<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

Latent heat
In general, Matter is found in three different states – Solid, Liquid & Gas. During the
change of state of matter from one to the other, heat is involved. Heat is either absorbed or
released by the matter. This energy is latent heat. Latent heat is the energy absorbed or
released when a substance changes its physical state. For example, in case of water, each
time it changes physical state, ice to water, or water to vapour or other ways, energy is
involved. Latent heat is absorbed upon evaporation, and released upon condensation to
liquid (as in clouds). Latent heat is also absorbed when water melts, and released when it
freezes.

Latent heat refers to the amount of energy released or absorbed by a chemical

substance during a change of state that occurs without changing its temperature, meaning
a phase transition such as the melting of ice or the boiling of water.

If water is allowed to evaporate from a system, it will collect the energy (latent heat) from
the system itself and thus the total system would become cold. Following this principle,
water in the earthenware becomes cold.

Air conditioners and Refrigerators use chemicals that easily convert from a gas to a liquid
and back again. This chemical is used to transfer heat from the air inside of a home (for Air
Conditioner) or closed chamber (for Refrigerator) to the outside air. These chemicals are
known as Refrigerants.

Refrigeration & Air Conditioning

Air Conditioners and Refrigerators work the same way. Instead of cooling just the small,
insulated space inside of a refrigerator, an air conditioner cools a room, a whole house, or
an entire business area. Air Conditioners also control some other factors of air inside the
room.

The machine has three main parts. They are a compressor, a condenser and an
evaporator. The compressor and condenser are usually located on the outside air portion of
the air conditioner. The evaporator is located on the inside the house, sometimes as part of
a furnace. That's the part that heats your house.

The working fluid arrives at the compressor as a cool, low-pressure gas. The compressor
squeezes the fluid. This packs the molecule of the fluid closer together. The closer the
molecules are together, the higher its energy and its temperature.

The working fluid leaves the compressor as a hot, high pressure gas and flows into the
condenser. If you looked at the air conditioner part outside a house, look for the part that
has metal fins all around. The fins act just like a radiator in a car and helps the heat go
away, or dissipate, more quickly.

When the working fluid leaves the condenser, its temperature is much cooler and it has
changed from a gas to a liquid under high pressure. The liquid goes into the evaporator
through a very tiny, narrow hole. On the other side, the liquid's pressure drops. When it
does it begins to evaporate into a gas.

Page 1 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

As the liquid changes to gas and evaporates, it extracts heat from the air around it. The
heat in the air is needed to separate the molecules of the fluid from a liquid to a gas.
The evaporator also has metal fins to help in exchange the thermal energy with the
surrounding air.

By the time the working fluid leaves the evaporator, it is a cool, low pressure gas. It then
returns to the compressor to begin its trip all over again.
Connected to the evaporator is a fan that circulates the air inside the house to blow across
the evaporator fins. Hot air is lighter than cold air, so the hot air in the room rises to the top
of a room.

There is a vent there where air is sucked into the air conditioner and goes down ducts. The
hot air is used to cool the gas in the evaporator. As the heat is removed from the air, the air
is cooled. It is then blown into the house through other ducts usually at the floor level.

This continues over and over and over until the room reaches the temperature you want the
room cooled to. The thermostat senses that the temperature has reached the right setting
and turns off the air conditioner. As the room warms up, the thermostat turns the air
conditioner back on until the room reaches the temperature.

Refrigeration is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space, or from a

substance, and moving it to a place where it is unobjectionable. The primary purpose of
refrigeration is lowering the temperature of the enclosed space or substance and then
maintaining that lower temperature. The term cooling refers generally to any natural or
artificial process by which heat is dissipated. The process of artificially producing extreme
cold temperatures is referred to as cryogenics.

Cold is the absence of heat, hence in order to decrease a temperature, one "removes
heat", rather than "adding cold".

The vapor-compression cycle is used in most household refrigerators as well as in many

large commercial and industrial refrigeration systems. The figure below provides a
schematic diagram of the components of a typical vapor-compression refrigeration system.

A circulating refrigerant such as Freon enters the compressor as a vapor. The vapor is
compressed at constant entropy and exits the compressor super heated. The superheated
vapor travels through the condenser which first cools and removes the superheat and then
condenses the vapor into a liquid by removing additional heat at constant pressure and
temperature. The liquid refrigerant goes through the expansion valve (also called a throttle
valve) where its pressure abruptly decreases, causing flash evaporation and auto-
refrigeration of, typically, less than half of the liquid.

Page 2 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

That results in a mixture of liquid and vapor at a

lower temperature and pressure. The cold liquid-
vapor mixture then travels through the evaporator
coil or tubes and is completely vaporized by cooling
the warm air (from the space being refrigerated)
being blown by a fan across the evaporator coil or
tubes. The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the
compressor inlet to complete the thermodynamic
cycle.

The working principle of Refrigerator :

1. The refrigerator compressor is both a motor and a pump that move the refrigerant
through the system. Temperature sensors signal the compressor to start when the
temperature inside the refrigerator rises above its set point. No refrigerator is
completely airtight; cold air leaks out, and warmer air leaks in, causing the
temperature to rise above its set point.

2. As the compressor starts, it draws in the cold refrigerant gas in liquid form as it
leaves the evaporator. Refrigerators use a type of refrigerant gas (Freon) that turns
into a liquid at very cold temperatures: -15.9 degrees Fahrenheit [°F] (-26.6 degrees
Celsius [°C]). The compressor then puts pressure on the gas---compressing it. As
the gas is compressed, its temperature goes up.

3. The compressor pushes out the hot,

compressed gas through the outside
metal coils (tubes) on the back or
bottom of the refrigerator. These
coils allow the heat to dissipate into
the surrounding air. Because it is
under pressure, the gas changes
into a liquid as it cools.

4. The liquid gas continues to flow

through the system until it reaches
the expansion valve. The valve
forces the liquid through a very small
hole, turning it into a very cold mist,
which evaporates as it moves
through the freezer coils. This
evaporation occurs at -27°F (-33°C).

5. As the cold liquid gas moves through the coils, it draws heat out of the surrounding
air in the freezer and refrigerator compartments. This is based on the second law of

Page 3 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

thermodynamics: heat moves from warmer objects to colder objects. The colder
object is the evaporating gas, and the warmer object is the air.

6. The coils lead back to the compressor. When the liquid reaches the compressor,
pressure is applied. The compressor sends the hot gas back through the outside
coils to release heat into the air. The process of compression and evaporation
continues until the refrigerator temperature has returned to its set point. Once the
temperature is at its set point, the temperature sensors signal the compressor to
stop.

Air Conditioning controls the temperature, humidity & quality of indoor air for human
comfort. In a broader sense, the term can refer to any form of cooling, heating, ventilation,
or disinfection that modifies the condition of air. An air conditioner (often referred to as AC)
is an appliance, system, or machine designed to stabilize the air temperature and humidity
within an area (used for cooling as well as heating depending on the air properties at a
given time), typically using a refrigeration cycle but sometimes using evaporation,
commonly for comfort cooling in buildings and motor vehicles.

The working principle of Air Conditioners :

The Basics
1. All air conditioners and refrigerators use the same concept to keep something cool.
There are three main parts : a compressor, evaporator, and condenser. In a window
unit. The compressor and condenser are located on the outside part, and the
evaporator is located inside.

Page 4 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

Inside a Window Unit

2. In addition to the three basic parts, a window unit contains two fans, a hot and cold
coil, expansion valve, and a control unit. Window units can not fit small windows
because they need to be made to fit all these components.

The Cooling Process

3. A refrigerant is used to provide the cooling. It will most likely be Freon. The
compressor pressurizes and heats the Freon, which then runs through the hot coils
to dissipate the heat. It becomes a liquid at this point. The liquid then runs through
the expansion valve so it becomes cold Freon gas. The gas then runs through the
set of cold coils to cool down the other side of the window.

Getting the Air

4. The two fans are needed to blow the coils to dissipate the air. One fan blows the hot
coils towards the outside, while the other blows the cool air inside. The same motor
provides power to both fans.

The working principle of a Central Air Conditioner :

The Basics
1. Central air conditioners are used as a
more efficient way to keep a house or
building cool. They are split systems,
unlike a window unit. The two sides
are known as the hot side and the
cold side. The hot side is placed
outside the home, while the cold side
is placed inside a furnace or another
type of air handler. The most
important parts of a split system are
the compressor, the sets of coils, the
expansion valve and the fan system.
The Hot Side
2. The hot side of the split system is the
visible part that everyone sees where
the compressor is located. The
compressor's job is to compress
Freon gas, making it hot and high in pressure. The hot gas then runs though a set of
coils so it can dissipate its heat. Once the heat has dissipated, the gas becomes a
liquid and is sent to the cold side of the system located in the building.

The Cold Side

3. Once the liquid Freon comes to the cold side and reaches an expansion valve, it
becomes cold, low-pressure Freon gas. The cold gas is then run through another set
of coils. The coils become very cold and a fan is used to blow the cold air away from
the coils into the building.

Page 5 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

Moving the Air into the Building

4. In a building with central air, a series of air ducts are routed directly to the fan in the
furnace that blows the cool air so that the maximum amount of air can be placed
throughout the building. There is also a fan in the hot side system that blows the hot
air from the hot coils away from the unit into the atmosphere.

Absorption Refrigeration System?

The Vapor Absorption Refrigeration system comprises of all the processes in the vapor
compression refrigeration system like compression, condensation, expansion and
evaporation. In the vapor absorption system the refrigerant used is ammonia, water or
lithium bromide. The refrigerant gets condensed in the condenser and it gets evaporated in
the evaporator. The refrigerant produces cooling effect in the evaporator and releases the
heat to the atmosphere via the condenser.

The major difference between the two systems is the method of the suction and
compression of the refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle. In the Vapor Compression
System, the compressor sucks the refrigerant from evaporator and compresses it to the
high pressure. The compressor also enables the flow of the refrigerant through the whole
refrigeration cycle. In the vapor absorption cycle, the process of suction and compression
are carried out by two different devices called as the absorber and the generator. Thus the
absorber and the generator replace the compressor in the vapor absorption cycle. The
absorbent enables the flow of the refrigerant from the absorber to the generator by
absorbing it.

Another major difference between the vapor compression and vapor absorption cycle is the
method in which the energy input is given to the system. In the vapor compression system
the energy input is given in the form of the mechanical work from the electric motor run by
the electricity. In the vapor absorption system the energy input is given in the form of the
heat. This heat can be from the excess steam from the process or the hot water. The heat
can also be created by other sources like natural gas, kerosene, heater etc. though these
sources are used only in the small systems.

Various Processes of Vapor Absorption Cycle

The various processes of the vapor absorption cycle are similar to the one in vapor
compression cycle, only the method of compression of the refrigerant is different. In vapor
absorption system ammonia is used as the refrigerant, which has very high affinity to
dissolve in water. Here are various processes of vapor absorption cycle:

1) Compression or absorption of the refrigerant: In vapor absorption system there is no

traditional compressor, instead there is absorber. The absorber consists of water, called as
absorbent, in which the refrigerant, ammonia, dissolves. This mixture of water and
ammonia is then pumped and heated thus increase in temperature and pressure of the
ammonia occurs. Ammonia leaves the absorber at high pressure and high temperature.
Some work has to be provided to the pump and heating is carried out by the steam. The
amount of electricity required by the pump is much lesser than that required by the
compressor hence there is lots of saving of electricity, however, the additional source of
heat in the form of steam has to be provided.

Page 6 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

2) Condensation: The refrigerant at pressure and temperature then enters condenser

where it is cooled by water and its temperature and pressure reduces.

3) Expansion: Thereafter the expansion of refrigerant occurs in throttling valve due to

which the temperature and pressure of the ammonia refrigerant reduces drastically and
suddenly.

4) Evaporation: Finally the refrigerant enters the evaporator where it produces the cooling
effect. It leaves the evaporator in vapor state and then enters absorber, where it is
absorbed by absorbent, water and compressed by the pump. This process repeats again
and cycle continues.
There are different types absorbents like water and lithium bromide that can be used with
refrigerant ammonia. These systems are called water absorption system or lithium bromide
absorption system.

Features of various Refrigerants :

Temperature
Refrigerant

Formula

Boiling

Properties Applications

Ammonia - An efficient refrigerant used Large industrial

successfully in industrial applications through plants
Ammonia

many consider it Highly toxic. Careful

-33°C
NH 3

consideration must be given to any design or

application. Penetrating odor, soluble in water.
harmless in concentration up to 1/30%, non
flammable, explosive

R11 is a single chloro-fluoro-carbon or CFC Commercial

compound. plants with
High chlorine content and Ozone Depletion centrifugal
Potential - ODP = 1 compressors.
CCl 3 F

8.9°C
R11

High Global Warming Potential - GWP = 4000

The use and manufacture of R11 and similar
CFC refrigerants is now banned within the
European Union even for servicing.
Non flammable, non corrosive non toxic, stable

Page 7 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

R12 is Di-chlorodi-fluoro-methane Small plants with

Little odor, colorless gas or liquid, non reciprocating
flammable, non corrosive of ordinary metals, compressors.

-29.8°C
CCl 2 F 2
R12
stable Automotive,
Medium
Temperature
Refrigeration
R22 is Chloro-di-fluoro-methane a single Packaged air-
hydro-chloro-fluoro-carbon or HCFC conditioning units
compound. where size of
Low chlorine content and Ozone Depletion equipment and
Potential, ODP = 0.05 economy are
Modest Global Warming Potential GWP = important. Air
1700. Conditioning, Low
CHClF 2

-40.8°C
R22

R22 can still be used in small heat pump and Medium

systems, but new systems can not be Temperature
manufactured for use in the EU after 2003. Refrigeration
From 2010 only recycled or saved stocks of
R22 can be used. It will no longer be
manufactured.
Little odor, colorless as gas or liquid, non toxic,
non irritating, non flammable, non corrosive,
stable
R134a (1,1,1,2-tetra-fluoro-ethane ) is a single Automotive
R-134a *

CH 2 FCF 3

hydro-fluoro-carbon or HFC compound. replacement for

No chlorine content, no Ozone Depletion R-12, Stationary
Potential, ODP = 0 A/C,
Modest Global Warming Potential GWP = Medium Temp
1300 Refrigeration
R290 is pure propane, a hydrocarbon and
efficient naturally occurring refrigerant with
similar properties to R22 No Ozone Depletion
Propane
R290

Potential, ODP = 0
Extremely low Global Warming Potential GWP
= 3
Environmentally safe but highly flammable.
Used only after careful consideration to safety.
R407C is a ternary blend of hydro-fluoro-
R32=23%, R125=25%,

carbon or HFC compounds. No chlorine

content, no Ozone Depletion Potential, ODP =
R134a=52%
R407C *

0, Global Warming Potential GWP = 1610

Page 8 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

R32=50% and
R410A is a binary blend of hydro-fluoro-carbon

R125=50%
R410A *
or HFC compounds 50% of R32 and 50% of
R125
No chlorine content, no Ozone Depletion
Potential. ODP = 0
Global Warming Potential GWP = 1725
R417A is the zero ODP replacement for R22
R417A *

Suitable for new equipment and as a drop-in

replacement for existing systems.

Offers aprox. 20%

CH 3 CHF 2 (26.2%)
CCl 2 F 2 (73.8%)

Similar to R12 more refrigeration

capacity than R12
R500

-33°C

for same
compressor.

Capacity
CClF 2 -CF 3 (51.2%)

Non flammable, non toxic, non corrosive, comparable to

CClF 2 (48.8%)

stable R22.
-45.6°C
R502

ODP  Ozone Depletion Potential.

The potential for a single molecule of the refrigerant to destroy the Ozone Layer.
All refrigerants use R11 as a datum reference where R11 has an ODP = 1.0.
The less the value of the ODP - the better the refrigerant is for the ozone layer and the
environment.

GWP  Global Warming Potential.

A measurement (usually measured over a 100-year period) of how much effect a
refrigerant will have on Global Warming in relation to Carbon Dioxide.
CO2 has a GWP = 1.
The lower the value of GWP - the better the refrigerant is for the environment.

* Currently there are no restrictions on the use of R134A, R407C, R410A, and
R417A.

Page 9 of 11 – from [spals@rediffmail.com]

<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

Evaporative cooling in vapor absorption refrigeration systems

There are occasions where air conditioning, which stipulates control of humidity of up to
50% for human comfort or for processes, can be replaced by a much cheaper and less
energy intensive evaporative cooling.

The concept is very simple and is the same as that used in a cooling tower. Air is brought in
close contact with water (by sprinkling Water in a perforated medium through which air is
blown) to cool it to a temperature close to the wet
bulb temperature. The cool air can be used for
comfort or process cooling. The disadvantage is
that the air is rich in moisture. Nevertheless, it is
an extremely efficient means of cooling at very
low cost. Large commercial systems employ
cellulose filled pads over which water is sprayed.
The temperature can be controlled by controlling
the airflow and the water circulation rate. The
possibility of evaporative cooling is especially
attractive for comfort cooling in dry regions. This
principle is practiced in textile industries for
certain processes. Schematic of evaporative cooling
Unit of Refrigeration
Domestic and commercial refrigerators may be rated in kJ/s, or Btu/h of cooling.
Commercial refrigerators in North America are mostly rated in tons of refrigeration, but
elsewhere in kW. One ton of refrigeration capacity can freeze one short ton of water at
0°C (32°F) in 24 hours. Based on that: A much less common definition is: 1 tonne of
refrigeration is the rate of heat removal required to freeze a metric ton (i.e., 1000 kg) of
water at 0°C in 24 hours. Based on the heat of fusion being 333.55 kJ/kg, 1 tonne of
refrigeration = 13,898 kJ/h = 3.861 kW. As can be seen, 1 tonne of refrigeration is 10%
larger than 1 ton of refrigeration.

Definition of TR
TR : the cooling effect produced is quantified as tons of refrigeration, also referred to as
“chiller tonnage”.
TR = Q x C p x(T i – T o ) / 3024
Where,
Q is mass flow rate of coolant in kg/hr
C p is coolant specific heat in kCal /kg °C
T i is inlet, temperature of coolant to evaporator (chiller) in °C
T o is outlet temperature of coolant from evaporator (chiller) in °C.
1 TR of refrigeration = 3024 kCal/hr heat rejected

Estimation of the air conditioning load is also possible by calculating various heat loads,
sensible and latent, based on inlet and outlet air parameters, air ingress factors, air flow,
number of people and type of materials stored.

An indicative TR load profile for air conditioning is presented as follows:

Page 10 of 11 – from
[spals@rediffmail.com]
<< Refrigeration & Air Conditioning >>

• Small office cabins = 0.1 TR/m2

• Medium size office i.e., 10 – 30 people occupancy with central A/C = 0.06 TR/m2
• Large multistoried office complexes with central A/C = 0.04 TR/m2
• Most residential air conditioning units range in capacity from about 1 to 5 tons of
refrigeration.

Page 11 of 11 – from
[spals@rediffmail.com]