Unit II Electric Vehicle Architecture and Vehicle Modeling

Contents
• Electric vehicle architecture: Battery Electric Vehicles,
The IC Engine/Electric hybrid vehicle. Fuelled EVs, EVs
using supply lines, Electric Vehicles which use flywheels
or supercapacitors, Solar powered Vehicles, Vehicles
using Linear motors, EVs for the future, Fundamentals
of Regenerative Braking.
• Electric Vehicle Modeling: Introduction, Tractive effort,
Modelling Vehicle Acceleration, Modeling of Vehicle
range
EVs using Supply Lines
• Both the trolleybus and the tram are well known, and at one time
were widely used as a means of city transport.
• They were a cost-effective, zero-emission form of city transport and
are still used in some cities.
• Normally electricity is supplied by overhead lines and a small battery
is used on the trolleybus to give it a limited range without using the
supply lines.
• It is now difficult to see why most of these have been withdrawn from
service. It must be remembered that at the time when it became
fashionable to remove trams and trolleybuses from service, cost was a
more important criterion than environmental considerations and
worries about greenhouse gases.
• Fossil fuel was cheap and overhead wires were considered unsightly,
inflexible, expensive and a maintenance burden. Trams in particular
were considered to impede the progress of the all-important private
motor car.
• Today, when IC engine vehicles are clogging up and polluting towns
and cities, the criteria have changed again.
EVs which use Flywheels or Supercapacitors
• There have been various alternative energy storage devices including
the flywheel and supercapacitors.
• Both of these devices have high specific powers, which means that
they can take in and give out energy very quickly.
• Although they can do this, the amount of energy they can store is
currently rather small.
• In other words, although they have a good power density, they have a
poor energy density.
• Energy stores such as capacitors and flywheels can be used in a wide
range of hybrids.
• Energy providers which can be used in hybrid vehicles include
rechargeable batteries, fueled batteries or fuel cells, solar power, IC
engines, supply lines, flywheels and capacitors.
• Any two or more of these can be used together to form a hybrid EV,
giving over 21 combinations of hybrids with two energy sources. If
three or more energy sources are combined, there are even more
combinations.
• To protect batteries from power fluctuations and other weaknesses,
electric vehicles need additional power storage systems. The most
frequently explored addition to an EV’s power storage system is a
supercapacitor. They can charge and discharge energy very quickly
and are becoming increasingly important to meet the battery storage
challenges presented by electric vehicles.
• Supercapacitors or ultracapacitors are large capacitors which can be
used as energy stores. They are devices which have high specific
power and low specific energy.
• Capacitors are devices with two conducting plates which are
separated by an insulator.
• As with flywheels, capacitors can provide large energy storage,
although they are more normally used in small sizes as components in
electronic circuits. The large energy storing capacitors with large
plate areas have come to be called ‘supercapacitors’.
• The energy stored in a capacitor is given by the equation

where E is the energy stored in joules. The capacitance C of a capacitor

in farads
• Supercapacitors have a much higher capacitance than conventional
capacitors and come in a variety of sizes from 0.1F to over 1000F.
• Their low internal resistance and high power density, enable them to be
able to charge and discharge as well as have a nearly instantaneous
ability to absorb and deliver power. 
• But a supercapacitor’s role in an EVs can go beyond a backup power
supply. Unlike batteries, the energy in supercapacitors is partially
stored as a static charge, leading to a high power density that batteries
lack.
• While batteries are perfect for a slow discharge over time, rapid bursts
of power easily damage the chemical elements and reduce their
performance.
• The high power density of a supercapacitor allows it to rapidly charge
or discharge a high amount of power without damaging its ability to
store energy.
• This makes supercapacitors favorable in facilitating scenarios where
you need to supply or capture a lot of power in a short time, such as
acceleration and regenerative braking, where supercapacitors capture
the kinetic energy from deceleration that is usually dissipated into heat.
• For this reason, supercapacitors are often used on hybrid vehicles, such
as the Lamborghini Sian and Toyota FCHV.
• On the other hand, supercapacitors have a lower energy density than
batteries, so most can’t support pure electric vehicles on their own.
• They also have a higher self-discharge rate than batteries, making
them unsuitable for long-term storage.
• Rather than solely using batteries or supercapacitors, the combination
of supercapacitors and batteries is being increasingly explored by
researchers to improve the driving range and battery lifetime of
battery electric vehicles.
• The combination of two energy storage options, in this case, battery
and supercapacitor, is referred to as a hybrid energy storage system
(HESS).
• The coupling between battery and supercapacitors makes the system
more robust as they cover each other’s weaknesses.
• Supercapacitors protect batteries from power fluctuations and lead to
a longer lifespan while the batteries can provide long-term storage for
the energy needed by EVs.
• However, there are still some drawbacks to adding supercapacitors.
The biggest concern is the limited space available.
• For most electric vehicles, due to their weight, the power storage
system needs to be placed below the vehicle, with supercapacitors
crammed in with bulky battery packs.
• Designers therefore must make the difficult decision between
efficiency, space, and weight.
• Adding supercapacitors means longer operating life of batteries,
protected from power fluctuation, and therefore delivering higher
efficiency but it also means significantly reduced design flexibility
which results in awkward interior design or using fewer batteries,
which means shorter range.
• Flywheels are devices that are used for storing energy. A plane disc
spinning about its axis would be an example of a simple flywheel. The
kinetic energy of the spinning disc is released when the flywheel slows
down.
• The energy can be captured by connecting an electrical generator
directly to the disc, power electronics being required to match the
generator output to a form where it can drive the vehicle motors.
• The flywheel can be reaccelerated, acting as a regenerative brake.
Alternatively the flywheel can be connected to the vehicle wheels via a
gearbox and a clutch.
• This transmission matches the rotational speed of the flywheel to the
wheels, the flywheel giving out energy as it decelerates.
• Whether mechanical or electrical, the system can also be used to
recover kinetic energy when braking.
• The flywheel can be accelerated, turning the kinetic energy of the
vehicle into stored kinetic energy in the flywheel, and acting as a
highly efficient regenerative brake.
Principle of flywheel used as an energy store
 ‘Parry People Mover’ chassis.
The enclosed flywheel can be clearly seen in the middle of the vehicle
Solar vehicle or solar electric vehicle 

• A solar vehicle or solar electric vehicle is an electric

vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy.
• Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert
the sun's energy directly into electric energy.
• The term "solar vehicle" usually implies that solar energy is used
to power all or part of a vehicle's propulsion. Solar power may be
also used to provide power for communications or controls or
other auxiliary functions.
• Solar vehicles are not sold as practical day-to-day transportation
devices at present, but are primarily demonstration vehicles and
engineering exercises, often sponsored by government agencies.
However, indirectly solar-charged vehicles are widespread
and solar boats are available commercially.
Vehicles using Linear Motors
• Linear motors are electric induction motors that produce motion in a
straight line rather than rotational motion. In a traditional electric motor,
the rotor (rotating part) spins inside the stator (static part); in a linear
motor, the stator is unwrapped and laid out flat and the "rotor" moves past
it in a straight line. Linear motors often use superconducting magnets, which
are cooled to low temperatures to reduce power consumption.
How linear motors work:
• In a traditional DC electric motor, a central core of tightly wrapped
magnetic material (known as the rotor) spins at high speed between the fixed
poles of a magnet (known as the stator) when an electric current is applied.
In an AC induction motor, electromagnets positioned around the edge of the
motor are used to generate a rotating magnetic field in the central space
between them. This induces electric currents in a rotor, causing it to spin.
In an electric car, DC or AC motors like these are used to
drive gears and wheels and convert rotational motion into motion in a
straight line.
Induction motors unwrapped
• A linear motor is effectively an AC induction motor that has been cut open
and unwrapped. The "stator" is laid out in the form of a track of flat coils
made from aluminum or copper and is known as the "primary" of a linear
motor. The "rotor" takes the form of a moving platform known as the
"secondary." When the current is switched on, the secondary glides past the
primary supported and propelled by a magnetic field.

Normal motor: The rotor spins inside the stator and the whole motor is fixed in
place. A linear motor is like a normal electric motor that has been unwrapped
and laid in a straight line. Now the rotor moves past the stator as it turns.
Advantages of Linear motors
• Linear motors have several advantages over ordinary motors. Most
obviously, there are no moving parts to go wrong. As the platform
rides above the track on a cushion of air, there is no loss of energy to
friction or vibration (but because the air-gap is greater in a linear
motor, more power is required, and the efficiency is lower).
• The lack of an intermediate gearbox to convert rotational motion
into straight-line motion saves energy.
• Finally, as both acceleration and braking are achieved
through electromagnetism, linear motors are much quieter than
ordinary motors.
Superconducting magnets
• The main problem with linear motors has been the cost and
difficulty of developing suitable electromagnets.
• Enormously powerful electromagnets are required to levitate (lift)
and move something as big as a train, and these typically consume
substantial amounts of electric power.
• Linear motors often now use superconducting magnets to solve this
problem.
• If electromagnets are cooled to low temperatures using liquid
helium or nitrogen their electrical resistance disappears almost
entirely, which reduces power consumption considerably.
• This helpful effect, known as superconductivity, has been the
subject of intense research since the mid 1980s and makes large-
scale linear motors that much more viable.
• Linear motors combined with magnetic levitation are becoming
increasingly important due to their use in Maglev trains.
EVs for future
• New lithium technology may develop substantially and specific energies
of new lithium batteries are predicted to double in the next few years.
• This would allow the range of electric vehicles to double for the same
battery mass.
• Doubling the range of electric vehicles would answer many of the
criticisms of electric vehicles. In fact the Tesla Model S due released in
2012 had the option of a battery pack which gives a range of up to 300
miles (480 km).
• Another interesting development is the Honda FCX Clarity fuel cell car
which has a similar range and can be refuelled as quickly as a petrol or
diesel car. It is likely that battery electric vehicles and fuel cell electric
vehicles will both play a role in the future.
• Maglev trains are already in use in China and it is believed that in the
next decade these will become more widespread.
• There has been little use of road–rail systems which combine the benefits
of both road and rail. Such systems can enable long-distance travel using
supply lines for recharging while allowing vehicles to travel to their
destinations as a conventional road vehicle.
The Tesla S
• The Model S is a pure electric vehicle which again uses lithium ion
batteries. There is an option for three battery packs giving ranges of
160 miles (256 km), 230 miles (368 km) or 300 miles (480 km) per
charge.
• It is intended to compete with more luxurious cars such as the
Mercedes E series, the Audi A6 and the BMW 5 series. The car seats
five adults (plus two children in rear-facing child seats) and has a 0–60
mph (96 kph) time of 5.5 seconds.
• The body panels and chassis will be primarily aluminium. Rapid
charge time is 30 minutes.
• What is particularly interesting about the Model S is that with the
longer range it can compete with most journeys carried out by IC
engine vehicles.
• The Model S holds out the hope of a 5 (+2) quantity produced car with
a considerable range and an appealing performance.
The Honda FCX Clarity
• The Honda FCX Clarity is a fuel cell vehicle which uses hydrogen as a fuel.
• The FCX Clarity is currently available in the USA, Japan and Europe.
• This car is a five-seat car which performs in a similar manner to its IC
engine counterpart.
• It has a good range and given suitable infrastructure it can be refuelled
quickly. The hydrogen is kept in a 171 l tank at a pressure up to 35 bar.
• The car uses an AC permanent magnet synchronous motor and contains a
Proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) along with a lithium ion
battery.
Maglev Trains
• The world speed record for crewed trains is currently held by a
maglev train developed in Japan, which in December 2003 reached a
maximum speed of 581 kph (363 mph).
• The train was developed by the Central Japan Railway (CJR)
company in conjunction with Railway Technical Research.
• The principle of maglev is essentially simple in that the train is
levitated by magnets allowing it to run without wheels, therefore
eliminating friction or other problems associated with wheels.
• Linear motors drive the train forward. The record-breaking
Japanese maglev system uses an electro-suspension system.
• Maglev trains have superconducting magnetic coils and the guide-
ways contain levitation coils. As the train moves, its moving magnetic
fields create a current in the levitation coils due to the magnetic field
induction effect.
• These currents create a magnetic field that interacts with the
magnetic field of the superconductive coils to create a force that
holds up and stabilizes the train.
• Maglev transport is effectively a means of flying a vehicle or object
along a guideway by using magnets to create both lift and thrust,
albeit only a few centimetres above the guide-way surface.
• High-speed maglev vehicles are lifted off their guideway and thus
move more smoothly, quietly and require less maintenance than
wheeled systems – regardless of speed.
• This absence of friction also means that acceleration and deceleration
can far surpass that of existing forms of transport.
• The power needed for levitation is not a particularly large percentage
of the overall energy consumption; most of the power used is needed to
overcome air resistance, as with any other high-speed form of
transport.
• Maglev advocates claim that, at very high speeds, the wear and tear
from friction along with the concentrated pounding from wheels on
rails accelerate equipment deterioration and prevent mechanically
based train systems from achieving a maglev-based train system’s high
level of performance and low levels of maintenance.
Electric Road–Rail Systems
• The idea of a road–rail system in which vehicles can travel on both
roads and a track combines the benefit of a road vehicle with its free-
ranging travel with train systems where vehicles can travel for
considerable distances without hold-ups in relative safety and comfort.
• A recent system was tried in Gothenburg, Sweden, in which a line of
cars, each outfitted with advanced steering and sensory technology,
follow behind a leader vehicle which guides the cars as they travel along
a preprogrammed route.
• Each car in the ‘train’ communicates with the leader via Wi-Fi links,
thus requiring little or no input from their individual drivers, who are
free to take their eyes off the road and relax.
• One of the authors proposes a road–rail system in which battery
electric vehicles are used. The vehicles would run on their own tyres but
would be automatically controlled while on the track.
• The track would consist of special lanes located on motorways or major
roads. These would be fenced to prevent other vehicles from using the
lane. The vehicles would either run individually or be joined together in
trains.
• An electrical supply to the vehicles using the system would be
provided, either by electrical pickup from supply rails or ideally from
inductive pickup rails. While on the track the electric motors would
take their electricity from the electrical supply line and at the same
time the vehicles’ onboard batteries would be recharged. In this way
the vehicles using the system would leave with charged batteries.
• As the vehicles have onboard batteries, the system would not need to
supply electricity at all points along the route, which would give
considerable advantages.
• Complex electrical power pickup systems at junctions could be
avoided. The system is considered to be particularly suitable for
motorways and it is proposed that it would be initially installed along
the centre of these to be used initially for cars and light vans.
• Vehicles would be automatically controlled while on the system. This
would give several advantages. Greater packing density in terms of
number of vehicles per mile would result as braking distances would
be kept to a minimum and lane widths could be minimized.
• Alternatively the vehicles could be bunched into road trains. The
system would be inherently safer than vehicles under manual control
so overall speed could be increased.
• Vehicles wishing to leave the system would be returned to the normal
motorway where they would resume manual control.
• Because steering would be under automatic control, lane widths would
be kept to a minimum.
• The system could be extended into towns and cities. Computer checks
would prevent vehicles which have not been serviced regularly from
using the system.
• Run-flat tyres could be used to prevent vehicles becoming inoperable
while on the system, and when tyre pressures fell below predetermined
levels, vehicles would be forced to leave at the next junction.
• There are no insurmountable technical problems which would prevent
an electric road–rail system from being successfully developed.
• The system would allow drivers and passengers to travel considerable
distances in comfort while allowing them the flexibility of conventional
motor vehicles on leaving the system.