MOTOR LEARNING AND COACHING

COURSE CONTENT

- Definition of transfer of learning

- Categories of transfer of learning.

o Skill to skill

o Theory to practice

o Training to competition

- Effects of transfer of learning.

o Positive

o Negative

o Zero transfer

- Impact of positive, negative and zero effects of transfer of learning on skill execution and
movement efficiency.

- Analyse movement skills of self and others to identify errors, provide feedback and suggest
correction to improve performance. (Knudsen and Morrison).

- Design coaching/training activities to improve performance in selected skills, including

shaping, chaining, static-dynamic, simple-complex.

- Use of different leadership styles – democratic, authoritarian and laissez-faire to suit

audience needs.

- Use checklists and video to analyse and reflect on the performance of themselves and
others in physical activity.

- Learning and skill development in relation to correction and improvement of self and
others.
o Use of video analysis
o Reflective journals

o Peer/mentor/coach feedback

o Questionnaires
 TRANSFER OF LEARNING
The influence that one skill/scenario has on the acquisition and performance of another skill/scenario.

WHY IS TRANSFER OF LEARNING IMPORTANT?

- Identify the order which new skills should be tackled, most appropriate training methods and the best
practice conditions.
- Athletes learn new skills, techniques and tactics more easily if learning builds upon skills and understandings
already attained.
- Opportunities for transfer can be created if coaches emphasise similarities between skills.
** The more elements that two activities have in common, the greater the likelihood that transfer will take place.

HOW/WHY DOES TRANSFER OF LEARNING OCCUR?

Due to aspects of the motor skill.
- E.g. similar sequential movement patterns/mechanics of the action.
Due to the context of the skill/scenario.
- E.g. similar decision making and responses mean that critical tactics can be transferred between sports
(pattern recognition in creating and denying space in invasion sports).
Similarities between stimuli.
- E.g. striking an object.

EFFECTS AND IMPACTS

Transfer of learning has the potential to fast-track an athlete’s skill development. In other cases, it hinders progress
significantly. There are three main effects of transfer/
- Positive transfer
- Negative transfer
- Zero transfer
HOW DOES TRANSFER OF LEARNIG IMPROVE SKILL EXECUTION AND MOVEMENT EFFICACY?
Athletes which have been exposed to a wide variety of movement experiences from a variety of sports benefit by
being better able to;
- Recognise and select relevant cues from the environment.
- Process information received faster and more accurately.
- Have more responses available to select from.
- Better execute the selected response.
**if we have performed a similar skill in the past, we have the basic movement programs already established in our
long-term memory.

POSITIVE TRANSFER
Occurs when previous experience facilitates performance of a skill - in a new context or the learning of a new skill.
- Two skills are often similar in some way, e.g. free throw in basketball and netball goal shooting.

NEGATIVE TRANSFER
Occurs when previous experience inhibits or negatively affects performance of a skill in a new context or the learning
of a new skill.
- Skills can seemingly have similar action but with critical differences in technique.
- E.g. squash and tennis both use racquet but with critical differences.
- Shot making in squash involves wrist movement whereas successful shot making in tennis does not
involve wrist movement.

ZERO TRANSFER
Occurs when previous experience has no influence on the performance of a skill in a new context or the learning of a
new skill.
- Exist when the two skills/scenarios are totally unrelated, therefore learning is not affected positively or
negatively.
- E.g. no transfer of learning between golf and tennis.

CATEGORIES
SKILL TO SKILL
Occurs when a skill developed in one sport has an influence on a skill in another sport.
- Individuals who are good at sport have the ability to quickly recognise familiar patterns of play; they have
more options for responding, because of the breadth of their previous experience.
- E.g. the mechanics/technical aspects of the overarm throwing action transfer positively to the overhead
clear in badminton.
** this type of skill transfer can work in both directions.

TYPE DEFINTION EXAMPLE

Proactive Transfer A previously learnt skill affects the A player learning to throw a baseball would
skill currently being learnt. pick-up the skill faster if he already knew how
to throw a cricket ball.

Retroactive Transfer Learning a new skill affects a A netballer with poor footwork spends time
previously learned skill. working on a ‘fast-feet’ ladder and her
footwork in netball then improves.

THEORY TO PRACTICE
The transfer of theoretical skills into practice.
- Delivered via video, whiteboards, booklets etc.
- Gaining theoretical knowledge prior to ‘executing’, assists athletes in improving their decision-making skills
and specific strategies to deal with various game specific scenarios.
- Coaches use this to devise game plans, tactics and strategies for opposing teams and individual players.
- Players then apply the devised theories/plans into the practice or game situation.

TRAINING TO COMPETITION
Refers to the transfer of skills developed in training into a competition situation.
Training sessions must replicate the demands of the game (specificity) and may include;
- Skill development
- Training of relevant energy systems
- Improvement in the decision-making process.
- Players should be exposed to game specific situations at training to allow them to develop their information
processing and decision-making mechanism.
- This increases likelihood of players making correct decisions under game pressure.
- Too many uncontrollable external variables in game-play. Therefore, coaches modify game-play by setting up
specific scenarios.
HOW DOES A COACH USE THIS METHOD OF TRANSFER TO OPTIMISE LEARNING?
Coaches might use this method to improve the skills and strategic application of his/her players in match by;
- Incorporating match play during training which stimulates the game environment.
- Adding time pressure to match scenario (e.g. 20 seconds to score), force execution under pressure.
- Overload defenders in modified games – incorporates shooting under pressure.
- Set up scenarios i.e. must shoot but prior to execution, must incorporate a set play which replicates match
set plays, free throw to win the match.
- Integrate rules which add pressure (e.g. add second ball) – replicate shooting under fatigue.
- Add crown noise which force players to block out external distractions and focus on shooting accurately.

COACHING/TRAINING ACTIVITIES TO IMPROVE PERFORMANCE

Coaches design drills which in turn help to improve performance in desired skills.
Training activities may be to help refine an athlete’s performance, build on a player’s skill level, or to help teach a
brand new skill.
Different training/coaching activities a coach can use depending on;
- The sport.
- Which aspects of performance the coach is attempting to target (e.g. execution under pressure, accuracy,
correct technique).
- The skill level of the athlete.
- Skill classification – simple or complex?
Coach must be able to determine whether the skill to be taught or refined is simple or complex nature.
WHY? This helps determine which training activities may be most beneficial in teaching or improving the skill.
The attentional demands of the task which are impacted by;
 Task Organisation
 The Number of Component Parts
** more complex skills have a greater number of component parts. These component parts either rely on each other
heavily (high organisation), or act relatively independent of each other (low organisation).

HIGH INTERDEPENDENCE OF TASK PARTS (ORGANISATION) LOW

 WHOLE METHOD WHOLE & PART METHODS COMBINED PART METHOD
Weightlifting. Tennis serve. Dance sequences.
Archery. Floor exercise routine. Gymnastic routine.
Shooting. Swimming strokes.
Heading a soccer ball. Golf swing.
Cycling. Pitching a baseball.
Basketball lay-up.

LOW COMPLEXITY OF TASKS HIGH

Different training activities can be used include;

1. Shaping
2. Chaining
3. Static-dynamic
4. Simple-complex

SHAPING
The process of simplifying a complex skill or using an incomplete version of the skill.
- Does not replicate the actual performance of the skill.
- Can be used to teach new skills, or to refine performance of an already learnt skill.
- E.g. teaching overarm throw (on knees with wrist flick, on one knee – muscle man, standing).
- Refining hurdles/running/swimming technique through specific drills. Catch-up drill in freestyle to develop
hold of the water.

CHAINING
The breaking down into parts of a complex skill or activity and teaching the skill part by part.

TYPE DEFINITION EXAMPLE

Forwards chaining Skill components are rehearsed in the order Volleyball spike
that the whole skill is performed.
- Foot work
- Jump
- Hit
Backwards chaining Last component is practiced first and the Footy Kick
whole skill is built by working backwards.
- Kicking action practiced
- Dropping action practiced
- All put together

- Component does replicate that part of the actual skill.

- Each component is practiced separately, as if they were isolated skills.
- Components are put together overtime.
- Correct order of assembling is imperative.
STATIC-DYNAMIC
The process of beginning with the skill without moving and progressing to performing the skill while moving at the
speed and intensity required in competition.
- Coach uses to gradually build on the performance of a skill.
STATIC DRILLS INCLUDE;
- Practiced in stationary position.
- Predictable (closed) environment.
- Limited decision making.
- Allows athlete to concentrate on technique without attending to other factors.
DYNAMIC DRILLS INCLUDE;
- Athlete is moving.
- Less predictable (open) environment.
- More decision-making is required.
- Drills are more game related and more difficult with seed and intensity replicating competition

SIMPLE-COMPLEX
Involves starting with a simplified or basic version of the sport and then progressing to a more complicated or
advanced version of the skill.
SIMPLE DRILLS INCLUDE;
- Using stationary ball in striking sports.
- Slow down speed of performance.
- Incorporating a predetermined shot/hit to reduce attentional demands.
- No defenders to eliminate external pressure and decision-making.
COMPLEX DRILLS INCLUDE;
- Adding tossed ball – can then build on this in softball from tee – tossed – pitcher.
- Incorporating verbal cues which the athlete needs to respond to i.e. “down the line” or “11” in volleyball.
- Gradually add in defensive pressure. Start with stationary defender, progress through to a passive, then
active defender (overloading defensive pressure can be good to develop psychological skills and decision
making).
- Incorporate drills that focus on speed and accuracy of movement.
** all these increase attentional demands and make the environment less predictable.

ANALYSING MOVEMENT
For self and others to identify errors, provide feedback and suggest corrections to improve performance.
Involves quantitative and qualitative assessment.
Quantitative: performance and outcome based. Objective measure.
Qualitative: how the skill is performed, based on the process of technique. Subjective measure.
KNUDSEN & MORRISON MODEL
WHAT DEFINITION
Coach develops knowledge base
about the skill, ensuring they identify
1 PREPARATION critical features and understand what
they are trying to achieve.
DESCRIPTION
Create a checklist identifying key criteria for
success (break down into preparation,
execution and follow through phases).
Communicate with athlete and become aware
of their personal goals.

Involves the systematic gathering of
information about the performance.
2 OBSERVATION
Identify weaknesses and strengths in
order to determine intervention.
3 EVALUATION
Involves providing feedback and
corrections to the performer under
4 INTERVENTION practise conditions
Coach should determine the angle and
method of observation (i.e. video or direct
observation).
Correct viewpoint (side/front).
Decide on the number of observations.
Extended observation (fatigue) Game or
practice?
Prioritise weaknesses in order of importance
and focus on aspects of technique that need
to be changed immediately.
Measure critical variables.
Major changes to technique should be
addressed in the off-season.
Weaknesses are discussed and a plan is
implemented by designing training tasks and
providing feedback.
Purpose of feedback is to error correct,
motivate and reinforce learning. 
Any major error correction should be
timetabled for out of season, and probably
would entail video-analysis software.

CHECKLISTS & VIDEO – ANALYSE & REFLECT ON PERFORMANCE

Coaches use checklists and videos to;
- Supplement visual, verbal and written feedback.
- Improve the quality of performance analyses.
- Provide a more objective analysis.
- De-personalise feedback.
Athletes use checklists and videos to;
- Improve understanding.
- Be more involved in correcting their own performance.
- Determine the impact of mental and physical performance.
- Engage in reflective learning.
CHECKLISTS
A specific written criteria which identifies the key aspects required for successful performance or execution.
USE OF CHECKLISTS;
- Provides feedback for error detection and correction.
- Suitable for all levels – junior to elite.
- Can determine the mental technical and tactical ability of performers.
- Determine mental strength of athlete.

VIDEO
Involves filming the performance and then using this footage for closer, more accurate analysis.
Many athletes respond better to visual feedback than verbal. A combination of both is ideal.
USE OF VIDEOS;
- Slow motion or freeze frame allows the performer to observe when and where errors occur and make
changes as required.
- Using split screens and overlaying to allow performers to compare themselves with elite athletes, or for
comparison of previous performances to show progress.
- Help with developing decision-making techniques through reflection on simulated game situations.
- Footage can be paused and/or broken down into fractions of a second allowing for closer, more specific
analysis - e.g. measurement of angles, velocity.

LEARNING & SKILL DEVELOPMENT

Correction & Improvement of Self & Others
- Use of video analysis
- Reflective journals
- Peer/mentor/coach feedback
- Questionnaires
Both coaching and support staff, and athletes are required to correct and improve, or reflect on their practise.
**Pay close attention as to who the question is asking about.

VIDEO ANALYSIS
Recording the performance to allow a more accurate analysis of performance in order to identify strengths and
weaknesses.
BENEFITS:
- Use slow motion, overlay current with previous to measure progress, measure angles to refine aspects of
technique.
- Reflect on video performance to look at strategic/tactical implementation.
- From a psychological perspective, look closely at body language and work rate.
REFLECTIVE JOURNALS
Reflective journals keep a record of successes and failures, and suggestions for improvement.
BENEFITS:
- Can reflect on goals relating to skill development, strategies and tactics, overall performance in
competitions.
- Could assist in developing training sessions which focus on addressing weaknesses and further developing
strengths to correct technique and improve performance.
COACH-BASED:
- Enables coach to monitor progress of athletes.
- Overcomes issue of athletes who are unreliable in keeping accurate self-reflection.
- Coach can monitor the success of the training program.
- Discover athlete’s weaknesses or strengths.
- Develop modified skill programs to correct technique.
ATHLETE-BASED:
Involves daily reflections (or after training sessions).
- Reflection goals relating to performance.
- Recording stats based on skills execution, strategies and tactics to reflect on and improve.
- Provides ‘record’ of participation / performance to discuss with coach.
- Mental and physical self-monitoring.
PHYSICAL SELF-MONITORING
- Often required by sporting organisation – part of contract.
- Monthly progress or daily response sheets (sometimes more difficult to see emerging ‘patterns’ e.g. that
might show signs of overtraining such as resting HR, weight etc.).
MENTAL SELF-MONITORING
- Involves ‘listening to the body’.
- Can record aspects relating to ‘wellness’ and how an athlete is feeling.
- E.g. sleep quality, fatigue, stress, illness, muscle soreness.
RECOGNITION
- Mental fatigue.
- Whether training is too hard or too easy.
- Factors detracting from performance.
- Overtraining.
ACTION
- Coach can alter training demands to avoid mental and physical exhaustion.
PARAMETERS TRACKED THROUGH REFLECTIVE JOURNALS
PHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS PHYCHOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OTHER
Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE). Mental state (relaced, exhausted, Priorities for improvement.
stressed).
Weight. Skill strength.
Progression towards short-term
Sleep quality. Skill weaknesses.
goals.
Resting heart rate. Progress towards long-term goals. Performance.
Diet.
Injury/illness.
PEER/MENTOR/COACH FEEDBACK
Use of specific, constructive feedback to error correct and reinforce learning.
COACHES COULD;
- Reflect on learning of the athletes themselves by engaging in weekly meetings.
- Use of mentors such as assistant coaches, sports science specialists – effectiveness of coaching style
implemented.
ATHLETES COULD;
- Seek advice by seeking specific and constructive feedback from a knowledgeable mentor/coach –
performance and skill development.

QUESTIONNAIRS
Questions given to players/coaches/support staff to gather information.
Feedback from the questionnaires can be used to make changes.
COACHES;
- Collect information from the players about the coaching style implemented and the impact it may have on
their motivation levels, understanding of game plan, effectiveness of feedback etc.
PLAYERS;
- Could complete questionnaires to help determine their psychological wellbeing e.g.
- Confidence levels
- Collate data to ascertain sleep quality.
- Changes that might be made based on collating data from the questionnaires could include;
- If they are lacking motivation, variety in the training program may be included such as changing the
training venue.
- If poor sleep is indicated via questionnaire, more rest days may be provided, or a decrease in the
total volume of training.

LEADERSHIP STYLES
Leaders help others achieve shared goals, also highlighting the interaction between the leader and group members,
or audience.
There are three different styles of leadership, each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

There are a number of factors that determine when certain leadership styles should be adopted in order to achieve a
positive outcome.
Leadership: the behavioural process of influencing individuals and groups towards set goals.
FACTORS THAT AFFECT WHICH STYLE MAY BE MORE APPROPRIATE;
- Skill level of athletes (cognitive, associative, autonomous).
- The characteristic of the players. (sex, motivations, personality traits).
- The overall goal of the team (winning, fun, fitness).
- Certain situations i.e. breaking of the team rules, enhance strategic understanding.
- Elite vs participation.
- The time of the season (pre-season, in-season, off-season).

For a coach/leader to be most effective, they should adopt different leadership styles depending on the situation.
Whilst the coach will vary their approach, they will have a more dominant style and certain styles are preferential for
certain teams/athletes.

LAISSEZ-FAIRE
The coach makes very few decisions and the athletes have a greater responsibility for the direction of training and
performance.
CHARACTERISTICS;
- Relaxed and easy going, establishes an informal learning environment.
- Provides little instruction and minimal guidance in organising activities (but my offer guidance and advice
when asked).
SUITS ATHLETES WHO;
- Want to focus on participation, socialisation and enjoyment.
- Are intrinsically motivated.
- Can self-defined standards of performance.
- Are experienced or at ‘masters’ level – very knowledgeable and self-reflective.
SITUATIONS WHERE APPROPRIATE;
- Giving experienced players opportunity for creativity.
- Allowing players to work out strategies and patterns of play.
- Used during the pre-season to see who steps up and demonstrates leadership.
- To allow players to develop social cohesion and interpersonal relationships.
- Allows the coach to observe and identify the extent of cohesion between playing group.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS;

- Players can waste time and fool around.

- Risky or dangerous situations occur with bats/objects.
- Players lack direction i.e. may not know what they don’t know (inexperienced players unsure of what to do).
- Serious players often find this coaching style unsatisfactory.

AUTHORITARIAN
Coach is solely responsible for the decisions and direction; they are strong disciplinarians.
CHARACTERISTICS;
- Tends to make all decisions.
- Clearly defines team rules on and off the field.
- Dictates and ensures adherence and to team rules and strategies.
- Demands attention to detail by the players.
- Intense energy.
SITUATIONS WHERE APPROPRIATE;
- Safety is an issue or dangerous skills need to be taught.
- When time is limited and direction is required immediately.
- During the preseason when the coach wants to make sure athletes are meeting fitness goals and mark their
authority.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS;
- Not as much fun; too strict.
- Players may feel anxious because coaching style is too harsh/too critical (less confident players may feel
intimidated).
- Too many rules at training.

DEMOCRATIC
The coach involves the athletes in shared decision making. This coach will guide performers towards selecting and
achieving their goals.
CHARACTERISTICS;
- Is in tune with the needs and wants of the playing group and involves them in decision making (empowers
the group to have a personal stake in the team’s direction).
- Delegates coaching tasks to either senior players or support coaching staff.
- Encourages good communication to ensure that all team members are pulling in the same direction.
- Encourage strategic feedback and implementation of on field playing combinations.
SITUATIONS WHERE APPROPRIATE;
- Inviting experienced players to give direct input into direction of team.
- When there is plenty of time to allow for decisions or planning direction of training.
- Can be used during the competition season as they can incorporate the team in decision making.
NEGATIVE EFFECTS;
- Coaching sessions may lose their focus of team goals. (focused on individuals).
- Players may not choose what’s important to learn and practice.
- Players waste time deciding or debating.