7 7 labora tory th ermometers 89
fire figh ting 106 household appliances 88- 9 labour 15
first aid 10 6-7 household chemicals 124 lactic acid production 59
fish 55 acids, bases and sa lts 124- 5 lan d breezes 86-7
fish farming 165 compounds and mixtures 124 la tent heat of vaporisa tion 91
lead 61 endocrine system 76-7 photosynthesis 24-5
levers 11 0- 11 reflex (involun tary) actions 75 plant growth 22
levers in the body 11 1 voluntary actions 74 soil 143
ligh t 68- 9 neurones 74 transport in plants 40-1
colour of objects 71 neutralisation 125 plasma 42
natural and artificial lighting 71 nicotine 62 plastics 11 5
primary and secondary colours 70 nitrogen cycle 144 plastics in sport 115
visible spectrum 70 non-metall ic ma terials 11 4- 15 population growth 23
ligh ting 71 non-renewable fuels 168 post-natal care 18
display screens 104 nuclear power stations 95 practice exam questions 82- 3, 132- 3,
more efficient lighting 104- 5 nucleus 4 182- 3
lipases 34 pre-natal care 19
liquids 2 0 pregnancy 15
long-lining 164 obesity 32 diseases in pregnancy and
long-sightedness 69 occluded fronts 148 immunisation of the baby 19
lunar eclipse 139 Oh m's lavv 99 preserva tives 37
oil spills 163 primary colours 70
M oils 30 producers 28
machines 11 0 food tests 31 proteases 34
doing work 112 opacity 70 proteins 30
inclined planes 111 optic nerve 68 food tests 31
levers 11 0-11 osmoregulation 64 protein energy malnutrition
mechanical advantage 112-1 3 osmosis 6- 7 (PEM) 33
magenta 70 outer planets 137 pupil 68
magnetic compasses 166 ovulation 14 purse seining 165
tvlars 136-7 oxidation 118
mass 96-7 oxygen cycle 144- 5 R
maximum-minimum thermometers 89 oxytocin 15 radar 166
menopause 14 radiation 85
menstrua l cycle 14 p reabsorption 65
tvlercury 136 parallel circuits 98 red 70
meta ls 11 4 parasites 79, 80 red blood cells 4 2
alloys 121 particle theory 2- 3 reflex actions 75
cleaning meta Is 120 passive smo king 63 refraction 70
electroplating 121 pathogens 36 refrigeration 37
reactivity of metals 116-1 9 performance-enhancing relative hu midity 92
methane 61 drugs 50- 1 reproduction 10
microorganisms 36-7 peristalsis 34 asexua l reproduction 10- 11
Milky Way 134 pesticides 1 63 comparing asexual and sexual
minerals 30 pests 80-1 reproduction 11
transport in plants 41 pH in t he digestive system 34- 5 humans 13- 15
mitochondria 4 phloem 40 plants 12-1 3
mixtures 124 photochemical reactions 24 sexual reproduction 11
classifying mixtures 126 photosynthesis 24-5 resistance 99
moment of a force 178 physical 1111eathering 140 respiration 58
principle of moments 179 freezing and thawing 140 aerobic respiration 58
momentum 96- 7 temperature changes 140-1 anaerobic respiration 58- 9
Moon 134, 138 pickling 37 respiratory system 54
lunar eclipse 139 planets 136- 7 breathing 56- 7
tides 150 planetary data 137 gaseous exchange in fish 55
muscles 53 plant cells 5 respiratory disorders 6 1
functions of the cell parts 5 respiratory su rfaces 54
N plant reproduction 12 resuscitation 106- 7
natural light 71 fertilisation 13 retina 68
navigation at sea 166 pollination 12 rhesus factor 45
Neptune 137 plants ribosomes 4
nervous system 74 crop production 26-7 rusting 122
damage to t he nervous system 75 excretion 66- 7 preventing rust 123
s states of matter 2 vacuu m flasks 87
safety first 108- 9 changing state 3 veins 42
salting 36 particle theory 2-3 velocity 96- 7
salts 124-5 properties of each state 2 ventilation 93
sat ellites 18 1 stationary fronts 148 Venus 136
Sa turn 137 steel 121, 12 2, 123 viruses 21
scouring powders 13 1 stomata 40 vitamins 30
scuba-d iving 167 sublimation 3 volcanoes 152
sea breezes 86-7 sugar 37 Caribbean islands with live
secondary colours 70 reducing sugars 31 volcanoes 155
seismographs 153 sulphur dioxide 60, 159 types of volcano 154
series circuits 98 Sun 134, 136- 7 voltage 99
sexual reproduction 11 day and night 138 voluntary actions 7 4
humans 13- 15 solar eclipse 138- 9
p lants 12-1 3 tides 150 w
sexually transmitted infections suspensions 126 warm fronts 148
(STls) 20 suspensory Iiga men ts 68 waste 78
bacterial infections 20 sweating 9 1 biological waste 78
fungal infections 2 1 community and personal
viral infect ions 21 T hygiene 79
short-sighted ness 69 t arn ishing 11 7 domestic waste 78
skeleton 52 tars 62 industria I waste 79
muscles 53 teeth 38 uses o f waste 7 9
types of joints 52- 3 dental formulae 38- 9 water 30, 156
skin 65 function of d ifferent teeth 39 conserving water supplies 15 7
slopes 11 1 temperat ure changes 140-1 hard and soft water 128
smoking 19, 62 te m perat ure control 84- 5 properties of water 1 58
brea thing diseases 63 cooling your body down 91 removing hardness 128- 9
cancers 63 temperature control in the body 65 soapy and soa pless
harmful substances in tobacco therm al conductors 84 detergents 12 9
smoke 62 thermal pollution 163 sources and treatment of drinking
narrowing a rteries 62 thermometers 89 water 158- 9
passive smoking 63 t hermos flasks 87 transport in plants 41
soil 140- 1, 142 thermostats 88 water cycle 156- 7
chemical properties of soil 142-3 bi metall ic strips 88 water purification 159
physical properties o f soil 142 household appliances 88- 9 water navigation 166
soi l conservation 26 tides 150 water pollu tion 162
types o f soil 141 tida l waves 151 eutrophica tion 162
solar eclipse 138-9 translucency 70 oil spills 163
solar energy 170 transparency 70 pesticides 163
advan tages and disadvantages 173 transport in plants 40 therma l pollution 163
solar cells 172 transpiration 4 1 water safety 167
solar panels 173 water, mineral ions and g lucose 41 wave energy 171
uses 172- 3 trawling 165 weather fronts 148
variables affecting solar energy trophic levels 28 weathering 140-1
transfer 17 3 t sunamis 151 wetting agents 130
Solar System 136-9 white b lood cells 42
solder 121 u wind direction 86- 7
solids 2 u ltrafiltra tion 64 wind energy 1 71
solutions 126 u ltraviolet light 69 wood 114
solven ts 127 Universe 134 work 11 2
sonar 166 Solar System 136-9
sound waves 72 upthrust 160-1 X
space exploration 134-5 Uranus 137 X-rays 19
spectrum o f colour 70-1 xylem 40
stabi lity 177 V
starch 25 vaccination 46- 7 y
food tests 31 vacuole 5 yellow 70
Amvorks by Cenveo
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Science Photo Library; p10: Scimat/Science Ph oto Library; p12: Konrad vVothe /
Look-Foto/Minden Pictu res/Getty linages; p13: Art Directors & Trip/Alamy Stock
Photo; p18: Choozyee/iStockphoto; p25: Sze Fei Wong/iStockphoto; p26: Art
Directors & Trip/age fotostock; p27: Beat Bieler/iStockphoto; p31: Andre,v Lambert
Photography/Science Photo Library; p33: Sue Sharp; p36(T): Photoa·ew/fotol ia;
p36(B): Sue Sharp; p39: iStockphoto; p44: AJ Photo/Science Photo Library; p47:
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Photo Library; p49: Eye Ubiqttitous/Alan1y Stock Ph oto; pSO: Al essandra Tar antino/
AP Photo; p51: Olivier lvlorin/AFP/Getty ln1ages; pSS: Peter Lea hy/S hutterstoel<; p58:
Sue Sharp; p59: Jeff Pachoud/AFP/Getty Images; p60: Sergiy Serdyuk/iStockphoto;
p62: lvliao Long/iStockphot o; p66: Nancy Nehring/iStockphoto; p67: Krystyna
Szulecka/Ala1ny Stock Photo; p73: Lattapictures/iStockphoto; p77: Dzp hotovideo/
iStockphoto; p78: David Nunuk/Science Photo Library; p79: Mediacolor's/
Alan1y Stoel< Photo; p80: Henrik_L/iStockphoto; p81(T): Pores h/Fotolia; p81(C):
Johncarnemol la/iStockp hoto; p81(B): Er nie Janes/Ala my Stock Photo; p85: Cultura
R1n/Ala my Stock Photo; p87: Phb.Cz Richar d Se1nik/S hutterstock; p91: Pau l
Whitehill/Science Ph oto Library; p94: Ryan Johnson/iStockphoto; p95: Space Kris/
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Photo Library; pl 01: La,vrie Ryan; p103: D4Fish/iStockphoto; p104: Diego Cervo/
iStockphoto; p105: Loopall/Bigstoel<; p106: Intekl /iStockphoto; p115: Keith Ferris/
iStockphoto; p116: Charles D. Winters/Science Photo Library; p118: Amanda
Hey,vood{DK linages; pl 21: D. Fabri/fotolia; pl 23: ls_lmagesource/iStockphoto:
p127: Martyn F. Chilhnaid/Science Photo Library; p131: Emil iolOO/Shut terst ock;
p134: Alex Mit/Shutterstock; p135(RJ: Photodisc; p13S(L): JPL/NASA; p135(BR): NASA;
p136: NASA; p140: Jennifer Elizabeth/Fotolia; p143: Renee Keith/iStockphoto; pl 47:
Jon Bower Dubai 2/Alruny Stock Photo; p151: Th e Yo111iuri Sh imbun/Hiroto Non1oto/
AP Photo; pl 53(T): Juan Barreto/AFP/Getty Images; pl 53(B): Ted Aljibe/AFP/Getty
Images; p159: Eye Ubiquitous/Superstock; pl 61: Robert Harding/Alan1y Stoel< Photo;
p162: Dr. Jeremy Burgess/Science Photo Library; pl 63: U.S Coast Guard/Science
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Images; p171(8): Kryssia Cainpos/Getty linages; p172: Jonya/iStoelcp hoto; pl 73:
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Getty Images; p181: Cristian Andrei lvlatei/iStockphoto
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