Internet Technology (CTE 224)

CHAPTER ONE Introduction

1.1 History of Internet
The history if internet began with the development of electronic computers on the 1950s. The public was
first introduced to the Internet when a message was sent from computer science Professor Leonard Klein
Rock’s Laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), after the second piece of network
equipment was installed at Stanford Research Institute (SRI). This connection not only enable the first
transmission to be made, but is also considered to be the first Internet backbone. This began the point-to-
point communication between mainframe computers and terminals, expanded to point-to-point
connections between computers and the then early research into packet switching. Packet switched
networks such as ARPANET (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), Mark I at NPL in the UK,
CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telent were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s
using variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for
internetworking, where multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks.
Advanced research project agency network (ARPANET) was the world’s first operational packet
switching network and the progenitor of what was to become the global internet. The network was
initially funded by the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) within the U.S
Department of Defense for use by its projects at universities and research laboratories in the US.
In 1982 the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) was stabilized and the concept of a world-wide network of
fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced. Access to the ARPANET was
explained in 1981 when the National Service Foundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science
Network (CSNET) and again in 1986 when NSFNET provided access to supercomputer sites in the
United States from research and education organizations. Commercial Internet Service Provider (ISPs)
began to emerge in the late 1980s and 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet
was commercialized in 1995 when NSEFNET was decommissioned, removed the last restriction s on the
use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic.
Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a drastic impact on culture and commerce, including
communication be electronic mail, instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) “Phone calls”,
two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs social
networking, and online shopping sites. The research and education community continues to develop and
use advance networks such as NSF’s very high speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS), Internet2 and
National Lambda Rail. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber
optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever
greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce entertainment and social networking.
1.2 Internet
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet
protocol suite (often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to serve billions of users
worldwide. It is a network of networks that consist of millions of private, public, academic, business, and
government networks, of local to global scope, that ate linked by a board array of electronic, wireless and
optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and
services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents of the World Wide Web (www) and the
infrastructure of support email. Internet is a short form of the technical term internetwork, the result of
interconnecting computer networks with special gateways or routers.
1.3 Intranet
An Intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information,
operational systems, or computing services within an organization. The term is used in contrast to
internet, a network between organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization.
Sometimes, the term refers only to the organization’s internal website, but may be a more expensive part
of the organization’s information, and may be composed of multiple local area networks. The objectives
is to organize each individual’s desktop with minimal cost, time and effort to be more productive, cost
effective, timely, and competitive.
An intranet may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of
internal communication and collaboration. Any of the well-known Internet protocols may be found in an
intranet, such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and FTP
(File Transfer Protocol). Internet technologies are often developed to provide modern interfaces to legacy
information systems hosting corporate data.
An Intranet can be understood as a private analog of the Internet, or as a private extension of the Internet
confined to an organization. The first intranet websites and home pages began to appear in organizations
in 1994 – 1996.
1.4 Extranets
Intranets are sometimes contrasted to extranets. While intranets are generally restricted to employees of
the organization, extranets may also be accessed by customers, suppliers, or other approved parties.
Extranets a private network onto the Internet with special provisions for authentication, authorization and
accounting (AAA protocol)
1.5 DATA TRANSMISSION
1.5.1 Digital Transmission is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit stream) over a point-to-point or
point-to-multipoint communication channel. Examples of such channels are copper wires, optical fibers,
wireless communication channels, and storage media. The data are represented as an electromagnetic
signal, such as an electrical voltage, radio wave, microwave, or infrared signal. It is the transfer of
discrete messages. The messages are either represented by a sequence of pulses by means of a line code.
1.5.2 Analog Transmission is a transmission method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video
information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in
proportion to that of a variable. It could be the transfer of an analog source signal, using an analog
modulation method such as Frequency Modulation (FM) or Amplitude Modulation (AM), or no
modulation at all.

1.6 Transmission Medium: When choosing the transmission media, what are the factors to be
considered?
 Transmission Rate
 Distance
 Cost and Ease of Installation
 Resistance to Environmental Conditions
There are two types of transmissions media:
A. Unguided Media: They are not protected or bound to a channel to follow. Following are unguided
media used for data communication, examples are
  Radio Transmission
 Microwave
 Satellite Communication
B. Guided Media: Guided transmission media, as the name implies are the transmission media that
contains a solid material that is protected. Examples are
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP is the copper media, inherited from telephony, which is
being used for increasingly higher data rates A Twisted Pair is a pair of copper wires, with
diameters of 0.4 – 0.8 mm, twisted together and wrapped with a plastic coasting. The twisting
increases the electrical noise immunity, and reduces the bit error rate (BER) of the data
transmission. A UTP cable contains from 2 to 4200 twisted pairs.
UTP is a very flexible, low cost media, and can be used for either voice or data communications.
Its greatest disadvantage is the limited bandwidth, which restricts long distance transmission with
low error rates.

2. Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): STP is heavier and more difficult to manufacture, but it can
greatly improve the signaling rate in a given transmission scheme Twisting provides cancellation
of magnetically induced fields and currents on pair of conductors. Grade 5 copper, appropriate for
use in 100 – Mbps applications, has more twists per inch than lower grades. More twists per inch
games more linear feet of copper wire used to make up a cable run, and more copper means more
money. Shielding provides a means to reflect.

3. Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable is a two-conductor cable in which one conductor forms an
electromagnetic shield around the other. The two conductors are separated by simulation. It is a
constant impedance cable. This media is used in base band and broadband transmission. Coaxial
cables do not produce extra electronic and magnetic fields and are not affected by them. This
makes them ideally suited, although more expensive, for transmitting signals.

4. Optical Fiber: Optical fiber consists of thin glass fibers that can carry information at frequencies
in the visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fiber consists of a very narrow strand
of glass called the core. Around the core is a concentric layer of glass called the cladding. A
typical core diameter is 62.5 microns. Typically cladding has a diameter of 125 microns. Coating
the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is called the Jacket. An important
characteristic of fiber optic is refraction. Refraction is the characteristics of a material to either
pass or reflect light. When light pass through a medium, it “bends as it passes from one medium
to the other”. An example of this is when we look into a pond of water. If the angle of incident is
great, light passes through the media but is bent or reflected. Optical fibers work on the principle
that the core refracts the light and the cladding reflects any light back into the core and stops light
from escaping through it – it bounds the medium.
1.7 Transmission Modes in Computer Networks
Transmission mode refers to the mechanism of transferring of data between two devices connected over a
network. It is also called Communication Mode. These modes direct the direction of flow of
information. There are three types of transmission modes. They are:

1.7.1 SIMPLEX Mode

In this transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e. communication is unidirectional but
cannot be sent back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is done in Simplex Systems where
command/signal is sent and response is not expected. Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers,
television broadcasting, television and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
1.7.2 HALF DUPLEX Mode
In this transmission mode, data can be transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier, but not at the
same time. That is, on a network using a technology that has half-duplex transmission, one workstation
can send data on the line and then immediately receive data on the line from the same direction in which
data was just transmitted. Hence half-duplex transmission implies a bidirectional line (one that can carry
data in both directions) but data can be sent in only one direction at a time. Example of half duplex is a
walkie-talkie in which message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in both the directions.

1.7.3 FULL DUPLEX

Mode
In this transmission mode, data can be sent in both the directions as it is bidirectional at the same time in
other words, data can be sent in both directions simultaneously. Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone
Network in which there is communication between two persons by a telephone line, using which both can
talk and listen at the same time.

In full duplex system there can be two lines one for sending the data and the other for receiving data.

CHAPTER TWO
2.1 Introduction to Computer Network
Computer Network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are
linked together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing
among a wide range of users. Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive data
to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to be a network.
Computer Network may be classified into a wide variety of characteristics, such as the medium used to
transport the data, communications protocol used, scale, topology, benefit and organizational scope.
2.1.1 Properties of Computer Network
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate effectively and easily via mail, instant messaging, chat
room, telephone, video telephone calls and video confessing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data and other types of information.
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on other
computers on the network. The capacity of providing access to data and information on shared
storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
3. Share network and computing resources
In a network environment, each computer on a network may access and use resources provided by
devices on the network, such as orienting a document on a shared network printer. Distributed
computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks.
4. May be insecure
A computer network may be sued by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or computer
worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from normally accessing
the network (denial of services)
5. Many interface with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g., amateur
radio
6. May be difficult to set up
A complex network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set up an effective
computer network in a large organization or company.
2.1.2 Components of Computer Network
 At least two computers, that is, a server and a client workstation
 Network Interface Cards (NIC), LAN port or Ethernet port.
 Network switch
 MODEM or Router
 A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless connection between networked
computers and peripherals is also possible.
 Network operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows, Novell NetWare, UNIX and
Linux.
2.2 Types of Networks
2.2.1 LAN (Local Area Networks)
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared
network medium. LANs are network usually confined to a geographical area, such as a single building or
a college campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as two computers, but often link hundreds of
computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard networking protocols and media
has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs throughout business and educational organizations. LAN
is of two categories
1. Peer-to-peer network
Peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the
computers are equal and therefore knows as peers. Normally, each computer serves as Client/Server and
there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network. Peer-to-peer networks
are good choices for needs of small organization and the network will have limited growth within the
foreseeable future.
2. The Client/Server Network
It is a distributed application structure that partitions tasks or workloads between the providers of a
resource or service, called servers, and service requesters, called clients. Often clients and servers
communicate over a computer network on separate hardware, but both client and server may reside in the
same system. A server host runs one or more server programs which share their resources with clients. A
client does not share any of its resources, but requests a server's content or service function. Clients
therefore initiate communication sessions with servers which await incoming requests. Examples of
computer applications that use the client–server model are Email, network printing, and the World Wide
Web (www). Benefit of client/server network is management and centralized file storage.

2.2.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide area networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is accomplished by
connecting the different LANs using services such as dedicated leased phone lines, dial-up phone lines
(both synchronous and asynchronous), satellite link, and data packet carrier services. Wide area
networking can be as simple as a modem and remote access server for employees to dial into, or it can be
as complex as hundreds of branch offices globally linked using special routing protocols and filters to
minimize the expense of sending data sent over vast distances.
2.2.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is
larger than a LAN. Depending on the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several
miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network.
When this type of network is specifically designed security purpose.
2.2.4 Virtual Private Network (VPN)
VPN is a technology that allows a network administrator to create a secure connection over a less-secure
network between computer and the internet. It protects information privacy by allowing the administrator
to anonymously appear to be in any network. A VPN is beneficial because it guarantees an appropriate
level of security and privacy to the connected systems. This is extremely useful when the existing
network infrastructure alone cannot support it.
For example, when a computer is connected to be on VPN with another, the computer acts as if it's also
on the same network. All of online traffic is transferred over a secure connection to the VPN and securely
gain access to local network resources. Regardless of the location, the system will be given permission to
use the internet as if you were present at the network. This can be extremely beneficial for individuals
using a public Wi-Fi.
When browsing the internet while on a VPN, the computer will contact the website through an encrypted
VPN service connection. The VPN will then forward the request and forward the response from the
website back through a secure connection. VPNs are really easy to use, and they're considered to be
highly effective tools. They can be used to do a wide range of things. The most popular types of VPNs
are remote-access VPNs and site-to-site VPNs.
2.2.5 MILNET (Military Network) was the name given to the part of the ARPANET internet work
designated for unclassified United States Department of Defense traffic.
2.3 Network Topology
Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes and
devices (sender and receiver) through lines of connection. It is the topological structure of a network, and
may be depicted physically or logically.
Physical Topology refers to the placement of the network’s various components, including devices
location and cable installation, while
Logical Topology describes how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distance
between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ between two
networks, yet their topologies may be identical.
2.4 Types of Network Topology
2.4.1. Point-to-point Network Topology: It is the simplest topology that create a permanent link
between two endpoints. There are two types which are:
Switched point-to-point topologies which are the basic model of conventional telephony.
Permanent point-to-point network is the value of guaranteed communications between the two endpoints.
This led to Metcalfe's Law which states that the value of an on-demand point-to-point connection is
proportional to the number of potential pairs of subscribers.

2.4.2. Bus Network Topology or Linear Bus topology is a local area networks where a single bus
network cable is used and each computer or server is connected to the single bus cable. A signal from the
source travels in both directions to all machines connected on the bus cable until it finds the intended
recipient. If the machine address does not match the intended address of the data, the machine ignores the
data. Alternatively, if the data address matches the machine address, the data is accepted. Since the bus
topology consists of only one wire, it is rather implement when compared to other topologies.

Advantages of Bus Topology

1. It is cost effective.
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
 2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.
4. It is slower than the ring topology.
2.4.3. Star Network Topology: In star topology every node (computer workstation or any other
peripheral) is connected to the central node called hub or switch. The switch is the server and peripheral
are the clients. The network does not necessarily have to resemble a star to be classified as a star network,
but all of the nods on the network must be connected to one central device.

Advantages of Star Topology

1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. The whole network is stopped if the switch fails because all the nodes depend on the hub.
4. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity
2.4.4. Ring Network Topology (Token ring): A network topology that is set up in a circular fashion in
which data travels around the ring in one direction and each device on the right acts as a repeater to keep
the signal strong as it travels.

Advantages of Ring Topology

1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes
having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand
Disadvantages of Ring Topology
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.
2.4.5. Mesh Network Topology: The value of fully meshed networks is proportional to the exponent of
the number of subscribers, assuming that communicating groups of any two endpoints, up to and
including all the endpoints, this is known as Reed’s Law. Mesh network has n (n-1)/2 physical channels
to link n devices. Where “n” is the number of devices on the network.
Types of Mesh Topology
1. Partial Mesh Topology: In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion
as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices.
2. Full Mesh Topology: Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.
2.4.6. Tree Network Topology or Hierarchical Topology: The type of network topology in which a
central ‘root’ node (the top level of the hierarchy) is connected to one or more other nodes that are one
level lower in the hierarchy (i.e., the second level) with a point-to-point link between each of the second
level nodes and the top level central ‘root’ node, while each of the second level nodes that are connected
to the top level central ‘root’ node will also have one or more other nodes that are one level lower in the
hierarchy (i.e., the third level) connected to it, also with a point-to-point link, the top level central ‘root’
node begin the only node that has no other node above it in the hierarchy (The hierarchy of the tree is
symmetrical).

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology
1. Heavily cabled.
 2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails, network fails.
2.4.7. Hybrid Network Topology: Hybrid networks use a combination of any two or more topologies in
such a way that the resulting network does not change topologies connected together. For example, a tree
network connected to a star network, a bus network connected to mesh. But a tree network connected to a
tree network is still a tree network topology.

A tree network connected to star network

Advantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
2. Effective.
3. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
4. Flexible.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
1. Complex in design.
2. Costly.
2.5 Benefits of Internet
1. Provides fast communication channel like e-mail, instant messaging, file transfer and file sharing. With
this, users will be able to communicate effectively and can save time and effort.
2. Provides latest news and online references. Most of the newspapers today are now online. Users can
browse the internet web site to read the latest news, research on online encyclopedias, and join forums to
learn new things from other people. With this, accessing information is faster.
3. Provides entertainment like uploading movies, move guides, video streaming, and music download.
Users can now listen to online radio stations and download the songs they want.
4. Provides commerce services like online shopping, travel bargains, plane schedules, and buy and sell.
With e-commerce, users can buy items online by just using their credit card or any form of bank
transactions and without the need to go to the mall. They can just wait for the items to be delivered on
their doorstep.
5. Provides jobs to people who want to make money online like buy and sell services, blogs and web
design.

2.6 Advantages of Internet

1. Global Audience: Content published on the World Wide Web is immediately available to a global
audience of users. This makes the World Wide Web an effective medium of publish information.
2. Operates 24 hours, 7 days a week: From a consumer’s perspective as well as a provider’s business
can be consummated at any time. The fact that the Internet is operational at all times makes it the most
effective business machine to date.
3. Relatively Inexpensive: It is relatedly inexpensive to publish information on the internet. At a fraction
of the cost to publish information by traditional method, various organizations and individuals can now
distribute information to millions of users. It costs only a low capital to establish an Internet presence and
publish content on the Internet.
4. Product Advertising: You can use the multimedia capabilities of the World Wide Web to make
available not only various product specification sheet but also audio files, images, and even video clips of
products in action. The beauty of the web is that it allows customers to explore products in as mush
details as they desire. If the client just wants a general overview, he or she can look at the advertising
information. The web allows a business to provide timely information, you can simply place the
information on the web page and it is available immediately for your customers.
5. Distribute Product Catalogs: The World Wide Web is a very effective medium for distributing
product catalogs. In the old days, putting together a product used to be very costly in terms of time and
money needed to publish and distribute it. The World Wide Web changes all this by allowing content
developers to put together a sales catalog and make it available to millions of users immediately.
Furthermore, unlike printed product catalogs that are usually updated around once a month, product
catalogs on the World Wide Web can be updated as needed to respond to various changing market
conditions.
6. Online Surveys: Traditional method of performing surveys are often relatively slow and expensive
compared to online surveys conducted on the internet. For example, in order to fill out various needs of
customers or what they would like to see in a future product, it’s often necessary to compile a list of
address and mail a questionnaire to many customers. The success of such an attempt is not always
guaranteed and can be very costly in terms of mailing the questionnaire and entering responses to a
database and analyzing it. On the other hand, you can use the World Wide Web to automate the whole
process. For example, you can set up a script to conduct online surveys. Results as such a survey can be
automatically updated to a database. This database can then be used to keep a pulse on various opinions
and needs of customers.
7. Announcements: With the World Wide Web, you can distribute various announcements to millions of
users in a timely manner. Because there is virtually no time lag from the time it takes to publish
information to making the information available to users, the web is an ideal medium to publicize
announcement.
8. Technical Support: Web pages can be updated immediate with new information, various technical
support literatures can be immediately modified in light to new findings and developments. This can be
accomplished without having to distribute changes to all users affected by any changes using traditional
medium of information distribution, which are often quite costly compared to the World Wide Web.
9. Create Online Discussion Forums: By using applications such as Web Board, it’s possible to set up
online discussion forums on the Web.
10. Obtain Customers Feedback: The interactive nature of the World Wide Web is ideal for obtaining
customer feedback. You can easily set up a script to obtain customer feedback about a product or service.
Because customer feedback submitted by customers can be read immediately, it’s possible to response to
various customers concerns in a timely manner, increasing customer satisfaction and quality of customer
services.
11. Easily Integration with Internal Information Systems: Internet information systems developed on
the Internet can be easily integrated with internal information systems managed with office productively
applications such as Microsoft Office.
12. Multimedia: The capability of incorporate multimedia into Web pages is a major advantage of using
World Wide Web to publish information. For Example, many web sites use sounds and video clips to
make the content easier and more interesting to browse.
13. Formatting Capabilities: Content published on the World Wide Web can be richly formatted by
using various HTML (Hypertexts Markup Language) tags and graphics formats. The capacity to do this
is a major reason for the success of the World Wide Web. In addition to using HTML tags and various
multimedia formats in Web pages, various interactive controls can also be added to a web page. This
capability allows web site content developers to create “active” Web sites. For example, before a user
sends some information to a web server for processing, a VBScript or JavaScript subroutine can be used
to verify information typed in by the user. Various formatting capacities, along with technologies such as
Java and VBScripts, make the World Wide Web a richly interactive medium that you can use to
distribute information to missions of users.

2.7 The disadvantage of Internet

1. Spamming: Spamming denotes distribution of unsolicited e-mails in large numbers. They are
meaningless and they unnecessarily block the whole system. These activities are treated as illegal.
2. Theft of personal details while using the internet. There is high probability that your personal
details like name, address and credit card number may be accessed by con artists and used for fraudulent
purpose.
3. Pornography. Pornography is definitely harmful for your children. There are numerous pornography
sites available over the Internet and watching any of those can have very bad influence on the mental
health of your children.
4. Virus threat: Virus is a program that interrupts the usual operation of your personal computer system.
PCs linked to the Internet have high probability of virus attacks and as a result of this, your hard disk can
crash, giving you a lot of trouble.

CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Internet Services
Internet service is provided to playing customers for access to the World Wide Web. It is provided by an
Internet Service Provider (ISP), and is offered by several types. There are various types of internet
services like E-mail, file transfer protocol (FTP) etc.
1. E-commerce: Electronic commerce, commonly known as e-commerce, is the buying and selling of
product or services over electronic systems as the Internet and other computer network. Electronic
commerce draws on such technologies as electronic funds transfer, supply chain, management, internet
marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI), inventory management
systems, and automated data collection systems.
2. Electronic mail, commonly referred to as email or e-mail, is a method of exchange digital messages
from an author to one or more recipients. Modern email operates across the Internet or other computer
networks.
3. File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host or to
another host over a network. There are lots of transfer protocols (HFTP) (Hybrid Fiber-Twisted Pair),
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Asynchronous File Transfer (SAFT), Secure copy Protocol
(SCP), Simple File Transfer Protocol (SFTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMPT) etc.
4. Bulletin Board System or BBS: is a computer system running software that allows users to connect
and log in to the system using a terminal program. Once logged in, a user can perform functions such as
uploading and downloading software and data, reading news and bulletins, and exchanging messages
with other user other users, either through email, public message board, and sometimes via direct
chatting. Many BBSes also offer on-line games, in which users can compete with each other, and BBSes
with multiple phone lines often provide chat rooms, allowing users to interact with each other.
5. Videoconferencing: is the conduct of a videoconference (also known as video conference or video
teleconference) by a set of telecommunication technologies allow two or more locations to communicate
by simultaneous two-way video and audio transmission.
6. World Wide Web (abbreviated as www or commonly known as the web): is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents accessed via the Internet. With a web browser, one can view web pages that may
contain text, images, videos and other multimedia and navigate between them via hyperlinks.
7. Telnet is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a bidirectional
interactive text-oriented communication facility using a virtual terminal connection.
3.2 Cyber Cafe or Internet Cafe
Internet cafe or cyber cafe is a place where people can get connected to the Internet while eating or
having a cup of tea using publicly accessible computer. While the main activities in the cyber cafe is the
Internet, such as email, newsgroup and web site surfing, other applications usually available are office
suite to type document, spreadsheet, games, such as inline games and other utilities such as printing
service, scanning and digital photo services. Some internet cafes also sell computer accessories and
computer related stuffs. People may have their food and drink at the computer table or at separate table
provide by the cafe. Modern cyber cafe also have wireless connection in their local area network (LAN)
where people can bring their own lap top and get connected to the Internet by paying a small fee.
3.3 Cyber Center or Internet Center
Cyber center or internet center is almost the same with cyber cafe or internet cafe. People can browse the
internet, playing games and typing document. The only difference is cyber center or internet center do not
sell food or beverages. They only concentrate in computers, not cafe. Other services usually available are
printing, scanning, digital photo, CD and DVD burning. They also sell computer accessories. Because of
the nature of their business, sometimes cyber center also sell computer and provide repair services.
3.4 Cyber Café
3.4.1 How to start a cyber café as a career and procedure for opening a cyber cafe
STEP 1. Collecting Information
Which category or style of cyber cafe do you consider?
Mainly serving coffee? (E.g the pacific Cofree)
Focusing on online games? (E.g Network Game Centers)
Setting budgets: It depends on the scale on your business.
Location assessment: The accessibility of your business district, such as transportation and pedestrian
flow and your potential trade area (which relates to the land use and the demographic profile) are some of
the factors you have to consider. On ground or upper floor must be considered. The size and rent also
have to be considered.
Target customers: If your business target for families, white collars or students?
Infrastructure setting: What kind of infrastructure does your cyber cafe need? You have to check both the
hardware (E.g Computer, Cables and electricity, etc) and the software (e.g Human resources and
technicians) Menu design, price setting and opening hours setting (24 hrs)
STEP 2. Making decisions and setting plans
During information gathering, you have to prepare to actualize your plan.
STEP 3. Taking Actions
Licenses Application
You can check what licenses you need to apply at
Here are some examples
All kind of food, except Tobacco and Alcoholic Drinks, Retail
Business/Branch Registration Certificate
Food Factory License and Provisional Food Factory License
Light Refreshment Restaurant – Coffee Shop/Cafe Serving only Drink and Cakes.
Renovation and decoration of your shop
Applying water and electricity supply, setting telecommunication and the Internet services.
Establishing network with source suppliers
Need good connections with food, computer and software suppliers for technological update.
Making purchases like furniture, hardware and software etc.
Setting up: Testing computers, checking connection and catering operator.
Recruitment: Both full-time and part-time helpers. Part-time is more preferable than full-time helpers for
their flexibility and lower labor cost.
STEP 4. Promotion and Advertising.
Media for promotion: E.g poster, leaflet, magazine or even on TV, radio and the Internet or you can offer
discount to customers as a portion strategy.
THE FINAL STEP (5): Opening of your cyber cafe
3.4.2 Café Management
Use of Cyber Cafe Management software, more than 20,000 Cafes software all over the World.
User: create permanent accounts for regular Customers and Store information of all Users accessing Café
Terminals.
Membership Packages: Setup Membership packages for regular Café Users who pay in advance for bulk
surfing time.
Rate Plan: Setup Rate Plans for occasional Café Users who pay at the end of every surfing session.
Print Manager: Monitor & manage multiple Printers and charge customers for printouts.
Lockdown Screen: Allows only authorized Users to login to Terminals in your Cafe.
Inventory Management: Maintain inventory of CDs, Coffee, Soft Drinks, and Snacks, Computer
Peripherals or for Services like Printing, CD Writing & Scanning, offered in your Cafe.
Client Desktop: Provides standardized Desktop environment to Café Users with Google Search, News,
Movies, Cricket Scores, popular site link and exciting offers.
Ticket: Prevent losses, simply accounting and eliminate user account creation.
Remote Viewer: Manage all Café Terminal sittings at the server.
Bandwidth Monitor: Monitor all Cafe Terminals sitting at the Server
Block Website: Prevent Users from surfing unwanted website in your Cafe.
Report: Analyze & optimize every aspect of your business with extensive reports.
Lock server: Prevent un-authorized access of the café Management Server by using the Lock feature
available in the Café Manager.
Setting: For advantage application settings of café Manager, use the options provided in the settings
screen
Add Sale: Café Manager enables you to manage and sell different Products and Services in your cafe.

3.4.3 Internet Connectivity

There are some hardware devices needed for internet connectivity viz;
A computer, with a motherboard processor, ram, graphics card, hard drive and monitor inclusive.
A network card or modem.
An operating system for example Windows XP with Internet explorer, and the TCP/IP stack installed.
A router or a telephone box

3.5 MODEM
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that modulates an analog carrier signal to encode digital
information, and also demodulates such a carrier signal to decode the transmitted information. The goal is
to produce a signal that can be transmitted easily and decoded to reproduce the original digital data.
Modems are generally classified by the amount of data they can send in a given unit of time, usually
expressed in bits per second (bit/s or bps).

3.6 Classification of modems

3.6.1 C-Series Modems integrate data, fax and voice features into one reliable and low-cost
communications solution. The C-Series product line include an external and internal modem. C-Series
modems include the latest fax retrieval functions and fax-on-demand capabilities combine to offer the
personal fax functionality required at remote offices. The C-Series voice features include a digital
answering machine, multiple personal voicemail boxed with security, messages scripting capabilities and
a full-duplex speakerphone. C-Series modems will record and play messages through Z34-SC’s built-in
MIC and speaker on an attached telephone handset. These modems are also sound card-compatible for
recording and playback of messages.
3.6.2 V series Modem: It develop a range of algorithms for complete physical layer of telephone line V-
series modems, including V.23, V.26, V-22bis and V.32 provide also a low sample rate digital
transmitter/receiver for the 2B1Q line code with a low CPU usage as possible, a complete handshake
protocol and signal estimation (recognition) procedure, as well as procedures for quality assessment of a
received signal.
3.6.3 X-series Radio Modems: This class of modem is used for transmission of radio signals. There are
lots of series of this modem. X8200 Radio Modems can achieve a range of 1 to 3Km through buildings
and 20Km in free space. In addition, the radio Modem RF power can varied from 5mW to 500mW. Serial
data can be transmitted by X8200 with band rates from 1.2 KHz to 115.2 KHz over distance of 100Km to
200Km line of sight and 1Km to 3Km when located inside building. But, it can span for more than
200km in its AM, SW, MW and LW types.
3.7 Types of Modems
Depending upon how your computer is configured is configured and your preference, you can have
external, internal or PC modem card. All three types work the same way, but each has its advantages and
disadvantages.
3.7.1 External Modem: This is the simplest type of modem to install because you don’t have to open the
computer. External modems have their own power supply and connected with a cable to a computer’s
serial port. External modems have their own power supply; you can turn off the modem to break an
online connection quickly without powering down the computer. Another advantage over an internal
modem is that an external modem’s separate power supply does not drain any power from the computer.
You also can monitor your modem’s connection activity by watching the status lights.
3.7.2 Internal Modem: Most internal modems come installed in your computer. Internal modems are
more directly integrated into the computer system and, therefore, do not need any special attention.
Internal modems are activated when you run a communications program and are turned off when you exit
the program. This convenience is especially useful for novice users. Internal modems usually cost less
than external modems, but the price difference is usually small. The major disadvantage with internal
modems is their location: inside the computer. When you want to replace an internal modem you have to
go inside the computer case to make the switch.
3.7.3 PC Card modem: These modems, designed for portable computers, are the size of credit card and
fit into the PC Card slot on notebook and handheld computer. These modems are removed when the
modem is not needed. Except for their size, PC Card modems are like a combination of external and
internal modems. These devices are plugged directly into an external slot in the portable computer, so no
cable is required other than the telephone line connection. The cards are powered by the computer, so
which is fine unless the computer is battery-operated. Running a PC Card modem while the portable
computer is operating on battery power drastically decreases the life of your batteries.
3.8 Wireless Transmission or Wireless Communication
The most wireless technologies use electromagnetic wireless telecommunications, such as radio. With
radio waves distances cab be short, such as a few meters for television remote control, or as far a
thousand or even millions of kilometers for deep-space radio communications. It encompasses various
types of fixed, mobile and portable applications, including two-way radios, cellular telephones, personal
digital assistance (PDAs), and Wireless networking. Other examples of applications of radio wireless
technology include GPS units, garage door openers, wireless computer mice, keyboards and headsets,
headphones, radio receivers, satellite television, broadcast television and cordless telephones.
3.8.1 Advantages of Wireless Communication
i. Communication has enhanced to convey the information quickly to the consumers.
ii. Working professionals can work and access Internet anywhere and anytime without caring cables or
time and improves the productivity.
iii. Doctors, workers and other professionals working in remote areas can be in touch with medical
centers through wireless communication.
iv. Urgent situation can be alerted through wireless communication. The affected regions can be provided
help and support with the help of these alerts through wireless communication.
v. Wireless networks are cheaper to install and maintain.
3.8.2 Disadvantages of Wireless Communication
i. It is very easy for the hackers to grab the wireless signals that are spread in the air.
ii. Wireless networks require careful radio frequency planning at the beginning of the installation.
iii. Wireless communication is subject to interference.
Note.
Wi-Fi Protected Access (WAP) and Wi-Fi Protect Access II (WAP2) are two security protocols and
security certification programs developed by Wi-Fi Alliance to secure wireless computer networks.

3.9 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT), is two-way satellite ground station or a stabilized maritime
VSAT antenna with a dish antenna that is smaller than 3 meters. The majority of VSAT antenna range
from 75cm to 1.2m. Data rates typically range from 56kbit/s up to 4 Mbit/s. VSATs are most commonly
used to transmit narrowband data (point of sale terminals such as credit card, polling or locations, VoIP
or video). VSATs are also used for transportable, one-the-move (utilizing phrased array antennas) or
mobile maritime communications.

3.10 Radio Waves is the wireless transmission of signals through free space by electromagnetic radiation
of a frequency significantly below that of visible light, in the frequency range, from about 30kHz to
300GHz. Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating electromagnetic fields that pass
through the air and vacuum of space. Information, such as sound, is carried by systematically changing
(modulating) some property of the radiated waves, such as their amplitude, frequency, phrase or pulse
width. When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating fields induce an alternating current
in the conductor. The information in the waves can be extracted and transformed back into its original
form.

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 COMPUTER PROTOCOLS
In order for computers to communicate with one another, standard methods of information transfer and
processing have been devised. These are referred to as "PROTOCOLS" and some of the more common
ones such as TCP, IP, UDP, POP, SMTP, HTTP, and FTP are discussed here.
4.2 What are Protocols?
Computers have everything explicitly defined and structured needed for communication. Computers
communicate with one another, having the knowledge in advance exactly how information is to be
exchanged and precisely what the format will be. PROTOCOLS are standard programs developed to
enhance the methods of transmitting and processing various kinds of information from one device to
another either through wired or wireless media. Protocols are established by international agreement and
ensure that computers everywhere can communicate to one another. There are varieties of protocols for
different kinds of information and functions.
4.3 Types of Protocols
1. TCP/IP
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) are two different procedures that are
often linked together. The linking of several protocols is common since the functions of different
protocols can be complementary so that together they carry out some complete task. The combination of
several protocols to carry out a particular task is often called a "Stack" because it has layers of
operations. In fact, the term "TCP/IP" is normally used to refer to a whole suite of protocols, each with
different functions. This suite of protocols is what carries out the basic operations of the Web. TCP/IP is
also used on many local area networks. The details of how the Web works are beyond the scope of this
course but brief explanations are as follow.
When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into smaller pieces called "Packets".
The use of packets facilitates speedy transmission since different parts of a message can be sent by
different routes and then reassembled at the destination. It is also a safety measure to minimize the
chances of losing information in the transmission process. TCP is the means for creating the packets,
putting them back together in the correct order at the end, and checking to make sure that no packets got
lost in transmission. If necessary, TCP will request that a packet be resent.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used to route information to the proper address. Every computer on
the Internet has to have its own unique address known as the IP address. Every packet sent will contain
an IP address showing where it is supposed to go. A packet may go through a number of computer
routers before arriving at its final destination and IP controls the process of getting everything to the
designated computer. Note that IP does not make physical connections between computers but relies on
TCP for this function. IP is also used in conjunction with other protocols that create connections.
2. UDP and ICMP
Another member of the TCP/IP suite is User Datagram Protocol (UDP). (A datagram is almost the same
as a packet except that sometimes a packet will contain more than one datagram.) This protocol is used
together with IP when small amounts of information are involved. It is simpler than TCP and lacks the
flow-control and error-recovery functions of TCP. Thus, it uses fewer system resources.
A different type of protocol is Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP). It defines a small number of
messages used for diagnostic and management purposes. It is also used by Ping and Trace route.
3. POP3 and SMTP: These are Mail Protocols
Email requires its own set of protocols and there are varieties, both for sending and for receiving mail.
The most common protocol for sending mail is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). When
configuring email clients, an Internet address for a SMTP server must be entered. The most common
protocol used by PCs for receiving mail is Post Office Protocol (POP). It is now in version 3 so it is
called POP3. Email clients require an address for a POP3 server before they can read mail. The SMTP
and POP3 servers may or may not be the same address. Both SMTP and POP3 use TCP for managing the
transmission and delivery of mail across the Internet.
4. IMAP
A more powerful protocol for reading mail is Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP). This protocol
allows for the reading of individual mailboxes at a single account and is more common in business
environments. IMAP also uses TCP to manage the actual transmission of mail.
5. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
Web pages are constructed according to a standard method called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
An HTML page is transmitted over the Web in a standard way and format known as Hypertext Transfer
Protocol (HTTP). This protocol uses TCP/IP to manage the Web transmission.
A related protocol is "Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer" (HTTPS), provides for the
transmission in encrypted form to provide security for sensitive data. A Web page using this protocol will
have https: at the front of its URL.
6. File Transfer Protocol
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) lives up to its name and provides a method for copying files over a network
from one computer to another. More generally, it provides for some simple file management on the
contents of a remote computer. It is an old protocol and is used less than it was before the World Wide
Web came along. Today, it is primarily used for uploading files to a Website. It is often used for
downloading from the Web but downloading is done via HTTP. Sites that have a lot of downloading
(software sites, for example) will often have an FTP server to handle the traffic. If FTP is involved, the
URL will have ftp: at the front.
7. Uniform Resource Locator (URL), colloquially termed a Web Address.
It is a reference to a web resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for
retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use
the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also
used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. Most
web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL is of the
form “http://www.example.com/index.html”, which indicates a protocol (http), a hostname
(www.example.com), and a file name (index.html).

4.4 OBSTACLES TO INTERNET GROWTH IN NIGERIA

Nigeria has really live up to its aspirations of emerging a great country then it cannot ignore the
increasing importance of the Internet in communications, education, business and commerce and more.
Already this significance is been reflected by the increase in the number of cyber cafes, ISPs and
numerous Internet based businesses in the country. It is very poor for a country priding itself as the giant
of Africa with a huge population of more than 160 million people; its potential for growth is massive and
thus positive whereas there are many challenges on its way to growth concerning the use of internet.
Some of these challenges are explicated here.
1. HIGH COST OF GETTING INTERNET:
Internet doesn’t come cheap in Nigeria. As it stands, it is arguably the preserve of the rich who often
times than one, have access from their homes. One of the reasons for the high cost of connecting to the
internet is the costs involved in using satellites due to a lack of cable infrastructure. Most Internet traffic
in Nigeria often times needs to be routed by satellite via North America and Europe Website.
2. LOW SPEED AND TIME-CONSUMING INTERNET
Out of over 50 million estimated Internet users in Nigeria, broadband users are few. High-speed
broadband requires fiber optic cables. The situation should, however, improve as there are a number of
projects underway to connect African countries with the rest of the world through undersea cables which
is hoped will eventually lead to affordability and fast speed.
3. PERVASIVE POWER OUTAGES
The epileptic power situation in the country has further compounded the woes of the few ISPs and Cyber
cafes operating in the country. With very unreliable power in the country, operators are left with no
choice but to acquire and rely constantly on generators; expending huge gallons of fuel daily, in order to
distribute internet to offices, homes, or cafes for subscribers.
4. INCREASING COMPETITION
Traditional internet service providers are beginning to face increasing competition from internet services
offered by mobile operators. The introduction of 4G services in the country has enabled many Nigerians
to access the internet through mobile devices. Meanwhile, access to telecom services isn't necessarily
reliant on new cabling.
5. LACK OF INTERNET READY PCS
Nigerians are not provided with Internet-ready PCs as done in the advanced countries. Having such PCs,
there is no need to purchase extra internet accessing devices like modems and routers. Though Zinox
Computers, a computer manufacturer and a leading CDMA telecom operator are joining forces to make
this available, and other efforts are currently being made, much of this still remain in the doldrums.
6. HIGH LEVEL OF ICT ILLITERACY
It has been said that ICT knowledge in Nigeria is growing and being embraced, yet there remain a large
majority of rural population that have not seen firsthand, the immense benefits of the internet.
7. INTERNET FRAUDSTERS (YAHOO-YAHOO)
Another of Nigeria's Internet problems is the growing internet culture among Nigerian youths. Young
Nigerian and preferably few of the older Nigerians developed themselves in the use internet tools and
other features to perpetrate crime online like hacking commercial banks websites by specific e-payment
system and e-learning culture, sending unwanted email messages, visit pornographic sites, shop online
with stolen credit cards and so many other negative vices that has come to be known as YAHOO
YAHOO!
8. POVERTY: Nigeria is a developing country consisting mainly of poverty-ravaged people who cannot
afford three square meals a day. There is high cost of feeding, education, and health in the land. The poor
ones will rather not waste their little income to access the internet when they have their priority as food,
clothing and shelter. Many cannot afford to own a PC at home, even the fairly used ones being shipped
from developed countries; talk less of engagement in internet connectivity for research and exploration.
Other problems facing internet growth in Nigeria are as follows
9. No clear regulation for web hosting companies in Nigeria
10. No place to seek redress for poor service for providers
11. Multiple taxation from government, and low level financing of activities.
12. Poor delivery of service due to down times and lack of back up by hosting providers
Despite all of these daunting challenges, Nigeria is pursuing a path of reforms and modernization. It has
the raw materials -- natural resources and educated talent -- to become a world player. And its fledgling
Internet industry presents a tremendous opportunity to build bridges with other countries.

4.5 REMEDIES TO INTERNET GROWTH OBSTACLES:

1. IMPROVED POWER SUPPLY – One factor that hinders rural Internet development is erratic power
supply and most times non existing power in some areas. In bid to encourage foreign investment in ICT,
government should pursue aggressively the power supply sector, because without power internet
equipment and the like may malfunction. If there will be improvement in this area, it will go a long way
to boost Internet connectivity and operations.
2. ESTABLISHMENT OF INDEPENDENT SATELLITE – The establishment of an independent
satellite will help to eradicate the high cost of ISP Connections, reduction in number of
telecommunication masts and boost Internet connectivity by most individuals, organizations and
businesses.
3. PROVISION OF TELECOMMUNICATION INFRASTRUCTURE – The extension of
telecommunication infrastructure to rural areas will enhance the operation of rural areas will enhance the
operation of the Internet, as people in such rural areas will connect to ISP and open doors for people to
enjoy the numerous opportunities provided by the Internet.
4. GOVERNMENT POLICIES – The government support and development of ICT will go a long way
to eradicate unemployment, sensitize the citizens on the numerous internet opportunities as well as help
to curtail rural urban drift.
5. POVERTY ERADICATION POLICIES – Poverty gap between the rich and the poor should be
eradicated to ensure equitable distribution of wealth, which will in turn increase people’s interest in
education and ICT acceptance.
6. JOB CREATION POLICIES – Rapid job creation policies will encourage earning, people can
engage in two or more jobs to increase their income and subsequently acquire ICT tools like computer
sets.
7. PRIVATE–PUBLIC COLLABORATION EFFORTS – There should be encouragement from
government towards all private-public collaboration in eradication of poverty, funding of infrastructural
development and education of the people on ICT concepts.
8. MASS LITERACY EFFORT – Education should not be for rich and well to do in the society, rather
an aggressive plan on eradication of illiteracy in the country should be favored against mass looting of
public wealth.
Other remedies that can eradicate Internet obstacles in Nigeria:-
9. Support from improved personnel’s.
10. Awareness creation on uses of internet.
11. Integration of internet education in school curricular.
12. Remove import duty on telecoms components.

4.6 DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (or SERVICE or SERVER) is an internet service that translates
domain names which are alphabetic into IP addresses that are numbers. This is because domain names
are alphabetic; they're easier to remember than numbers. That means internet is really based on IP
addresses. Every time a domain name is entered, therefore, a DNS service must translate the name into
the corresponding IP address. For example, the domain name www.example.com might translate to
198.105.232.4.
This also means that every website has an Internet Protocol (IP) address made up of numbers. However a
domain name such as www.facebook.com is something people can recognize and remember. DNS syncs
up domain names with IP addresses enabling humans to use memorable domain names while computers
on the Internet can use IP addresses.
A Domain Name System (DNS) is a database that stores all of the domain names and corresponding IP
numbers for a particular top-level domain (TLD) such as .com or .net. The DNS identifies and locates
computer systems and resources on the Internet. For instance, when you type in a Web address, or URL,
the DNS will match the typed name with the IP address for that location, and connect you to that site.

CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 SUBNET MASKS
A Subnet Mask is a 32-bit value that allows the recipient of IP packets to distinguish the network ID
portion of the IP address from the host ID portion of the IP address. The network administrator creates a
32-bit subnet mask composed of 1s and 0s. The 1s in the subnet mask represent the positions that refer to
the network or subnet addresses. Not all networks need subnets, meaning they use the default subnet
mask. This is basically the same as saying that a network doesn’t have a subnet address. Table below
shows the default subnet masks for Classes A, B, and C. These default masks cannot change. In other
words, you can’t make a Class B subnet mask read 255.0.0.0. If you try, the host will read that address as
invalid and usually won’t even let you type it in. For a Class A network, you can’t change the first byte in
a subnet mask; it must read 255.0.0.0 at a minimum. Similarly, you cannot assign 255.255.255.255, as
this is all 1s—a broadcast address. Class A address must start with 255.0.0.0, Class B address must start
with 255.255.0.0 and a Class C has to start with 255.255.255.0.

5.2 Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)

It’s basically the method that ISPs (Internet service providers) use to allocate a number of addresses to a
company, a home or a customer certain block size. When a block of addresses are given from an ISP, for
example: 192.168.10.32/28. The slash notation (/) means how many bits are turned on (1s). A byte is 8
bits and there are 4 bytes in an IP address: (4 × 8 = 32). For example, a Class A default subnet mask,
which is 255.0.0.0. This means that the first byte of the subnet mask is all ones (1s), or 11111111. That
is, 255.0.0.0 is considered a /8 because it has 8 bits that are 1s—that is, 8 bits that are turned on.
A Class B default mask would be 255.255.0.0, which is a /16 because 16 bits are ones (1s):
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000.
Table below has list of every available subnet mask and its equivalent CIDR slash notation.
Default Subnet Mask Table
Class Format Default Subnet Mask
A Network. Node. Node. Node 255.0.0.0
B Network. Network. Node. Node 255.255.0.0
C Network. Network. Network. Node 255.255.255.0

5.3 Subnetting Basics

The /8 through /15 can only be used with Class A network addresses. /16 through /23 can be used by
Class A and B network addresses. /24 through /30 can be used by Class A, B, and
C network addresses. This is a big reason why most companies use Class A network addresses.
Since they can use all subnet masks, they get the maximum flexibility in network design.

5.4 Subnet Mask CIDR Value

255.0.0.0 /8
255.128.0.0 /9
255.192.0.0 /10
255.224.0.0 /11
255.240.0.0 /12
255.248.0.0 /13
255.252.0.0 /14
255.254.0.0 /15
255.255.0.0 /16
255.255.128.0 /17
255.255.192.0 /18
255.255.224.0 /19
255.255.240.0 /20
255.255.248.0 /21
255.255.252.0 /22
255.255.254.0 /23
255.255.255.0 /24
255.255.255.128 /25
255.255.255.192 /26
255.255.255.224 /27
255.255.255.240 /28
255.255.255.248 /29
255.255.255.252 /30
5.5 Subnetting Class C Addresses
In a Class C address, only 8 bits are available for defining the hosts. Remember that subnet bits start at
the left and go to the right, without skipping bits. This means that the only Class C subnet masks can be
the following:
Binary Decimal CIDR
00000000 = 0 /24
10000000 = 128 /25
11000000 = 192 /26
11100000 = 224 /27
11110000 = 240 /28
11111000 = 248 /29
11111100 = 252 /30

When a possible subnet mask for a network has been choose, next step is to determine the number of
subnets, valid hosts, and broadcast addresses of a subnet that the mask provides. There are five simple
questions to answer:
1. How many subnets does the chosen subnet mask produce?
2. How many valid hosts per subnet are available?
3. What is/are the block size(s)?
4. Write out the subnet address of each subnet.
5. Write out the broadcast address in each subnet.

Steps to solutions
1. How many subnets? 2x = number of subnets. x is the number of bits turned on, or the 1s. For example,
in 11000000, the number of 1s gives us 22 subnets = 4 subnets.
2. How many valid hosts per subnet? 2y – 2 = number of hosts per subnet. y is the number of bits turned
off, or the 0s. For example, in 11000000, the number of 0s gives us 26 – 2 = 62 valid hosts per subnet.
3. What block is the size? 256 – Subnet mask = block size, or increment number. An example would be
256 – 192 = 64. The block size of a 192 mask is 64. Start counting at zero in blocks of 64 until you reach
the subnet mask value and these are your subnets.
Subnet address: 0 64 128 192.
The broadcast address is always the number right before the next subnet. For example, the 0 subnet has a
broadcast address of 63 because the next subnet is 64. The 64 subnet has a broadcast address of 127
because the next subnet is 128. And so on. And remember, the broadcast address of the last subnet is
always 255.
Broadcast address: 63 127 191 255
Note: Valid hosts are the numbers between the subnets address and the broadcast address, that is, 1 – 62
is the valid host in the first subnet, 65 – 126 is the valid host second subnet and so on.

5.5.1 Subnetting Practice Examples: Class C Addresses

Practice Example 1C: 255.255.255.128 (/25)
Solution: Using Class C network address 192.168.10.0. Since 128 is 10000000 in binary, here x = 1 bit
for subnet and y = 7 bits for hosts.
192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.128 = Subnet mask
1. How many subnets? Since 128 is 1 bit on (10000000), the answer would be 21 = 2.
2. How many valid hosts per subnet? 7 host bits off (10000000), then 27 – 2 = 126 hosts.
3. What are the block size? 256 – 128 = 128.
4. Write out the subnet address for each subnet. The number right before the value of the
5. Write out the broadcast address for each subnet.
Subnet 0 128
First host 1 129
Last host 126 254
Broadcast 127 255

5.5.2 Practice Example 2C: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
1. How many subnets? Since 192 is 2 bits on (11000000), the answer would be 22 = 4 subnets.
2. How many valid hosts per subnet? We have 6 host bits off (11000000), then 26 – 2 = 62 hosts.
3. What is the block size? 256 – 192 = 64.
4. Write out the subnet address for each subnet?
Subnet address: 0 64 128 192.
First host: 1 65 129 193
. . . . .
Last host: 62 126 190 254
Broadcast address: 63 127 191 255

5.5.3 Practice Example 3C: 255.255.255.224 (/27)

Solution: Subnet the network address 192.168.10.0 and subnet mask 255.255.255.224.
192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.224 = Subnet mask
1. How many subnets? 224 is 11100000, x = 3, then 23 = 8 subnets.
2. How many hosts? y = 5 bits turned off. Then, 25 – 2 = 30 valid hosts.
3. What is the block size? 256 – 224 = 32.
Remember the increments is of 32: 0, 32, 64, 96, 128, 160, 192, and 224.

Subnets address: 0 32 64 96 128 160 192 224

First host: 1 33 65 97 129 161 193 225
.
Last host: 30 62 94 126…………………………..254
Broadcast address: 31 63 95 127…………………………..255

5.5.4 Practice Example 4C: 255.255.255.240 (/28)

192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.240 = Subnet mask
1. How many Subnets? 240 is 11110000 in binary. Then, x = 4. 24 = 16 subnets.
2. How many valid hosts? y = 4 bits turned off, or 24 – 2 = 14 valid hosts.
3. What is the block size? 256 – 240 = 16.
Subnet 0 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 …………………240
First host 1 17 33 49 65 81 97 113 129 145 161………………….241

Last host 14 30 46 62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174……………….254

Broadcast 15 31 47 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175……………….255

5.5.5 Practice Example 5C: 255.255.255.248 (/29)

192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.248 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 248 in binary = 11111000. Then, x = 5. 25 = 32 subnets.
2. Valid Hosts? y = 3. Then, 23 – 2 = 6 valid hosts.
3. Block size? 256 – 248 = 8. The increment is 0, 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56, 64, 72, 80, 88, 96, 104, 112,
120, 128, 136, 144, 152, 160, 168, 176, 184, 192, 200, 208, 216, 224, 232, 240, and 248.
4. Subnet address for each subnet.
5 Broadcast Address for each subnet.
Subnet 0 8 16 24 …...224 232 240 248
First host 1 9 17 25 …...225 233 241 249

Last host 6 14 22 30 … 230 238 246 254

Broadcast 7 15 23 31 … 231 239 247 255

5.5.6 Practice Example 6C: 255.255.255.252 (/30)

192.168.10.0 = Network address
255.255.255.252 = Subnet mask
1. Show many subnet? x = 6. Then, 26 = 64 subnets.
2. Valid Hosts? y = 2. Then, 22 – 2 = 2 valid hosts.
3. Block size? 256 – 252 = 4. 0, 4, 8, 12, etc., all the way to 252.
4. Subnet address for each subnet.
5. Broadcast address for each subnet.
Subnet address 0 4 8 12…………..240 244 248 252
First host 1 5 9 13…………..241 245 249 253

Last host 2 6 10 14…………242 246 250 254

Broadcast address 3 7 11 15…………243 247 251 255

5.6 Subnetting Class B Addresses

It is quite clear that all the possible Class B IP address can make use of use of subnet masks of Class C
network address:
255.255.0.0 (/16)
255.255.128.0 (/17) 255.255.255.0 (/24)
255.255.192.0 (/18) 255.255.255.128 (/25)
255.255.224.0 (/19) 255.255.255.192 (/26)
255.255.240.0 (/20) 255.255.255.224 (/27)
255.255.248.0 (/21) 255.255.255.240 (/28)
255.255.252.0 (/22) 255.255.255.248 (/29)
255.255.254.0 (/23) 255.255.255.252 (/30)

5.6.1 Practice Example 1B: 255.255.128.0 (/17)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.128.0 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? X = 1. Then, 21 = 2 subnets.
2. Valid Hosts? 215 – 2 = 32,766 valid hosts. (7 bits in the third octet, and 8 bits in the fourth).
3. Block size 256 – 128 = 128. Increment of 0, 128. Subnetting is performed in the third octet, so the
subnet numbers are really 0.0 and 128.0.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 128.0
First host 0.1 128.1

Last host 127.254 255.254

Broadcast 127.255 255.255

5.6.2 Practice Example 2B: 255.255.192.0 (/18)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.192.0 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 22 = 4 subnet.
2. Valid hosts? 214 – 2 = 16,382 valid hosts (6 bits in the third octet, and 8 in the fourth).
3. Block size? 256 – 192 = 64. Increment of 0, 64, 128, 192.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 128.0
First host 0.1 128.1

Last host 127.254 255.254

Broadcast 127.255 255.255

5.6.3 Practice Example 3B: 255.255.240.0 (/20)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.240.0 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 24 = 16 subnets.
2. Valid hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094 valid host.
3. Block size? 256 – 240 = 16. 0, 16, 32, 48, etc., up to 240.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 16.0 32.0 48.0……………..240.0
First host 0.1 16.1 32.1 48.1……………..240.1

Last host 15.254 31.254 47.254 63.254…………..255. 254

Broadcast 15.255 31.255 47.255 63.255…………..255.255

5.6.4 Practice Example 4B: 255.255.254.0 (/23)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.254.0 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 27 = 128 subnets.
2. Valid hosts? 29 – 2 = 510 valid hosts.
3. Block size? 256 – 254 = 2. 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, etc., up to 254.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0……………………254.0
First host 0.1 2.1 4.1 6.1 8.1……………………254.1

Last host 1.254 3.254 5.254 7.254 9.254…………………255.254

Broadcast 1.255 3.255 5.255 7.255 9.255…………………255.255

5.6.5 Practice Example 5B: 255.255.255.0 (/24)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.255.0 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 28 = 256.
2. Valid hosts? 28 – 2 = 254.
3. Block size? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3, etc., all the way to 255.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?

Subnet 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 ..................254.0 255.0

First host 0.1 1.1 2.1 3.1 ..................254.1 255.1
Last host 0.254 1.254 2.254 3.254 ..............254.254 255.254
Broadcast 0.255 1.255 2.255 3.255 ..............254.255 255.255

5.6.6 Practice Example 6B: 255.255.255.128 (/25)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.255.128 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 29 = 512 subnets.
2. Valid hosts? 27 – 2 = 126 valid hosts.
3. Block size? 256 – 255 = 1 for 3rd octet and 256 – 128 = 128 for 4th octet.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?

Subnet 0.0 0.128 1.0 1.128 2.0 2.128 3.0 3.128 ... 255.0 255.128
1st host 0.1 0.129 1.1 1.129 2.1 2.129 3.1 3.129 ... 255.1 255.129
Lasthost0.126 0.254 1.126 1.254 2.126 2.254 3.126 3.254 ... 255.126 255.254
Broadcast0.127 0.255 1.127 1.255 2.127 2.255 3.127 3.255 ... 255.127 255.255

5.6.7 Practice Example 7B: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.255.192 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 210 = 1024 subnets.
2. Hosts? 26 – 2 = 62 valid hosts.
3. Block size? 256 – 255 = 1 for 3rd octet and 256 – 192 = 64 for 4th octet.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 0.64 0.128 0.192 1.0 1.64 1.128 1.192…..
First host 0.1 0.65 0.129 0.193 1.1 1.65 1.129 1.193…..

Last host 0.62 0.126 0.190 0.254 1.62 1.126 1.190 1.254…..
Broadcast 0.63 0.127 0.191 0.255 1.63 1.127 1.191 1.255…..

Subnet 255.0 255.64 255.128 255.192

First host 255.1 255.65 255.129 255.193

Last host 255.62 255.126 255.190 255.254

Broadcast 255.63 255.127 255.191 255.255

5.6.8 Practice Example 8B: 255.255.255.224 (/27)

172.16.0.0 = Network address
255.255.255.224 = Subnet mask
1. Subnets? 211 = 2048.
2. Hosts? 25 – 2 = 30.
3. Block size? 256-255 = 1 for 3rd octet and for 4th octet 256 – 224 = 32.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 0.0 0.32 0.64 0.96 0.128 0.160 0.192 0.224
First host 0.1 0.33 0.65 0.97 0.129 0.161 0.193 0.225
Last host 0.30 0.62 0.94 0.126 0.158 0.190 0.222 0.254
Broadcast 0.31 0.63 0.95 0.127 0.159 0.191 0.223 0.255

This next table shows the last eight subnets:

Subnet 255.0 255.32 255.64 255.96 255.128 255.160 255.192 255.224
First host 255.1 255.33 255.65 255.97 255.129 255.161 255.193 255.225

Last host 255.30 255.62 255.94 255.126 255.158 255.190 255.222 255.254
Broadcast 255.31 255.63 255.95 255.127 255.159 255.191 255.223 255.255

5.7 Subnetting Class A Addresses

Class A subnetting is not performed any differently than Classes B and C, but there are 24 bits to play
with instead of the 16 in a Class B address and the 8 in a Class C address. Class A can use subnet mask of
class A, class B and class C.
Note: 2 bits must be left out for defining hosts. That is why (/31) and (/32) are removed. Subnetting class
A is in the same way as Class B and C subnet. It’s just that, again, we simply have more host bits and we
just use the same subnet numbers we used with Class B and C, but we start using these numbers in the
second octet.
5.7.1 Subnetting Practice Examples: Class A Addresses
Practice Example 1A: 255.255.0.0 (/16)
Class A addresses use a default mask of 255.0.0.0, which leaves 22 bits for subnetting and 2 bits for host
addressing. The 255.255.0.0 mask with a Class A address is using 8 subnet bits.
1. Subnets? 28 = 256 subnets.
2. Valid hosts? 216 – 2 = 65,534 valid hosts.
3. Block size? What is the interesting octet? 256 – 255 = 1. 0, 1, 2, 3….255. The subnets would be
10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, 10.3.0.0, etc., up to 10.255.0.0.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 10.0.0.0 10.1.0.0 ……….10.254.0.0 10.255.0.0
First host 10.0.0.1 10.1.0.1 ……….10.254.0.1 10.255.0.1
Last host 10.0.255.254 10.1.255.254 … 10.254.255.254 10.255.255.254
Broadcast 10.0.255.255 10.1.255.255 … 10.254.255.255 10.255.255.255

5.7.2 Practice Example 2A: 255.255.240.0 (/20)

255.255.240.0 Gives 12 bits of subnetting and leaves us 12 bits for host addressing.
1. Subnets? 212 = 4096.
2. Hosts? 212 – 2 = 4094.
3. Block size? 256 – 255 = 1 for 2nd octet and 256 – 240 = 16 for 3rd octet. The block size in the second
octet are a block size of 1 and the subnets in the third octet are 0, 16, 32, etc.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 10.0.0.0 10.0.16.0 10.0.32.0 …….10.255.240.0
First host 10.0.0.1 10.0.16.1 10.0.32.1 …….10.255.240.1
Last host 10.0.15.254 10.0.31.254 10.0.47.254 … 10.255.255.254
Broadcast 10.0.15.255 10.0.31.255 10.0.47.255 … 10.255.255.255

5.7.3 Practice Example 3A: 255.255.255.192 (/26)

1. Subnets? 218 = 262,144 subnets.
2. Valid hosts? 26 – 2 = 62 valid hosts.
3. Block size? In the second and third octet, the block size is 1, and in the fourth octet, the block size is
256 – 192 = 64.
4. Subnet address for each subnet?
5. Broadcast address for each subnet?
Subnet 10.0.0.0 10.0.0.64 10.0.0.128 10.0.0.192
First host 10.0.0.1 10.0.0.65 10.0.0.129 10.0.0.193
Last host 10.0.0.62 10.0.0.126 10.0.0.190 10.0.0.254
Broadcast 10.0.0.63 10.0.0.127 10.0.0.191 10.0.0.255
The following table shows the last four subnets and their valid hosts and broadcast addresses:
Subnet 10.255.255.0 10.255.255.64 10.255.255.128 10.255.255.192
First host 10.255.255.1 10.255.255.65 10.255.255.129 10.255.255.193
Last host 10.255.255.62 10.255.255.126 10.255.255.190 10.255.255.254
Broadcast 10.255.255.63 10.255.255.127 10.255.255.191 10.255.255.255