Hybridization of different energy storage devices

Based on the fact that the available energy storage devices, including batteries,
ultra-capacitors and ultrahigh-speed flywheels, cannot fulfill the demand of high specific
energy and high specific power simultaneously, EVs can adopt the concept of using two
energy storage devices, the so-called energy hybridization. Hybrid power systems can be
a combination of systems that are integrated together to generate power. Hybrid reflects
the systems' capability to produce and store power. Therefore, these systems involve
energy storage of some sort. Furthermore, such systems are strongly linked with
renewable energy sources. The hybridization of energy storage is to combine two or more
energy storages together so that the advantages of each one can be brought out and the
disadvantages can be compensated by others. For instance, the hybridization of a
chemical battery with an ultra-capacitor can overcome such problems as low specific
power of electrochemical batteries and low specific energy of ultracapacitors, therefore
achieving high specific energy and high specific power. Basically, the hybridized energy
storage consists of two basic energy storages:
1. High Specific Energy.(Battery)
2. High Specific Power.(Ultra Capacitor)
In low power demand operation, such as constant speed cruising operations,
the high specific
power storage
to recover its
charge lost
during high
power demand
operation.
In high power
demand operations,
such as
Acceleration
and hill
climbing, both
basic energy
storages deliver
their power to
the load.
In regenerative
Braking
operations,
the peak power
will be absorbed
by the high
specific power
storage, and
only a limited part is
 absorbed by the high specific energy storage. During hybridization, the simple way is to
connect the ultra-capacitors to the batteries directly and in parallel. In this configuration,
the ultra-capacitors simply act as a current filter, which can significantly level the peak
current of the batteries and reduce the battery voltage drop. (Figure)
The major disadvantage of this configuration is that the power flow cannot be actively
controlled and the ultra-capacitor energy cannot be fully used. So a configuration in which
a two-quadrant DC/DC convertor is placed between the batteries and ultra-capacitors is
used. This design allows the batteries and the ultra-capacitors to have a different voltage.
The power flow between them can be actively controlled, and the energy in the
ultra-capacitors can be fully used. Because of the feature of very low specific energy, the
ultra-capacitor has to work together with the battery for EVs. As shown in Fig. (c), the
battery is aimed to have high specific energy while the ultra-capacitor inherently offers
exceptionally high specific power. Since the ultra-capacitor is of relatively low voltage level,
an additional DC-DC power converter is needed to interface between the battery and
ultra-capacitor terminals. The ultrahigh-speed flywheel is an emerging energy storage
device which can offer high specific power and high energy receptivity. The corresponding
configuration is shown in Fig. (d) in which the battery is selected to offer high specific
energy. Since this flywheel is generally coupled with an AC machine for electromechanical
energy conversion, an additional AC-DC converter is needed to interface between the
battery and flywheel terminals.

Configurations due to variations in

energy storage (a) battery only,
(b) two different batteries,
(c) battery and ultra-capacitor and
(d) battery and ultra-high-speed fly
wheel.
Because of the feature of very low specific energy, the ultra-capacitor has to work together
with the battery for EVs. As shown in Fig. (c), the battery is aimed to have high specific
energy while the ultra-capacitor inherently offers exceptionally high specific power. Since
the ultra-capacitor is of relatively low voltage level, an additional DC-DC power converter is
needed to interface between the battery and ultra-capacitor terminals. The ultrahigh-speed
flywheel is an emerging energy storage device which can offer high specific power and
high energy receptivity. The corresponding configuration is shown in Fig. (d) in which the
battery is selected to offer high specific energy. Since this flywheel is generally coupled
with an AC machine for electromechanical energy conversion, an additional AC-DC
converter is needed to interface between the battery and flywheel terminals.
Flywheel based energy storage
Flywheel Energy Storage A flywheel,
in essence is a mechanical battery
-simply a mass rotating about an
axis. Flywheels store energy
mechanically in the form of kinetic
energy. Flywheels are one of the
most promising technologie
s for replacing
conventional lead acid
batteries as energy
storage systems.
Components There are
five mainly five components in
flywheel energy storage system:
1) Flywheel 2) Motor/Generator
3) Power Electronics 4) Magnetic
bearings 5) External Inductor
Flywheel Flywheels store energy
in a rotating mass of steel of
composite material. Mechanical
inertia is the basis of this
storage method. Use of a
motor/generator, energy
can be cycled (absorbed and then discharged)
Increasing surface speed of flywheel, energy
storage capacity (kWh) of unit increased.
Motor/Generator Permanent Magnet (PM)
machines have the most advantages, including higher efficiency and smaller size when
compared with other types of motors/generators of the same power rating. PM also exhibit
lower rotor losses and lower winding inductances, which make it more suitable for a
vacuum operating environment and the rapid energy transfer of flywheel applications. The
motor/generator is designed to be operated at high speed for minimize system size.
Power Electronics Flywheel energy storage system is the three-phase IGBT-based PWM
inverter/rectifier. The IGBT is a solid-states device with ability to handle voltages up to 6.7
kV, currents up to 1.2 kA and most important high switching frequencies External Inductor
The high-speed PM machines offer low inductances with low number of stator turns and
large operating magnetic air gaps. The low inductances result in High Total Harmonic
Distortion (THD) which increases the machine power losses and temperature. Using an
external inductor in series with the machine in charging mode is necessary to reduce the
THD and bring it within an accepted range.
WORKING -A rotating flywheel stores energy in the kinetic form as
where Jf is the moment of inertia of the flywheel in kgm2/sec and ωf is
the angular velocity of the flywheel in rad/sec. higher rotational speed can significantly
increase the stored energy. To achieve the maximum energy storage, every element in the
rotor should be stressed equally to its maximum limit. Due to the extremely high rotating
speed and in order to reduce the aerodynamic loss and frictional loss, the housing inside
the flywheel in spinning is always highly vacuumed, and noncontact, magnetic bearings
are employed. The electric machine is one of the most important components in the
flywheel system, since it has critical impact on the performance of the system. At present,
permanent magnet (PM) brushless DC motors are usually accepted in the flywheel system.
Apart from possessing high power density and high efficiency, the PM brushless DC motor
has a unique advantage that no heat is generated inside the PM rotor, which is particularly
essential for the rotor to work in a vacuum environment to minimize the windage loss. A
switched reluctance machine (SRM) is also a very promising candidate for the application
in a flywheel system. In contrast to applying the ultrahigh-speed flywheel for energy
storage in stationary plants, its application to EVs and HEVs suffers from two specific
problems. First, gyroscopic forces occur whenever a vehicle departs from its straight-line
course, such as in turning and in pitching upward or downward. The simplest way to
reduce the gyroscopic forces is to use multiple smaller flywheels.
Explain the operation, advantages and disadvantage of flywheel energy storage?
Sol. Flywheels are devices used for storing energy in mechanical form and are not a new
concept. A plane disc spinning about its axis would be an example of a simple flywheel. A
typical system consists of a flywheel supported by rolling-element bearing connected to a
motor– generator. The flywheel and sometimes motor–generator may be enclosed in a
vacuum chamber to reduce friction and reduce energy loss. Some of the key advantages
of flywheel energy storage are low maintenance, long life and negligible environmental
impact. On the other hand, flywheels are more expensive and require more space than
batteries and fuel cells. Moreover, mechanical stress and fatigue limits and Potentially
hazardous failure modes are additional limitations of flywheel energy storage system.
Super Capacitor based energy storage
A supercapacitor is a capacitor that possesses a high charge storing capacity. This
indicates that the energy density and the capacitance value of a supercapacitor are
significantly higher than the normal capacitors. Typically, supercapacitors can have
capacitance values ranging from a few milli farads to tens of farads. Typically, the amount
of energy that a supercapacitor can store is 10 to 100 times more than the electrolytic
capacitors. A supercapacitor is generally preferred in place of batteries because they are
able to deliver charge at a comparatively faster rate and they allow quick and simple
charging. The surface area of the plates of a supercapacitor is relatively more, while the
distance between the two plates is less as compared to that of normal electrolytic
capacitors. Supercapacitors are advantageous as they are durable, have a long life span,
and do not easily get affected by wear and tear. One can feasibly charge and discharge a
supercapacitor again and again without any inconvenience. The supercapacitors possess
a low value of resistance, hence they are able to deliver high load currents. The fine build
quality of a supercapacitor prohibits it from getting affected by overcharging. Also, the
supercapacitors have a low value of impedance and are reliable in nature. The limitations
of a supercapacitor include high cost and high self-discharge rate. The linear discharge of
voltage prohibits the efficient use of the full energy level possessed by the supercapacitor.
Supercapacitors are generally used for industrial applications where a quick charging rate
of the battery and high charge holding capacity is desired. For instance, they are widely
used to supply power to equipment such as elevators, trains, uninterrupted power supply
systems, security alarms, cranes, etc. A supercapacitor is also known as an ultracapacitor
or a double layer electrolytic capacitor.
Working Principle of a Supercapacitor
A supercapacitor typically works on the principle of storing electrical energy between two
electrostatic double layers that are formed due to the deposition of thin layers of charge on
the interface of the electrolyte and the inner side of the capacitor electrode plates.
Construction of a Supercapacitor
The construction of a supercapacitor
is quite similar to that of a normal
electrolytic capacitor. It consists of
two metal electrode plates that are
soaked into an electrolyte
solution and are separated by
a thin insulation layer. The surface
area of the conduction plates of
supercapacitors is significantly large
and the distance between the plates
is less as compared to the traditional
capacitors. A supercapacitor is an
electrochemical device, but it does
not make use of chemical reactions
to produce electrical energy. The material
used to construct the metal plates of a supercapacitor is generally coated with porous
materials such as carbon, activated charcoal, etc. The electrolyte material present between
the two plates provides the necessary insulation and protection to the device against
charge leakage and short circuit. A supercapacitor is capable of storing a huge amount of
charge value as the capacitance value of the capacitor is always directly proportional to the
surface area of its conduction plates, which in this case is significantly large. Also, the
value of capacitance is inversely proportional to the distance between the plates, which in
the case of supercapacitors is considerably less as compared to the traditional capacitors.
Working of a Supercapacitor--The capacitors make use of static electricity or
electrostatics to store energy. The electrolyte solution present between the two plates of
the supercapacitor contains both positively and negatively charged ions. When a voltage is
applied across the plates of the supercapacitor, one of the plates tends to develop a
positive charge, while the other plate gets negatively charged. This causes the negative
ions present in the electrolyte solution to get attracted towards the positively charged plate
and the positively charged ions to get attracted towards the negative metal plate. A thin
layer of ions gets deposited on the inner side of both plates. This leads to the formation of
an electrostatic double layer, which is comparable to a series connection of two capacitors.
The distance between the charge layers of both the resultant capacitors is very thin, hence
each of them possesses a high value of capacitance. The overall capacitance of the
supercapacitor can be calculated by evaluating (C1 x C2)/(C1 + C2).
What is an Ultracapacitor?
A supercapacitor (SC), also called an ultracapacitor, is a high-capacity capacitor, with a
capacitance value much higher than other capacitors but with lower voltage limits. It
bridges the gap between electrolytic capacitors and rechargeable batteries. It typically
stores 10 to 100 times more energy per unit volume or mass than electrolytic capacitors,
can accept and deliver charge much faster than batteries, and tolerates many more charge
and discharge cycles than rechargeable batteries.
Superconducting magnetic energy storage;
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is a technologically advanced method
of storing energy in a magnetic field, which is formed when a current flows around a coil. In
order for this to operate efficiently as an energy storage system, the coil must be made of a
superconductor that has no electrical resistance so that there are no resistive energy
losses as the current circulates. The superconducting materials needed to create the
energy storage coil are expensive and the best of them available today must be cooled
cryogenically to close to absolute zero temperature before they become superconducting.
Higher temperature superconductors are available too but they tend to be less effective.
Superconductivity offers, in principle, the ideal way of storing electric power and one of the
few ways in which electromagnetic energy is stored directly. The storage system
comprises a coil of superconducting material that is kept extremely cold. Off peak
electricity is converted to direct current (DC) and fed into the storage ring using a converter
system and there it stays, ready to be retrieved as required. The energy is actually stored
as a magnetic field that keeps the current circulating; in effect the two are mutually
self-supporting and with no resistive energy loss, the current will continue to circulate
virtually indefinitely. Provided the system is kept below a certain temperature, energy
stored in the ring will remain there without loss. The key to the SMES device is a class of
materials called superconductors. Superconductors undergo a fundamental change in their
physical properties below a certain temperature called the transition temperature, which is
a characteristic of each material. When a material is cooled below its transition
temperature, it becomes superconducting. In this state it has zero electrical resistance.
This means that it will conduct a current with zero energy loss. The most widely used and
cheapest superconducting material is a Niobium-Titanium alloy that has a critical
temperature of 10K or 2263C. Liquid Helium is usually used as the coolant to cool a coil
made of the alloy below this temperature. Niobium-titanium can support relatively high
magnetic fields. Other more expensive materials are also available if an application
demands very high magnetic fields. The device used to charge and withdraw energy from
the superconducting coil does have a slight Resistance and this leads to small energy
losses over time. Superconductors are charged with DC to create the magnetic field in
which the energy is stored. There is no energy loss while the energy is in the coil but there
are energy losses that occur during the conversion of grid alternating current (AC) to DC
and then from DC back to AC. The round trip efficiency is typically 90% for daily cycling but
will be lower for long-term storage because of the energy required to maintain the coil at
below its transition temperature. There are also small continuous losses within the coil at
the point where power is fed in and out. Start-up time for a SMES system is typically
around 5 ms.

Components of SMES System 1. Super conducting coil with magnet. 2. Power

Conditioning System (PCS). 3. Cryogenic System. 4. Control Unit.

In parallel hybrid, charging is done through an interface to the battery, which is connected
in parallel directly to the secondary storage system, SMES system. This parallel system is
connected to a DC–DC converter to match the power to be supplied to the inverter that
provides alternating current to the three-phase motor. From this motor, through gears and
mechanical coupling systems, it is connected to the differential gear that transmits the
motor’s movement to the vehicle’s drive wheels. The control system is in charge of
controlling different parameters, such as temperatures, SOC or rpm to send control orders
to provide optimum management and performance of the systems. It must also control the
cooling system and losses that may occur in the SMES system. As advantages, this
system provides simplicity in its configuration and savings in its development but, on the
contrary, in these systems, the main storage system, the one formed by batteries, and the
secondary one, in this case the SMES system, must have the same nominal voltage. This
is due to the use of a single DC–DC converter before the inverter that provides alternating
current to the motor, assuming that a three-phase alternating motor is used and not any
other type of direct current motor. Advantages 1. SMES systems have the ability of fast
response They can switch from charge to discharge state (vice versa) within seconds. 2.
The absence of moving parts and high cycling efficiency are some additional advantages
Operation Principle 1. The operation of SMES is based on the fact the current will
continue to flow in a superconductor even after the voltage across it has been removed. 2.
A superconducting coil that is cooled below its critical superconducting temperature has
negligible (zero) resistance. Thus the current will continue to flow in it. 3. The stored
energy is inductive: E = 1/2L1² 4. The coil carries a current at any state of charge. 5.
Charging Phase: Since the current flows only in one direction, the PCS must produce a
positive voltage across the coil to store energy. This increases the current. 6. Discharging
Phase: the PCS are adjusted to make the system look like a load across the coil by
producing a negative voltage causing the coil to discharge
Give the advantages and disadvantages of super capacitors as an
energy storage device in electric vehicle?
advantages ---Virtually unlimited cycle life; can be cycled millions of time---High specific
power; low resistance enables high load currents Charges in seconds, ---no end-of-charge
termination required--Simple charging, draws only what it needs, not subject to overcharge
---Safe, forgiving if abused---Excellent low-temperature charge and discharge performance
disadvantages ---Low specific energy; holds a fraction of a regular battery---Linear
discharge voltage prevents using the full energy spectrum--High self-discharge; higher
than most batteries--Low cell voltage; requires series connections with voltage balancing
---High cost per watt
What superior characteristics of super capacitors make it more suitable for electric
vehicle applications? Sol. Because of the frequent stop-and-go operation of EVs and
HEVs, the discharging and charging profile of the energy storage is highly varied. The
average power required from the energy storage is much lower than the peak power for
acceleration and hill climbing in a relatively short time span. The ratio of peak power to
average power can reach over 10:1. In HEV design, the peak power capacity of the energy
storage is more important than its energy capacity and usually constrains its size
reduction. Based on present battery technology, battery design must make a trade-off
among specific energy, specific power, and cycle life. The difficulty in simultaneously
obtaining high values of specific energy, specific power, and cycle life has led to some
suggestions that the energy storage system of EVs and HEVs should be a hybridization of
an energy source and a power source. The energy source, mainly batteries and fuel cell,
has high specific energy, whereas the power source has high specific power. Power
sources can be recharged from the energy source during less demanding driving or
regenerative braking. The power source that has received wide attention is the
ultra-capacitor.
Advantages of supercapacitors Stores large amount of charge compared to the
conventional capacitors (High capacitance). Delivers energy or charge very quickly (high
power density) Long lifetime Low cost Supercapacitors do not explode like batteries even
if it is overcharged.
PNEUMATIC HYBRID ENGINE SYSTEM

---A pneumatic hybrid engine system, also known as a pneumatic hybrid powertrain, is a
type of hybrid propulsion system that combines the use of compressed air with a traditional
internal combustion engine (ICE) to improve fuel efficiency and reduce emissions.
--The basic principle behind a pneumatic hybrid engine system involves capturing and
storing energy during vehicle deceleration or braking by compressing air into a storage
tank. This compressed air can then be used later to assist the ICE during acceleration or
other power demands, reducing the load on the engine and improving overall efficiency.
---Here's a simplified explanation of how a pneumatic hybrid engine system typically works:
----Compression and energy storage: When the vehicle decelerates or brakes, the
kinetic energy is converted into compressed air. The air is forced into a storage tank or
reservoir, where it is held under high pressure until needed.
---Release and power generation: When the vehicle needs additional power, such as
during acceleration or climbing a hill, the compressed air is released from the storage tank.
The air is directed to a pneumatic motor or engine, which converts the stored energy into
mechanical power. This power is then used to assist the ICE in driving the wheels.
----ICE and integration: The internal combustion engine in the vehicle works alongside
the pneumatic system. During normal driving conditions, the ICE operates as it would in a
conventional vehicle. However, when extra power is required, the pneumatic system kicks
in to provide additional assistance, reducing the load on the ICE.
The benefits of a pneumatic hybrid engine system include:---Improved fuel efficiency: By
utilizing stored energy from the compressed air, the pneumatic system reduces the
reliance on the internal combustion engine, leading to improved fuel economy and reduced
emissions.---Regenerative braking: The system allows for energy recovery during
deceleration or braking, which would otherwise be wasted as heat in traditional braking
systems. This regenerative capability enhances overall energy efficiency.---Reduced
engine size: The pneumatic system assists the engine during high-power demands,
enabling the use of a smaller, more fuel-efficient engine without sacrificing performance.
---However, it's important to note that pneumatic hybrid engine systems have some
limitations and challenges. These include the need for high-pressure air storage tanks,
which can be bulky and require careful engineering for safety. Additionally, the efficiency of
energy conversion between compressed air and mechanical power is not 100%, leading to
some energy losses. Nonetheless, ongoing research and development aim to address
these challenges and optimize the performance of pneumatic hybrid engine systems.
Hydraulic accumulator
A hydraulic accumulator is a device used in hydraulic systems to store and release fluid
under pressure. It consists of a cylindrical chamber that contains a movable piston or
bladder separating the hydraulic fluid and a gas or spring-filled compartment. The hydraulic
fluid is typically oil, and the gas compartment is filled with nitrogen.
----The primary purpose of a hydraulic accumulator is to store energy in the form of
pressurized fluid. This stored energy can then be used to supplement the hydraulic system
during periods of high demand or when the hydraulic pump is unable to meet the
instantaneous flow requirements. Here's a breakdown of how a hydraulic accumulator
works:---Compression phase: When the hydraulic system is operating under low demand
or when the pump produces more fluid than needed, the excess fluid is directed into the
accumulator. As the fluid enters, it compresses the gas or spring, causing the piston or
bladder to move against the pressure, thereby storing potential energy in the compressed
fluid.---Energy storage: The accumulator maintains the pressurized fluid until it is
needed. This stored energy can be released rapidly when there is a sudden demand for
hydraulic power. It acts as a temporary source of energy, helping to smooth out the flow
and pressure fluctuations in the system.---Energy release: When the hydraulic system
requires additional power, the pressurized fluid is released from the accumulator. The
stored energy is rapidly transferred to the hydraulic system, providing an immediate boost
in fluid flow and pressure. This helps to supplement the hydraulic pump's output and meet
sudden power demands.---Hydraulic accumulators offer several benefits and applications:
Energy efficiency: By storing excess energy and releasing it during peak demand,
hydraulic accumulators can reduce the load on the hydraulic pump, improving overall
system efficiency and reducing power consumption.--Power supplement: Accumulators
can provide additional power during peak demand situations, such as sudden increases in
load, rapid movements, or emergency situations. They can enhance system performance
and responsiveness.--Pressure stabilization: Accumulators help regulate and stabilize
pressure within the hydraulic system, minimizing pressure fluctuations and maintaining a
consistent fluid supply.--Shock absorption: In applications where hydraulic systems are
subject to shock or impact loads, accumulators can absorb and dampen these sudden
forces, protecting the system components and reducing stress.----Hydraulic accumulators
find applications in various industries, including automotive, industrial machinery,
aerospace, marine, and energy sectors. Some common uses include hydraulic presses,
heavy machinery, mobile equipment, energy storage systems, and hydraulic suspension
systems.---It's important to note that hydraulic accumulators require proper maintenance,
including regular inspections and monitoring of fluid levels and pressure. Safety
precautions should be followed to ensure the integrity of the accumulator and prevent any
potential hazards associated with high-pressure hydraulic systems.
The Advantages---Energy efficiency---High operating reliability and long service
lives---Fast reactions in hydraulic circuits---A complete range of hydraulic accumulators
form a single source---Accumulators with in-house sealing and diaphragm development
that are optimized for the particular application
Types of Hydraulic Accumulators
Accumulators are generally classified by means of the use of energy storage. There are
basically three types of accumulators,
---Weight loaded accumulator--Spring-loaded accumulators--Gas loaded accumulators

Gas loaded accumulators are further divided as the non-separator type and separator type.
Separator type gas loaded accumulators consist of
● Bladder type
● Diaphragm type
● Piston type.
Weight Loaded Accumulator
Weight loaded accumulator consists of a ram loaded with dead weight. The
mass of dead weight may be concrete steel or other heavy material. The piston
rod is much bigger in size to avoid buckling failure due to heavy load.
The accumulator pressure is given by,
Where, d = Diameter of piston W = Deadweight w = Piston and Piston rod
Weight And volumetric Capacity of weight loaded accumulator is given by,
Vacc = π/4 x (d2) x L Where,L = Piston stroke length
Advantages Pressure remains constant for the full stroke.---It can supply a large volume
of fluid under high pressure.---Limitations of weight loaded accumulator--They are bigger in
size and much bulky as compared to others of the same capacity. They consume more
space and need heavy structures to support them. Applications Due to their size and
bulk, their applications are limited to stationary equipment such as heavy-duty presses,
where large volumes are required.
Spring Loaded Accumulator
Spring-loaded accumulator consists of a cylinder containing a spring-
loaded piston, with fluid entering on another side of the cylinder. The
fluid is stored under pressure by the spring force. As the spring is
compressed completely, the accumulator pressure reaches its peak
and as the spring approaches its free length, the accumulator
pressure drops to its minimum. The design is mostly multi-spring, to
reduce the size of the accumulator for the same pressure.
Advantages--- With the use of multiple springs, a compact size
accumulator can be developed for the same pressure as compared
to the deadweight type accumulator.---All parts are enclosed in a
casing and no moving parts protrude out. Limitations --The pressure
exerted on the fluid is not constant as in the deadweight type. As the
springs are fully compressed, the accumulator pressure reaches its peak and as the spring
approaches its free length, the accumulator pressure drops to a minimum. ---Due to the
presence of springs in the upper part of the cylinder, the useful piston stroke is limited.
Hence accumulator cannot provide higher volumes. Applications Spring-loaded
accumulators are used where space limitation is the primary criterion and considerably
smaller volumes are required. For example, automotive and mobile hydraulic applications.
Non-separator type Gas Loaded Accumulator A gas-charged accumulator
pressurizes the fluid by the pressure of the gas. Gas loaded accumulators are also called
hydro-pneumatic accumulators. When there is a separator placed between hydraulic fluid
and gas, it is called separator type and when there is a barrier placed between hydraulic
fluid and gas, it is called gas loaded accumulator with separator
As the fluid is charged in the shell, the fluid level rises,
resulting in compression of the gas. The compression
of gas induces pressure in it and this pressure exerts a
force on the fluid surface.
Advantages ----No mechanical elements to apply
force on hydraulic fluid, hence simple in construction
.---It can absorb shocks and fluctuations since gas\
is easily compressible. ---Low operating cost
Limitations ---Due to a lack of a physical separator,
the gas may be absorbed in the oil. This makes oil
compressible leading to the jerky motion of actuators.
----It must be always kept in a vertical position to
confinegas at the top.---The pressure on the fluid goes on
decreasing as the volume of gas goes on increasing.
Applications Non-separator type gas loaded accumulator is used in applications where
the hydraulic fluid used in the system has high sir separate-ability, and the slight missing of
gas in fluid doesn’t create any functional problems.
Bladder type accumulator Bladder type accumulator employs a bladder, as an
elastic separator between the hydraulic fluid and the compressible gas, normally nitrogen.
The bladder is fastened inside the steel shell using a vulcanized gas
valve assembly. The bladder can be recharged, or
replaced by removing it. The task of oil-valve assembly is
to close the inlet opening when the bladder has expanded fully,
thus preventing the bladder from being forced into the opening.
Advantages ---The bladder provides positive sealing between
the gas and the oil chamber.---It is compact and light in weight.
--Since the bladder is a rubber element and has small
inertia, it provides a quick pressure response even to
minute changes.--They have very few functional parts
and are less expensive Limitations ---The pressure exerted
on the fluid is not constant and goes on reducing as the bladder
goes on expanding.---Comparatively smaller volumes are
accommodated.---The bladder is required to be replaced after a
certain period of service.--They cannot handle high-temperature fluids.
Applications Due to the quick-responding nature, the bladder type accumulator is widely
used in the wheel suspension system of automotive vehicles. Further, it is found applicable
where smaller volumes at comparatively higher pressure are required.
Diaphragm Type Accumulator
Diaphragm type accumulator uses a diaphragm as the elastic
separator between the hydraulic fluid and the gas, normally
nitrogen.A diaphragm is clamped between the walls of the
pressure vessel. A shutoff button is fixed on the base of the
diaphragm. This button serves to block the fluid inlet opening
when the diaphragm is fully expanded, thus preventing the
diaphragm from being forced into the opening.
Advantages --- The diaphragm provides positive sealing
between the gas and the oil chamber.---It is compact and
lighter in weight as well there are no mechanically moving parts.
---It provides a quick response to even minute changes in pressure.
----Higher operating pressure than bladder type accumulator.
Limitations -- The pressure exerted on the fluid is not constant and goes on reducing as
the diaphragm goes on expanding.--Comparatively smaller volumes are accommodated.
---The diaphragm is required to be replaced after a certain period.--It cannot handle
high-temperature fluid.-Applications Due to its quick-responding nature, it is widely used
in the wheel suspension system of automotive vehicles. Further, it is found applicable
where smaller volumes at comparatively higher pressure are required.
Hydraulic pump
A hydraulic pump is a mechanical source of power that converts mechanical power into
hydraulic energy (hydrostatic energy i.e. flow, pressure). Hydraulic pumps are used in
hydraulic drive systems and can be hydrostatic or hydrodynamic. They generate flow with
enough power to overcome pressure induced by a load at the pump outlet. When a
hydraulic pump operates, it creates a vacuum at the pump inlet, which forces liquid from
the reservoir into the inlet line to the pump and by mechanical action delivers this liquid to
the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system. Hydrostatic pumps are positive
displacement pumps while hydrodynamic pumps can be fixed displacement pumps, in
which the displacement (flow through the pump per rotation of the pump) cannot be
adjusted, or variable displacement pumps, which have a more complicated construction
that allows the displacement to be adjusted. Hydrodynamic pumps are more frequent in
day-to-day life. Hydrostatic pumps of various types all work on the principle of Pascal's law.
Construction
Hydraulic Pump ReservoirThe hydraulic reservoir's function is to
hold a volume of liquid, transfer heat from the system,
permit solid pollutants to settle, and aid in releasing moisture and
air from the liquid. Hydraulic Pump=Mechanical energy is
changed to hydraulic energy by the hydraulic pump.
This is accomplished through the movement of liquid, which
serves as the transmission medium. All hydraulic pumps
operate on the same basic principle of dispensing fluid
volume against a resistive load or pressure. Hydraulic Pump Valves
Hydraulic valves are utilized to start, stop, and direct liquid flow in a
system. Hydraulic valves are made of spools or poppets and can be actuated
hydraulically, pneumatically, manually, electrically, or mechanically.
Hydraulic Pump ActuatorsThe end result of Pascal's law is hydraulic actuators. This is
the point at which hydraulic energy is transformed back to mechanical energy. This can be
accomplished by using a hydraulic cylinder to transform hydraulic energy into linear
movement and work or a hydraulic motor to transform hydraulic energy into rotational
motion and work. Hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders, like hydraulic pumps, have
various subtypes, each meant for specific design use.
Working A hydraulic pump operates on positive displacement, where a confined fluid is
subjected to pressure using a reciprocating or rotary action. The pump's driving force is
supplied by a prime mover, such as an electric motor, internal combustion engine, human
labor (Figure 1), or compressed air (Figure 2), which drives the impeller, gear (Figure 3), or
vane to create a flow of fluid within the pump's housing.--A hydraulic pump’s mechanical
action creates a vacuum at the pump’s inlet, which allows atmospheric pressure to force
fluid into the pump. The drawn in fluid creates a vacuum at the inlet chamber, which allows
the fluid to then be forced towards the outlet at a high pressure
Flywheel accumulators
Flywheel accumulators, also known as mechanical energy
storage systems, are devices that store energy in
the form of rotational kinetic energy. They use a
spinning flywheel to store and release energy when needed.
The flywheel is typically made of a lightweight material with
a high strength-to-weight ratio, such as carbon fiber or steel.
Here's how flywheel accumulators work:
Energy storage: When excess energy is available, such as during
periods of low demand or high power generation, the flywheel is accelerated by an electric
motor or another power source. The motor drives the flywheel, increasing its rotational
speed and storing energy in the form of kinetic energy.
Energy release: When additional power is required, the energy stored in the flywheel is
converted back into electrical energy. The flywheel's rotational motion is harnessed, and
the kinetic energy is transferred to an electrical generator or other energy conversion
device. The generator produces electrical power that can be used to meet the
instantaneous demand.Control and safety: Flywheel accumulators incorporate control
systems to manage the energy flow, including speed control, energy conversion, and
monitoring. Safety features are also essential to prevent catastrophic failure, such as
containment systems in case of a mechanical failure or excessive speed.
Flywheel accumulators offer several advantages and applications:
---High power density: ---Rapid energy discharge: ---Long cycle life:---Efficiency:
-----Flywheel accumulators have found applications in various industries, including
transportation, renewable energy, grid stabilization, and industrial systems. They are used
in electric and hybrid vehicles to provide power during acceleration and regenerative
braking. In renewable energy systems, they can store excess energy from intermittent
sources like wind or solar power for later use. Flywheel technology is also used in grid
stabilization systems to help balance power supply and demand fluctuations.--- It's worth
noting that flywheel accumulators have some limitations, such as energy storage capacity
limitations and the need for advanced control systems to manage the high-speed rotating
components. However, ongoing research and development efforts continue to improve the
performance and efficiency of flywheel technology for a wide range of applications.
Battery based energy storage
---Battery-based energy storage systems are a type of energy storage technology that
utilizes rechargeable batteries to store electrical energy for later use. These systems store
electricity in the form of chemical energy within the battery cells and convert it back to
electrical energy when needed. Battery energy storage has gained significant attention and
adoption due to its versatility, scalability, and increasing cost-effectiveness.
Here are the key aspects of battery-based energy storage:
---Battery Types: Various types of batteries are used for energy storage, each with its
unique characteristics. Common battery chemistries used in energy storage applications
include lithium-ion (Li-ion), lead-acid, sodium-ion, flow batteries, and more. Lithium-ion
batteries are the most widely used and preferred due to their high energy density, longer
cycle life, and fast response times.
----Charging and Discharging: During charging, electrical energy from the grid or
renewable sources, such as solar or wind, is used to charge the batteries. The battery
management system regulates the charging process, controlling factors like voltage,
current, and temperature. When energy is required, the batteries discharge electricity,
which can be used to power various applications or feed back into the electrical grid.
----Integration and Control: Battery energy storage systems are integrated with power
conversion systems and control mechanisms. Power electronics, such as inverters, are
used to convert the direct current (DC) stored in the batteries into alternating current (AC)
for use in residential, commercial, or industrial applications. Control systems monitor and
manage battery performance, state of charge, and charging/discharging rates to ensure
optimal operation and system stability.
----Applications: Battery energy storage systems have diverse applications. They can be
used to enhance renewable energy integration by storing excess power during periods of
high generation and supplying it during peak demand or when renewable sources are not
available. They also enable load shifting, where electricity is stored during off-peak hours
and discharged during peak hours to reduce energy costs. Additionally, batteries provide
backup power during grid outages, improve grid stability, and support microgrid operations.
----Advantages: Battery-based energy storage offers several advantages. They provide
high energy density, meaning they can store a large amount of energy in a relatively small
space. They have fast response times, allowing for quick discharge when power is needed.
They are scalable, allowing systems to be customized based on energy requirements.
Moreover, battery technology is continually improving, leading to cost reductions and
increased efficiencies.---Challenges: Some challenges associated with battery energy
storage include cost, limited cycle life (the number of charge-discharge cycles a battery
can withstand before degradation), and environmental concerns related to battery disposal
or recycling. However, ongoing research and development efforts are focused on
addressing these challenges and further improving battery performance and sustainability.
---Battery-based energy storage systems play a crucial role in the transition towards a
more sustainable and resilient energy system. They provide flexibility, stability, and
efficiency to optimize energy management and enable the integration of renewable energy
sources into the grid.
Fuel Cell based energy storage
Fuel cell-based energy storage systems utilize fuel cells to convert chemical energy from a
fuel source into electrical energy. These systems can store and generate electricity by
combining hydrogen or other fuels with oxygen from the air, producing electricity and water
as byproducts. Fuel cells offer a clean and efficient means of energy storage and
conversion. Here are the key aspects of fuel cell-based energy storage:
Fuel Cell Types: Different types of fuel cells exist, including proton exchange membrane
(PEM) fuel cells, solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC), molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFC), and
alkaline fuel cells (AFC). Each type has varying operating temperatures, fuel requirements,
and applications. PEM fuel cells are commonly used for mobile and stationary applications
due to their low operating temperatures, fast startup times, and high power densities.
Fuel Input: The primary fuel source for fuel cell-based energy storage systems is
hydrogen. Hydrogen can be produced through various methods, including electrolysis of
water using renewable electricity, steam reforming of natural gas, or from other renewable
sources such as biomass. The hydrogen is then fed into the fuel cell, along with oxygen
from the air, to initiate the electrochemical reaction.
Electrochemical Reaction: Within the fuel cell, the hydrogen molecules are split into
protons and electrons at the anode. The protons pass through the electrolyte membrane,
while the electrons travel through an external circuit, generating electrical current. At the
cathode, the protons combine with oxygen from the air and the electrons returning from the
external circuit, producing water as a byproduct.
Integration and Control: Fuel cell-based energy storage systems include power
conditioning systems to convert the direct current (DC) output of the fuel cell into
alternating current (AC) for use in various applications. Control systems monitor and
manage the fuel cell operation, adjusting the fuel flow rate, temperature, and other
parameters to optimize performance and system efficiency.
Applications: Fuel cell-based energy storage systems find applications in a range of
sectors. They can provide backup power in critical facilities, such as hospitals or data
centers, where reliable electricity supply is crucial. Fuel cells are also used in off-grid or
remote areas to provide clean and reliable power, replacing diesel generators. Additionally,
fuel cell systems can be integrated into microgrids and distributed energy systems to
provide grid support and enhance renewable energy integration.
Advantages: Fuel cell-based energy storage systems offer several advantages. They
provide high energy efficiency, often exceeding 50%, which is significantly higher than
conventional combustion-based power generation. Fuel cells operate quietly, with low
emissions and minimal environmental impact. They can be rapidly deployed and have the
potential for long-duration energy storage. Furthermore, hydrogen, the primary fuel for fuel
cells, can be produced from renewable sources, contributing to a sustainable energy
system.
Challenges: Challenges associated with fuel cell-based energy storage include hydrogen
infrastructure development, as hydrogen production, storage, and distribution networks are
not yet as extensive as traditional energy sources. Cost is another factor, although ongoing
research and development efforts are focused on reducing the cost of fuel cells and
associated components.
Fuel cell-based energy storage systems hold promise for a cleaner and more sustainable
energy future. With continued advancements in fuel cell technology and the establishment
of a hydrogen economy, these systems can contribute to decarbonization efforts and
provide reliable and efficient energy storage solutions.
What are the requirements for energy storage systems in HEV and pure
electric vehicle?
Energy Density: Power Density: Cycle Life: Efficiency: Thermal Management: Cost: