TECHNICAL MANUAL FOR

GOLD JEWELLERY
A Practical Guide to Gold Jewellery Manufacturing Technology

by Dr John C. Wright
1 5 8
INTRODUCTION FINISHING TECHNOLOGY ELECTROLYTIC
1.1 How to use the manual 5.1 Techniques PROCESSES
1.2 A glossary of terms 5.2 Sawing 8.1 Electrolytic processes
1.3 Tables of compositions, caratage and 5.3 Filing 8.2 Techniques and materials
fineness, colour, physical and 5.4 Abrasives grading systems 8.3 Electroforming in gold
mechanical data, weights and 5.5 The polishing process 8.4 Electroplating with gold
measures, symbols and abbreviations 5.6 Mass production methods 8.5 Electropolishing
1.4 References to further detail 5.7 Matte and mirror finishing 8.6 Safety and cleanliness aspects
5.8 Indentation and beaded type textures

2
ALLOYING AND MELTING 8.7 References to further detail
5.9 Etching and electrofinishing
2.1 Pure (Fine) Gold 5.10 Setting gemstones
2.2 Why Alloy? 5.11 Efficiency, safety and clean working

9
2.3 Alloy Making conditions RELATED BOOKS AND
2.4 Buy or Make 5.12 References to further detail
2.5 Ingot or Casting
LITERATURE
2.6 Dealing with Scrap ANNEALING AND HEAT

3
2.7 References to further detail

INVESTMENT CASTING 6 TREATMENT

6.1 Principles and practice of annealing

10
6.2 Metallurgy of carat golds ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
3.1 Model design 6.3 Heat treatment of carat gold alloys
3.2 Forming the rubber mould AND CREDITS
6.4 Technical control
3.3 Waxing and tree assembly 6.5 References to further detail
3.4 Investment of the mould

7
3.5 Casting and recovery of castings METALWORKING
3.6 Defects and their control TECHNOLOGY
3.7 References to further detail
7.1 Metal working technology
7.2 Semi-finished forms from ingot
JOINING TECHNOLOGY

4 4.1 Soldering
4.2 Other joining techniques
4.3 Ensuring overall caratage
conformance
4.4 Safety aspects
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
Handworking
Machining
Stamping
Wire-drawing
Chain making
Causes and prevention of defects in
4.5 References to further detail wrought alloys
7.9 Jewellery making
7.10 References to further detail

C
ONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
11
• HOW TO USE THE MANUAL
This manual links gold jewellery
design, the properties of gold
alloys, manufacturing processes
and the craft of jewellery making.
This manual links gold jewellery design,
the properties of gold alloys,
manufacturing processes and the craft of
jewellery making. It ranges from small
earrings and finger rings where strength
and wear resistance is important,
particularly if set with precious stones,
through assembly of parts into costume
jewellery stock patterns, to original craft
pieces in ethnic styles of the Middle East
and Far East where the emphasis is often
on high gold content. There is a large
range of gold and its alloys for jewellery,
with a choice of colours, different
strengths and life wearing properties.
The choice broadens with increasing
alloy content. We need to consider more
carefully the properties that influence
design and working methods as we
move from pure gold to the lower carat
golds. This manual relates the metallurgy
of gold and its alloys to good design,
ease and economy of working; It is more
concerned with how to do it than why.
While the information is practical, it is
supported by sufficient science and
technology to enable the reader to see
the reasons for the recommendations
 and to make sensible modifications.
Where a more sophisticated method is
needed to maintain quality, further
reading is suggested. Often, the World
Gold Council publication Gold
Technology and Technology Symposia
(e.g. International meetings/ exhibitions
such as Vicenza or the Santa Fe
Jewellery Symposium) fulfil this need. In
addition, World Gold Council publishes
more specific manuals (e.g. on casting)
from time to time.
A glossary of terms follows in this
introduction. It comprises brief
definitions of many keywords or
technical terms relevant to gold jewellery
making, followed by a short list of
closely related terms, also defined in the
glossary. The same keywords are picked
out in bold italics in the main text where
their meaning is considerably expanded.
By selecting keywords of current interest
in the glossary and following up related
terms in the main text, it is easy to
outline parts of the total subject. Tables
11
•
HOW TO USE THE MANUAL
of typical data on a selection of gold and
alloys and on measurement units follow
the glossary.
The main text is in eight differently
coloured sections, each tackling an
aspect of design and production, in a
typical multistage sequence. Few
jewellery designs call for every possible
production stage, so the emphasis is on
simplification of working, quality and
safety. Other themes that apply across
production stages are Health, Safety and
Environment; Scrap Recovery; Quality
Control; Cost Control. Where such
themes occur in the main text, they are
signalled with colour coded icons in the
margin. Following a particular icon
progressively through the manual should
provide a brief introduction to these
general management topics.
12 • GLOSSARY
ACCELERATOR
Chemical that speeds setting of investments for casting, prior
to firing, mainly for economic production reasons. Based on
strongly crystalline substances such as sodium chloride,
sodium citrate, Rochelle salts.
DE-AIRING, GYPSUM-BASED (INVESTMENT), RETARDANT.
AGE HARDENING
Process of heat treating certain alloys, including some carat
gold alloys, such that they are first solution treated at a high
temperature and then hardened over a period at a lower
temperature. Sometimes called precipitation hardening but the
hardening may be caused by disorder-order transformation.
HEAT TREATMENT, SOLUTION TREATMENT, ORDER-DISORDER.
AIR-HARDENING
Alloy tool steel capable of delaying hardening after heating so
that there is time for cooling (quenching) in air rather than oil
or water. Reduces cooling stresses.
OIL-HARDENING, QUENCHING.
ALLOY, ALLOYING
A combination of two or more metals, usually by melting
them together, to give a range of properties better, or better
balanced, than those of the constituent metals separately.
HEAT TREATMENT.
ANNEALING, FULL ANNEALING
Restoration of softness and ductility to work hardened metals
by heating to a suitable temperature to cause recrystallisation.
Fine gold will recrystallise at 200°C but most gold alloys are
fully annealed at a temperature between 550 and 750°C
depending on alloy composition and amount of cold work.
HEAT TREATMENT, COLD WORKED, WORK HARDENED.
ANODE
The positive electrode that supplies metal in an
electroplating/electroforming process.
CATHODE, ELECTRODEPOSITION.
ANTIFLUX
A compound used to coat areas of an assembly whereby
solder is prevented from wetting and flowing.
FLUX, SOLDERING.
ARC-EYE
Painful, temporary, gritty sensation round the eyeball
overexposed to intensive radiation from an arc or high
temperature flame. Usually worse at night after exposure; lasts
a day or two; prevented by correct goggles.
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION, WHITE RADIATION.
ASSAY
The analysis of precious metal ores, concentrates, bullion,
ingot, wrought products and particularly of gold jewellery
assemblies, principally to determine precious metal fineness.
CARAT, FINENESS, HALLMARK.
BASE METAL
Virtually any metal (e.g. copper, nickel, zinc) other than gold,
silver, and the platinum group metals, but associated with
precious metals either by alloying, assembly or plating.
FINENESS,
BEADING BACK
Decoration of a surface near an edge by fusing the metal
locally and allowing it to ball up and retreat with and over
the remaining edge
GRANULATION.
BEAD SETTING
A technique whereby a stone is seated in a metal finding or
recess and then is set by raising beads of metal with a graver
to hold the stone in place.
GRAVER.
BEZEL SETTING
A bezel or box setting used for cabochons and simple step
cut stones. Made by wrapping a thin strip around the girdle,
cut to length and joined (off a corner), stood on edge and
further joined to a base that supports the stone.
CLAW/PRONG SETTING, MILLEGRAIN SETTING.
BORON NITRIDE
Hard ceramic produced at extremely high pressures and
temperatures as red to black cubic grains with hardness close
to diamond and stable to over 1900°C. Used as a coated
abrasive particularly where reactivity with diamond is a
problem.
GRINDING, BUFFING.
BURNISHER
A short-handled tool used to lever/wipe metal over the edge
of a stone in setting or the edges of small components to
achieve a semi-polish effect by surface working.
SCORPER, GRAVER.
CARAT
Measure of fineness of gold; 24 carat = 100% (pure), so e.g.
18ct = 18/24 = 75% gold metal content. Also unit of weight
for precious stones; 1 carat = 100 points = 0.2 gram.
FINENESS, FINAL ASSAY, NEGATIVE TOLERANCE.
 CARBORUNDUM
Silicon carbide, SiC; hardness 9.5 on Mohs scale; made by
fusing sand and coke, grinding and grading. Very brittle so
adapted to soft grinding wheels. Also the original basis of ‘wet-
and-dry’ papers. Also a high-conductivity refractory ceramic.
CORUNDUM, EMERY, WET AND DRY PAPER.
CASTABILITY
The ability of an alloy to be melted, poured into a mould,
retain sufficient fluidity, take an accurate impression of the
mould cavity and be extracted without cracking. Difficult to
quantify in a single simple test.
INVESTMENT CASTING, FLUIDITY.
CASTING GRAIN
Metals or alloys, prepared for ease of melting and alloying, by
dividing charge material into small gravel sizes by slowly
pouring the melt into water to form shot or grains. Scrap
offcuts may be turned into grain for easier remelting.
LOST-WAX CASTING, INDUCTION MELTING.
CATHODE
Negative electrode in an electroplating or electro-forming cell,
often the component being plated or formed..
ANODE, ELECTROPLATING.
CHAIN MAKING
Chain is still made by hand by craftsmen but most is batch
produced from continuous wire on purpose built machines.
These are virtually miniature automatic production lines that
cut wire to length, weave and/or form links and join them
into batch lengths. There are at least 20 standard patterns,
each in a range of sizes.
COLD-WORKING.
12
•
GLOSSARY
CHASING
Hammering of a design on the face of an article with a tiny
punch or chisel. Moulding in relief by working directly on the
surface with a chasing hammer. The article is usually
supported on a yielding surface such as wax or pitch.
COLD-WORKING, EMBOSSING.
CHILLING FACTOR
Cooling capacity of a mould calculated from volume specific
heat of the mould material and the mould/melt temperature
difference. The value for plaster is low; for silica, medium; for
cold copper, very high.
SUPERHEAT, CASTING TEMPERATURE, THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
CLAW OR PRONG SETTING
Precision cast or fabricated from wire/strip with slots to grip
the girdle or tips folded over girdle of a gemstone seated in a
bezel or collet.
BEZEL SETTING, MILLEGRAIN SETTING.
COINING
A final stamping process where the volume of the closed die
impression is the same as the blank; imparts a sharp
impression with no flash at the parting line.
PRESSING, COLD-WORKED, WORK-HARDEN.
COLD WORKED
Reduced in cross-section by rolling, forging, drawing, or
worked by bending or even embossing, sufficiently below
annealing temperature to cause work (strain)-hardening.
HOT WORKED, ANNEALING, SPRINGINESS.
COLLET
Small horizontal parallel sided ring or with a conical taper to
form a seat for the pavilion of the stone. Also a device for
holding small work during machining.
BEZEL SETTING, CLAW OR PRONG SETTING.
COLOUR
Carat gold alloys can be referred to by apparent colour as
well as caratage, e.g. 18ct pink. The apparent colour is
defined in German standard DIN8238.
CARAT.
COMPO(SITION) BARS
Consumable bars applied to load polishing wheels, buffs, etc.,
made from finely ground oxides bound with wax or soap.
The colour indicates the likely oxide and cutting power.
ROUGES, JEWELLERS ROUGE.
CORUNDUM
Aluminium Oxide, Al2O3, (NOT Carborundum) used as a
refractory ceramic or abrasive. Crushed grains fracture
conchoidally giving very sharp points and edges. In very
finely ground gamma phase form, used as a polish with fine
plate-like texture.
CARBORUNDUM, EMERY, REFRACTORY.
COUPON OR RECTANGULAR BLANK
Miniature metal sheet of postage stamp to visiting card size
cut from conventional sheet or strip. Lends itself to angle or
cross-rolling and various hand-working operations.
SEMIS.
12
• GLOSSARY
CRYSTOBALITE
The highest temperature phase of Silica, stable and strong
from 1470 to the m.pt., 17000C.
REFRACTORY, SILICA, INVESTMENT.
DE-AIRING
Removal of bubbles from a slurry of mixed investment to
avoid bubble defects on the castings. Assisted by vibration
and/or vacuum. Easiest before investing the mould but
desirable after investment too.
INVESTMENT, LOST-WAX CASTING, RETARDER.
DENSITY
The mass per unit volume of a metal or alloy, e.g. the density
of pure gold is 19.36 grams per cubic centimetre, or, equally,
tonnes per cubic metre. Density is numerically the same as
specific gravity, the term usually used for mass per unit
volume of liquids.
DEEP-DRAWING
A deep pressing operation; the punch pushes the sheet
through a die and causes the rim of the sheet to be drawn in
radially under controlled pressure, so forming relatively deep
shapes. Can be used to start a tube forming operation.
PRESSING, STRETCH-FORMING, WORK-HARDEN.
DIAMANTINE
Polishing powder made from calcined alumina, NOT diamond
dust.
ROUGES.
DIAMOND
Non-gem diamond, formed by crushing and grading bort, is a
versatile hard and sharp cutting abrasive which creates a
polish by very fine cutting of the hardest substances rather
than by flowing ability. Can be used in many shapes by
sintering into a metal powder matrix.
DIAMANTINE.
DOMING, (OR DAPPING)
Hammering sheet or circle with a spherical ended punch
down into a matching hemispherical hollow in a block to
form a domed depression. After trimming, two matching
domes may be soldered to form a hollow sphere.
SPINNING, COLD WORKED, EMBOSSING.
DUCTILE (DUCTILITY)
Capable of being drawn (usually cold) or stretched into wire
or tube without fracture; usually measured by % elongation
and % reduction in area in a tensile test.
MALLEABLE, COLD WORKED, ANNEALING,
ELECTROFORMING
The deposition of a metal onto an electrically conducting
shaped substrate (the cathode) using specially formulated
electroplating solutions. The wall thickness of the article is
sufficient to allow removal of the substrate. The article can
then be used as a jewellery component.
ANODE, CATHODE, ELECTROPLATING.
ELECTROPLATING
The deposition of one metal on another by transferring it as
ions through a chemical bath (electrolyte) from an anode to a
cathode under the influence of an electric current.
ANODE, CATHODE, ELECTROFORMING.
ELONGATION (%)
A value derived from a standard tensile test by expressing the
total extension of a gauge length on the test piece as a % of
the original gauge length. Gives an indication of the ductility
of the alloy at the beginning of the test.
PROOF STRESS, ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH.
EMBOSSING
Similar to, often combined with, chasing. Specifically, raising
patterns in relief from the surface (like the boss of a shield)
by hammering/punching from the back surface. Doming is a
special case of embossing with a lot of radial drawing in.
CHASING, DOMING, COLD WORKED.
EMERALD COMPO(SITION)
Polishing composition made from finely ground green
chromic oxide, NOT Beryl.
JEWELLERS ROUGE, EMERALD POWDER, ROUGES.
EMERALD POWDER
Polishing powder made by fine grinding green chromic oxide,
NOT Beryl.
JEWELLERS ROUGE, ROUGES, EMERALD COMPO(SITION).
EMERY
Cheap impure natural corundum used for centuries as a
natural abrasive, largely superseded by synthetic alumina
(corundum) for more controlled grinding. Cloth or paper-
backed, as powder applied to a felt bob or in compo (heavy
grease/wax) bar forms.
CORUNDUM, CARBORUNDUM, WET AND DRY PAPER.
 EMISSIVITY
The rate of loss of heat from unit area in unit time at a given
temperature (usually in the context of the surface of a melt).
Very dependent on the temperature and the character of the
surface.
SUPERHEAT, CASTING TEMPERATURE, WHITE RADIATION.
ETHANOL, ETHYL ALCOHOL
General purpose solvent, used for cleaning. Also, used for
preparation of tetra-ethyl silicate gel for investment casting
mould production.
PHOSPHATE-BASED, GYPSUM-BASED.
FEEDING
The necessary process of feeding still molten metal through
gates, sprues and on into castings, to compensate for
contraction as castings solidify. Can be due to gravity or
otherwise pressurized. Insufficient feeding leads to porosity
and shrinkage defects.
LOST-WAX CASTING, SPRUES, PASTY ZONE (SHRINKAGE).
FINAL ASSAY
Analysis of individual components or of an average sample of
a piece of jewellery, perhaps prior to polishing, to decide
whether the piece reaches a (Hall) marking standard.
FINENESS, HALLMARKING.
FINDING
A commercially available component or handmade fitting for
jewellery assembly including catches, clasps, earring wires,
hooks, settings, swivels.
12
•
GLOSSARY
FINENESS
Precious metal content expressed in parts per thousand (by
weight). For instance, 22 carat gold is 917 fine; 14 carat is 585
fine.
CARAT, FINAL ASSAY, HALLMARKING.
FINE GOLD
Pure gold, 24 carat, 999.9 fine, a level of purity only obtained
by a refining operation.
ASSAY, CARAT.
FLASK
Outer container of an investment casting mould, used in the
investment process through to quenching and knock-out of
the finished casting. Usually reusable and in standard sizes.
INVESTMENT, LOST-WAX CASTING, QUENCHING.
FLUIDITY
Complex property describing the ability of molten alloy to run
well into, and take up an accurate impression of, a mould.
Generally increases with superheat and freedom from
oxidation. Evaluated by a variety of empirical cast test pieces.
SUPERHEAT, CASTABILITY, CHILLING FACTOR.
FLUX
Liquid, powder or solid chemical mixture, fusing at a lower
temperature than melting/soldering/welding an alloy; cleans
exposed surfaces and protects against reactions such as
oxidation that impair the melt or joint.
INDUCTION MELTING, SOLDERING, WELDING.
FRAIZER, FRAIZE OR BURR
A range of small tool steel or tungsten carbide rotors used to
cut a cavity or undercut a seating to recess a stone. Fraizes
tend to be miniature circular saws and burrs the more
bulbous or counter-sink style.
CLAW OR PRONG SETTING, BEZEL SETTING.
FUEL GAS:OXYGEN RATIO
The volume flow ratio matching the molecular ratio for
complete combustion (e.g. 2H2+O2=2H2O; ratio 2) gives a
neutral flame with a sharp inner cone. A lower ratio gives an
oxidising flame; higher, a reducing flame. Important to control
in gas furnace melting and torch melting or soldering.
REDUCING FLAME.
GRAINS OR BEADS
Decorations usually made by fusing scraps of metal to form
tiny spheres by surface tension onto a surface.
GRANULATION, BEADING BACK.
GRAIN SIZE
NOT to be confused with grain, as in gold grain for casting. It
refers to the average size of the crystals or grains that make
up the polycrystalline microstructure of the alloy after casting
or full annealing. The grain size influences strength, ductility
and workability of metals and alloys.
CASTING, ANNEALING, GRAIN REFINEMENT.
GRAIN REFINEMENT
Addition of very small amounts of a nucleating agent, e.g.
iridium or cobalt, to the alloy to promote a small grain size
after casting or a recrystallisation anneal.
ORANGE PEEL EFFECT.
12
• GLOSSARY
GRANULATION
Decoration of a surface by attaching rounded granules by
fusion (not usually soldered) to create relief in lines, patterns,
or shapes.
BEADING BACK.
GRAVER
A short narrow engraving tool for gouging metal, using a
working face rather like a miniature chisel; used also in
setting gemstones.
SCORPER, BURNISHER.
GYPSUM-BASED (INVESTMENT)
A traditional medium refractory investment based on Plaster
of Paris (selected hydrated calcium sulphate).
INVESTMENT, PHOSPHATE-BASED, HYDROCAL.
HALLMARKING
The stamping of gold, silver and platinum pieces by UK assay
offices subject to the UK Hallmarking Act, to signify fineness,
but often applied unofficially to marking in other Countries
too.
FINENESS, FINAL ASSAY.
HARDNESS
The resistance of metal to indentation. Measured in a test
using a standard indenter applied with a standard force.
Hardness is expressed as a number on one of the standard
test scales, e.g. HV120 means a hardness of 120 measured in
the Vickers Diamond Penetration Test.
ANNEALING, HEAT TREATMENT, COLD WORKING.
HEAT TREATMENT
A treatment applied to metals and alloys involving a
combination of time, temperature, heating and cooling rate,
whereby a change in microstructure, and hence strength,
hardness and ductility may be achieved.
AGE HARDENING, ANNEALING, QUENCHING, SOLUTION
TREATMENT.
HOT SHORTNESS
Brittleness at high temperature during working, often
intergranular, and caused by either lower melting point or
other non-ductile grain boundary constituents.
DUCTILE, HOT WORKING, MALLEABLE.
HYDROCAL
A medium refractory form of gypsum (superior to ordinary
plaster of Paris) based on carefully controlled calcining to
calcium sulphate hemihydrate and controlled remixing with
water, retardants or accelerators.
GYPSUM-, PHOSPHATE-BASED, INVESTMENT,
INDUCTION MELTING
Heating to above the melting point (and stirring) by
generating eddy currents within a conducting material using a
water-cooled copper coil carrying an alternating current at
medium (>150Hz) or high (kHz) frequency.
CASTING GRAIN, CASTING TEMPERATURE, SUPERHEAT.
INFRA-RED RADIATION
Radiation of longer wavelength than the visible red (say,
750nm and above) not seen by the eye but nevertheless felt
by the body as heat. More easily reflected than ultra-violet.
EMISSIVITY, ULTRA-VIOLET, WHITE RADIATION,
INVEST(MENT)
Pouring a fast-setting slurry of silica flour and binder (ethyl
silicate or acid phosphate) around a plastic or wax pattern to
form, on firing, a refractory mould to receive a melt of gold
alloys and reproduce the pattern with detailed accuracy.
LOST-WAX CASTING, PHOSPHATE-BASED, GYPSUM-BASED
REFRACTORY.
JEWELLERS ROUGE (and CROCUS)
Finely ground red (rouge) or purple (crocus) ferric oxide,
often bonded with heavy grease and stearic acid soap/wax,
polishing medium which tends to burnish rather than cut.
Often preceded by carborundum or tripoli.
TRIPOLI, WET AND DRY PAPER, CORUNDUM.
JIGGING
Temporary location of components prior to welding or
soldering with clear access for torch and filler but preventing
sagging. Jigs can be used as heat sinks but must not
contaminate. Most are steel spring clips off arms with
universal joints.
SOLDERING, WELDING.
KERF
The actual slit or channel made by sawing ; also the width of
the cut and the volume of material made into swarf.
MACHINABILITY, SWARF.
LEMEL
Dust and filings produced during jewellery making by
sawing, filing, grinding, even polishing, that should be
reclaimed and recycled.
SCRAP.
 LIQUIDUS
A line on a constitutional diagram (plots the disposition of
phases in an alloy with temperature and composition) above
which the only stable phase is liquid (molten) metal.
SOLIDUS, SUPERHEAT, CASTING TEMPERATURE.
LOST-WAX (INVESTMENT) CASTING
Process used since centuries ago for sculpture; now adapted
to make intricate castings to close tolerances. Wax patterns
form the cavity in the investment and these are melted out
early in the firing of the mould.
INVESTMENT, WAX MODELS.
MACHINABILITY
The relative ability of a metal to be cut in a machining
operation with minimum power, producing a good surface
finish, clearing swarf efficiently, at high speed.
REDUNDANT WORK.
MALLEABLE (MALLEABILITY)
Capable of being hammered or rolled extensively without
excessive work-hardening and cracking. Malleability usually
increases with temperature.
DUCTILE, COLD WORKED, HOT-SHORTNESS.
MANDREL TUBE-DRAWING
A hard straight rod/wire forms the inside of a tube during
cold-drawing through a die, so reducing wall thickness. Used
for short lengths instead of plug-drawing.
SECTION DRAWING, COLD-WORKED, WORK-HARDEN.
12
•
GLOSSARY
MILLEGRAIN OR MILGRAIN
A setting tool consisting of a fine milled wheel used to roll a
millegrain border around the edge of a box or bezel setting
around the stone.
BEZEL SETTING, BURNISHER.
NEGATIVE TOLERANCE
Used in the context of standards of fineness, and
(Hall)marking, implies a small compositional allowance below
the specified minimum that is still acceptable in some
countries.
FINENESS, HALLMARKING.
NOZZLE/TIP (WELDING TORCH)
Describes the type (Nozzle-mixed or Injection-mixed) and the
size (usually the bore, often in SWG sizes) of the gas/oxygen
mixture exit controlling the flame diameter. Gas velocity
controls the flame length.
REDUCING FLAME, FUEL GAS/OXYGEN RATIO.
ORANGE PEEL EFFECT
A rumpled surface on metal after certain working operations
followed by annealing such that excessive grain growth
occurs.
GRAIN SIZE, GRAIN REFINEMENT, ANNEALING.
ORDERING
A change taking place in the solid state of certain alloys (e.g.
75% gold/25% copper) in which the normal random
arrangement of two different types of atoms is transformed
into a regular ordered three-dimensional array of one metal in
the other. The basis of a heat-treatment hardening process.
HEAT-TREATMENT,
PAILLONS
Probably from the French for straw chaff; small fragments of
solder clipped from foil, thin strip or sheet, placed at intervals
across the potential joint zone and progressively flowed by
the on-coming flame. Often located by a spot of flux.
SOLDERING, FLUX.
PASTY ZONE (SHRINKAGE)
Cooling from liquidus to solidus, liquid/solid ratio decreases
from fluid liquid, through pasty, to fully solid. Feeding
shrinkage with still liquid alloy under these conditions can be
difficult. High carat gold alloys do not usually show pasty
zone problems.
FEEDING, LIQUIDUS, SOLIDUS.
PATTERN
A master (usually metal) or consumable (lost wax process)
model of a component to be reproduced by casting. Pattern
dimensions may need to allow for net shrinkage or expansion
over the whole casting process.
WAX MODELS, INVESTMENT, LOST WAX CASTING.
PAVÉ
A setting technique whereby a surface is paved with small,
close-spaced, round stones in rows or clusters. Involves
cutting seats for the stones followed by a pointed graver to
bead set the stones and often brighten the surrounding metal.
SETTING.
PHOSPHATE-BASED (INVESTMENT)
Investment with acid-phosphate and magnesia, which first
gels silica flour and then bonds it by subsequent dehydration.
Working time rapidly decreased by increasing temperature.
GYPSUM-BASED, INVESTMENT, ETHANOL.
12
• GLOSSARY
PICKLING
The process of dissolving away surface oxides and flux from
metal after casting, working or, more usually, soldering, by
immersion in a dilute acid or pickle bath.
SOLDERING.
PLANISHING
Smoothing by overlapping light blows between a polished
anvil or stake and a polished (1/2lb) hammer face. The piece
is gradually rotated between blows that cold work the surface
rather than in depth. Planish marks may be left in for
decoration.
STAKE, COLD WORKED, WORK-HARDEN.
POLISHING
Usually after grinding, the final finishing stage whereby a high
lustre is imparted to metal using rotating wheels or brushes
loaded with rouge polishing compounds.
BURNISHER, COMPO(SITION) BARS, ROUGES.
POWDER METALLURGY
The process of manufacturing components such as bracelet
parts and findings from metal powders. The powder is
compacted to the required shape and the compact is heated
to a high temperature below the melting range to consolidate
and strengthen. The heating operation is known as sintering.
PRE-ALLOY
Also referred to as “master alloy” or “hardener”. An alloy
containing the main alloying constituents, which when mixed
and melted with fine gold will make the carat gold alloy of
the required composition.
CASTING GRAIN.
PRESSING
Using a fly-press or mechanical press to produce a batch of
similar components. May involve stretch-forming, deep-
drawing, coining, blanking, stamping, or bending. For gold, a
cold-working operation.
COLD WORKED, MALLEABLE, WORK-HARDEN.
PROOF STRESS
A stress read off a stress strain plot of a standard tensile test
to represent the limit (just above) of purely elastic strain. For
gold alloys, the stress at 0.2% strain is usually quoted. Often
called the yield point in tensile testing steels.
ELONGATION, ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH.
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERE
A gas atmosphere used in a furnace during heat treatment
and furnace soldering operations to prevent oxidation of the
base metal constituents of the carat gold alloy.
HEAT TREATMENT, SOLDERING.
PUMICE
Spongy, volcanic rock used as powder mixed with vegetable
oil applied to a felt bob or in lump form to remove scratches
and file marks. Usually coarser than water of Ayr stone.
QUENCHING
Rapid cooling of hot metal in a fluid which can be a cool air
blast but is more likely to be water, for golds.
ANNEALING, FLASK.
REDUCING FLAME
A melting, annealing, soldering or welding torch flame with
more gas than can combine with the injected oxygen or air to
inhibit oxidation of metal. Pure gold does not oxidize even
with excess oxygen but some alloying constituents of lower
carat golds do.
FUEL GAS: OXYGEN RATIO, ANNEALING, SOLDERING.
REDUNDANT WORK
Additional work done in overcoming external friction and in
unnecessary reversals of metal movement in the plastic
working and the machining of metals.
MACHINABILITY.
REFRACTORY (MATERIALS)
High melting point ceramic materials used for furnace linings,
crucibles, moulds. Often need a suitable binder to hold the
refractory particles together. Thermal shock resistance,
acidity/basicity, surface finish (for moulds) also important.
INVESTMENT, SILICA, CORUNDUM.
REPOUSSE
Technique for producing an ornamental surface by
hammering into relief from the reverse side while using a firm
but yielding support. Smaller scale and more detailed than
embossing. Often used with chasing.
CHASING, EMBOSSING.
RETARDER
Many organic chemicals and colloids retard the start of setting
of gypsum-based investments because they decrease the
solubility of hemihydrate. This increases de-airing and
working time.
INVESTMENT, ACCELERATOR, DE-AIRING.
 ROLLING
Much used cold working process for jewellery alloys to
reduce cross-section. Uses plain faced polished rolls for sheet
and strip; grooved rolls for bar, rod, and simple sections;
patterned rolls for continuous embossing.
WROUGHT SEMI-FINISHED (PRODUCT), WORK-HARDEN, COLD
WORKED.
ROUGES: WHITE, GREEN, RED,
PURPLE, ETC.
Various oxide powders bound with waxes or soaps into a
paste or bar for polishing. Colour indicates type of oxide and
degree of cut.
JEWELLERS ROUGE, COMPO(SITION) BARS, EMERALD
COMPO(SITION).
RUBY POWDER
Polishing powder, more likely to be finely ground hematite
(iron oxide) than corundum (alumina, ruby).
JEWELLERS ROUGE, ROUGES.
SCORPER
A short cutting tool with a chisel face, for cutting narrow
channels in metal. Usually broader than a graver.
GRAVER, BURNISHER.
SCRAP
Rejects or excess process metal; by-product of casting,
working and fabrication that can be recycled or reclaimed by
refining.
LEMEL, SPRUE.
SECTION DRAWING
Stretching length and drawing down the cross-section by
pulling through a die after pointing the lead end. Reduction
in cross-sectional area measures the degree of working. Wire
and tube drawing are the most common examples.
COLD WORKED, DUCTILE, ANNEALING.
SEMIS (SEMI-FABRICATED MATERIALS)
Stock sizes of a wide range of shapes (plate, sheet, strip, bar,
rod, wire, tube, blanks, circles) , alloys and tempers
(hardnesses), useful for further handworking at minimum
inventory variety. Major suppliers stock a standard range and
also make to order.
COUPON.
SETTING
Both the metal component that holds a gemstone and the act
of securing the stone in such a component.
BEZEL-, PRONG-, MILLEGRAIN-SETTING.
SILICA
Silicon dioxide, an extremely common constituent of the
earth’s crust, selectively processed to form refractory and
abrasive materials. Exists as quartz, tridymite or crystobalite
crystalline phases in equilibrium at increasing temperatures.
CRYSTOBALITE, ETHANOL, PHOSPHATE-BASED.
SINKING
Type of tube-drawing where the wall is allowed to find its
own thickness (unlike mandrel drawing). Usually, the actual
wall thickness increases.
MANDREL TUBE-DRAWING, SECTION DRAWING.
SOLDERING
Joining metal or alloy components by fusing together with a
further lower melting point alloy known as solder. Often uses
capillary forces to draw the solder into the joint.
WELDING, FLUX, WETTABILITY.
SOLIDUS
A line on a constitutional diagram below which all stable
phases are solid. Above the solidus there is an increasing
proportion of liquid phase with rising temperature until at the
liquidus no solid remains in equilibrium.
LIQUIDUS, CASTING TEMPERATURE, SUPERHEAT.
SPIN CASTING, (CENTRIFUGAL
CASTING)
Uses centrifugal force to inject the melt from near the centre
of the spin-arm into the mould on the periphery. Arms may
be coil-spring or electrically driven, often on receiving a
preset ready-to-cast signal triggered by melt temperature.
INVESTMENT, LOST WAX CASTING.
SPINNING
Forming sheet metal into surfaces of revolution by pushing a
smooth tool against the spinning sheet to force it onto a
former, the shape required. Can thin or thicken the resulting
wall. Requires malleability and ductility so most gold alloys
respond well.
DOMING, COLD-WORKED, DUCTILE.

12
•
GLOSSARY
12
• GLOSSARY
SPOT WELDING
Joining process, on overlapping sheet and strip, by a pulse of
electric current led in through copper electrodes with punch
pressure applied to form a weld spot at the interface heated
by local resistance to or near melting point.
STITCH WELDING, LASER WELDING.
SPRINGINESS
Having a relatively high elastic limit, the alloy, usually cold
worked, may be deformed elastically (without acquiring a
permanent plastic set) and springs back to original shape with
little loss of energy.
COLD WORKED, WORK-HARDEN.
SPRUE
Wax column/wire that joins the patterns to be cast to the
pouring and feeder system. Forms the channel for the melt to
be propelled from the gate to the casting cavity. Should be
kept short and must not freeze prematurely
FEEDING, WAX MODELS, PATTERN.
STAKE
Steel former, usually with smooth curved surface, used for
raising metal from sheet to deeper vessel form.
PLANISHING, SPINNING.
STITCH (OR SEAM) WELDING
A sequential spot welding operation that produces a
continuous seam weld by overlapping spot welds sequenced
by an electronic controller; the electrodes may be discs rather
than rods as in single spot welding.
SPOT WELDING.
STRESS RELIEVE
Low temperature heat treatment reducing peak internal
stresses (mainly after cold work). Involves no recrystallisation
or phase changes, little change in hardness, slight increase in
ductility, but reduces distortion and cracking in assembly.
Also reduces the risk of stress corrosion cracking in low carat
golds.
COLD WORKED, ANNEALING, SPRINGINESS.
STRETCH-FORMING
A sheet pressing operation in which the punch pushes the
sheet through a die but with the rim of the sheet restrained
so that radial drawing in is inhibited. Resultant shape is
stretched around the punch.
PRESSING, DEEP-DRAWING, DUCTILE.
SUPERHEAT
An extra margin of temperature above the melting point of a
metal or the liquidus of an alloy to impart fluidity during
casting and allow the molten metal to fill the mould without
premature freezing.
CASTING TEMPERATURE, CASTABILITY, CHILLING FACTOR.
SWAGING/SWAGE BLOCK
Steel blocks into which D-Section grooves of various widths
and depths are cut. Used for hammering strip into a sharp
gutter shape when beginning to make a tube section or for
adjusting bar or rod sections.
MANDREL TUBE-DRAWING, SECTION DRAWING.
SWARF
Turnings, millings, drillings, etc., from machining operations.
KERF.
SWEAT SOLDERING
The goldsmith’s equivalent of the plumber’s “tinning”. A two-
stage soldering technique whereby one of the two
components is coated with flux and then solder is flowed
onto the surface. When cold, the two components are
brought together precisely and reheated. Solder from the first
component flows onto the second, joining them together.
SOLDERING, FLUX.
TARNISH
A surface discolouration on carat gold jewellery caused by
long term exposure to atmospheric pollution e.g. in shop
windows. In gold alloys, it is usually confined to certain
compositions of 14 carat or lower.
THERMAL DIFFUSIVITY
The ratio of thermal conductivity to heat capacity (density ⫻
specific heat). A measure of chilling or insulation power. Of
the precious metals, silver has the highest, gold and high
carat gold alloys are almost as high but platinum has low
thermal diffusivity.
CHILLING FACTOR.
THIXOTROPIC
Property whereby a mixture appears to change from solid
paste, through jelly-like, to fluid on stirring without change in
temperature or composition.
INVESTMENT, PHOSPHATE-BASED, HYDROCAL.
TRIPOLI
Jewellery polishing compound; very fine diatomaceous silica
with porous and absorptive texture, suspended in a waxy
medium and loaded onto the face of a polishing wheel for
medium and fine polishing stages.
JEWELLERS ROUGE, WET AND DRY PAPER., CORUNDUM.
 TUMBLING
Mechanized process used to finish many pieces of jewellery
in one batch. Items are placed in a barrel with abrasive
ceramic chips, burnishing steel shot, or polishing balls, nuts,
stars and tumbled or vibrated with successively finer media
until a fine polish is achieved.
(ULTIMATE) TENSILE STRENGTH
The maximum stress sustained in a standard tensile test
beyond which fracture quickly follows. Calculated by dividing
the maximum force applied by the original cross-sectional
area of the test piece. Gives a comparative indication of the
general strength of the alloy, particularly for findings and
chain.
ELONGATION, PROOF STRESS.
ULTRA-VIOLET RADIATION
Radiation of shorter wavelength than visible violet (say less
than 400nm) but capable of affecting the retina of the eye
without being perceived as colour. Less easily reflected than
infra-red.
EMISSIVITY, INFRA-RED, WHITE RADIATION.
UPSETTING
Endwise compression of a bar or wire to increase its cross-
section locally, usually at one end as for a rivet head. The
volume of head formed in one stroke is limited by the ratio
of unsupported stock length to head diameter
MALLEABLE, COLD-WORKED, DUCTILE.
12
•
GLOSSARY
WATER OF AYR STONE
A natural soft slate for removing scratches, file marks and fire
stain from small work. Supplied in small sticks ranging from
2mm to 25mm square section. Dipped in water, used like a
handfile, often preceded by pumice and before polishing.
PUMICE, TRIPOLI.
WAX MODELS
Wax replicas of a master pattern (made by injecting into
rubber moulds cured around the master pattern) assembled in
groups on sprues and then melted (lost) out of an investment
mould to leave precise cavities for casting.
PATTERN, INVESTMENT, LOST-WAX CASTING.
WELDING
Joining process in which no solder is used. The parts are
joined by mutual fusion, with or without a flux, using a gas
torch or electric arc, or by hot solid-to-solid pressure or
hammer welding
SOLDERING, FLUX, HOT SHORTNESS.
WET AND DRY PAPER
Waterproof paper coated with carefully graded and oriented
silicon carbide particles (carborundum). Used between filing
and polishing stages.
CARBORUNDUM, EMERY, TRIPOLI.
WETTABILITY
Ease of wetting between molten metal and solid.
Solders/weld fillers more or less wet the joint according to
the liquid/solid contact angle, (must be less than 90°). Mutual
solubility lowers the angle as does flux by removing
insoluble oxide.
SOLDERING, WELDING, FLUX.
WHITE RADIATION
Mixed wavelength radiation in the visible light range of the
spectrum (say, 400 to 750 nm) but may include certain
wavelength peaks (colour bands) and also associated infra-red
and ultra-violet radiations.
EMISSIVITY, INFRA-RED, ULTRA-VIOLET.
WORK-HARDEN
The increase in hardness which accompanies plastic
deformation in a metal. Alloying usually increases the work
hardening rate of a pure metal and increasing working
temperature decreases the rate (to zero when hot working).
COLD WORKED, HOT WORKED, ANNEALING.
WROUGHT SEMI-FINISHED (PRODUCT)
Products intermediate between cast ingot and finished
components stocked in useful or standard sizes, typically:
plate, sheet, coiled strip, circles, bar, rod, extruded section;
usually annealed but may be half-hard.
HOT WORKED, COLD WORKED, ANNEALING, SEMIS.
 13 • TABLES
GOLD ALLOY DATA: MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL GOLD ALLOYS.
Carat Fineness Fine Alloy Colour State Hardness TS 0.2%PS %Elongn Ref.
Gold % HV N/mm2 N/mm2 2” Gauge
24 999.9 99.99 0 Yellow Annealed 20 124 0 45 1
Notes: 60% CW 58 216 185 4
1. Mechanical properties
are for specimens in the 23.76 990 99 1.0Ti Yellow Annealed 60 245 120 40 2
annealed and in the 50% Aged 160 740 460 15
cold-worked states. The 22 917 91.7 5.5Ag Standard Annealed 52 220 60 27 3
properties for the 50%
cold-worked state
2.8Cu Yellow 50% CW 138 390 322 1.0
indicate the relative 22 917 91.7 3.2Ag Dark Annealed 70 275 95 30 4
difficulty of further 5.1Cu Yellow 50% CW 142 463 395 1.0
working but also the
increased strength if that 21 875 87.5 4.5Ag Yellow- Annealed 100 363 212 37 5
condition is retained. 8Cu Pink 50% CW 190 650 638 1.5
2. Soldering, welding, and 21 875 87.5 1.75Ag Pink Annealed 116 359 226 37 5
most heat treatments 10.75Cu 50% CW 205 690 665 1.0
will return the
21 875 87.5 12.5Cu Red Annealed 123 396 244 38 5
properties towards those
of the annealed 50% CW 197 728 710 1.5
condition. 18 750 75 12.5Ag Standard Annealed 150 520 350 40 3
12.5Cu Yellow 50% CW 212 810 690 2.0
3. The additional
properties quoted for 18 750 75 16Ag Pale Annealed 135 500 300 35 4
the 1% titanium alloy 9Cu Yellow 50% CW 184 742 730 1.0
are for a typical heat-
treated (aged) condition 18 750 75 9Ag Pink Annealed 160 550 330 40 4
rather than cold 16Cu 50% CW 224 740 840 1.0
worked.
18 750 75 4.5Ag Red Annealed 165 550 300 40 4
4. Various mechanical 20.5Cu 50% CW 227 880 770 1.0
properties are defined 18 750 75 15Pd White Annealed 180 550 370 33 7
in the glossary and their
10CuNi 50% CW 260 860 820 4.3
significance is discussed
in relevant sections of 14 585 58.5 28.5Ag White Annealed 82 414 180 24 8
the manual. 10Pd,2.5CuNiZn 75% CW 195 653 641 0
5. TS = (Ultimate) 14 585 58.5 30Ag Standard Annealed 150 590 410 17 3
tensile strength; PS = 11.5Cu Yellow 50% CW 244 825 775 1.0
Proof Stress; Elongn =
% Elongation on (2" or 14 585 58.5 9Ag Red Annealed 160 550 360 45 6
50mm) gauge length. 32.5Cu 50% CW 248 900 740 2.5
 GOLD ALLOY DATA: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF TYPICAL GOLD ALLOYS.
Carat Fineness Fine Alloy Colour Density Solidus Liquidus Anneal Ref.
Gold% % g/cm3 C
0
C
0
C
0

24 999.9 99.99 0.00 Yellow 19.36 1064 1064 200 1

23.76 990 99 1.0Ti Yellow 19 1080 1090 500 2
22 917 91.7 5.5Ag Standard 17.9 995 1020 600 3
2.8Cu Yellow
22 917 91.7 3.2Ag Dark 17.8 964 982 600 4
5.1Cu Yellow
21 875 87.5 4.5Ag Yellow 16.8 940 964 700 5
8Cu Pink
21 875 87.5 1.75Ag Pink 16.8 928 952 700 5
10.75Cu
21 875 87.5 12.5Cu Red 16.7 926 940 700 5
Notes:
1. Physical properties are 18 750 75 12.5Ag Standard 15.45 885 895 550 3
virtually independent of 12.5Cu Yellow
the annealed or worked
state of the alloys but 18 750 75 16Ag Pale 15.6 895 920 550 4
annealing temperatures 9Cu Yellow
may be lower for
heavily cold worked
18 750 75 9Ag Pink 15.3 880 885 550 4
material. 16Cu
18 750 75 4,5Ag Red 15.15 890 895 550 4
2. There is a wide range 20.5Cu
of white golds. The
examples chosen are 18 750 75 15Pd White 16.0 1095 1150 730 7
typical. The 14ct alloy 10CuNi
can be cast or worked
equally well. 14 585 58.5 28.5Ag White 14.67 1015 1125 800 8
10Pd,2.5CuNiZn
3. The alloys in the above
table are basic 14 585 58.5 30Ag Standard 14.05 820 885 650 3
compositions as 11.5Cu Yellow
examples; commercial 14 585 58.5 9Ag Red 13.30 850 885 650 6
alloys may contain other
minor elements.
32.5Cu

13 •
TABLES
13
• TABLES
TABLE OF WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 1.4 REFERENCES
1. Mark Grimwade, Interdisciplinary Science
TROY WEIGHT CARAT WEIGHT Reviews, Inst of Materials, 1992, 17. (4), 373.
Prior to SI units, used for weighing precious metals. Used in weighing gemstones, especially diamonds. 2. Gold Technology, World Gold Council,
24 grains = 1 pennyweight, dwt. 1 carat = 0.200 grams May 1992,(6)
3. Gold Technology, World Gold Council,
20 dwt = 1 ounce troy 1 gram = 5 carats Jan. 1990, (1).
12 ounces = 1 pound troy 1 carat = 100 points 4. Gold Technology, World Gold Council,
July 1993, (10).
5760 grams = 1 pound troy 1 carat = 0.007 ounce avoirdupois 5. Gold Technology, World Gold Council,
1 ounce troy = 31.104 grams 1 carat = 3086 grains troy (to be published) 1995.
6. Aurum, International Gold Corporation,
1981, (8). 14.
AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT LENGTH MEASUREMENT 7. Aurum, International Gold Corporation,
Prior to SI units, used for weighing base metals. 1980, (4). 19.
1 metre = 39.37 inches
16 ounces = 1 pound 8. Aurum, International Gold Corporation,
1 metre = 1000 millimetres, (mm.) 1983, (16). 29.
16 ounces = 700 grains
1 ounce = 28.35 grams 1 inch = 25.4 mm

1 ounce = 0.9115 troy ounce 1 metre = 1,000,000 microns

FLUID MEASUREMENT
1 Imperial gallon = 1.2 US Gallons = 4.59 litres
1 Imperial gallon = 160 fluid ounces
1 litre = 1000 cubic centimetres,cc. = 0.264 U.S. Gallons

ABBREVIATIONS
Ag = Silver CW = Cold Work(ed)
Au = Gold elongn = elongation
Cu = Copper g = grams, kg = kilograms
Ni = Nickel HB = Hardness (Brinell scale), HV = Hardness (Vickers scale)
Pd = Palladium Hz = Hertz, kHz = kilohertz
Ti = Titanium m = metre, mm = millimetre, cm = centimetre
Zn = Zinc PS = Proof stress
C = Celsius (Centigrade) SWG = Standard water gauge (fluid pressure)
ct = carat, kt in USA TS or UTS = (Ultimate) tensile strength
2 ALLOYING AND MELTING
21
• PURE OR FINE GOLD
Pure or Fine Gold is virtually uncontaminated
gold, a precious metal, symbol Au, atomic
number 79, atomic weight 197, melting at
1064°C. It is one of the densest metals having a
density of 19.3, and a good conductor of heat
and electricity.
Pure gold is soft and the most malleable and
ductile of all the metals. There are many
different descriptions, ref. 2.1, of the very large
areas of foil that can be made by beating a troy
ounce of gold. For instance, it can be beaten or
hammered to a thickness of less than one
thousandth of a millimetre. About 30g (1 Troy
ounce) could be drawn into a wire 100 km long.
What is not so often pointed out is that if the
fine wire is not very carefully coiled onto a reel,
it will pull apart under its own weight. Gold foil
is extremely fragile, easily punctured and torn. It
is used for good economic book titling, edge
gilding, gilt picture frames, gilding of decorative
base metal items and of religious statues.
Pure gold is, with some exceptions, too soft for
jewellery items. It is bright yellow and has a high
lustre. Finely divided gold is black, red to purple
in colloidal suspension and green when viewed
through the thinnest foil. Gold is normally
chemically inactive, unaffected by air, heat,
moisture, and most solvents, but it will dissolve
in solutions of chlorides, bromides, or some
iodides. It will also dissolve in many oxidizing
mixtures, in alkali cyanides, and in aqua regia, a
mixture of 3 parts concentrated hydrochloric and
1 part concentrated nitric acids. The chlorides
and cyanides are important in the
electrodeposition of gold.
Gold has been highly valued from earliest times,
not only because of its beauty and resistance to
corrosion, but also because it was easier to
obtain in pure form and to work than all other
metals.
Until the middle of this century, the commonest
unit used in weighing gold was the troy ounce,
but SI units are now in extensive use in keeping
with international unification of standards.
1 troy ounce is equivalent to 31.1g,
(see Introduction: 1.3 Tables).
The major portion of the gold produced is used
in coinage and jewellery. For these purposes it is
normally alloyed with other metals to give it the
necessary hardness and wear resistance. The
gold content in alloys is traditionally expressed
in carats or fineness.
An alloy is composed of two or more metals.
Alloys, like pure metals, have metallic lustre and
conduct heat and electricity well, although not
generally as well as do the pure metals
components. An alloy may consist of an
intermetallic compound, a solid solution, an
intimate mixture of minute crystals of the
constituent metallic elements, or a combination of
these. Sterling silver, 14-carat gold, white gold,
and platinum-iridium are examples of precious
metal alloys. German silver, brass, pewter, and
plumbers’ solder are alloys of base metals. Alloys
of mercury with other metals are called amalgams.
Gold alloys consisting of solutions or mixtures of
two metals generally have lower melting ranges
On the other hand, malleability and ductility of
gold alloys can be considerably reduced by small
quantities of impurities, such as lead, antimony,
arsenic. Evidently, what constitutes successful
alloying has to be carefully controlled. Pure
metals, alloying constituents, and recycled scrap
all need controlled compositions and should be
as free from interfering contaminants as possible.
STRENGTH AND HARDNESS
Figure 2.1 shows the effect of adding just one
alloying element, copper, to gold and then
testing the alloys in their soft state (after
annealing and quenching).
600
The composition axis of the graph is expressed
in atomic percent copper, not weight percent
that is normally used to define the make up of
charges for melting and for caratage.
Note that the maximum hardness and (ultimate)
tensile strength occur at just 50% copper atoms
and 50% gold atoms which is the point where
the difference in size of the gold atoms and the
copper atoms produce the greatest mismatch and
lattice strain. As the hardness and strength
increase, ductility decreases. For copper, 50
atomic percent is approximately 25 weight
percent copper, i.e. 18 carat. A similar behaviour
would result from adding other elements, such as
silver or nickel, to gold. Normally, several

Hardness, HB: TS (MN/sq.m)

than pure gold. Adjusting the ratio of the pure 500 ▲
▲
▲
percent of an alloying element is needed for a
TS
constituents produces a wide range of physical 400
significant increase in strength which is why for
▲
and mechanical characteristics compared with the ▲ many years 18 carat (25% alloy content) golds
300
pure metals. The properties of alloys are usually ▲
were preferred for intricate jewellery.
200
different from those of their constituent elements, HB
▲
and such properties as strength and corrosion 100 ◆ ◆ ◆ There are now alloys (e.g. 99% gold,
◆ ◆
◆ ◆
resistance may be considerably greater for an 0 1% titanium) that can be heat-treated to give
0 20 40 60 80 100
alloy than for any of the separate metals. For this significant strengthening.
Copper atoms added to gold (at%)
reason, alloys are more generally used than pure
Fig 2.1 The effect on mechanical properties of gold with
metals and they can often be designed to a Figure 2.2 shows the effect of cold work on the
increasing amounts of a single alloying element.
predetermined set of characteristics. properties of fine gold compared with an 18ct

22
•
WHY ALLOY
22
• WHY ALLOY
alloy. Even without cold work, the 18ct alloy is with more distinct colour changes. These are Figure 2.3, ref 2.2, illustrates the variation in
harder. The rate of work hardening is also higher achieved by careful control of alloy composition colour for the most commonly used ternary gold
and further workability is decreased. Alloys often but the surface texture and the quality of the light alloy system. It is apparent that there is not much
have better workability than pure metals in used to view the effect is also very important. scope for other than a slight shift in colour from
The colour shift is achieved by adding, for:- standard yellow in the Au/Ag/Cu system at high
• White: nickel, zinc, or palladium carat values. Adding a fourth element and
900 • Green: more silver, less copper than yellow moving to lower caratages increases the scope,
Hardness, HB: TS (MN/sq.m)

▲
800 ▲
gold particularly for whitening. If zinc is substituted
700 ▲
600
500 ▲
▲ ▲ TS 18ct
◆ HB 18ct
• Red: more copper, less silver than yellow gold for some of the copper, the tendency to red is
▲ TS 24ct reduced. Other whiteners are nickel and
400
◆ HB 24ct Au
300 palladium. White golds were originally
200 ◆ ◆
▲ ◆
▲
100 ▲
◆ ◆
▲ ▲
introduced as a cheaper substitute for platinum.
◆ ◆ ◆ ◆
0 ◆
20 80
The least expensive are based on nickel which
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
% Cold Work hardens the alloy, makes it easier to keep a
18ct
good polish, but the cold workability of nickel
40 60 white golds is a limitation. In some countries
Fig 2.2 The effect of increasing cold work on the properties of
14ct there is concern about a possible skin allergy

%
fine gold and 18ct gold.

Ag

Au
%
60 40
from nickel. Palladium white golds are more
complex operations such as sheet forming by expensive but softer and easily worked so they
9ct
raising or deep drawing where high ductility is lend themselves to hand working and gem
not the sole criterion. 80 20
setting. They accept decorative settings such as
illusion settings and star settings well because
COLOUR they respond to engraving tools.

Cu
Ag

Yellow carat gold is the most popular colour for

20

40

60

80
jewellery, looking at the market world-wide, but % Cu
there are variations. For instance, white golds Fig 2.3 Schematic ternary diagram of the Au/Ag/Cu system
simulate platinum and the colour harmonizes showing (exaggerated) colours. In practice there are no real
boundaries between the colours, only gradual merging of
with diamonds. Carat golds can be made with shades.
subtle variations on the basic yellow colour and
WEIGHT AND COST
With the exception of adding platinum, all alloys
of gold are less dense than fine gold and since
they are costed on a weight basis, they are also
cheaper. The formula for alloy density, ␳, from
several metals A,B,C, etc., is:-
100
Alloy Density = %wt A + %wt B + %wtC+ …etc.
␳A ␳B
where the weight of each metal is in % and ␳A,
␳B, ␳C ...etc. are the densities (g/cm3) of the
metals A, B, C, ...etc. For example, to calculate
the density of 14ct gold (with equal parts copper
and silver) relative to fine gold:-
Similarly, the weighted mean cost is worked out
from the cost of each component but all on the
same unit basis. This is much easier if SI units are
␳C used rather than troy ounces for precious metals
and costs per tonne for base metals. Buying-in
prices should be converted to grams or kilograms
rather than tonnes because this gives a more
realistic figure for individual pieces of jewellery.
Taking the 14ct gold alloy again and using prices
(mid 1995) in various units:-

Parts, % Density, ␳ Proportion 585.0g Gold @ $386.25/troy ounce (31.1g) = $7264.54

by weight g/cm3 by volume
207.5g copper @ $2995/tonne (10 g) 6
= $0.62
58.50 Gold ⫼19.32 = 3.028 207.5g silver @ $5.50/troy ounce (31.1g) = $36.69
20.75 Copper ⫼ 8.92 = 2.326 fi
1000.0g Totals fi = $7301.85
20.75 Silver ⫼10.49 = 1.978
per kilogram, or $7.30 per gram of 14ct alloy.
100 Alloy Total 13.64* 7.332

* Obtained by dividing alloy weight %, 100 (col. 1), by alloy

Note the relatively insignificant influence of the
volume, 7.332 (col. 3)
cost of copper. Nevertheless, it is a good
The densities in the above calculation are in principle to cost all elements; some, e.g.
grams per cubic centimetre. While the latter, cm3, platinum, palladium, iridium, are expensive even
are not preferred units in the International at small additions.
System of units (SI), they are convenient for
precious metal jewellery calculations. If the %
weight values were in grams, the proportional
volumes in column 3 would be in cm3.

22
•
WHY ALLOY
23
• ALLOY MAKING
An important factor in all alloying and melting, is
temperature measurement and control. This is
too large a subject to deal with in full in this
manual but the next page includes some notes
and tips on the use of thermocouples which are
the best for melting gold and most alloys.
Platinum practice requires (infra-red) radiation
pyrometers because melting points are in the
region of 2000°C. These are not so accurate with
gold alloys because the infra-red emissivity of
gold (and silver) is very low even up to 1100°C.
Judging temperature by colour by eye is so
dependent on the ambient light and the skills of
the observer that it is not reliable enough for
good quality control when melting gold alloys.
Fuller references to temperature control in
relation to precious metals and jewellery alloys
include refs 2.3 & 2.4.
FLUXES
High carat gold alloys can usually be melted in
air with little or no oxidation problems and
powerful fluxes are usually unnecessary. It is
advisable to use a mild covering flux such as
borax or a reducing cover such as charcoal,
particularly for lower caratage where we need to
protect the base metals from oxidation rather
than the gold. Table 2.1 lists the most common
fluxes and covers for gold alloys. There is often
confusion, particularly in older texts, as to the fluxes such as borax can be too fluid. They may
fusion temperature of a simple flux. This is need thickening with silicate (glass or sand) to
because some components lose water of remove them easily just prior to pouring the
crystallisation at much lower temperatures than melt. This also eases the removal of any charcoal
they melt. Similarly, some compounds residue at the same time.
decompose. For instance, carbonates lose carbon
dioxide; sal ammoniac volatilizes and Table 2.1 summarises data for typical melting
decomposes into ammonia and hydrogen fluxes, covers, and refining fluxes, although the
chloride. Their melting points, which can still be latter are usually only needed for 14 carat and
determined under special laboratory conditions, lower alloys or when dealing with doubtful
are not realistic as an indication of their effect on scrap.
a flux melting range. There are several other
classical flux compounds such as mercuric
chloride (corrosive sublimate) and potassium
cyanide that are now regarded as unsafe from an
environmental or human safety point of view.
Most casters use proprietary mixtures as fluxes.
These are often made by mixing two or more of
the compounds in table 2.1 but water of
crystallisation may be driven off and the powder
size is carefully controlled. This results in a more
predictable covering behaviour and, usually, a
lower melting point. Borax is easier to handle if
water of crystallisation (45% of the compound
weight) is driven off first. Heat borax in bulk in a
crucible, allow the water to boil off and continue
heating until the residue is molten. Pour this melt
into a mould, allow to cool and pulverise the
resulting borax glass for use as flux. Simple
TABLE 2.1 TYPICAL FLUXES AND Check-List for temperature measurement mv
50
COVERS FOR CARAT GOLD MELTING. and control when alloying and melting gold
40
alloys.
Material/
Main Purpose
Decompn/ Comments
Melt Temp.
• The most common temperature device used 30

when melting gold alloys is a thermocouple 20

Charcoal – Prevents oxidation
Deoxidant cover of copper & zinc connected to a milli-voltmeter, which may be 10
calibrated directly in temperature units.
Borax 561/760°C Na2B4O7.10H2O 0
Fluid flux dissolves copper & • Thermocouples are classified as either 0 200 400 600 800
Degrees Celsius
1000 1200 1400

zinc oxides precious metal or base metal. They are made Fe/Constantan Chromel/Alumel
Pt/Pt10%Rh Pt/Pt13%Rh
Boric acid 185/870°C H3BO3. Higher from two dissimilar metal/alloy wires joined
Less fluid flux m.pt suited to white Fig 2.4 Output in mv with temperature for four types of
at one end. This junction when heated
golds with Ni thermocouple
causes a small voltage (The Seebeck effect)
Soda, sodium 852°C Na2CO3. Easily
carbonate, flux fused basic flux between the wires which we measure with a • A thin refractory sheath allows a fast and
milli-voltmeter. more accurate temperature response but
Sal Ammoniac, 350°C NH4Cl. Gets
volatile refining copper, zinc & lead • The relationship between temperature and must be treated as a semi-consumable item.
flux as volatile chlorides
or dross
mv is a smooth curve; not quite a straight • Clean and tighten thermocouple terminals
line. Precious metal thermocouples (Pt- regularly; the low voltage generated is
Nitre, potassium 441°C KNO3. Use
nitrate;oxidising sparingly, add flux
10%Rh or Pt-13%Rh) are best for melting insufficient to overcome unnecessary circuit
desulphurizing flux to absorb oxides temperature control of gold alloys; they are resistance.
Common salt, 804°C NaCl Used with most accurate in the temperature range 800 • Check the complete system regularly by
very fluid flux other reactants in to 1200°C, see fig 2.4 and table 2.2. taking the temperature of a standard melt;
cover refining
Tartar or Argol, about KH2C4H6O6.
• The response time of a bare wire junction is thermocouples do deteriorate in use.
reducing gas 400/891°C Decomposes then
a second or so but precious metal • Ensure the cold junction ends of the
and flux acts as K2CO3. thermocouples must be sheathed from thermocouple (where the instrument
Pearl ash, 891°C K2CO3, molten (or even from contact with hot solid) connections are made) are kept at the
potassium As for soda, needs gold alloys. Otherwise, the thermocouple will standard cold junction temperature, usually
carbonate less but more
expensive alloy or even dissolve. 20°C.

23
•
ALLOY MAKING
23
• ALLOY MAKING
phosphorus in copper, even as little as 0.05%
• Use only commercial calibrated components are not prone to oxidation. Charcoal
phosphorus introduces 0.4 to 0.5% additional
thermocouples matched to a particular and plain flux covers provide adequate protection
temperature measuring instrument unless you for most alloys. However, if the final composition copper which needs to be accounted for in
are skilled in welding thermocouple wires has been arrived at by refining scrap or if the calculating fineness accurately.
and calibrating the resulting couple. alloy contains significant amounts of copper, Most high gold alloys can contain as much as 1%
phosphorus without detriment but, in general,
• If you do calibrate your own couples, the deoxidation may be beneficial in improving the
these are also alloys least likely to require
following temperatures are suitable:- soundness of castings or the workability of ingot.
However, if excess deoxidant is added it too may deoxidation. Other alloys will tolerate no more
Pure water/ice mixture 0.02°C than about 0.01% so it is important to keep
cause a deterioration in the quality of the alloy.
Boiling water at low altitude 100°C deoxidant additions to a minimum.
The rule should be to use as little deoxidant as
Freezing points: pure aluminium 660.46°C Zinc may also treated as a deoxidizer by adding
possible (which may be nil!).
pure silver 916.93°C fine gold 1064.43°C just sufficient to achieve deoxidation of the alloy
TABLE 2.2 THERMOCOUPLE A successful deoxidizer must have a stronger (essentially a non-zinc alloy) and simultaneous
OPERATING DATA affinity for oxygen than the component of the volatilization of the remaining metal and oxide.
alloy to be deoxidized and any excess should Silicon or boron are also used to deoxidize
Thermocouple Maximum Accuracy mv/100°C
have no detrimental effect on the alloy. The certain types of gold alloys.
Type quick Approx.
reading products of the deoxidation should not be
Copper/Constantan 500°C ⫾1% 5.1 soluble in the molten alloy and should separate STIRRING
Cu/Cu 40-45%Ni out readily. Gold is denser than all its likely alloying
Iron/Contstantan 1100°C ⫾1% 5.8 elements except platinum. In melting a mixed
Fe/Cu 40-45% Ni
Phosphor-copper is the classical compromise in charge of fine gold and alloying elements, gold is
Chromel/Alumel 1300°C ⫾0.75% 4.15 that it melts readily, phosphorus is a powerful likely to start at or quickly settle to the bottom
Ni 10%Cr/
Ni 5%Al,Si,Mn deoxidizer and the resulting phosphorus and the less dense alloying elements can rise to
Pt/Pt 13%Rh 1650°C ⫾1% @1500°C 1.17 pentoxide, being acid, combines with neutral or the top. Premixed granulated charges avoid this
basic flux to form an easily separated slag. The problem. In any case, it is advisable to stir the
Pt/Pt 10%Rh 1650°C ⫾1% @1000°C 1.04
phosphor-copper addition will normally need to melt immediately before pouring. This not only
DEOXIDATION introduce about 0.05% by weight of phosphorus mixes the alloy uniformly, it also evens out the
Fine gold and high gold alloys do not normally into the gross weight of the gold alloy. Since the temperature of the melt. There is usually no
need deoxidation before pouring because their deoxidant normally consists of 10 or 15% need to stir induction furnace melts because they
are electrically stirred. Stirring rods should be
chosen with care; they should be clean and not
transferred from one type of melt to another.
Graphite or refractory rods are used, not iron or
steel because these can easily contaminate the
melt. Stirring with a preheated rod should be
definite without excessive turbulence but brief so
as to avoid gas pick up.
SUPERHEAT
It is useless to pour fine gold or an alloy at a
temperature a degree or so above its melting
point because heat is lost on the way into the
mould and a poor casting or ingot surface will
be inevitable. On the other hand, too much
superheat opens the melt to oxidation and
excessive gas pick-up. It can also cause too
coarse a grain structure. Most melters refer to
superheat as though it were simply extra
temperature above the liquidus, i.e. “super
temperature”. Strictly speaking, superheat is the
energy (mass X specific heat of the liquid X
super temperature) stored in the melt above the
liquidus. The melt as a whole stays liquid until
the superheat has been dispersed to the
atmosphere, runner system, or mould, but if the
mass of the melt is small and the chilling power
23
•
ALLOY MAKING
of the surroundings is large, this can happen
very quickly. It is possible to calculate (roughly)
the necessary superheat for a given operation
but it is much more common to decide on a
satisfactory super temperature by experience or
trial and error. 50°C is adequate for most ingot
casting but 50 to 150°C may be needed to run
fine castings, depending largely on the surface
area to volume ratio. A large surface area
disperses the heat more easily; a small volume
contains less superheat. The leading suppliers of
alloy materials for melting recommend suitable
pouring temperatures for typical alloys and
casting conditions. To achieve good superheat
control, it is necessary to have a good
knowledge of the liquidus temperature and
good temperature measurement and control.
The latter are dealt with in a jewellery context in
refs 2.3 and 2.4.
SHOTTING OR GRAINING.
For convenience in weighing out and to
encourage uniformity and speed of melting and
alloy mixing, gold, silver and some pre-alloys are
used in grain or shot form, made by pouring the
molten metal in a steady stream into water.
Melt Crucible
Tundish Crucible
Graining Tank
Water Supply to Water Overflow
Fan-jet Swirling
Water in Tank
Optional Deflector
Lift-out Sieve
Fig 2.5 Diagram of arrangement for making grain or shot.
The size and form of the grain or shot is
dependent on the conditions for granulating the
metal. When poured from a height of around
one metre, in a steady stream into hot water, the
grains are globular. When poured from a height
of a few centimetres into cold water, the sudden
shock cooling and steam causes splatter and the
grain is flatter and ragged or feathery in shape.
Either way, the water should preferably be
swirling and at least 0.5m deep. If the molten
stream is also slowly rotated in a circle above the
water, the grain does not form a cake on the
23
• ALLOY MAKING
screen at the bottom of the tank. An easy way to
stream the melt is to pour through a tundish
made from an old crucible with a few holes
drilled through the base. Grain is normally
screened before and after drying to separate and
roughly size the material. Both grain forms have
their supporters for different applications.
Feathery grain dissolves more easily when added
to an already molten bath, but it can more easily
pick up contaminants in storage. So called pure
gold made in this way may actually range from
around 99.5 to 99.9% gold and this must be
taken into account when preparing carat gold
melts for subsequent quality marking.
GENERAL MELTING
CONSIDERATIONS
Refined gold ingots usually weigh 200 or 400
ounces and contain over 99.9% gold. Grain silver
contains about 99.8% pure silver and most
commercial bullion bar or ingot is about the
same purity (fineness). Copper is also sold in
granulated form especially for the preparation of
carat golds, but is usually originally
electrolytically refined copper and will usually be
better than “three nines” i.e. 99.9+% purity. Some
melters prefer to use chopped high conductivity
copper wire which is perfectly satisfactory
provided it is chopped into short lengths and not
dumped into the melt as a mass of coiled wire.
Do not use copper that is not electrolytically
refined because it will probably contain oxygen.
When zinc is used in carat golds, it is best added
as a pre-alloy or hardener. If it is added as pure
metal, this should be electrolytic zinc, not spelter
which may well contain lead. It should be
wrapped in gold and submerged last to prevent
it evaporating on contact with the melt. The most
convenient hardener when both copper and zinc
have to be added, is a brass of the appropriate
ratio of Cu:Zn. Brasses with up to 30% zinc are
normally satisfactory but 60/40(copper/zinc) free
cutting brass should not be used because this
contains lead which is highly undesirable in gold
alloys.
Refined metals sold by internationally recognized
bullion dealers, whether originating from ores or
scrap or sweepings, are reliable in their stated
composition and cleanliness and when properly
melted and cast will have good mechanical
properties and work well. The same cannot be
said of the average remelted shop scrap unless
the correct technology and control is applied.
The main object of this section is to outline that
technology and control.
TORCH MELTING
Hand torches burning natural or bottled gases
achieve fast melting for small quantities of gold
alloys. They also provide control over both the
size and type of flame; neutral, reducing or
oxidising. The design of torches for
goldsmithing has become quite demanding (refs
2.5 and 2.6); stretching as it does from small
scale precision soldering to melting of up to a
few hundred grams of gold alloy in a crucible.
The design of a torch burning natural gas is
necessarily different from that of an oxy-
acetylene torch . The basic principles of gas
flame control extend to crucible melting furnaces
and in all cases there is a need to build in safety
devices to avoid flame lift-off, or worse, flash-
back, with consequent explosion risk.
Natural gas varies a little in composition in
various parts of the world but is roughly 98%
methane. Local distribution through mains
usually brings the gas into the workshop at a
pressure of about 2 Bar, or 2 atmospheres, and it
is usually regulated down to about 20mBar (8”
WG) at the work point.
Bottled gases may be liquid petroleum gas (LPG:
propane, butane), or acetylene. These are either
distributed as liquids in high pressure bottles at 4
to 8 Bar (60 to 120 psi) or absorbed in a medium
within a pressure bottle at a similar pressure. The
pressure is regulated down to about 20 - 40 mBar
at the work point.
Compressed air is often sufficient for gas burners
used to melt gold and its alloys because
temperatures in excess of 1100°C are rarely
needed. However, oxy-gas flames, i.e. using
bottled oxygen, are also used for small scale
melting with a torch, particularly where
workshops have general purpose welding
equipment for higher temperature flames, for
steel welding for instance. Oxy-gas fired crucible
furnaces are not needed for melting gold alloys.
FLAME ADJUSTMENT
Restricting slightly the amount of air or oxygen
supplied to the torch or furnace flame cause a
yellow tipped flame called a reducing flame. This
is because the small amount of unburned fuel
gas in the flame at the jet reacts with free oxygen
from the surrounding air and so reduces the
metal’s chance of oxidation.
A neutral flame with neither gas nor oxygen in
excess is the most efficient from an energy point
of view. It is achieved by turning down the gas
23
•
ALLOY MAKING
supply to the torch or furnace until the last trace
of yellow disappears from the tip of the flame.
Using excess oxygen or air gives the false
(noisier) impression that the bluer flame is hotter
and more effective. In fact this excess oxygen
has to be heated and this reduces the average
flame temperature. However, a small excess may
well concentrate heat release in a particular part
of the flame and the temperature at that point
can be well above the average. High carat golds
are not adversely affected by melting under a
slightly oxidising flame.
Reducing Flame
Neutral Flame
Oxidizing Flame
Figure 2.6 illustrates the characteristics of the three types of
flame.
A high rate of heat transfer from the flame to the
metal requires a substantial temperature
differential between flame and metal and a high
rate of heat development in the flame or
combustion intensity. The theoretical flame
temperature depends on:-
• the (volume) calorific value (kJ/m3) of the
fuel gas,
• combustion intensity (kj/cm2/sec)
• amount of excess air or oxygen,
• whether the combustion takes place in a
single compact zone (e.g. hydrogen) or in
two reaction zones (e.g. acetylene),
• the specific heats of the products of
combustion,
• whether steam condensation is included in
the calculation, and
• radiation losses.
Obviously, accurate calculations of theoretical
flame temperature are not simple, so table 2.3
lists approximate average flame temperatures for
some typical gas mixtures used in jewellery
applications. Even the lowest of these appears to
be satisfactory for raising the temperature of fine
gold above its melting point. However, gold
alloys have relatively high thermal diffusivities
and conduct heat away rapidly, so for rapid
heating, it is advisable to use higher flame
temperatures and combustion intensities.
23
• ALLOY MAKING
In practice, the maximum rate of flow of the gas GAS FURNACE MELTING
and hence the flame size, is governed by the Gas furnaces employ natural gas, LPG, towns
nozzle or jet orifice gas, and, usually, fan blown air blast, although
compressed air may sometimes be more
TABLE 2.3 convenient. The mix of gas type and air should
be adjusted to suit the alloys being melted and
Gas Average Average the desirable production cycle so as to be
Flame Flame
economical in time or direct cost. For instance,
Temperature Temperature
°C with Oxygen °C with Air higher air pressures and the more calorific gases
Natural Gas 3100 1950
combine to give much higher melting
temperatures and faster melting rates than a lean
Propane 3185 2000 gas / low-pressure air system, although the latter
Butane 3200 2050 may be more economical for occasional batch
Hydrogen 2810 2125 melting. Most gas furnaces for gold melting are
Acetylene 3270 2300 modified pit type furnaces with crucibles
lowered into a refractory lined cylindrical cavity.
Fluxes used for melting carat golds with a torch The combusting air gas mix is injected
are the same as for crucible melting except in tangentially at the circumference and swirled.
physical form. Light powdered fluxes are easily Refractories are usually designed to withstand
blasted off the surface of charges in a shallow 1600°C for long periods which is very adequate
bowl crucible. On the other hand there is no for fine gold and its alloys and represents a good
point in putting the flux at the bottom and compromise between high cost, good flame
attempting to melt the metal onto it. The best resistance and a high temperature surface for
way is to start the melting process gently with radiation to the crucible. Burners and the lower
little more than a lazy flame until the flux frame are usually made from nickel chromium
powder has lost its water content and becomes cast iron. Furnace sizes are rarely calculated
sticky. The flame can then be turned up and the specially for gold and it is advisable to select a
flux will fuse over the charge. smaller volume furnace than the catalogue melt
weight (which is usually calculated for brass, or
sometimes for aluminium) would suggest. The
larger the capacity of the furnace, the more
economical the fuel consumption but this
principle is negated if a small under-charged
crucible is placed in a large furnace.
There are potential hazards in both gas-torch
melting and furnace melting that are best
avoided by using a check list of precautions.
• Furnaces and torches need a system for
preventing gas flow until air flow is
established.
• Colour code gas (red) and air (blue) hoses
for easy recognition.
• Use left-handed thread gas (smaller diameter)
hose to torch fittings and right-handed air
(larger diameter) hose to torch fittings.
• Each gas appliance should have an isolating
valve fitted at its inlet connection.
• A non-return valve should be fitted in the
gas supply main to the work area to prevent
air returning down the gas line, possibly
forming an explosive mixture. This can
happen if a burner gets blocked.
• An electrical failure can stop the air
compressor or fan supply leaving a large
luminous flame burning. Fit a solenoid in the
gas supply to cut off the gas too in the event
of a power cut.
• Connect an emergency stop system in series integrated effectively in most modern furnaces.
with the gas line solenoid and place the For efficiency, it is necessary to expose the
knock-off button at an obvious and whole of the vertical wall of the crucible to
convenient point in each work place. radiant heat so the crucible height determines
the maximum melting capacity of a furnace.
ELECTRIC FURNACE MELTING
Electric furnace melting of gold alloys is clean
and virtually fumeless. Temperature control
and uniformity are usually better than for gas
200
10kg mm
and torch melting. Electric resistance/ Silver 10kg
14ct gold
radiation furnaces are available to accept
single crucibles holding less than 1kg of charge
100mm
up to multiple crucible units that can melt
Crucible size Just acceptable
several different compositions at the same optimum for for 14ct gold
Silver
time, if required, up to a total of, say, 200kg.
Resistor heating elements were originally
wound from nickel alloy tape or wire. Now,
silicon carbide heaters are mounted behind
silicon carbide tiles which radiate heat to the
10kg
crucibles lowered vertically onto the base Fine
gold
hearth. A three-phase power supply is usually 10kg
Fine
needed, especially for the higher capacity gold
units. The maximum temperature with this type
of arrangement is 1400º°C with a long term Gold low in crucible Better lift
does not see enough crucible on
working temperature about 50°C lower, but radiant heat refractory brick
this is more than adequate for gold alloys.
Figure 2.7. Sketch of good and bad practice in charge-crucible-
Temperature sensing and furnace control is furnace layout.
The alternative electric furnaces are induction
furnaces. These work by using alternating current
at medium frequency to induce powerful eddy
currents in the melt charge in a crucible
surrounded by a water cooled induction coil.
Melting is rapid when the characteristics of the
coil and the charge match well.
Again, it is wise to match the size of crucible to
the size of the furnace coil to ensure maximum
10kg
Fine energy transfer. All of the charge in the crucible
gold should be placed centrally within about 90% of
both the height and diameter of the coil.
Too large for
fine gold The overall efficiency is also dependent on the
gross power of the furnace and on the
frequency of the current. Recent developments in
silicon semi-conductors have increased the
efficiency of small induction precious metal
melting furnaces. The most modern induction
10kg
Fine furnaces can automatically tune to the optimum
gold
frequency for maximum efficiency, change the
coupling conditions as the charge melts out,
produce a preset superheat and then trigger an
Best use smaller automatic casting sequence. The induction
(slimmer) crucible
furnace also causes stirring within the melt once
there is a continuous liquid pool. It is now
possible to convert close to 95% of the mains

23
•
ALLOY MAKING
23
• ALLOY MAKING
input energy into melt energy and the close
control also means extended crucible life and
little unnecessary oxidation. As a rough guide,
1 Kw of power is required for each 1Kg of 18ct
gold to be melted; a little less power for fine
gold, a little more for 14 ct and for melts of less
than about 2Kg.
Figure 2.8 shows a versatile automatic melting
and centrifugal investment casting machine
capable of melting 2kg charges of high carat gold
alloys (and say 1.5kg of 14ct charges) with a
power consumption of 8.5kVA.
Figure 2.8 Variable frequency induction melting and casting
machine. Courtesy of Hoben Davis Ltd.
POWDER METALLURGY
Historically, virtually all alloys were prepared by
melting. More recently, powder metallurgy has
become important in the preparation of alloys
with special characteristics. In this process, the
alloys are prepared by mixing dry powders of
the materials, squeezing them together under
high pressure, and then heating them to
temperatures just below their melting points. The
result is a solid, homogeneous alloy. Among the
alloys made possible by powder metallurgy are
the cermets that combine high-temperature
strength, stability, and oxidation resistance of the
ceramic compound with the ductility and shock
resistance of the metal. Such combinations are
difficult to produce economically by conventional
melting, casting and working techniques but
mass-produced products may be prepared by
powder metallurgy. There is not the same need
to alloy gold by powder metallurgy but there is
no difficulty in doing so. Certain components can
be made economically by this process and its
use for gold jewellery may increase.
With the possible exception of jewellery
producers who are primarily industrial
metallurgists, the decision as to whether to buy
or make any or all of their gold alloy stocks or
components, turns on economics. However,
there are many aspects of the full costing of
materials that are not readily apparent. For
instance, keeping a wide variety of alloys and
shapes (inventory) when the demand for some
of them is low, is an expensive way of tying up
money. It is naive to assume that perfect 100%
recovery of precious metal values, good quality
and size control will automatically result from
casual in-house processing. On the other hand,
re-processing regular clean scrap into a readily
used form rather than sell it on for refining, is
good commercial practice.
later. However, guaranteed shotted or grained
alloys can be purchased through the trade as
easily as bullion.
Most of the alloying, melting, casting and
shaping metal into standard sizes of sheet, wire,
and tube are done by refiners and smelters. Few
jewellery makers have the equipment or time to
make such materials economically. But there are
occasions when there is a call for a special
component that cannot be met from stock and a
well-equipped jewellery maker will be able to
make that component from scratch or modify a
larger size of stock. This will usually involve
processes such as casting or closed die stamping
that conserve the mass of the material rather than
cut parts away, as in machining.

For hand-made jewellery or assemblies of

stampings, gold alloys can be purchased with
guaranteed composition, colour, shape and size.
Most casters do prepare their own alloys by
melting the proper weight of fine gold and base
metal in a crucible with a flux to minimise
oxidation and stirring to obtain a uniform batch.
This may be used direct for investment casting,
turned into ingot or granulated for remelting

24
•
BUY OR MAKE
25
• INGOT OR CASTING
There is little to distinguish between melting for with their capacity by weight which is the more powder (borax or sodium borate) pre-melted in
ingot or for castings. Most gold alloys can be common decision making unit. Crucible the crucible and swirled around to coat the inner
melted in a wide range of crucibles including capacities are usually quoted for brass or for surface as a glaze. This helps to prevent any
silicon carbide or graphite. Bonded graphite or aluminium. This considerably underestimates grains of crucible material finding their way into
plumbago crucibles are often called Salamanders their capacity for high carat golds. Fine gold a melt and eventually cause a severe cast or
in the jewellery trade. Crucible size should be (density 19.32) takes up significantly less volume wrought defect.
selected carefully for melting efficiency. The than 14ct gold alloy (density 13.65 assumed in
molten charge should fill about 75% of the table 2.4). The outside dimensions of crucibles Some general rules for melting:-
volume of the crucible before pouring. This is a determine whether they will fit in a furnace but • weigh clean ingredients accurately
reasonable compromise between risking spillage it is the inside dimensions that determine the • place the least dense materials at the bottom
from a full crucible and using too large a crucible capacity. of the crucible, e.g. copper first, silver
in which a small charge cannot “see” most of the next,then gold.
effective heating surface and is also exposed to a Even with high gold alloys, the maximum • if zinc is required, do not put it direct into
relatively large furnace atmosphere. temperature required is unlikely to exceed the crucible but add last beneath the surface
1150°C and when melting pre-alloyed grain, most of the melt, preferably as alloy grain. In
TABLE 2.4 CRUCIBLE SIZE (mm) &
carat gold alloys melt at 1000°C or less, (see either case, allow for zinc loss (5% for pure
CAPACITIES (kg)
table 1.1). Because most molten gold alloys are zinc, 1-2% for pre-alloy or brass) due to
Inside Inside Wall Capacity Capacity fairly resistant to oxidation they are fluid without volatilisation.
Diam.
mm
Depth Thickness 24ct.
kg
14ct.
kg
the need for large degrees of superheat so • melt rapidly to minimise oxidation and gas
pouring temperatures do not need to exceed the pick-up.
25 30 4 0.25 0.2 melting point (liquidus) by more than 50°C. The • once melting is under way, add charcoal or
lower the melt-out, superheat and pouring flux.
50 60 5 0.9 0.75
60 90 10 3 2.5
temperatures, the lower the gas pickup and the • stir with a non-reactive rod
finer the cast grain size, both of which are
70 100 10 4.5 3.5
beneficial to quality. New and scrap metal should be cast into square
80 115 10 10 8
or rectangular section bar if it is to be rolled into
100 145 10 15 12
Despite the relatively benign effect of gold alloys sheet or rod for wire drawing. It is simpler to roll
120 180 13 25 20 on crucible linings, it is worth treating crucibles to a round cross-section than to cast rounds in
with a coating. The simplest is to use boric acid the first place. It is worth taking the trouble to
Table 2.4 relates crucible sizes in volume terms
prepare the mould properly so that the cross
section cast is about right for the rolling
operation and the mould surface is dressed both
to prolong its life and to impart a smooth surface
to the chill cast ingot. Some moulds are easily
adjusted to give a range of sections from square
to rectangular; one type has one of the mating
sides with a rectangular recess on one face and a
series of grooves in the other.
The mould must be warm and dry. A cold mould
may have traces of moisture which, in contact
with molten gold can cause damaging and loss-
making eruptions. The mould should be flame
dried and warmed, then dressed with a thin
coating of oil (wipe off any excess) before
pouring the metal. Alternatively, the mould may
be coated with fine carbon by playing a smoky
gas torch flame over the working surface. These
treatments keep the gold alloy from adhering and
gradually the mould interior acquires a smooth
slightly sooty finish which prolongs mould life.
Most molten gold jewellery alloys are not
particularly aggressive to the cast iron or steel
chill moulds but moulds do become crazed in
service and then they allow penetration of the
melt; both the mould interior and the ingot
surface deteriorate rapidly thereafter.
When pouring, allow the melt to run steadily
down one side of the mould rather than straight
down the cavity which will result in splashing.
After solidification, remove the hot ingot and
quench in water. This avoids some of the
extreme thermal cycling that the mould
inevitably undergoes and helps to prolong life.
Before rolling, dress the ingot with a file to
remove any fins or scabs. If these are left on,
they are likely to be rolled into the ingot surface
and form an unnecessary defect.
Finally, stamp the ingot, weigh and enter the
details in the inventory even if the ingot is to be
converted next day. A good quality assurance
system relies on tracing the batch from which
jewellery is subsequently made. Ideally, the scrap
generated in subsequent processing should also
be identified in relation to the ingot.

25
•
INGOT OR CASTING
26
• DEALING WITH SCRAP
Scrap is the term applied to waste material
arising from processing metals and alloys.
Runners, gates and risers clipped from
investment castings are an inevitable part of the
less than 100% yield of the process. Clippings
from sheet and wire, and trimmings from
blanking and after stamping are scrap arising
from wrought processes. To process scrap we
might add bought-in scrap such as old jewellery
broken down for resetting or unsaleable stock.
Scrap may be treated by:-
• melting down on its own into ingot or bar,
• adding as part of a crucible charge when
making up an alloy with pure metals,
• returning to refiners for credit.
It is normally economically advantageous to use as
much scrap as possible in making up new alloys
but considerable care is needed. Much depends on
the condition of the scrap and the accuracy of its
composition. For instance, a few percent of soft
solder from scrap articles can easily ruin the
resulting ingot because it is too brittle to work. On
the other hand, when the composition of the scrap
is known accurately, it is quite clean, all of the
same carat value and there is a positive tolerance
in the gold content, crucible charges can be made
entirely from scrap. In most cases, the quantity of
scrap employed in alloy making is up to 50% of
the charge with the rest being “new” metal.
When melting regular charges for castings, it is
often convenient to include scrap at the same
average percentage rate as arises from the total
casting process. Provided a small scrap reserve is
kept, this neatly ensures that the process is self
sustaining and there is neither need to buy in
scrap nor does it accumulate.
NEGATIVE TOLERANCES
In a few countries, regulations for marking precious
metals allow a negative tolerance on the gold
content. For instance, goods stamped 14 carats may
only contain gold equivalent to 131/2 carats and still
be within the negative allowance. International
standardisation is moving against negative
tolerances. The general argument is that while there
is a small predictable degree of uncertainty in assay
results this is swamped by the extra uncertainty
when negative tolerances are admitted. Inevitably,
the producer is tempted to lower his target
compositions towards the legally accepted
minmum. This is not in the interests of good
quality control, fair competition or the customer.
Where negative tolerances are allowed, one
production tactic is to aim at the exact
composition of the nominal carat value, using
exactly weighed new bullion, grain, hardeners
etc., in the first round of melts. Scrap arising
from the first round can be remelted on its own
with a reasonable chance that the end result will
still be within the negative tolerance limits.
REFINING SCRAP
The best way to handle dirty or mixed scrap gold
is to send it to a commercial refiner for cash or
for credit against the purchase of new bullion or
grain. Commercial refiners have the necessary
equipment to use one of several methods of gold
recovery according to the type of scrap material.
However, it is advisable for the jeweller to know
as accurately as possible, what is being sold. This
means segregating various sources of scrap into
like batches and keeping good records. The
larger the batch and the more precisely the
composition is known, the more likely it is that
the jeweller can economically re-use that material.
At the other extreme, it is unfortunately very easy
to spend disproportionate time, consumables and
energy attempting to extract values from mixed
dirty scrap such as floor sweepings.
On a small scale, probably the easiest way of
recovering gold from scrap (although not
necessarily silver at the same time) is to use
copper and nitric acid.
SAFETY NOTE:
• All acids can be dangerous and nitric acid
is certainly no exception.
• When an acid solution is to be made, always
add the concentrated acid to water, never
the reverse. Done the correct way, you are
creating a dilute solution initially and then
strengthening it; the larger mass of water
absorbs the heat of reaction. Adding a small
amount of water to concentrated acid leads to
a sudden heat release very locally which
causes local boiling and splashing.
• Do not use metal containers. Use pottery
or strong glass containers and keep them
covered with lids.
• Wear a face screen and rubber type
gloves. Acid is extremely corrosive so avoid
contact with skin and clothing. Should acid
get onto skin, wash immediately with running
water and follow up as quickly as possible
with a neutralizer such as bicarbonate of
soda. Acid in the eye should be washed out
with plenty of running water immediately but
a strong neutralizer is inadvisable since this
may extend the damage rather than confine
it. Splashes on clothes should be neutralized
with bicarbonate of soda.
26
•
DEALING WITH SCRAP
• Do not drop metal into acids ; lower in with
tongs.
• When heating acid solutions do not use
local heating, with a torch for instance. Use
an electric or gas heated plate or electric
mantle. Work near open air or at least
provide an air exhaust system.
The steps are as follows:-
1. Crush, burn off organic fibres etc., with a
torch and remove ferrous particles with a
magnet.
2. Weigh the remainder and add five times the
weight of copper. This guarantees that the
caratage of the scrap is less than 4 and it
should react easily with nitric acid.
3. Melt this batch under a simple flux, skim and
pour either into water (See shotting and
graining) or into a plate-like mould so that
the resulting solids can be easily cut into
small pieces.
4. Place the pieces into a glass or pottery
container, add 15% nitric acid solution and
allow the reaction to proceed over several
hours, taking precautions to disperse the
brown fumes safely. When action ceases,
pour off the, now, blue copper nitrate
solution, which itself may be worth
recovering for plating for instance, and add
25% nitric acid solution. Allow the reaction
to proceed to completion cold, and then
heat, but not to boiling, Add fresh 25% nitric
acid solution if necessary. Continue until no
further copper reaction takes place. This can
be spot tested from time to time by taking
one of the larger pieces of metal remaining
and testing it with fresh warm 25% nitric
acid in a test-tube until no further blue
nitrate is formed.
5. Wash the residue in the container with clean
water until no traces of acid and nitrate
remain; drain and dry.
6. Place the gold particles and black sponge-
like material into a crucible and melt under a
simple flux until it fuses into a single
bead/pool. If the operation has been carried
out carefully at each stage, this should now
be 99% gold or better.
There are several other methods for small
scale refining of gold-bearing scrap, dross and
sweepings. One, for instance, absorbs the
scrap into molten lead and cupels the result
as though it were a large scale fire assay.
However, lead fumes are very poisonous.
26
• DEALING WITH SCRAP
High grade scrap does not necessarily have to
be absorbed in copper or lead; it can be treated
with aqua regia, (4 to 4.5 litres per kilogram of
scrap) which also separates and recovers any
silver as chloride. The method is efficient on a
laboratory scale but requires great care to avoid
premature violent reaction and fumes. These,
and other methods are described in ref 2.7,
which, in turn, reviews very well, a variety of
refining processes and has a useful list of further
references. Two of these, refs 2.8 and 2.9, are
practical guides geared to the needs of the small
scale refiner.
ADJUSTING SCRAP
The more accurately the composition of scrap is
known, the more economic is the operation of
reusing it. Almost invariably, it pays to assay the
scrap before remelting, ref. 2.10. In general, it is
easier, safer and cheaper to lower the caratage of
scrap than to raise it, but there is no point in
doing this if the caratage so obtained is not itself
economically usable by the producer.
FORMULA FOR LOWERING CARATAGE
The simplest way to achieve this is to add base
metal only, not fine gold or a higher carat alloy.
On this basis the formula is:-
Base metal to be added in grams g,=
scrap,g (scrap cts-cts wanted)
cts wanted
The formula works with the weights of the base
metal addition and of the scrap in grams (g),
pennyweights, ounces troy, pounds, provided
the units are not mixed. Similarly, parts per
thousand or percentage gold may be substituted
for carats (cts).
For example, supposing a 2.4 kg batch of
formerly 18ct casting sprue offcuts, splashings
and miscellaneous scrap now assays 71% gold
(17cts or 710 fine) and it is decided to use it to
produce 14 carat stock,
2400 (710–585)
= 512g of base metal need to be
585
added.
FORMULA FOR RAISING CARATAGE
USING FINE GOLD
The most straight forward method is to add fine
gold to the alloy to be upgraded. The formula is:
scrap,g (cts wanted – scrap cts)
Add fine gold,g =
24 - cts wanted
For example, supposing a 2.4 kg batch of
formerly 18ct casting sprue offcuts, splashings
and miscellaneous scrap now assays 71% gold
(17cts or 710 fine) and it is decided to restore it
to 18 carat,
2400 (750–710)
= 384g of fine gold need to be added.
1000-750
2.7 REFERENCES
2.1 The Practical Gold-worker, G. E. Gee, Crosby Lockwood,
London, 1877
2.2 Basic Metallurgy For Goldsmiths, Mark Grimwade, Gold
Technology, World Gold Council, 1990, 2_, 2.
2.3. Temperature Measurement for Jewellers, Eddie Bell,
Proceedings of Sante Fe Symposium on Jewellery
Manufacturing Technology, 1987, 245.
2.4 Temperature Measurement, Mark Grimwade, Gold
Technology, World Gold Council, 1980, 5_, 10.
2.5 The Working Flame, Goldsmiths Technical Digest, The
Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, 1988/89, 6.
2.6 Gas Burners For Jewellery Processes, Goldsmiths
Technical Digest, The Worshipful Company of
Goldsmiths, 1986,(6), 25.
2.7 Gold refining for the jewellery producer, W.S.Rapson,
Gold Technology, World Gold Council, 1994, 14 __, 2.
2.8 Small Scale Gold Refining, R. Loewen, Report No 44/1,
The Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, 1980.
2.9 The Recovery of Gold from Jewellery Sweeps, R.
Loewen, Report No 44/2, The Worshipful Company of
Goldsmiths, 1982.
2.10 Assaying gold in Switzerland, W. Walchi & P.
Vuilleumier, Gold Technology, World Gold Council,
1991, 3
_, 19.
3 INVESTMENT CASTING
3 INVESTMENT CASTING – INTRODUCTION
The names investment casting or lost wax casting
are both derived from stages of the same process E Sketch
Sketch jewellery
jewellery design
design on
on paper
paper
of pouring gold alloy into a refractory mould
made (usually a day earlier) by pouring or E Cast
Cast aa model
model Hand-make
Hand-make aa hard
hard model
model
investing a refractory slurry around a tree of wax Enclose
Enclose model
model in
in silicone
silicone rubber
rubber
patterns that are subsequently melted out and
Vulcanize
Vulcanize rubber
rubber
drained from the mould. In practice, the patterns
may be plastic rather than wax; they may be Cut
Cut model
model free
free and
and part
part rubber
rubber mould
mould into
into two
two halves
halves
bought as catalogue items from trade suppliers
Inject
Inject wax
wax into
into rubber
rubber mould
mould to
to make
make wax
wax patterns
patterns
rather than made in-house. In this way, a maker
may enter the sequence of processes without E Buy
Buy in
in plastic
plastic patterns
patterns
design development. Mount
Mount patterns
patterns on
on wax
wax trees
trees

When the maker introduces his own designs, he Place

Place tree
tree in
in flask
flask and
and pour
pour in
in de-aired
de-aired investment
investment slurry
slurry
starts with a drawing and then makes a template
or model either by casting or by cutting from De-air
De-air invested
invested flask
flask and
and allow
allow to
to set
set
solid stock, joining and finishing. A sequence of
De-wax
De-wax and
and burn-out
burn-out
operations for medium to large scale production
is shown in Figure 3.1. with various entry points. Cast
Cast quickly
quickly with
with alloy
alloy
The principal operations are then outlined in the
following text but there are many variations in Quench
Quench flask
flask and
and break
break out
out cast
cast tree
tree
technique. For instance, for one or a few
High
High pressure
pressure water
water wash/ultrasonically
wash/ultrasonically pickle
pickle the
the cast
cast tree
tree
medium to large components there is no need to
construct a full tree; the pattern(s) can be Subcontract Clip
Clip or
or saw
saw individual
individual components
components from
from the
the tree
tree
Cast quickly
mounted directly on a base with short and E casting
with service
alloy
probably dividing sprues. The outline in this Batch components
Subcontract casting service
(and scrap
Batch clippings separately)
components and scrap
manual should be supplemented by reading one and label and label
clippings separately
of the books that specialize in the investment
casting process (see refs 3.1 to 3.4). Figure 3.1 Flow chart of a typical series of investment casting operations for jewellery. E represents a point at which a jeweller
may enter the sequence.
Before embarking on a major production run it is
wise to check that the design of the jewellery
component and the tools needed to produce it
are satisfactory and economic. Some aspects of
design (for instance, yield of usable castings
compared with down-sprue and tree) can only
be checked by making a complete batch.
Otherwise, it is convenient to be able to cast
one-off or just a few items. This system can also
be used to develop the design of a casting that
may later justify moulds for preparing waxes.
There are a few craft materials that may be used
by cutting them into two halves with flat emery
papered facing surfaces. An existing component,
or a metal, plastic or wax master pattern may be
pressed equally half way into the two faces.
After removing the pattern, a tapered sprue or
runner channel is cut for metal entry.
Alternatively, the two half impressions can be
carved out by hand. The two half moulds must
be registered together accurately by running
two to four peg wires, match sticks, toothpicks,
through both halves simultaneously; then
removing the pattern. Dust fine powdered
graphite into the cavity to improve the cast
31
•
MODEL DESIGN
surface. Wind wire round the outside of the
combined set before pouring metal through the
runner channel. This method is rarely accurate
enough for commercial work but it can be a
useful way of starting a craft piece. Natural
materials such as cuttle fish shell (dried shell of
a marine mollusc, hard on the outside,
plastically soft inside) or pumice stone, are
quick to produce the cavity as long as there are
no undercuts. Pumice may be used to cast more
than one piece but cuttle shell is not normally
re-usable. In either case, reproduction of shape
and surface is not ideal. However, considerably
less hand working may be needed than cutting
the complete component from solid stock. So,
the method is useful for development of
designs.
The most versatile development method is to use
a small sand and clay mould much like a
miniature sand foundry, ref. 3.1. A typical mould
size would be framed by a pair of 50 or 100mm
diameter rings, each 15 to 25mm high with wall
thickness about 4mm. By machining the outer
diameter of one and the inner diameter of the
other to the half wall thickness, each pair can be
made to fit together. An indexing mark on the
outside of both rings ensures accurate register as
a pair. The success of this method is in using a
very fine sand-clay-moisture mixture that is
sufficiently plastic to take an accurate impression
yet does not require special drying before
pouring. Most of the mould can be used again
with just a layer of fresh mixture at the location
for the next impression after removing the burnt
clay The method is similar in principal to cuttle
fish moulding but makes a better impression and
the cutting of pouring channels and air vents is
better controlled.
MODEL MAKING
Where sizeable batches of identical or very
similar (perhaps differing in final size)
components are required, it is advisable to make
a fully finished hard model. This may itself be a
casting from an original model carved and
assembled in modelling wax, refs. 3.2 & 3.3.
Wax modelling is the most versatile and “artistic”
method but a harder replica needs to be made,
usually by casting, for use as a working master
model. Modelling wax is harder and has a higher
melting point than injection wax but is not robust
enough to act as a master pattern. It is obtainable
in many convenient sections and sheets,
31
• MODEL DESIGN
including hollow ring tube. There is a wide
choice of material for the model:
• wax soft
• wood soft
• resin plastic, perspex medium
• fine or sterling silver medium
• carat gold soft to medium
• brass, bronze hard
• nickel silver hard
The metal models may be electroplated to
enhance wear resistance and attack by (sulphur
in) the rubber. Rhodium plating is sometimes
available in connection with other jewellery
processes and may be convenient for silver and
gold models. Nickel is not good on its own
because it does not resist sulphur well but
chromium plating is usually the most economic
way of protecting brass, bronze and nickel silver.
The preferred material for the model depends on
the expected wear on the model; the modelling
skills available (a worker in high carat gold may
not be in practice with resin or brass); and
knowledge of shrinkage allowances. Mass
production normally requires a metal model
while occasional craft pieces can be reproduced
from non-metallic models as long as the models
are very carefully preserved.
When sizing a metal model (e.g. a ring)
remember that, due to shrinkage on solidification
and cooling, the final casting will be slightly
smaller (by about 1 to 3%). A correction factor is
required. If the original model is a wax carving
and a metal model is cast from that, a double
shrinkage factor must be used. The model needs
to have as good a finish as possible. Silver and
carat golds are easy to work but the surface is
relatively soft and can easily replicate scratches
and dents in the rubber mould prepared from
them. On the other hand, a satin or worked
finish can be deliberately reproduced by
applying these finishes to the model.
Fig 3.2 Two samples: A) has a too small gate; B) has the gate in
proportion with the ring
The model is finished by adding a runner and
gate as an entrance for the molten alloy when
casting. Make the attachment where the gate is
easy to clip or saw away from the real casting
later. The gate diameter varies according to the
size of the model. For a ring shank, for instance,
it should be just a little narrower than the ring
shank so that subsequent draining of wax and
entry of alloy is easy. If it is larger than the
shank, then too much scrap metal is made and it
is difficult to contour the cut to the shank
outline. Figure 3.2 shows two examples.
In order to produce multiple wax copies of the
model, it is surrounded with a rubber mixture
which, after curing, allows removal of the model,
then re-assembly to act as a wax injection mould.
A suitable rectangular metal, usually aluminium,
or hard plastic, frame is used to comfortably
contain the model and enough rubber to ensure
a thick walled mould.
Silicone rubbers give moulds with high
reproduction quality, great wear resistance and
with a low rate of expansion. In some cases (for
mass production) rigid epoxy or metal moulds
may be used instead of rubber. Many
accessories are available to facilitate the various
operations, such as: pre-formed rubber moulds
ready for quick opening with self-centring
closure guides, small plastic cones for
positioning the gates, pre-formed wax for
special shapes which can be hand finished by
those who produce models first in wax. The
raw rubber has a grain due to the rolling or
extrusion in preparation. This should be kept in
the same direction in building up a mould to
avoid differential shrinkage and distortion on
curing. Rubber also deteriorates with age; avoid
strong sunlight and humid atmosphere in
storage. Several rubber moulds may be made
from the same model to reduce the wear
32
•
FORMING THE RUBBER MOULD
associated with repeated hot use of a single
mould. To form the mould:-
• Allow a typical vulcanizing temperature of
145°C–175°C (the average, 160°C, is
• lay down a sheet (commonly 3mm thick as
optimum; the timing is 40 – 80 minutes
supplied) of raw rubber in the bottom of the
according to manufacturer’s
frame and/or roughly carve a slab of rubber,
instructions. The time is determined by the
to support the model in the centre of the
thickness of the rubber extending from each
frame.
plate (about 45 minutes for 18mm thick
• place the model horizontally on the base
mould; about 75 minutes for 36mm).
layer. See Figure 3.3.
• ensure the model (hollow?) will not collapse
• Remove from vulcanizer and allow to cool
before attempting to cut the model from the
or distort under vulcanizer pressure.
now vulcanized rubber.
• ensure the gate and runner extends to near
the side/end of the mould.
• add further sheets or similarly rough carved
raw rubber on top so that there is excess
rubber (about 3 to 4mm) showing above the
top edge of the mould frame but avoid
including air.
• Take the mould apart; carefully clean the
parts and the model free from grease, dust
and loose rubber, using a solvent.
• Re-assemble and place the mould between
the twin electrically heated hot-plates of a
screw or hydraulically operated vulcanizing
press.
• Switch heat on and periodically advance the
plates closer together to allow air bubbles to Figure 3.3 Model in the centre of the mould
escape and to compress the rubber
compound closely around the model.
32
• FORMING THE RUBBER MOULD
Figure 3.4
The scalpel is handled with care The separation line is shown here
CUTTING THE RUBBER
The final stage is to remove the model and create
interlocking faces between two halves of the
vulcanized rubber, preferably while still warm. A
sharp scalpel is used very carefully to cut into the
rubber about the halfway line. Keep a supply of
sharp blades because they do lose sharpness
quickly, particularly if they hit the master pattern.
The first planar cut can usually be made to a line
along the sprue. Repeat on the other side of the
sprue and the two potential halves of the mould
can then be flexed apart. Well cured rubber
stretches considerably and the model
concentrates the stress on the cutting line.
Alternating cuts assist rapid and complete The open mould before the model is
closing, as if the two halves were male and withdrawn
female
Continue zigzag cutting (Figure 3.4) to release description of the cutting and parting process can
the model but allow the two halves to register substitute for practice and trial and error but
together accurately. In fact, the two halves do keep fingers away from the scalpel working
not have to be entirely separated as long as the face!
model can be extracted and the cavity kept
clean.
The cuts allow air to escape when injecting wax.
Make the cuts alternately from either side of the
mould. Note that the cuts closest to the model
are simple and planar; and they do not pass
through the more delicate features of the model.
The wax, and the metal eventually, will trace out
the cuts so any intersection with delicate detail
will cause extra finishing work to remove traces
of the parting line. No amount of careful
The vulcanized mould is next handled by the
waxer who may do several test runs to establish
where vent cuts are required to give sharp
reproduction and extraction without distorting the
wax patterns. Before injecting wax, a new rubber
mould should be thoroughly cleaned with solvent
(and water washed regularly) then dusted with
talc. Some waxes containing mould release agents
to avoid the use of talc. Waxes are injected by
offering up the rubber mould entry point to the
injection machine which may be operated
manually, by compressed air or by vacuum.
WAXES FOR INJECTION
• Use only good quality compact wax
specifically developed for investment casting.
• Prefer waxes with the narrowest melting
range; they pass from liquid to solid in the
shortest time.
• A good wax burns without leaving carbon or
ash residue that can lead to casting defects.
• A good wax must be elastic to allow
extraction of the model without breaking.
• Filter reusable wax so as not to contaminate
fresh wax.
• Inject wax under precise (+_ 1°C) temperature
control, for rapid solidification and least wear
33
•
WAXING AND TREE ASSEMBLY
of the mould. Optimum temperature is 65°C.
Do not exceed 75°C.
• Allow the wax pattern to cool under pressure
to eliminate shrinkage defects.
• Strip wax patterns from the mould and store
them in tightly sealed plastic containers.
• Do not keep large stocks for a long time.
ASSEMBLING PATTERNS
There is no reason why a jobbing jeweller should
not cast, say, 30 to 60 grams of gold settings or
the parts of a ring or brooch, in a single layer on
Figure 3.5 A horizontal platform arrangement.
a flat cone, using short straight sprues. This
arrangement will originally be a wax disc, often
slightly concave and waxes are mounted on this
surface as close as 3mm. Slight variations in sprue
length helps close packing.
Short sprues minimise the travel of the molten
metal during spin-casting and the distance of
feeding with still liquid metal during
solidification. The cone is more a gate to the real
casting space than a reservoir of feeder metal.
Sufficient metal is needed to fill a proportion of
the base as well as the actual castings, to add
pressure when the metal is cast. If too much is
used, some is likely to splash back when
spinning and it adds to the scrap burden.
A more typical weight for a single flask melt is 100
(10 to 20 head settings) to 500 grams (10 to 20
ring shanks), but it may be as high as 700g. These
are either branched directly off the base in a single
layer or fed via split sprues from a stout down
sprue. An intermediate arrangement is to create
two or three horizontal layers, each mounted on a
grid spreading horizontally from the main down
sprue, Figure 3.5. This allows close packing of
many slender components but requires the alloy to
have good fluidity so it is not a method widely
33
• WAXING AND TREE ASSEMBLY
Figure 3.6
applied to high carat gold alloys. On the other
hand, at the other end of the scale, Figure 3.6
shows a dozen 18ct bracelet parts with precision
pave settings located; total weight about 700g.
PREPARATION OF THE TREE
For the most common batch production method
where there is the capacity for melting and
casting shots of 300 grams and over, waxes are
mounted in a tree fashion but the same "short
distance" sprues still apply. A tree might consist,
of 300g of castings plus 300g of a central stem
(or ‘feeder’) with short sprues off.
Care at the wax arrangement and sprue design
stage minimises the proportion of process scrap
and of scrap castings.
• The minimum sprue cross-section should not
be less than the largest cross-section of the
casting it directly feeds because the sprue
must freeze last to feed casting shrinkage.
• Ideally, the sprue should enter the heaviest
section of a component but not if there is a
lot of design detail at that junction.
• The down sprue (or ‘feeder’) may be tapered
a little to increase yield.
• Where sprues join, they need smooth fillets
to avoid turbulent metal flow.
• Avoid:-
Abrupt changes in pattern cross-section.
Long wire & tube sections
Large thin areas
Deep holes or cavities with small openings,
Forms that curve back on themselves,
Claws thicker at the tips than the base,
V-shapes; prefer rounded sections,
Design should tend away from these extremes.
Before mounting on the tree, each pattern
should be carefully checked and, if necessary,
retouched with a heated soldering iron to
eliminate flash and smooth out surface
imperfections. Perfect waxes are essential for
good castings and it is better to scrap (re-melt)
poor patterns than have to scrap or extensively
re-work castings later. The sprue on the pattern
should be no more than 10mm and preferable 5-
6mm. A long sprue risks incomplete running and
feeding, while a short one increases the difficulty
of mounting and crowding on the main central
down-sprue. Individual wax patterns are carefully
welded to the tree to make maximum use of
space but also with regard to the heat extraction
capability of the mould and its effect on the
solidification pattern of the tree as a whole.
Central down sprues are normally circular
sections, preferably tapered, but hexagonal or
octagonal sections also exist. These make regular
placement of patterns a little easier. A larger
diameter hollow circular (tubular) section
combines ease of close packing with some
economy of down-sprue metal. Opinions differ
as to the best compromise arrangement,
particularly when high productivity is required. A
small (preferably odd) number of medium sized
castings can be arranged with a view to optimum
solidification but mass production requires a
 general principles should be useful:-
• Distribute patterns of different shape, weight
and gate form evenly on the central sprue,
avoiding local preference for one type. Place
elaborate patterns near the tip, medium
sized patterns in the middle and more
voluminous products in the lower part of the
tree.
• Avoid any trace of oil or grease (including
finger prints!) on waxes. On the other hand,
Vaseline or similar will stop investment
sticking to bases.
• Do not overcrowd. This not only makes
mounting difficult but after de-waxing, if the
walls between one cavity and the next are
thin, they are likely to break through.
• Prefer cluster mounting (see Figure 3.7)
where patterns are attached first to small
branches, then asymmetrically to the central
Figure 3.7 Cluster mounting: suitable where different patterns sprue. This is best for handling many
are grouped so that sets of different small components are
produced. replicates of several different small patterns
such as settings, components and findings. Figure 3.8 A simple un crowded example of spiral mounting.
consistent close packed pattern. Once a good
(not merely satisfactory) result has been
developed, note the details of the arrangement in
the quality/production manual and repeat it until
there is good reason for change. The following

33
•
WAXING AND TREE ASSEMBLY
33
• WAXING AND TREE ASSEMBLY
• Use spiral mounting (see Figure 3.8) like a
screw thread around the central down-sprue
for batches of the same pattern. During
casting, air is very rapidly expelled, mainly
through the sprues, and the spiral effect
helps to reduce conflicting air flow.
Figure 3.9 In welding a pattern to the downsprue, ensure that
the weld is smooth; it will be an important part of the runner
system.
• Make the welding spots which attach the
patterns to the central sprue, well-rounded
and over an adequate area of the sprue
surface (see Figure 3.9). Every weld is part of
the total gating system and both de-waxing
and subsequent metal entry are made more
difficult with sharp corners.
• Assemble vertical trees with the root of the
central down-sprue fitted into a standard
rubber base of known weight (Figure 3.8).
• It may be easier to mount a sprue on a
horizontal mandrel (Figure 3.10) so that a
mounter can position patterns better,
particularly for close clusters and spirals. The
rubber base is added later.
• When complete, pick up the tree by its
rubber base and immerse it in a detergent Figure 3.10 A horizontal mandrel for neat close packing of
clusters.
emulsion to eliminate grease and adhering
particles. Then rinse in de-mineralized water
and allow to cool dry ready for investment.
Even a detergent stain can be reproduced on
an otherwise good casting!
• To find the weight of metal needed to cast
the tree: weigh the tree and base, subtract
the base weight to obtain the weight of the
wax tree. Assume the wax has a specific
gravity of 1.0, multiply by the density of the
alloy (see Section 1.0: Tables of Gold Alloy
Data) to give the cast weight. This actually
gives a small excess (because the density of
the wax is slightly less than 1.0) to allow for
the pouring button and shrinkage.
Wax injection and tree assembly should be done
in rooms separate from the investing area, to
maintain cleanliness and avoid picking up dust
from investment. The wax tree, supported by its
rubber base, is placed in a flask (or “can”) of
suitable size for investing. Probably the most
common size is 100mm (4in) diameter.
FLASKS
Traditionally, flasks were always solid metal
cylinders and these are particularly suited to
centrifugal casting. In addition now, perforated
and flanged cylinder flasks are more suited to
static vacuum assisted casting.
Flasks must be made from metal that will
withstand many uses at the burnout temperature
which is finally about 800°C. Stainless steel may
be used but flasks made from Inconel are usually
more economic, taking a balance of initial cost
and long life.
Flask size is limited by the clearances in the
casting machine at its largest, but it must be large
enough to comfortably contain the casting array,
leaving not less than, say, 7mm between the
inside of the flask and the nearest wax. Suitable
34
•
INVESTMENT OF THE MOULD
flasks are supplied in a range of sizes, typically,
50 to 100mm high by about 65 mm diameter for
small machines, and 125 or 150 by 100mm
diameter for large, either cut from 1.0 to 1.5mm
wall tube or sheet, rolled and welded.
The capacity of each size of flask without
patterns in place should be noted so that total
amount of investment needed for a small series of
casts can be estimated. The size is chosen to
allow at least 12mm above the highest waxes and
12mm all round the outside.
INVESTMENT COMPOUNDS
Gypsum-based investments (a refinement of
Plaster of Paris known as Hydrocal) are
satisfactory for most gold alloys. Investment
powder is composed of 25-30% calcium sulphate
hemi-hydrate (Plaster of Paris), with most of the
remainder being a form of quartz called
cristobalite. Investment powder is mixed with the
manufacturers recommended proportion of water
(de-mineralized if possible) at a temperature of 21
to 24°C. Typically, 1 kilogram of powder requires
about 0.4 units (kilograms or litres) of water, a
little more for vacuum casting, a little less for
centrifugal casting. The powder must be weighed
on scales and the water measured in a graduated
cylinder, both capable of reading to within 1%.
Mixing is carried out in a bowl into which all of
the measured amount of water is placed first.
The investment powder is then added little by little
with mechanical stirring and stirring is continued
for 2 to 4 minutes. It is essential that the slurry
attains an absolutely smooth and even consistency.
Too much water in the mix can create a wavy
surface on the cast metal surface. Excess water
slows down setting. Both the investment and the
water should be at the required temperature
because the temperature of the mixture is critical
for proper setting of the investment. A higher
temperature will cause the investment to set more
quickly, shortening the working time. For instance,
at 15°C the working time may be 17 minutes but
at 30°C this is reduced to 9 minutes. A higher
temperature also aids de-airing at a weaker
vacuum. Before investing, the mixing bowl and
investment mixture is placed in a vacuum
apparatus and as near full vacuum as possible is
applied for the first de-airing until the investment
rises and collapses into the bowl. Hold the vacuum
for about 30 seconds and release. NB. Theoretical
full vacuum is the equivalent of totally removing
34
• INVESTMENT OF THE MOULD
one standard atmosphere at 760mm (mercury) at
sea level and 0°C but this diminishes to 80%,
about 600mm, at 1500m altitude, so high altitude
studios need to maintain their vacuum pumps in
peak condition. The mixture is now ready to be
poured into the flasks.
mask must be worn when handling investment.
Step Time Critical Working Time
An ordinary paper mask is not sufficient. Use
a mask specifically rated for silica. Adequate
ventilation must be provided in the investment 450
room as a whole and particularly extracting
from within the vicinity of the mixers. 350

Gypsum based investments are at or over their INVESTING

250

limits for palladium white gold due to lack of
refractoriness and sulphur gas porosity. This
exceptional case requires a more expensive
phosphate based refractory investment based on
calcium phosphate rather than calcium sulphate.
This consists of silica flour mixed with ethanol, or
acid phosphate, and magnesia, to form a pourable
Seconds
Ideally, start investment in the morning, cure in the
afternoon, burn out overnight and cast next
morning. Attention to detail in investing the pattern 150
is very important. The investment should be
poured down the side of the flasks, allowing it to 50
flow around and through the patterns until they are 0
completely covered. Lightly tap or vibrate the flask
-50

GetWater

to powder
Add water

Handmix

mix
Machine

Vac Bowl

flasks
Pour into

cream. The powder is more difficult to wet
uniformly and easier to re-separate than plaster
investments. The mixture tends to be thixotropic
and needs to be uniformly mixed using a dough
two mixer rather than a whisk and process timing
is more critical. Ref. 3.5 deals with the properties
of investments more fully. All investment powders
are damaged by moisture. Keep them in strong
plastic bags in a sealed plastic drum.
Whether sulphate or phosphate-bonded,
investments contain silica flour and the finest
particles are in a size range that can seriously
damage the lungs if inhaled. A proper face
while filling it in order to reduce the amount of
entrapped air which easily leads to surface defects.
Place the invested flask on a vacuum table and
apply full vacuum for two minutes. Fill the flask to
the top with slurry and allow to set, free from
vibration. Before investing, the mixing apparatus,
the sprue base and the flask must all be clean and
free from traces of dried investment, because this
will hasten the setting of the prepared slurry. Total
working time is about 8 to 10 minutes and needs
careful planning and control, Figure 3.11. It is very
difficult to invest more than 4 to 6 flasks properly
from one mix. Setting times differ, one formula
from another, for optimum results and the suppliers
Vac Flask
1 hour
stand min.
Let flask
Figure 3.11
recommendations should be followed accurately.
Accelerators and retarders are available but they
further complicate an already complex task and
increase cost. Timing should be by stop-clock with
audible warnings. For instance, while a gypsum-
based formula sets in about 6-7 minutes and may
be de-waxed with steam, a phosphate-based
formula sets in about 14-18 minutes and, once set,
should not be kept moist.
After about 1/2 to 1 hour of hardening, the rubber
Temperature (ºC)
base is extracted and excess investment material 815 ºC
800 Investment Critical Point
removed with a knife. The flask is then allowed 750 ºC
MAX 750 790 ºC

to stand for 3 to 4 hours to develop its full green 700

strength before proceeding with de-waxing and 600 ºC

600
Final
burnout. Temperature
500 450 ºC

400 Dewaxing Soaking

DE-WAXING Time Time
300 250 ºC
The removal of wax and firing the investment to Begin
Pouring
yield a refractory mould is a delicate and vital 200

process step where time and temperature are 100

critical. The de-waxing can be by steam or dry. Hours
0
In steam de-waxing, the flasks are placed with 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

their opening down on a grid over boiling water
in a closed chamber. The resulting steam will
remove most of the wax in about 1 hour and the
wax does not penetrate the investment very
much. The wax will float on the water below
and after it has cooled it can easily be removed.
Warning: Steam escaping from the apparatus
when the cover is opened can cause severe
steam burns to the skin. The chamber must
be purged of steam before opening and
operators should wear goggles.
Figure 3.12 Example of flask burnout cycle.
Castings made in steam de-waxed moulds have
less gas porosity and smoother surfaces than
those made in dry de-waxed moulds. Once the
investment is dry, it can absorb large quantities of
wax, but, when the investment is saturated with
steam, the surface tension of the wax becomes
very high and it will not wet the investment. Wax
is removed more quickly and thoroughly by
steam de-waxing and even in cases of poor
temperature control during subsequent burn-out,
carbonaceous residues will be less than with dry
de-waxing. This is important as carbonaceous
residues further the decomposition of the calcium
sulphate used as the binder in the investment and
sulphur dioxide is formed which, in turn, causes
porosity in castings.
Figure 3.12 shows an example of a typical burn-
out cycle. Heat is applied gradually up to 100°C.
The wax is already molten at this temperature
and flows out but to eliminate wax and carbon
residues of wax completely, it is necessary to
continue heating. This should be done in stages
to over 690°C and up to a maximum of 730 to

34
•
INVESTMENT OF THE MOULD
34
• INVESTMENT OF THE MOULD
750°C which is held for 2 to 3 hours. After this round each flask and between flasks and walls.
interval, the temperature is reduced to the Unless a burnout furnace is evenly heated, parts
optimum casting temperature which varies of flasks may not be exposed to adequate
according to the melting point of the carat gold heating and this is very likely to cause defects in
being cast. Where plastic patterns are used, they subsequent castings. Ideally, operators should
are normally joined to a wax downsprue; they carry out a temperature survey of the burn-out
may even be mixed with wax patterns but they furnace interior and eliminate cool spots by
will not melt out at the same low temperature as using baffles or reflectors, or avoiding placing
the wax. Once started, the burnout cycle should flasks in such zones. Ovens have been devised
be completed or the flask discarded. with a rotating hearth so that flasks are more
homogeneously heated.
Avoid re-heating a partially fired flask from a
previous day. With the removal of moisture in
the initial firing, the subsequent re-expansion
would probably cause serious cracking of the
mould and scrap castings. Details are important;
shortcuts should be avoided and the investment
manufacturer's instructions for a specific
investment should be followed closely.

Gas fired burn-out ovens are less costly than

electric muffles but the latter are usually more
closely controllable. The size of the burnout
chamber depends on the volume of work being
done, bearing in mind that a complete charge of
work occupies the chamber for about 12 hours,
usually overnight. It is therefore convenient to be
able to handle a complete days work in one
load. About 20 to 30 mm clearance is needed all
Fuller details of alloying and melting have been
given in Section 2 of this manual. When ready to
cast, the flask is taken from the burnout oven and
is positioned in the centrifugal spin arm or in the
vacuum furnace for casting. This operation must
be carried out in the shortest possible time to
avoid excessive overheating or cooling of the melt.
The radial centrifugal force accelerates the alloy
into the mould fast to minimise premature cooling.
The most recent induction melting machines have
an electronic controller that cuts off melting power,
lowers the coil quickly and accelerates the spin
arm carrying the preheated mould powerfully.
Machines have generally developed with high
acceleration and the necessary energy has to be
provided quickly at start-up. Nevertheless, there
can be too much acceleration and gold alloy can
impact beyond unrestricted sprues with
considerable force and produce a coarse finish
due to mould penetration. A useful compromise
is to use a horizontal sprue off the base and
steeply angled branches either off the horizontal
or off vertical stems This achieves high feeding
pressure without direct impact.
Static vacuum assisted casting can also be
performed with simple vacuum casting tables
that accommodate one or more flasks.
35
•
CASTING AND RECOVERY
OF CASTINGS
TEMPERATURES INVOLVED
Good cast reproduction of intricate sections
and surfaces depends on adequate fluidity of
the liquid metal as it reaches extremities of
the mould. Fluidity depends on metal superheat
as pouring commences, and partly on the
chilling power of the mould. (In some alloys,
fluidity also depends on de-oxidation. Small
additions of silicon are made to some gold
alloys to ensure the latter but too much can
cause brittleness, ref 3.6.) The chilling power of
the mould is reduced by pre-heating the mould.
This not only affects the apparent fluidity of the
metal but it influences the solidification time as
well. Gypsum based investments must not be
over 800°C at the time of casting, so there is a
250°C gap between the freezing temperature,
solidus, of the melt and investment surface.
This chilling factor is not particularly high
compared with chill casting into a metal mould
and solidification time is typically about 20
seconds.
After casting, the flask is withdrawn from the
casting machine or vacuum table so that the
mass can cool a little more without interfering
with further casting. This will avoid excessive
thermal shock when the flask is quenched into
water to cool and to break up the investment.
While an earlier quenching helps to remove the
investment more easily, premature quenching of
molten alloy in the core of the flask can cause
shrinkage porosity or other defects. It is possible
to remove most sulphate bonded investment
from the tree with high pressure water jets.
When the casting array has solidified but not
cooled below red heat, the flask should be held
in tongs and the array hammered out and
plunged into cold water. This begins the process
of breaking up the residual investment around
the casting.
Warning: Do not quench the whole flask,
even horizontally, red-hot; it may cause a
scalding eruption!
Facemasks should also be worn.
While flasks can be rounded again and re-used
many times, it helps to knock out the casting by
hammering the open ends more than the flask.
High temperature phosphate-bonded
investments are tenacious and some or all of
steam cleaning, hydrofluoric acid, and grit
blasting (alumina grit/glass beads) are effective
in removing them. A rough silicon carbide grain
35
•
CASTING AND RECOVERY
OF CASTINGS
can clean most surfaces while smooth ball straight access to the sprue root. Otherwise, a
shaped grit is useful for compacting and piercing saw may be used. Specialist casters
brightening surfaces. normally leave a residual sprue root at about
1mm to be removed by the client rather than risk
Most castings benefit from an ultrasonic washing undercutting the profile of the component itself.
tank with acid detergent to clear the final traces. The profile is restored by using increasingly fine,
After washing, the tree still has a dull finish and small, motor driven abrasive rubber or diamond
should be pickled in 20% sulphuric acid at 50°C knurled burrs. When all visible surface defects
for 2 minutes. have been smoothed away, the pieces are
tumbled in a polishing medium first with ceramic
Warning: 20% sulphuric acid solution can and pumice grains and then with steel balls
produce serious damage when it comes in which burnish rather than polish. After hand
contact with skin and more particularly, the brushing to remove any barrelling debris, the
eyes. Wear goggles and protective clothing. components are ready for batching, weighing
The waste acid solutions must be properly and labelling.
neutralized before dumping.
The subject of finishing jewellery components is
After thorough rinsing to remove all traces of dealt with in detail in a later section.
pickling acid solution, the tree is dried in
preparation for careful separation of the
components from the tree which is itself
consigned to recyclable scrap. The components
are smoothed at the point where they are cut
from the tree and where any other defect may
have occurred. Sprues should be removed as
neatly as possible to avoid lengthy filing. Short-
nosed "piano-wire" cutters shear through most
sprues and pick off other small nodules readily.
A fine slitting disc is useful if there is good
Defects in a final casting are not necessarily
caused at a late stage in the production process. A
successful casting is the result of good quality
control throughout the whole work process,
ref. 3.7. For instance, dust left inside a wax
injection die not only spoils the smooth wax
surface of the next wax pattern produced but may
remain on the surface of the investment later after
wax melt-out. A clean routine must be established
and committed to a quality checklist, ref. 3.8.
The same attitude must prevail during every stage
of the preparation of an alloy, and its melting and
casting. While investment casting is the most
economic and potentially quality productive
method of making gold jewellery in quantity, it
does require dedicated equipment, instrumentation,
good consumables and trained staff. Equipment
such as furnaces and ovens must be fitted with
adequate instrumentation and preferably pre-set
automatic controls. This also applies to simple
timing of operations such as investment mixing and
de-airing. Calibrate and use thermometers, higher
temperature instruments, timers, graduated
measuring cylinders and scales, to the limits of their
accuracy. If you know it is safe to approximate
or round off a formula, mixture or calculation, do
so only on the end result of an otherwise accurate
operation, not on each component. This decreases
36
•
DEFECTS AND THEIR CONTROL
the chances that approximations will not cancel
out but accumulate a larger and larger overall
error. On the other hand, there is no sense in
paying attention to relatively unimportant detail.
For instance, if you see temperatures quoted to
0.1°C, they may have been converted from a round
figure in °F (or vice-versa) and there is no need
for such apparent accuracy.
As variety of work and economic risk with large
batches increase, some makers find it necessary to
develop and apply test procedures. Ad hoc testing
is inadvisable. A lot of work has been done to
develop or adapt standardized tests to gold
jewellery manufacture and there is no point in “re-
inventing the wheel”. Applying the general advice
on quality control that results from this type of
research is a better option for most small to
medium scale makers. However, there are some
relatively simple tests that can be applied, ref. 3.9.
If you do make alterations in mixtures or methods,
alter only one variable at a time and note the
results. Do not guess or jump to premature
conclusions as to the result of the change.
GOOD HOUSE-KEEPING
Jewellery alloys are valuable and should not be
mixed indiscriminately, either as good product
or as scrap. All production should be recorded
with job number, pattern configuration, alloy,
casting temperature, weight yielded and notes of
the results. Batches of castings and scrap should
be correspondingly labelled with the job
number. Good records build up good
experience for successful repeats and identify
"lessons learnt" and economic recovery by
minimising scrap.
• Keep consumables, part-finished work,
finished work and scrap in separate tidy
batches, labelled with an identification and
date.
• Always carefully segregate, package & label
cast trimmings, sprues, scrap castings, by
alloy type if not by job number
• Re-melt any specific casting alloy with a
proportion of new grain, but an occasional
all (clean) scrap charge is OK
• Small amounts of a single clean general hand-
working alloy can be fused together on a
ceramic tile with a welding torch; forged, re-
heated and used for small jobs such drawing
or machining
• Keep a record of your process details, up to
date, in your quality assurance manual.
• Consider the implications of a good technical
review (e.g. refs. 3.10 to 3.14) of the
investment casting of jewellery on your
process every year or so.
36
• DEFECTS AND THEIR CONTROL
FAULTS ON FINISHED CASTINGS POSSIBLE CAUSES SUGGESTED ACTION
1 BUBBLES 1a Investment mix may be too thick. Use correct powder/water ratio as detailed in
(COMPLETE SPHERES) 1b Vacuum tank/pump may be faulty or too small to appropriate table.
handle the quantity of investment used. Ensure small seals are intact and have not perished.
1c If work cycle is too long the investment will start to Have machine serviced regularly. Change pump oil
thicken as setting commences. at regular intervals.
Ensure temperature of water/powder mix is 20-21°C.
Check all mixing equipment is clean.
Use correct powder/water ratio.
Consider use of a concentrated defoamer.
2 BUBBLES 2a These can be caused by either static electricity or by Consider using a waxwash to clean surface of wax.
(INCOMPLETE SPHERES) surface tension on the surface of the wax due to
grease, dirt, etc.
3 INCOMPLETE CASTINGS & 3a Mould or metal too cold when casting. Increase casting temperature.
BACK PRESSURE 3b Improperly sprued pattern. Check sprues are not too thin, too few or too long.
POROSITY 3c Insufficient metal. Check metal weight.
3d Impermeable mould caused by fine residual carbon Hold for longer at maximum burnout temperature of
as a result of incomplete burnout (may deoxidise 725°C.
casting resulting in a shiny finish).
3e Incomplete oxidation of carbon. Check burnout furnace has an adequate ventilation system.
4 INCLUSIONS 4a Poor design of metal feeding system. Eliminate all sharp bends in sprue system.
IN THE 4b Mould breakdown during heating cycle. Do not heat flasks too rapidly. All flask sufficient
CASTING setting time before heating.
4c Crucible breakdown. Do not use old, disintegrating crucibles.
4d Dirty flasks. Clean rust and dirt from flasks.
4c Metal contains foreign particles. Take care when recycling metal and ensure all
recyclable metal is cleaned.
5 METAL CASTING 5a Metal casting temperature too high. Use a lower casting temperature.
POROSITY 5b Mould temperature too high when casting. Use lower mould temperature.
5c Use of poor quality metal. Use better quality metal; 50% max. recyclable metal.
5d Metal may be insufficiently fluxed. Use more flux.
6 ROUGH, 6a If burnout takes place above 800°C, Gypsum binder Check thermocouple on furnace.
DISCOLOURED OR will start to break down to produce sulphur oxides. Maximum temperature of furnace should not exceed
BRITTLE CASTINGS The presence of carbon can encourage decomposition 725°C.
at temperatures as low as 725°C.
6b Metal may be overheated. Check metal temperature.
6c Use of poor quality metal. Check quality of charge metal.
Some reused metal may be high in oxides and sulphides. Do not use more than 50% recyclable metal.
7 WATER MARKS ON SURFACE OF 7a If the slurry is too thin or the work time is not fully used Ensure that all recommended work time is used.
FINISHED CASTINGS then particle segregation will leave water-rich Make sure that investment is not too thin.
(STRINGING) investment which will be attracted to the surface of
hydrophilic waves resulting in erosion.
 8 ORANGE PEEL 8a Surface finish of waxes may be poor due to faulty rubber.
SURFACE FINISH 8b Static electricity can cause deterioration of surface finish.
9 FLASHING OR FINNING. 9a Mould is too weak.
9b Setting started prior to completion of work cycle.
9c If work time is not used up, or if too much water is used,
settlement causes an inhomogeneous mould. Heating
produces a more rapid expansion at the base, causing
horizontal flashing especially at the top of the can.
9d Invested flask may have been disturbed or moved too
soon after investing.
9e Heating cycle during burnout of wax
could be too severe or started too quickly after investing.
9f Metal may have been cast at an excessive pressure.
9g Metal may have been cast at an excessive temperature.
9h Flask could have dried out before burnout.
3.7 REFERENCES 6. The optimisation of silicon alloying additions in carat
gold casting alloys, Greg Normandeau and Rob Roeterink
1. Jewellery Making for schools, tradesmen, craftsmen, Gold Technology, April 1995, 15 __.
Murray Bovin/Peter Bovin, Bovin Publishing, Forest Hills, 7. Casting defects from model to finished product, Larry
New York, 1979. Diamond, Sante Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing
2. Modelling in wax for jewellery and sculpture, Lawrence Technology, 1987, 149.
Kellenborg, Chiltern Book Co., Radnor, Pennsylvania, 1981. 8. Cleanliness is next to godliness, Al Schaler, Sante Fe
3. Centrifugal or lost wax jewellery casting, Murray Bovin, Symposium on Jewellery Manufacturing Technology,
Revised by Peter Bovin, Bovin Publishing, 1977 1994, 99.
4. Lost Wax Casting of Jewellery, Keith Edwards, Mills & 9. Testing the quality of jewellery casting, Christoph J. Raub,
Boon, 1974. Sante Fe Symposium on Jewellery Manufacturing
5. Chemical and physical properties of investment, Carl H. Technology, 1987, 107.
Schwartz, Santa Fe Symposium on Jewelry Manufacturing
Technology, 1987, 99.
36
•
DEFECTS AND THEIR CONTROL
Replace rubber if necessary.
Use a wax wash.
Use correct powder/water ratio. Store material in dry
atmosphere, use promptly and rotate stock. Ensure
temperature of water/powder mix is within range 20-21°C.
Check all mixing equipment is clean; small amounts
of set investment shorten the available work time.
Use correct powder/water ratio.
Check all actions related to 9a and 9b to ensure
correct work time and then use the full work time.
Leave flask undisturbed for as long as possible.
Do not use mishandled or dropped flasks.
Ensure the slowest heating cycle possible,
especially up to 400°C.
Use correct spin speed on machine or spring turns to
suit weight of metal and type of work to be cast.
Reduce metal melting temperature. Once the process
has been started it is preferable to complete it
without a break.
If flasks have to be stored for any period of time,
cover them with a damp cloth.
10. Recent developments in casting techniques, Al Schaler,
Gold Technology, November, 1993, 11__, 8-14.
11. Investment Casting of Gold Jewellery, Gold Technology,
July 1992, 7
_.
12. World Gold Council International Gold Jewellery
Symposium 1: Casting. Gold Technology, Nov. 1993, 11 __.
13. Casting Defects Control, Gold Technology, July 1994, 13
__.
14. Investment Casting: Technical Advisory Manual For
Goldsmiths, World Gold Council, 1995.
4 JOINING TECHNOLOGY
4 JOINING TECHNOLOGY – INTRODUCTION
Joining processes in jewellery making enable us
to exercise better choice and control over each
component than when producing a near net
shape as a single piece. There can be better
access for shaping and finishing some
components; components can be of different
materials, some can be standardized and made in
economic batches. A satisfactory joint should be
strong yet unobtrusive. There are occasions
when the joint can be made a feature of the
design but, in general, joints are not emphasized.
It follows that the joining process must be
considered right from the beginning of the whole
design process. The design must lend itself to
assembly and joining and the components must
fit closely and accurately. An appropriate joining
process must be selected. The scope of joining
processes is increasing. High carat gold alloys do
not oxidize readily, so most joining processes are
straight forward. Their relatively high thermal
diffusivity does mean that a surprising amount of
heat has to be applied at a high rate to achieve
appropriate temperatures at large joint faces.
Lower carat gold alloys may oxidize during
extensive heating and it is normal practice to use
fluxes to ensure clean soldering and welding
conditions. Soldering predominates in
commercial jewellery making practice but gold
alloys may be joined quite well by several other
techniques. There are no adverse reasons, apart
from lack of familiarity or the wrong scale of
working, why other joining processes should not
be used. Gold jewellery alloy components may
be joined efficiently by:-
• fusion welding
• (hard) soldering or brazing
• spot-welding,
• laser-welding,
• pressure or friction (dry) welding
• mechanical processes such as riveting,
• powerful adhesives.
Gold alloys auto-weld (weld readily to
themselves) by hammering, friction and
upsetting, electrical resistance spot-welding and
laser welding, but components need to be
selected or designed to take full advantage of
such processes. For instance, friction welding is
more economic as a medium-scale batch process,
hammer welding is a satisfying craft technique
for chunky thick section rather than filigree
work, and lasers are applied to fine precision
work and chain.
HEAT SOURCES
Most joining operations on jewellery alloys are
carried out at temperatures above 500°C and
often around 1000°C, so, strictly speaking, they
are either brazing or welding rather than
soldering, which is a term applied in most
engineering to liquid alloy filling at less than
450°C. In this text, the term soldering is used but
refers to hard soldering.
Originally, the commonest heat source was a
mouth blow pipe used to inject breathed out air
into a luminescent flame such as a candle-wax,
paraffin oil, or lazy gas flame. Since such flames
tend to be on the reducing side, extra air actually
induces secondary combustion and redirects the
direction of the flame. The problem is that there is
a strict limit on the intensity of the flame that can
be generated and it does require a lot of practice
to maintain a consistent well-directed flame for
long periods. The next development was to use a
mouth blowpipe which allows gas to be
introduced through a side tube and blowing down
the straight tube produces a clean hot flame.
Mouth blowpipes tend to restrict freedom of
movement of the operator. Virtually all countries
now have supplies of reasonably economic high
calorific gases. These open up a more versatile
way of heating for soldering, using air or oxygen.
The non-oxidizing nature of most gold alloys
allows oxy-gas or air-gas burners to be designed
to give a very precise bright hot flame using a
 little excess oxygen. With practice, these can be
used with pinpoint accuracy, like a fine pen,
either for welding or soldering. Approximate
theoretical temperatures of fuel gas flames with
oxygen or air in °C are given in table 4.1.
TABLE 4.1
With (°C) Oxygen Air
Hydrogen, H2 2810 2150 Fig 4.1 The Microwelder (Courtesy Sherwood Scientific Ltd.,
Cambridge.)
Natural Gas,CH4+C2H6 3100 2000
Propane,C3H8 3185 2100 burning does not affect the flame temperature
Butane, C4H10 3150 1900 much in principle, but high rates (large powerful
Acetylene,C2H2 3270 2320 flames) are needed for effective rapid heating of
bulky components.
The lower temperatures for air are because air is
roughly 80% inert nitrogen which has to be Small flames can be very precise but they need a
heated in the flame and so lowers the average low oxygen or air pressure under tight flow
temperature. Dissociation, and radiation energy control or the flame will lift off the torch tip and
losses result in a final practical flame temperature extinguish. This may need an additional low
roughly 10% lower still but the temperatures pressure regulator working at about 5-15 kN/m2
quoted above indicate the relative effectiveness (say, 1-2 psi) pressure mainly to regulate volume
of the various flames. The work-piece flow. As with all precision oxy-fuel gas flame
temperature cannot exceed the flame control, the nozzle/tip sizes need to be matched
temperature and will usually be considerably with a particular fuel gas and its corresponding
lower because gold alloys both absorb and oxygen ratio. Gases are usually supplied from
conduct heat away efficiently. The volume rate of pressure bottles but hydrogen and oxygen may
4 JOINING TECHNOLOGY – INTRODUCTION
also be generated in situ by electrolyzing
(modified) water.
There are transportable units (e.g., The Micro-
welder, figure 4.1) that use potassium hydroxide
solution as the electrolyte which is split (only the
water) into its hydrogen and oxygen
components. These are led to small reservoirs
and fed separately at low pressure to calibrated
burner jets that produce an essentially neutral
flame. A pure hydrogen burning flame is quite
difficult to see despite its high temperature.
There is provision for the gases to entrain a small
amount of water and/or organic vapour to colour
the flame and make it slightly reducing. The
temperature of the flame is decreased but its
luminescence is increased when the gas picks up
small quantities of organic volatiles, such as
methyl alcohol, methyl ethyl ketone (MEK), or
acetone. The flame size can be varied very
precisely so that a small (22 gauge jet) flame can
be used to precision weld a chain link, or at the
larger extreme (13 gauge jet), melt about 50
grams of gold alloy scrap. The natural rate of
burning at the jet virtually determines the rate of
electrolysis so only small reservoirs are needed.
Another system uses hydrogen peroxide and a
catalyst to generate oxygen and water and the
4 JOINING TECHNOLOGY – INTRODUCTION
oxygen burns Calor gas from a small canister to
give another portable (no electricity) version.
Gas and compressed air mixtures are the most
generally used for satisfactory torch brazing. The
size, temperature and oxygen balance of the
flame can be adjusted over a wide range by
changing jets and the volume rates of the gases
independently. The flame should be kept
constantly on the move over the whole joint area
and, in the case of large articles, only over an
area that can be conveniently joined in a single
application of solder. The joint areas must be
free from oil and grease and preferably
cleaned with a file or emery paper; otherwise the
solder may not wet the parent metal.

Soldering of stamped jewellery in a conveyor furnace (courtesy of IECO srl)

Strictly speaking, we should refer to hard
soldering or even brazing gold jewellery; soft-
soldering (lead based) has no place in gold
jewellery making, except possibly for emergency
repairs of delicate pieces like old cameo
brooches or with “organic stones” or opals. For
jewellery that is to be quality marked to
international standards, solders must be selected
so that reasonable amounts of solder will not
depress the average caratage of the whole piece
below the minimum stated. In theory, this can be
done by using lower caratage solders only on
components that have a built-in excess of gold
but this is a dangerous practice because an
assayer may sample soldered areas preferentially.
The safest practice is to use only solders of
matching caratage and this is the method
assumed in the sections that follow.
Sound joining of gold alloy jewellery
components requires good standard soldering
practice:-
• design for good soldering,
• fit the parts closely,
• use the minimum of the correct solder,
• use a precise neutral flame just large enough
for the job,
41
•
SOLDERING
• keep the joint and its surroundings clean,
• Use finger gloves to prevent perspiration and
finger marks prior to applying flux or solder
paste,
• apply flux only where necessary; you may
not need a flux.
• heat gently at first until the flux wets the
joint zone,
• allow heat from the metal to melt the solder
rather than heat direct from the flame,
• stop heating as soon as the solder flows,
• it may pay to pre-polish some high carat
golds before joining.
The mechanical strength of the joint is directly
dependent on the strength of the solder used but
it also depends on the degree and depth of inter-
diffusion between the solder and the joining
surfaces. With very careful selection of alloying
elements in both the surfaces and the solder, and
almost total diffusion of the solder actually used,
it is theoretically possible to achieve a finished
joint strength higher than that of the original
solder. But, this is very difficult to achieve in
commercial jewellery making so the target
should be to use just enough solder to
completely fill the joint and eliminate defects.
Non-wetting, lack of penetration, shrinkage,
cracking, and similar defects, are responsible for
many more weak joints than the solder being
marginally weaker than the joint surfaces. Unless
too much zinc or nickel has been added, all the
ordinary carat gold solders are ductile and, when
properly used, will give sound strong joints that
will withstand all the normal bending and strain
put upon them in manufacture and subsequent
wearing use. Typically, the solder used in down-
sizing a ring shank, allows the ring to be re-
shaped from worn D-section to rectangular or
even square section without the solder joint
breaking.
With jewellery, it is usual to cut solder into small
pieces or paillons rather than use the
silversmith’s way of feeding a strip of solder into
the joint. A variety of different techniques can be
used to apply the solder to the joint. It is often
convenient to keep an hour’s supply of paillons
in borax solution.
Methods that are commonly used include:-
• Small solder pieces are placed on the joint
seam prior to heating. The joint area is then
raised to temperature until the solder flows
41
• SOLDERING
into the joint.
• The fluxed joint is heated to temperature and
the tip of the solder wire is fed into the joint.
The solder should melt on contact with the
joint.
• Sweat soldering is used to join flats, such as
hinges and brooch pins. Flux the complete
flat surface. Place the solder near the edge of
the back of the (upper) flat and just melt.
Clean, pickle lightly, if necessary, and file
down any excess. If the other component is
equally heavy, treat likewise, but otherwise
simply wash over with flux. Wire the two
surfaces together and heat the whole
assembly. The sweat soldered surfaces
should be screened from direct heat and
should join soundly.
In all soldering, the part of the joint to which the
molten solder is required to run should be
heated more strongly than the remainder; the
solder flowing towards the hottest portion.
Continued flame impingement on molten solder
may vaporise lower melting point constituents
and increase the melting point; much higher
temperatures may then be needed before the
joint can be completed. The time at temperature
should be kept to a minimum.
The wettability between gold and solders is
normally good, so there is no need to use excess.
Another reason for limiting the amount of solder
is to minimize the mismatch in colour in the
resulting joint and to minimize the amount of
cleaning up and differential polishing of the joint.
In the worst cases, the mismatch may be disguised
by plating but most workers prefer simply to use
closely matching solder of minimum amount.
As the caratage of work decreases, more active
fluxes are needed to clean and keep free from
oxidation, the solder and the joint. The usual
adhesiveness of flux can be used to support the
solder paillons in place. Where possible, it is
better to rest or clip solder in the joint or support
it there by a thin extension of its stock wire that
is allowed to melt free at the last moment.
JIGGING
Some gold jewellery alloys do not hold up well
near their melting points, particularly if slender
sections are supporting heavier sections, so
either wiring or jigging is often used. Some
simple assemblies lend themselves to the use of
counter-balances, pegs or wiring such that the
temporary assembly is stable on a flat surface.
Figure 4.2 illustrates a variety of such
arrangements. Iron binding wire, about 22 to 26
gauge, is better than copper or brass wire which
is likely to get absorbed into the solder. Do not
over-tighten the loops or expansion of the
components may break them.
Figure 4.2 A variety of jigging and support systems. (Courtesy
reference 4.1.)
Use low thermal capacity jig parts not too near
the joint area and confine the flame close to the
joint with the solder in place. Use many small
pieces of solder uniformly along the joint rather
than a few large pieces. In this way the solder
will flow only where it is needed and heating at
a particular point should be stopped immediately
flow occurs; no extensive preheating or any post-
heating of the components should be necessary.
Keep the jig clear of the flame to avoid
contamination with, for example, iron binding
wire, dirty steel clips and charcoal supports.
Attempts to solder up cracks or join parts broken

Fig. 4.3 Spring-loaded or pre-clamped jigs help position
components for joining. Note the pointed but heat resistant tips
extending from the more heat sensitive jigs. (Courtesy Degussa)
due to contamination usually spread the problem
rather than cure it. However, successful precision
soldering is impossible without accurate close
placement of the components so that the
minimum amount of solder can just fill the
deliberately small gap. A pair of human hands is
rarely enough to achieve this state and direct a
soldering torch! There are various ways of
holding components close together while
soldering. They are broadly in two categories:
jigs and bench-top support.
41
•
SOLDERING
Figure 4.3 shows typical jigs such as a “third
hand”, which is a pair of tweezers stiffly pivoted
on a base, rotatable clips on arms and similar
devices. For similar operations in batches of, say,
20 or more, it is worth designing simple jigs
specially for the job. The basic requirement is that
the clips must not have high thermal diffusivity to
soak heat away from the join zone but must
remain refractory and strong enough to hold the
components in place with a heat source in close
proximity. The alternative is to support
components by pegging them to, or lying them
on, a bench-top support such as a jig, a heat
reflecting refractory soldering board; heat and
oxygen absorbing charcoal block; or soft firebrick
materials such as Chamotte stone or refractory
pellets. Glass wool is useful provided the torch
flame does not impinge directly on it. Some
workers use a hand formed plaster of Paris jig to
support components clear of the heat zone. Some
bench-top materials are soft enough to insert
parts of the components into the yielding surface
or pins to support the components. To prevent
charcoal blocks from falling apart too quickly,
wind binding wire around the outside and twist
to hold in place. If you also solder platinum, do
not use charcoal or soft silica based refractories
since these can react adversely with platinum; use
special harder refractory supports.
A development of supporting small jewellery
components in a yielding refractory material is to
set them in a suitable supporting material. In
effect, we do this in lost wax casting, particularly
when we investment cast around pre-placed
stones or other components. A similar technique
may be used to secure fine components prior to
soldering. A typical application might be a basket
setting made from wire sections for a large stone,
or to group together several standard settings into
a dome shape, a circle, or pavé matrix. Settings
may be pre-polished and they can even carry the
more refractory stones already set. The findings are
positioned with their solderable interfaces halfway
into a sheet of investment wax and a warm spatula
can build up the wax as additional support. The
surfaces that have to be free from solder must
remain clear of the wax. The wax piece (or a
group of several such pieces) is then placed in a
ring of card, metal or plastic, and investment
casting plaster is poured in. After about 20 minutes
setting time, the wax base can be peeled away.
Any remaining wax can be removed with very hot
water. The plaster is then carefully dried with a
torch or in a burnout oven. The undersides of the
41
• SOLDERING
settings that were placed in the wax temporarily
are now conveniently exposed for precision
soldering. Extra bridging pieces may be needed
but one grade of solder will achieve a more
elaborate soldered structure than would otherwise
be possible in several stages. Apply good soldering
principles by using well placed minimal solder; do
not use the method to cast solder into the spaces
between the parts! Figure 4.4 shows the principle
in diagrammatic form. For simplicity, only a
straight group of four settings is shown but the
method is even more useful for assembling pavé,
curved and domed groups. The wax may be built
up or hollowed out around the findings with a
warm spatula.
Similar care is needed in choosing other objects
that are introduced into the soldering zone. Some
workers prefer to use a solder pick to manœuvre
small pieces of solder or flux into the gap or to
scrape oxide away. A suitable pick can be made
by inserting a short length (around 10 cm) of
welding rod sharpened at both ends into a file
handle or wood doweling. The important thing is
to choose rod that does not oxidize too quickly
or contaminate the solder. Stainless steel is better
than mild steel and a titanium pick is not wetted
at all by gold solders. Some ceramic rods and
tubes are useful too.
Wax
Investment
Wire bridges, chain links, mesh or findings soldered in
Fig 4.4 Schematic diagram showing the principle of plaster -
jigging small components for delicate soldering.
CHOICE OF SOLDERS
When solder melts it must flow so that it fills
every crevice of the joint. To do this, it needs to
melt at a temperature lower than that of the joint
surfaces and have some affinity for the joining
metals which themselves must be clean and free
from oxide. This allows the solder to wet and
spread between the joining metals and form an
alloy by diffusing into them. There are several
series of gold solders. Each series is intended to
match a particular caratage and, within a given
series, solders have different melting points so
that complex assemblies can be soldered
together in stages, beginning with a high melting
point solder and, later, using lower melting point
solders. This series of decreasing melting point
gives rise to the traditional trade terms of extra-
hard, hard, medium, soft and extra-soft which
should not be confused with the mechanical
property hardness of the solder or the resulting
joint although there may be a relationship. The
temperature that places a solder in a series, is the
temperature at which any part of the solder
begins to melt when heat is applied. This is the
solidus which can be 50-100°C below the
liquidus where the solder is completely liquid
and can flow freely (Flow point). Most craftsmen
regard the liquidus as the more important
temperature. Some series differ from each other
in colour range (whites are a speciality) and
including or excluding certain metals such as
cadmium. The use of the word “series” above
does not refer to the shape of the solder; solders
are supplied as small sheet, strip or wire; solder
powders are useful for certain types of
production and combinations of solder and flux
in paste form are also very useful.
The highest in a suitable series of solders, flows
about 100°C below the melting point of the
corresponding gold alloy. There are roughly 50-
100°C temperature differences between the
solders in a given series so this allows
considerable flexibility during multi-stage
soldering operations. (See the section on solder
compositions below). Creating a range of solder
flow points for multi-stage gold jewellery
soldering while maintaining caratage, limits the
alloying elements that can be used, particularly
for high carat golds.
SOLDER COMPOSITIONS.
The development of gold alloy solders follows
similar lines to those for engineering but is more
complicated by the need to meet marking
regulations and preferably avoid the use of
dangerous elements such as cadmium. If high
caratage solders are needed, there is very little
room for choice of alloying elements to reduce
the melting point. At the extreme, it is impossible
to solder 24ct gold assemblies with a strictly
matching caratage although they can be welded.
Usually, a series of 3 to 5 solders form a range of
working temperatures to enable soldered joints to
be made efficiently at different stages of assembly.
Most gold solders are mixtures of precious metals
with base metals such as copper, zinc, cadmium,
41
•
SOLDERING
(nickel for white golds), with melting ranges
from extra easy about 650°C., to extra hard at
over 850°C. At the higher melting point end of
the range it is possible to accommodate more
gold and so there is less risk of the solder
disqualifying a carat jewellery item at the
marking stage.
It is important not only to control the working
temperatures of the solders accurately but also
the colour and the relative hardness of the
soldered joint. This combination of properties is
achieved by varying proportions of all or any of
the precious metals allowed to contribute to the
total fineness, with non-precious metals that
lower the melting point. If the local rule is that
solders for, say, 22ct gold must also be 917 fine
in precious metals total, this is not too difficult.
If the rule is that the solder shall match the
caratage in gold only, then the amount of non-
gold (whether precious metal or not) is
obviously limited.
The deep yellow of pure gold may be varied
from reddish through slightly greenish to white
by choosing varying amounts of appropriate
alloying elements. Again the scope for variation
is much greater at lower caratages. The use of 2
to 3 precious metals and sometimes up to 3
other metal components, means that the total
combinations are too numerous to classify in a
simple table. So, Table 4.2 quotes a range typical
of what is available worldwide but there are
many other variations particularly where marking
regulations do not specify such close control of
solders. It is rarely economical in the long run
for the craftsman or small scale manufacturing
jeweller to make his own solders; several refiners
make a more than adequate range for jewellery.
The leading refiners produce a limited number of
solders of more or less standardized composition
to suit the main trade requirements. These
selected solders are very likely to be more
economic in the long run because they are more
consistent in composition, melting range and
colour than the ad hoc solders traditionally made
by individual jewellery craftsmen. The traditional
craft method of preparing “suitable” solder
started with some of the carat gold alloy in use,
usually scrap, added 5dwts of solder to each
24dwts of gold alloy, and cast it into a mould for
working into sheet or wire. This reduced the
75% gold of 18ct scrap to 62% in the solder, i.e.
14.88ct, which is unacceptable for most assay
41
• SOLDERING
authorities these days. The colour would also be TABLE 4.2 TYPICAL SOLDERS FOR GOLD JEWELLERY
paler.
SOLDER WORKING COMPOSITION FINENESS FLUX
The first matching solders for yellow carat golds GRADE RANGE °C approx. % PM’s
added both silver and copper to the correct carat Au Ag Cu Zn Other
level of gold. Ternary alloy diagrams show that it is
14ct Easy (Cd) 685-730 58.3 10.4 17.6 2.5 11.6 Cd 690 Light
possible to maintain a constant gold fineness, 14,
14ct Easy 705-730 58.3 14.4 13.0 11.7 2.5 In 727 Light
18 or 22 carat, and vary the ratio of silver to
Medium 740-775 58.3 17.5 15.7 6.0 2.5 Sn 758 Medium
copper in such a way as to lower the melting Hard 750-785 58.3 20.0 18.2 3.5 783 Strong
point, and increase the pasty range (liquidus-
18ct Easy (Cd) 635-705 75.0 6.2 10.4 1.5 6.9 Cd 812 Light
solidus) of the solder. Zinc (419°C) and cadmium
18ct Easy 675-705 75.0 5.0 9.3 6.7 4.0 In 800 Light
(321°C) lower melting points still further and
Medium 740-750 75.0 6.0 10.0 7.0 2.0 In 810 Medium
balance the red colour of copper to maintain Hard 815-825 75.0 6.0 11.0 8.0 810 Strong
yellow gold, but, in excess, they embrittle. Other
21ct (Cd) 900-925 87.5 3.0 4.5 0.9 4.1 Cd 905
base metals used to depress the liquidus include
21ct 751-840 87.5 – 5.5 4.8 2.2 In 875 Medium
tin, indium, gallium, germanium and silicon. A
22ct (Cd) 925-955 91.7 1.9 4.0 0.5 1.9 Cd 936 No Need
typical recent development of a 22ct gold solder is
22ct 955-980 91.7 2.1 6.3 939 No Need
in ref 4.7. Cadmium-free solders are described in
refs. 4.8 and 4.9. White golds usually need white Notes: 1) fineness under PM’s is total precious metals; regulations may call for a minimum fineness in gold only.
2) working range is a rather arbitrary function, depending on solidus/liquidus temperatures, wettability, thermal diffusivity,
gold solders. It is easy to design 9ct and 14ct white and reactions with atmosphere or flux. The ranges given illustrate practical steps in typical manufacturer’s supplies.
gold solders but increasingly difficult to control
colour, ductility and caratage simultaneously at and
above 18ct. One solution is to add 10 to 20% When joining platinum to gold, particularly when even preventing the soldering together of
palladium to gold, but the melting point of soldering in head settings, use gold solders and different precious metals for jewellery.
palladium (1550°C) is well above that of gold so it gold solder techniques including flux. When
is used mainly with palladium white golds. At these joining gold to silver alloys, use silver solders. In FLUXES
levels, each variety of white gold requires particular both cases (platinum or gold solders) some of The function of a flux is to promote wetting of
treatment and class of solder and it is advisable to the solders have a higher melting point than that the joint surfaces by solder, by removing any
purchase matching materials from reliable refiners of the lower melting point component. In most oxide from the joint zone and from the solder,
rather than attempt to “mix and match”. countries there are strict specifications limiting or and to prevent any further oxidation during the
soldering operation. The flux must be completely
fluid and active before the solder melts and
should remain molten until after the solder has
solidified. It pays to be careful to place the
optimum amount of flux in the right position
prior to heating. The most common fluxes for
gold (or silver) soldering are based on borax
which has a wide range of ability to associate
with water. The traditional source of flux was the
borax cone which was simply a conical pre-form
of borax that may be rubbed direct onto the work
or more likely rubbed in a small drop of water in
a shallow dish or depression in slate or refractory
slab. The more or less concentrated solution-paste
is then applied to the work with a pointed brush
or solder pick. Commercial preparations are
tailored to provide the necessary properties for
soldering and are developed from borax. They
include boric acid, ammonium phosphate, and
dyes to raise the visibility of the applied fluid.
Solid flux dipped in a drop of water produces a
thin milky liquid that can be applied with a fine
brush to both the joint surfaces and to the solder
paillons. Larger amounts of flux can be moistened
and transferred on a pick to the joint. Heat is
applied gently at first to evaporate the superficial
water and then more strongly to dry to a white
powder and then drive off combined water.
41
•
SOLDERING
During this process the flux can easily bubble
into a less efficient mass and it helps to heat
PASTE D
evenly either side of the joint. When soldering a ISPENSER
light section to a heavier one, most of the heat
should be directed to the heavier.
The flux should be applied to the joint areas and to
the solder before heating. If the duration of heating
is prolonged, or the size of the joint large, further
flux additions can be made during the process. It
may be necessary to warm the work-piece to
ensure full retention of flux paste over the whole
of the joint area, Alternatively, a weak Teepol
solution can be used to make the flux paste. Fig 4.5 A foot controlled precision solder paste applicator.
(Courtesy Hilderbrand & Cie)
OTHER SOLDER/FLUX STYLES.
While most jewellery craftsmen use solders in is computer controlled placement of solder pastes
paillon form, solder is supplied in other forms, from electro-pneumatic dispensers according to a
several of them combining the solder and the flux grid planned on the computer screen.
together. In general, these combinations reduce
the amount of skill required to obtain a good joint Solder pastes consist of pre-mixed organic
or increase productivity. It is likely that the binders and fluxes as a paste and pre-alloyed
introduction of solder pastes did more to improve solder powders uniformly suspended in the
both the precision and productivity of soldering paste. Precision dispensing by controlling the
operations in jewellery making than any volume displaced either on a time basis or by
technology since precision casting. Both are electro-mechanical or pneumatic means, allows
apparent from figures 4.5 and 4.6 applying to just the right amount of mixture at the right
mass production and craft, respectively. A modern place. It is possible to repeatedly put down
development not yet widely applied to jewellery individual spots as small as one third of a cubic
41
• SOLDERING
millimetre or a continuous line of paste a third of
a millimetre in diameter. Paste systems are
classified in much the same way as solders, by
alloy, colour (of the resulting solder fill)
temperature of working, binder system used, %
alloy in the paste by volume, and the powder
size of the dispersed alloy. Together, these key
control factors greatly assist the making of a
sound matching caratage soldered joint and are
preferred for the soldering of jewellery.
LARGE-SCALE HEATING METHODS
For large-scale work, more advanced soldering
methods are often needed. The techniques that
have been developed for low temperature
brazing of engineering parts can readily be
applied to the soldering of gold articles. A
degree of automation is the first development.
A pair or a set of fixed torch burners is the most
adaptable system. The work can be conveyed
into and out of the heating area on stainless steel
plates by various means, such as an endless
chain or turntable. Alternatively, a fixed torch
heating station with pilot flames can be used and
the torches switched on or off to permit loading
and unloading. The on-off fixed torch method
permits solder to be fed by hand if pre-
placement is inconvenient.
Fig 4.6 A relatively inexpensive hand operated solder paste
applicator with inter-changeable paste cartridges to match
paste to job. (Courtesy Hilderbrand & Cie)
Electric resistance furnace heating is an
alternative but is suitable only for simple shapes
and for assemblies where the parts do not differ
in thermal mass. For mass production, high
frequency induction heating and batch type or
conveyor furnaces may be used. However, the
quantities of components to be soldered must be
large enough to justify the relatively high capital
expenditure and the development of a method
for each particular soldering operation.
CLEANING UP AFTER SOLDERING
The easiest way to remove both light oxidation
and residual flux is to immerse the assembly in a
general purpose pickle solution (1 part sulphuric
acid added to 9 parts water, and then warmed),
preferably in a lead-lined container, but ceramic
or thick heat resistant glass may be used. A few
minutes is usually sufficient, followed by a
thorough rinsing in cold water but where there
are enclosed areas it may be better to neutralize
in a solution of washing soda and water. Never
place jewellery containing porous stones
such as pearls, opals, jet, amber, lapis-lazuli
in either the pickle or soda.
Warning: soldering should be done in a well
ventilated area, preferably with extraction,
especially if cadmium – containing solders
are used. It is arguable whether there is any
danger from cadmium solder once it is
incorporated in a jewellery assembly but one
must remember that legislation is likely to pay
attention to the dangers of subsequent repairing,
or consignment to scrap and refining.
Most gold alloys weld readily without the need
for fluxes. Because welding wire filler metal, if
needed, is the same as the components to be
joined, it is possible to close the seam without
any visible colour change. This is a decided
advantage in sizing rings, for instance. Even so, it
is good practice to minimize the amount of filler
needed (whether welding or soldering) by
making joints as close and accurately as possible.
If the joint is made really close, the only filler
metal needed is a thin piece (0.1 to 0.5mm.) of
the same alloy cut to just outside (say,0.5mm.) of
the two sections (in ring joining, the two are
likely to be the same section anyway) and this
avoids any contraction of the whole joint. The
two components to be joined are clamped on
either side of the (vertical) filler and the whole is
heated slowly, beginning with the heavier
sections closely on either side and gradually
moving the torch flame to concentrate finally on
the fringe of filler metal. The filler should melt
down into the joint before the two components
fuse any more than superficially at the interface.
Remove the flame as soon as fusion has taken
place. If the joint is longer in one direction, like
a seam, the filler will be a small strip with its
long edge pointing along the seam but still
42
•
OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES
horizontal; concentrate on one end first and as
fusion begins, move slowly along the joint. If the
seam is extensive, it is possible to use a thin
wire filler pointing into, from ahead of, the
flame. Gold alloys have relatively high thermal
diffusivity, so heat tends to dissipate from the
point of application, into the piece. To delay this
heat flow, keep the input as close to the joint
zone and the filler as possible. Heat sinks may
be applied on either side of the joint. This helps
prevent heat diffusing through to other areas that
may have been soldered or that you wish to
keep in a work-hardened state. The joint should
finish with just the smallest “bulge” of matching
colour which can be smoothed down to the
original cross-section. This technique is well
suited to joining relatively heavy and particularly
matching sections such as ring shanks, shanks to
head settings with shoulders, bangle sections and
pendant and brooch parts.
When planning a repair on a piece of jewellery,
welding can be very useful in avoiding colour
mismatch but it is wise to consider whether there
has previously been soldering near to the
proposed repair site. If there has, and welding is
carried out close enough to allow significant heat
diffusion, then there is a danger the previously
soldered joint will give way. If so, prefer a solder
repair.
While the electric-arc (including TIG welding)
can be used in fabricating gold alloys, it is not
usually appropriate for the jewellery
manufacturer or craftsman.
LASER WELDING
Gold alloys may be laser welded in much the
same way as other metals and alloys. The main
property of laser heating is the precision with
which high intensity energy can be focused on
an interface, be guided along a line or pattern,
produce localized melting, and be switched off.
It is therefore more likely to be used for thin
sections, filigree and chain work than for more
bulky items. A typical application is to stitch
together thin stampings of standardized
components such as leaves and petals, to form
simple variations on a suite of jewellery. Laser
probes have been used to join chain links
virtually automatically, refs. 4.1 and 4.2. (Chain
making and similar continuous techniques will
be dealt with in a later section). Obviously, there
needs to be a large batch or even a mass
42
• OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES
production market, to justify the high capital cost
of a laser generator if used for jewellery alone.
TACK WELDING
Tack welding (like spot welding) is a simple
process which involves passing an electric
current, via a pair of electrodes, through the parts
to be joined. Heat is generated by electrical
resistance at the joint area, and if sufficient
pressure is applied, a local weld will form. The
process is used to join securely, two or more
separate components with sufficient joint
strength to withstand further process handling.
Articles made in several sections such as lockets,
hollow charms and padlocks, are suited to tack-
welding before proceeding with automated
soldering. For some simple joints such as an
earring post, tack welding is sufficient to
complete the joint.
For tack-welding to be efficient, gold alloys must
have sufficient electrical resistance. The resistivity
of carat golds generally increase with decreasing
caratage so the process tends to be more efficient
with lower carat alloys. However, a relatively
rough interface between high carat alloy surfaces
achieves the same purpose. Burrs may be left in
place to act as a weld localizer. Indeed, it is
common practice to incorporate cusps or small
studs into one of the surfaces to concentrate the
discharge current and localize the pressure
simultaneously. Modern tack welder machines
allow good control over the voltage and timing
of the electrical discharge cycle and over the
pressure cycle.
AUTOWELDING
Before describing friction welding, it is worth
considering that high carat golds auto-weld quite
easily. For instance, 22ct hollow balls can be
made from pairs of cupped (dopped) squares
equal to the diameter of the required ball, If the
ears are interlocked the two part ball can be
forcibly rounded by rolling in grooved channels.
If the assembly is simply fluxed and heated, they
will weld, ref. 4.5.
FRICTION, SPOT & STITCH WELDING
Good resistance to oxidation at high
temperatures, the tendency to smear by dragging
at the surface and the need for very little
additional deformation, makes most gold alloys
ideal materials for friction welding. In this
process, a stud-like shape is rotated under light
pressure against a flat surface to generate friction
and heat. At an appropriate temperature, rotation
is stopped and pressure is applied to weld the
two surfaces together.
Spot welding is usually achieved by electrical
resistance heating at an interface with the power
led in through stout electrodes that are also
capable of delivering a punch pressure to finish
the weld. Stitch welding is, in effect, an
overlapping series of spot welds and in both
cases, the timing of the whole process is
electronically controlled. Again, these processes
are more compatible with batch production of
simple jewellery operations, such as joining studs
to front designs in earrings and bosses to
brooches, rather than a one-off craft approach.
ADHESIVES
Since it is difficult to design easy solders for high
carat golds it is surprising that non-metallic
adhesives have not been more widely adopted in
jewellery design and manufacture. The jewellery
trade is conservative and is suspicious of the
quality of adhesives, but engineering adhesives
and application technology have developed a
great deal in recent years. Adhesives for aerospace
have now penetrated other industries such as
motor cars but they may be used more widely still
provided their advantages and limitations are
understood; they are different from solders! Most
jewellery control regulations allow adhesives to be
used in place of solder provided they are used
only in quantities necessary for joining and they
contain no base metal ingredients (some fillers
do). Attachment of base metal components by
means of adhesives is regarded the same as
soldering and is not permitted except in specific
cases where the regulatory authority grants
permission for technical reasons. While adhesives
for engineering assembly are well documented in
recent engineering reference books, ref.4.4, the
same cannot be said for precious metals generally,
let alone jewellery. However, the principles of
organic adhesives still apply to precious metals.
The compatibility of acrylics, usually listed as
cyano-acrylates, and epoxies, with precious metals
is good to excellent but the third group of organic
adhesives, polyurethanes, are not sufficiently
compatible.
An adhesive joint relies on two strengths: the
bonding of the adhesive to the substrate called
adhesion and the strength within the adhesive
called cohesion. The overall strength of a joint is
determined by the weaker of these two
strengths. So, the strategy should be to minimize
the effect of the weaker rather than enhance the
greater strength still further. Generally, adhesives
resist peeling rather weakly and so it is advisable
to design jewellery to minimize peeling stresses
42
•
OTHER JOINING TECHNIQUES
or reinforce joints with adequate overlap. Cyclic It is evident that the difference in surface
stresses are more damaging to an adhesive joint energies for precious metal jewellery alloys and
than static loads. To ensure adequate adhesion, it adhesives is likely to be very high, provided
is necessary to very thoroughly wet all of the they are absolutely clean. Whether the alloy is
joint surfaces with adhesive before curing sets in. 24 or 18ct makes no significant difference. The
This means that when applied fresh, the wettability of plastics by organic adhesives, in
adhesive should have lower surface energy than costume jewellery for instance, may have to be
the solid surfaces to be joined. The greater the enhanced to achieve wetting. Most joint surfaces
difference between the surface energy (γLV)of the can be improved not only by using cleaning
liquid adhesive and the (γLS) solid surfaces, the solvents but also by using primers.
smaller the wetting angle and the greater the Once thorough wetting has taken place, it is
ability to flow over, fill crevices and cling to usually desirable to limit the thickness of the
microscopic contours of the surfaces. adhesive layer. This is because the joint cannot
be stronger than the adhesive itself and after
Typical approximate energies in mJ/m2 for clean curing many adhesives tend to be brittle. This
surfaces are:- can be avoided by careful choice of adhesives,
• Pure Gold 1700 but, in general, it is best to minimize the amount
• Pure Platinum 2100 of adhesive involved. This means that joints
• 18 carat gold 1650 should be close fitting and squeezed tight when
• Pure silver 1050 the adhesive is applied. Finally, the joint does
• Copper 1600 not develop its full strength immediately; in fact
• Iron 2050 it may need hours to days to cure fully. It usually
• Iron oxide 1350 attains a reasonable green strength within
• PTFE (Teflon) 16 minutes after which the assembly may be
• Polystyrene 33 carefully moved but experience is required to
• PVC 40 whether clamps are needed and, if so, how
• Organic Adhesives (γLV) 30-47 quickly they can be removed.
43 •
ENSURING OVERALL CARATAGE
CONFORMANCE
The mechanism of curing differs from one type
of adhesive to another, reference 4.3, and is too
specialized a subject for this manual. Most are
reactive polymers that change from liquid to
solid by polymerization. The polymerization or
curing is triggered by :-
• anaerobic reaction (deprived of oxygen, free
radicals of metals form and initiate curing;
some metals are more catalytic than others)
• Ultraviolet light
• anionic reaction (cyano-acrylates)
• moisture curing (silicones, urethanes)
An adhesive joint differs from a soldered joint in
other important respects. Most do not withstand
temperatures above about 120°C which is safe
for every day wear but might be exceeded by
heat being conducted to the bond when re-
soldering another part. Adhesives may be more
vulnerable to household cleaning fluids and
even perspiration, than are solders.
CARATAGE CONTROL
The strategy depends on the customer
specification or the regulations to be met,
whichever is the more exacting. There are three
main levels but each has variants.
• the whole piece must assay not less than
the specified gold caratage level.
• the whole piece must assay not less than
the specified total precious metal content.
• two or more components must each assay
(and be stamped as such) the specified level but
a minimum amount of solder of lower (usually
only one level lower) caratage may be used for
joining (not filling).
At all three levels it is necessary to know the
caratage of the components and the solders in
use accurately, and preferably the full
composition. Suppliers of solders do not always
state exact compositions but they should be
capable of matching their solders to the
specification of the jewellery to which they will
be applied. The only safe way of working to a
tight specification is to ensure all materials are
at or above the specified caratage. It is possible
to use lower caratage solders with, say, 18ct
gold and still achieve 18ct overall but this
requires a positive allowance of gold, say 75.5%
gold instead of 75.01%, in the components. It is
normally more economic to use the correct
caratage solder.

Some adhesives are more suited to jewellery

making than others and the technical services of
adhesives manufacturers are able to advise. They
are also able to advise on dispensing systems
which quickly repay their cost in economic and
efficient delivery of the adhesive to form a
quality joint.
EYE PROTECTION
Even with very small oxy-gas flames capable of
dealing with small sections, never attempt to
weld gold alloys, without using properly selected
welding goggles The heat builds up in thin
sections very quickly and the radiation emitted at
1000°C is likely to cause damage to the
unprotected eye! The flame itself will be at a
considerably higher temperature, see table 4.1.
Many soldering and welding operations on gold
alloy jewellery, particularly high carat jewellery,
involve temperatures around 1000°C at the joint
face and between 1000 and 2000°C in the heat
source. The white radiation at these temperatures
is very intensive and the proportion of ultraviolet
wavelength radiation is much higher than for
ordinary diffused daylight. This combination
presents a very real hazard to the unprotected
eye. Even a short exposure is certain to leave an
after-image on the retina that will persist for
several minutes and distort both positioning and
colour judgment. Longer exposures will produce
the affliction known as “arc-eye” which is an
uncomfortable gritty sensation affecting the
whole eye structure. Further deliberate exposure
permanently damages the retina by totally
exhausting the colour receptors and even
producing blindness.
44
•
SAFETY ASPECTS
Choosing a correct filter system requires a
reasonable compromise between filtering out all
possible dangerous radiation and leaving enough
intensity and colour to enable the operator to
judge position, temperature and melting in the
work-piece. Recommended filters for a wide
variety of gas-welding operations are dealt with
in British Standard BS 679. Precious metals are
not mentioned specifically but it is reasonable to
equate gold alloy melting with fusion welding of
light steel sections; to form a reference for the
upper end of most jewellery processes. An
exception is when welding platinum sections that
are likely to be lightweight but they are melted
at even higher temperatures than steel and the
product of temperature and likely exposure time
are roughly equivalent. This calls for grade 6
green filters (6/GW).
Grade 5 filters can be used when welding gold
alloys or using the highest temperature gold
solders.
Some operators complain that they cannot see
well enough with the heat source out, to position
the source and work-piece. One way round this
is to use flip-down goggles that allow a low
density filter while positioning and bring down
the safety filters as soon as the work begins to
radiate. Heavier jobs and more extended spells
are often better handled by using a filter screen
between the head and the work area.
Do not substitute sun-glasses for proper safety
filters; at the ultra-violet end of the spectrum
they may offer some protection to general
sunlight but not to a sharp concentrated image of
an arc or oxy-gas flame. Although perhaps less
dangerous to the eye itself, the infra-red
component of high-temperature flames and arcs
cause “sun-burn”. This is mainly due to infra-red
direct from the heat source. While an occasional
short exposure to the skin may not be harmful in
itself (personal discomfort usually quickly
reminds the occasional operator that welding and
soldering heat sources radiate heat very directly!),
repeated or prolonged exposure is dangerous.
The skin should be covered or the head and
shoulders area screened, not just the eyes.
44
• SAFETY ASPECTS
FUME
Dry flux powder and fume are easily driven off
working surfaces during soldering particularly by
powerful flames, Fumes can easily irritate eyes,
nose, throat and respiratory system. It is better to
use flux pastes and, better still, solder/flux
pastes. Much of what was said about melting in
Section 2 of this manual applies also to joining
processes but the operator will often be closer to
the source in joining than in melting.
Soldering should be always carried out in a
well ventilated area, preferably with
extraction, so that fumes are channelled
away from its operator.
THE CADMIUM PROBLEM
Cadmium has been a constituent of solders for
many years. It is particularly effective in
lowering the melting point of the higher carat
golds and imparting fluidity to the molten
solder, so it is an effective basis for easy
soldering of, say, 22 carat gold bands.
Unfortunately, cadmium is a highly toxic metal
and has a damaging effect on health if inhaled
as vapour, ingested into the food system and
probably if entering through a flesh wound.
Government legislation in some countries
forbids the use of, and even the import of,
cadmium-bearing alloys. Alternative, cadmium 6. Loctite Worldwide Design Handbook, Loctite
– free compositions are described in references Corporation.
4.8 and 4.9. Typically, cadmium, both as 7. A Low Melting Point Solder for 22 carat
cadmium oxide, CdO and fume, must be Yellow Gold, D.M. Jacobson and S.P.S.
limited to <0.05 mg/m3. In practice, significant Sangha, Gold Bulletin, 1996, 29 (1), 3-9. Also,
cadmium fume should not be produced at the Gold Technology, July 1996 (19), 7-10.
low temperatures in normal engineering 8. Cadmium – free Gold Solder Alloys,
soldering but precious metals at close to G. Normandeau, Gold Technology, April 1996
1000°C are much more likely to generate fume. (18), 20 – 24.
Even in the absence of cadmium, soldering 9. Development of 21 carat Cadmium – free
should take place in a well-ventilated Gold Solders, D. Ott, Gold Technology, July
area,preferably with extraction to channel 1996 (19), 2-6.
fumes away from the operator. 10. Principles of Soldering and Brazing,
G. Humpston and D.M. Jacobson,
4.5 REFERENCES ASM International, Ohio, 1993.
1. Jewellery Making, Murray Bovin, Bovin
Publishing, New York,1979.
2. Metallurgical Aspects Of Chain Manufacture,
D. P. Agarwal, Gold Technology, October
1995, 17, 16-18.
3. Overview: Joining Technology In Chain
Manufacture, Arfeo Canaglia, Gold
Technology, October 1995, 17, 20-25.
4. Kempes Engineer’s Handbook,1995, M-G
Information Services Ltd, Tonbridge, Kent, UK.
5. Joining of Gold Jewellery from Bombay,
India, to Valencia, Spain. H H Hildebrand,
Gold Technology, World Gold Council, Nov.
1994, (14), 22-29.
5 FINISHING TECHNOLOGY
51
• TECHNIQUES
Finishing technology embraces all of the The common feature of most of these is that they
processes that turn a set of wrought or cast modify the surface finish of the component more
components and precious or semi- precious than the shape. It is common sense to select
stones into a piece of jewellery. Most jewellery processes and use them in a reasonable order so
makers will recognize polishing and setting as that there is little or no unnecessary work done.
the two most obvious (and sometimes difficult) Usually this means doing the coarsest jobs first
processes but, logically, the sequence can and then gradually using increasingly finer
include:- “tools” and cleaner conditions, but there are
exceptions. For instance, it is often much more
• Barrel Tumbling effective to finish polish a surface before
• Buffing texturing, etching, or engraving selected areas.
• Burnishing This saves intricate polishing in between the
• Chemical processes for antique finish, selected areas later and also increases the
bombing, etching and pickling. contrast while attending to the selected areas.
• Electrolytic processes, for This chapter will not deal in detail with all of the
Polishing, Plating, Stripping above processes. It will, however, continually
• Engraving remind workers to be very careful to choose
• Fettling (of castings to remove sprues), by the appropriate grades of tools, abrasives or
Sawing, Slitting, Clipping. polishing media and to maintain inter-stage
• Filing cleanliness so that unnecessary work is
• Grinding avoided.
• (Hall)marking
• Polishing
• Sand-blasting
• Stone setting
• Texturing
• Ultrasonic cleaning

Figure 5.1 Teeth profiles & settings: from top down:-standard,
skip, hook, profiles; raker set and wavy set.
Little needs to be said about sawing for jewellery
making. Hand tools and band saws are small
scale versions of those used in engineering and
the same principles apply. Carat gold alloys pose
few problems in sawing, but, because saw blades
are fragile, they do have to be chosen correctly
and handled skillfully. Usually, the objective is to
make a narrow cut with very little kerf. This is
the material removed as swarf and with precious
metals it is natural to create the minimum. This
means that the blade is running in a very narrow
channel and side-friction and bending raises the
risk of breakage. The clearance is created by the
“set” of the teeth, which is achieved by bending
the teeth to right and left during manufacture, to
provide side-clearance for the blade. Left-right
pairs may be interspersed with straight raker teeth
but this is more common for ferrous metals than
for precious metals. A wavy set is sometimes
useful for thin sections; this sets several teeth
decreasingly in sequence to the left and then
increasingly to the right in a sort of wave effect,
looking down on the upturned teeth. In
elevation, teeth shapes may be standard (cutting
face vertical), hooked (the tip leads the cutting
face slightly) or skip (small standard teeth spaced
with a flat portion about equal to a tooth size),
Figure 5.1.
For most operators, the most important thing to
control is the fineness of the teeth. This is
described by the number of teeth per unit length
of blade and the count per inch (TPI) or per
centimetre, is still the basis of most saw blade
lists. Certain manufacturers use size numbers
such as 8/0 (ultra-fine, about 0.2mm thick) to
#7(about 1 mm thick). On this scale, most
jewellery needs for hand-saws fall between 4/0
and #2. Table 5.1 lists a typical range of data.

52
•
SAWING
52
• SAWING
TABLE 5.1 SAW BLADE DATA excess pressure at the teeth face are counter
productive.
Size # Teeth per cm. Width, mm.
4 14 0.45 Band saws follow the same principle but the
3 15 0.45 more sophisticated ones support the blade with a
2 16 0.4 swivel guide so that the work can be turned to
1 17 0.39 some extent while still cutting. There may be a
1/0 19 0.36 sensor which measures blade deflection and
2/0 20 0.35 limits the forward cutting rate if preset limits are
3/0 22 0.34 exceeded. Only a large scale jewellery maker
4/0 24 0.29 would normally justify the most sophisticated
5/0 26 0.26 bandsaws on productivity grounds.
6/0 27 0.24

Even if the teeth are standard in-line, the width

of the blade still determines the width of the cut
and there is a relationship between the thickness
of the blade and the number of teeth per unit
length. It is difficult to support a set of coarse
teeth on a very thin blade. Cutting sheet edge-on
requires a much finer blade than might be used
to cut through the main side sprues of
investment castings. The general rule is that the
blade should be allowed to cut with little more
than the weight of the blade and tool. Most carat
golds, with the possible exception of some white
golds, do not require heavy cutting effort.
Frequent blade breaks caused by snagging or
The favourite files for jewellery are Swiss
precision watch makers files from Vallorbe. All
files clog eventually with most metals but high
alloy precision cut files appear to clog less
rapidly and respond better to cleaning than do
cheaper less precise versions. A file is really a
small scale regular array of multiple machine tool
bits. Jewellery files are designed to cut only on
the forward stroke; they should not drag in
heavy contact with the work on the return
stroke. Smearing is worst where the dragging
friction at the interface is highest as in
burnishing, and least when the tool is presented
as a knife edge with a positive rake. As wear
takes place, the interface area will grow, as will
friction, and the situation will become
progressively worse, but not as quickly as when
starting with a negative rake, as Figure 5.2
Figure 5.2 Sketch of different file teeth rake profiles.
shows.
53
•
FILING
Jewellery files may be cleaned to some extent
Rake angle
but it is difficult to restore to as-new condition.
Teeth with
positive rake; With the exception of cyanide, which is too
act like a chisel dangerous for this purpose, most chemical
on soft surfaces
Thrust solvents capable of dissolving gold from a file
also attack the file itself. The quickest method is
to use a small wire brush and stroke firmly along
the several directions (normally either two or
Jewellery surface
with negative three) of the cut of the file teeth. Some hard
Rake angle rake; act as steel wire brushes, especially rotary wheel
burnisher of
med/hard brushes, can damage a low-grade file before they
surfaces; clog have removed all of the clogged particles of gold
easily if soft.
alloy. A reasonable compromise is to use a hard
brass wire brush. Careful scribing in between the
rows of file teeth with a lightly tempered graver
is usually the most effective but requires
patience! Good filing and most of the finer
grinding operations on jewellery follow the same
principle on a smaller and smaller scale. After
minimum filing, decide whether to follow
traditional methods or a carefully selected
sequence of graded abrasives.
54
• ABRASIVES GRADING SYSTEMS
Traditionally, various stones, emery boards, and
abrasive loaded thread would be used,
depending on access to fine detail, and with
decreasing abrasive effect until the whole piece
can be subjected to open polishing on mops.
The quality of finish depends on the manual
skills of the craftsman, control over the
properties of the abrasive and the complexity of
the shape of the article. Traditionally named
polishing media still available, include water of
Ayr stone, pumice, emery, brown or yellow
tripoli, emerald compo, ruby powder,
emerald powder, diamantine, white, green,
red and purple rouges. Many of these have
been modified and made into proprietary named
compounds.
Modern abrasive systems are much more
predictable and consistent in their cutting effects.
In many cases, they are modifications of
traditional materials, often synthesized rather
than natural, but more carefully graded and
standardized than the original natural product. A
carefully controlled range of white 'compo' bars
now consists of variously calcined alumina
particles sized and suspended in different
formulae of emulsified fats rather than the
classical tripoli. The main development has been
to 'present' the abrasive/polish in a wide variety
of geometries; some long lasting, others
consumable or renewable. To select from these,
it is useful to know how abrasives are graded.
At the coarse end, there is an internationally
accepted method for describing grinding wheels.
At the fine end there is a little less consistency
due to different methods of size ranging and the
introduction of diamond dust and diamond
compounds as polishing media. A complete
system description includes:-
• The abrasive compound
• natural or synthetic
• its hardness, grain shape and so expected
groove shape
• grain size, and so likely groove cross section.
• friability, producing fresh surfaces
• the support medium
• wheel, disk, flap-wheel, belt, paper, plastic
mesh, etc
• the bond between the particles & medium
• optimum (linear) working speed at the
interface.
Coarse and medium grain sizes are determined
by sieve size but National Standards differ.
Particle size decreases consistently with
increasing sieve number within each standard
series but an FEPA 240 grade may not be
precisely the same as an ASTM 240 grade. In
choosing sanding grades for carat golds the
differences are negligible, but keep to one
grading system. The finest particles are sized by
elutriation or sedimentation. Again, the grading is
consistent within a given standard system but
may not be precisely comparable across different
systems. As a result, finer grades of silicon
carbide papers may be described differently by
different manufacturers and also differ from
diamond based systems rated in micron sizes.
Table 5.2 below, shows various ways of
describing the sizes of different polishing media
in decreasing order of cutting/scratch depth. The
scratch width will be roughly the same as the
diameter of the grit and the depth roughly half of
the diameter. This will depend on the orientation
and grit shape and how it is cemented to the
“tool”.
TABLE 5.2 DECREASING
Standard Grades Av. grit Diamond Emery
The depth of scratches produced depends not • Lightweight, slightly spongy, polyvinyl acetate
COARSENESS OF CUT only on the size of the abrasive particles but also wheels carrying a carefully chosen range of
FEPA ASTM JIS diam. mm microns* Paper
OR FINISH, BASED ON on their orientation and the depth to which they abrasives and polishing rouges, are available
P60 0.25
FEPA (FEDERATION OF are sunk into the backing coat on the abrasive for most finishing operations.
P80 0.18
EUROPEAN PRODUCERS
P100 0.13
cloth, paper or plastic film. The most precise • There are abrasive loaded rubber wheels and
OF ABRASIVES), ASTM distribution is produced by electrostatic coating points (Cratex type) that also work on the
P120 0.10
(AMERICAN SOCIETY and this is the type preferred for a cutting basis of controlled wear continually exposing
P150 0.08 approach to carat golds (as opposed to a
FOR TESTING fresh abrasive to the work face. Indeed, the
P180 0.07 IG smearing effect) because the particles are
MATERIALS) AND JIS working face should be dressed with a
P220 220 0.06 upright, remain proud of the backing and so dressing tool to clean up and reshape the
(JAPANESE INSTITUTE
P240 0.05 60 resist clogging better. There are several ways to working surface.
OF STANDARDS)
P280 240 280 0.04 IM arrange the outer form of the abrasive system.
GRADINGS, WITH GRIT
OR DIAMOND SIZES.
P320 0.03 45 I • Cloth, paper and film abrasive surfaces With most of the above types, the built-in
P360 280 320 40 IF appear as sheets, strips, belts, discs, and flap abrasive may be supplemented by applying
P400 360 0.02 1/0 brushes. carefully chosen white (calcined alumina)
P500 320 400 0.014 • A wide range of shapes and flexibility has compo. This may extend the life or effectiveness
P600 360 500 0.010 30 2/0
resulted in recent years from fixing abrasives of a particular tool but may be more troublesome
in a mesh or web of plastic fibres ranging than making regular changes in the tool
P800 400 0.007 20 3/0
from simple hand-pads to rotary shapes that sequence. Figure 5.3 is a composite showing
P1000 500 600
can be very usefully adapted to jewellery various of the new styles of wheels, discs and
P1200 600 1200 0.004 15 4/0
making. For instance, small cylinders of such pads with built-in abrasives.
(1500) 1500 12
materials, loaded with 2 or 3 grades of
(1800) 800 2000 9 alumina, are very useful for polishing inside These recent developments offer increased
(3000) 2500 5 rings as a replacement for the more usual efficiency in working on jewellery alloys surfaces
(4000) 3000 4 flying brush. Similarly, there are larger mainly because they wear away under control
(11000) 6000 2 diameter wheels made by spiral winding the rather than lose their cutting ability due to early
(14000) 8000 1 abrasive loaded plastic mesh followed by clogging. They are likely to at least partly replace
*1 micron(µm)=0.001mm; 1/1000in=25µm controlled compaction and rebonding. the traditional woven fabric and felt buffing

54 •
ABRASIVES GRADING SYSTEMS
54
• ABRASIVES GRADING SYSTEMS
wheels loaded with fine abrasive waxes and
rouge polishes.

The type of abrasive (corundum-calcined

alumina; chromic oxide; silicon carbide; quartzite
or crystobalite silica; cubic boron nitride;
synthetic or natural diamond) determines the
hardness and friability (which in turn determines
the generation of fresh cutting surfaces).
The bond (vitrified, resin, rubber, shellac, wax,
soap) largely determines the porosity of the
structure, its heat, wear resistance and ability to
keep particles at the designed "cutting angle".
The more the amount of bond material, the less
the porosity and access for coolant or lubricant,
but the stronger the wheel.

Varying the abrasive, its size distribution, amount

and type of bond (water-proof, oil-proof or
flexible) and the final shape (wheel, point, disc,
paper, paste on a carrier), creates a vast range of
grinding/polishing characteristics. It is not
surprising that careful choice is required to do an
efficient job on jewellery alloys varying from soft
near 24ct gold to deliberately work-hardened
white gold alloys.

A dimension that is not so easily transferred from

Figure 5.3 a large scale to finishing jewellery is the speed of
rotation of wheels. What really matters is the TABLE 5.3 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ABRASIVE WHEEL DIAMETER,
relative linear speed between the abrasive REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE, AND LINEAR PERIPHERAL SPEED.
particles and the alloy surface. With hand
finishing there is little scope for varying the WHEEL LINEAR PERIPHERAL SPEED
DIAMETER METRES / MINUTE
speed but rotary hand tools and motor-driven
bench polishers introduce a wide speed range. mm inch 750 1000 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600 3000
For instance, a high linear speed in the final 6 0.25 40K 53K RPM
stages of finishing can be achieved by using 12" 10 0.4 24K 32K 51K RPM
(300mm) diameter cellular PVA wheels charged 20 0.79 12K 16K 25K 29K 32K 35K RPM
with polishing compound working at a 25 1.0 10K 13K 20K 23K 25K 28K 31K RPM
maximum of 1600m/min for coarse (400 mesh) 50 2.0 5K 6K 10K 11K 13K 14K 15K 17K 19K
buffing, to a maximum of 2000m/min for fine
80 3.15 3000 4000 6400 7200 8000 8800 9600 10K 12K
(1000 mesh) prior to finish polish. This requires
100 4 2400 3200 5100 5800 6400 7000 7640 8280 9550
a speed of rotation of about 2120 rpm. For a
125 5 1910 2550 4070 4580 5090 5600 6110 6620 7640
hand rotor disc of, say, 25 mm diameter, the rpm
150 6 1590 2120 3400 3820 4250 4670 5100 5520 6370
to achieve the same linear speed should be over
25000! This is just possible but not under load 200 8 1200 1590 2550 2870 3185 3500 3820 4140 4780

when the hand tool is actually creating useful 300 12 795 1060 1700 1910 2120 2330 2550 2760 3180
polishing friction. The same part of the surface of 1K = 1000
a small tool is in contact with the work surface
many times more frequently than for a large
wheel, so encouraging more rapid clogging of than on the large scale slower rotating versions.
small tools. Heat release is also more Table 5.3 relates wheel diameter, rotational
concentrated and, if not controlled, will cause speeds and linear speeds. Note the effect of
the bond to plasticise and smear over the work. wheel wear (starting at, say, 300 mm but
There is also a far greater chance of work wearing down to half diameter) on linear speed
snagging on wheels at high peripheral speeds at constant rpm.

54
•
ABRASIVES GRADING SYSTEMS
55
• THE POLISHING PROCESS
Opinions differ on the effectiveness of polishing
gold alloys to a high finish. In most respects, a
high polish is attractive for selling purposes but
the polished surface of some of the softer alloys
may scratch with heavy every day wear. Matte
finished pieces tend to burnish and highly
polished pieces tend to matte a little. With
reasonable protection from knocks and abrasion,
highly polished hard gold alloys can be kept
that way but it is more difficult to retain a high
polish on soft golds.
Alternatively, carat gold alloys may be given one
or a combination of textured finishes ranging
from a "silky polish" to patterned or random
texturing by, in effect, greater and greater
degrees of abrasion or milling of the surface.
A high polish is put on most metals by removing
pits and scratches with successively finer
abrasives. The abrasive particles are much harder
than the metal and act like tiny machine tool bits.
Indeed, the initial stages are sometimes referred to
as grinding and are certainly coarse abrasion
rather than polishing. The particles may break
up, change cutting angle, become de-bonded or
clogged. When the finest bonded wheel or paper
mounted abrasives have been used, the process is
continued with abrasives/polishes held in
emulsified fats as soaps, waxes, or creams applied
to rotating disks or mops. The abrasive particle
size may now be so small as to give the
impression that they do not cut/scratch, but they
continue to do so on a microscopic scale and
there is a great increase in the general friction at
the interface. This heats a thin layer of the surface
which tends to flow rather than be cut. This
smears over the remaining fine scratches and the
surface presents a high lustre. Different gold alloys
have different "polish-ability" and few, if any, are
regarded as very difficult to polish. Understanding
the underlying process helps towards efficient
(time, quality of finish, cost of equipment and
consumables) finishing of gold jewellery alloys.
The highest carat alloys (say, 20 carat and above)
do not oxidize readily, if at all, so it is feasible to
polish individual components fully as early as
possible in the production sequence while there is
easy access to surfaces that may be awkward after
final assembly. Subsequent annealing or brazing is
unlikely to tarnish the pre-polish extensively.
It is efficient to:-
• Be very selective of the first grade of
abrasive. Choose the minimum first grade of
grit/compound that just totally removes the
deepest defects (castings) or scratches
(wrought). Similarly, choose the finest file,
emery wheel or paper that will just produce
an even abraded texture.
• Cut/polish across line defects such as solder
lines to minimize drag-out & see just when
the defect is under control.
• Work locally on any defects until the local
texture matches the bulk of the surface, then,
• Work more generally with finer grades of
abrasives, to remove totally scratches from the
previous grade, polishing at 90° to the
previous direction.
• Finish by buffing with a rouge type of polish.
• Prefer points, wheels, buffs, mops (reinforced
close stitched), that are stiff, firm, or medium-
hard rather than easily penetrated.
• Renew the abrasive or polishing medium
frequently, or use fresh surfaces.
• There is no need to use every grade, but
follow with a grade two or three grades finer
for the next stage, and so on. Do not use a
file and attempt to remove the marks with a
fine emery paper - it will clog very quickly!
The secret is to choose just sufficient cut at each
stage to remove the previous marks before the
new medium becomes clogged. A typical
sequence is given in the box below; increase or
decrease the number of stages with practice.

• After casting, saw off sprues close to the

usable shape but do not risk undercutting.
• Use a fine file for removing only high
spots.
• Then use fine, clean #4, #5 or #6 files
• Burnish edges with an oiled tungsten
carbide burnisher.
• (Tumble polishing might be inserted
here for batch products)
• Sand with 240 silicon or alumina papers Satin finishing using a very fine scraper.
• Buff with alumina compound then hard
rouge.
• Use sound techniques; avoid short filing
strokes, wrong wheel speeds and
cross-transfer of abrasives.

Repeated practice allows operators to choose the

combination of techniques they feel happy with.
To choose a good series of grades it is helpful to
understand the various methods of grading
particle sizes and the way in which they are
"presented" to the metal.

55
•
THE POLISHING PROCESS
56
• MASS PRODUCTION METHODS
Barrel tumbling can be used to de-fraize and
burnish castings and rough worked components.
For this purpose, it is usual to mix the work with
about twice its volume of metal pins, balls or
shapes. This stage may be followed by barrel
tumbling with wooden pegs, cubes, plastic chips
or leather, walnut shells, sawdust and polishing
powder to clean and polish rather than burnish;
see figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 A charge of plastic cones and gold rings after
colouring; clean, smooth & bright, and right, a 4-compartment
(simultaneous treatment of four different sizes, shapes or
initial finishes) burnishing barrel between other typical
barrels on a common roller drive, reference 5.4.
Between each stage of barrel tumbling, screen
out the jewellery components and wash them to
ensure that none of the previous stage abrasive
or polishing media is transferred. Similarly,
although metal shapes/burnishers may be
greased to prevent corrosion between
operations, the whole charge of jewellery and
media must be thoroughly degreased and
cleaned before running a fresh charge. If not, the
action pounds contaminants into the surface of
the jewellery and gives a greyish finish. To
obtain a high polish it may be necessary to use
ultrasonic cleaning to remove media from
difficult to reach surfaces. Matte or polished
finishes can be obtained by barrel tumbling or in
a vibratory polisher using mixtures of fine
abrasives and polishes improved with detergents
and other additives, such as degreasing or acid
solutions.
Typical cycle times are 3 to 6 hours but barrels
may run for a complete shift or overnight. Auto-
polishing requires careful set-up and the final
finish may still require hand polishing,
particularly for intricate re-entrant parts and
chains.
Chains may be polished more efficiently by using
barrels that, in effect, bundle several long
compartments about the rotational axis. Another
method is to load hanks of chain into plastic
tubes with plenty of access holes in the wall and
load several of these in a relatively long barrel
and using fine to medium polishing media. This
helps to avoid tangling.
For good economic practice, it is advisable to
carry out hand work on the roughest parts of
components before they are subjected to barrel
tumbling. Sprue witness marks, parting lines and
excessive fraizes due to stamping, should be
removed by hand. Barrel tumbling can remove
these but at the expense of removing too much
of the wanted surfaces too. Work piece surfaces
are not only smoothed and polished but may be
modified in other ways too; in particular,
different degrees of matte finish can be
re-imposed after initial polishing. Barrel tumbling
drums are typically hexagonal or octagonal sided
in wood, metal, with or without (rubber) lining,
or strong polymeric materials. The capacity of
engineering barrels is often in excess of a few
hundred litres but for jewellery purposes they
tend to be much smaller. Jewellery craft size
barrels range from 5 to 20 litres powered by a
0.2 to 0.5kw motor. They may be rotated by
motor-driven rollers by using a circular rim to the
octagonal chamber. The barrel
 essentially increases the contact between the
jewellery and the polishing media by a
combination of churning and differential sliding.
To achieve the optimum combination, rather than
centrifuging all the contents, the barrel is about
50 to 60% full (of this, about a quarter of the
total charge would be jewellery components) and
the rotational speed is low, 20 to 40rpm. Figure
5.5a & b, shows why the amount of charge and
the speed are important.
Zone 2 in Figure 5.5(a) is the working zone
where most of the relative movement between
the articles and the medium is at its maximum. In
figure 5.5(b), the loading and speed are too high;
Figure 5.5(a) Correct speed.
56
•
MASS PRODUCTION METHODS
Figure 5.5(b) Speed too fast.
some centrifuging occurs and there is a zone of
discontinuous confused tumbling, which is
inefficient. These processes work best with
relatively hard alloys and where there are
economic batches of similar shape and size, so
they are not commonly used for high-carat gold
items. The abrasive cum polishing particles used
in these processes are usually chosen so that
they break down progressively in use, exposing
new smaller cutting edges, so effectively moving
gradually to a higher grade of polish than would
have resulted from the starting grade of abrasive.
Abrasives include agate and quartz powders of
random shape, ceramics, silicon carbide,
alumina, zirconia and plastic bonded versions of
these or combinations. There are also bio-
degradable ureic resins. The cost of the media
have to be considered. These vary considerably
from cheap coarse crushed rock powder to
carefully graded synthetics but the important cost
is cost per hour of useful cutting ability. Some
synthetics cost 10 times more than natural “sand”
but may last 20 to 30 times longer. The process
is improved with detergents and media additives.
Hard gold alloy pieces cannot be successfully
polished in a batch mixed with soft near pure
gold. Neither is it efficient to mix products too
different in size, shape and initial finish. Figure
5.6 sketches some of the control principles.
Where there is an economic batch, low carat,
work-hardened gold alloys may be first subjected
to a mild abrasive compound with ceramic chips
to pad out and disperse the abrasive medium,
followed by bright burnishing with a polishing
powder and hardened steel shapes. This imparts
a burnished finish and is more suitable to
smoothly rounded pieces than to intricate sharp
cut edges which may be rounded off to some
extent. In fact, barrel tumbling not only smoothes
surfaces but can be controlled to modify the
surface short of bright polishing. With experience
56
• MASS PRODUCTION METHODS
it is possible to control the barrel tumbling
process quite accurately so that a predetermined
• Use the recommended quantities of only
Rough
surface of components
proven high quality media.
finish is obtained in a given time. This requires
abrasive grade
control over the grade and type of abrasive or
• Rinse thoroughly with clean water between
each stage of the total process.
polish, the gold alloy (exposed surface) to
Smooth
0 2 4 6 8 10 hours
abrasive medium (volume) ratio, the speed of
• Correlate the colour of the water, the density
of the foam and the time of barrel tumbling
rotation, which influences the cascading effect,
with the quality of the surface that results and
and the total time between charge and discharge.
Rough record in the quality record for future
Coarse hard grade
reference or improvement.
medium Key to successful barrel tumbling

Smooth
fine friable grade
• Work in a clean environment, as if
Other mass finishing systems
0 2 4 6 8 10 hours electroplating.
Rotary barrel tumbling relies on the rotation of
• Before the first barrel tumbling, clean, degrease
the barrel to lift the charge in contact with the
and remove the coarsest defects by hand.
Initially rough work inside of the lower wall of the barrel and allow it
Rough
Initially medium
• Select the optimum size, shape and grade of
to cascade down the working zone. There are
medium appropriate for the first stage finish
now other ways of obtaining the differential
Initially good required.
movement between articles and media. These are
Smooth
All arrive at same
finish at different times • Coarser medium cuts faster but may lose
the vibratory system, the centrifugal planetary
0 2 4 6 8 10 hours surface detail.
barrel and the centrifugal disc. Vibratory systems
In a well chosen combination of similar piece of work and
• Coarser surfaces take longer to polish, so start
pick up energy from a vibrator which imparts a
abrasive, the abrasive fines down at about the same rate as with as good and uniform finish as can be
the work polishes, resulting in a fast rate of polishing.
swirling motion to the charge while the barrel
economically hand prepared.
itself does not rotate. They work best for final
Choose 1-3 abrasive grades carefully to control finish in a
convenient time. • Do not place items of different characteristics
polishing and burnishing rather than rapid coarse
in the same batch.
cutting. The centrifugal planetary barrel consists
Figure 5.6 Some of the principles controlling mass finishing by
rotary barrel or vibratory system.
• Use recommended volume of articles to
of 2 or 4 barrels mounted on a rotating turret.
media ratios.
The barrels rotate on their own axes in one
• Aim for 55 to 65% volume fill.
direction and the turret rotates in the opposite
• Set the correct barrel speed to maximize
mode. This produces a powerful centrifuging but
tumbling action and avoid centrifuging.
also churning motion. The finish is good and is
attained more quickly than by any of the other
mass processes.
References 5.1 to 5.7, and 5.10 to 5.13 cover the
subject of mass finishing of jewellery in more
detail.
Bombing
An offshoot of barrel tumbling is bombing. The
object of bombing is to leave articles clean and
with a uniform colour after soldering, assembly,
and other finishing operations have been
completed. It is done by preparing a solution of
sodium cyanide (which is highly poisonous)
at a concentration of no more than 20g/l and
preferably 15g/l to reduce the risk of causing
dangerous levels of cyanide in the body. The
articles and the solution is placed in a ceramic,
strong glass or enamelled pot or barrel, rather
than metal. The reaction is set off by adding about
35mls/l of 30% hydrogen peroxide solution.
A foaming reaction takes place which expands
and collapses quickly. The reaction leaves a very
thin uniform pure gold coating on the articles.
The carat gold coating can be restored by
dipping the articles into the cyanide (without the
56
•
MASS PRODUCTION METHODS
hydrogen peroxide addition). Sometimes the
sequence may be repeated to increase the
uniformity. Most stones (except opal, and
turquoise) are not affected by bombing.
Health & Safety Note: (A fuller account of
cyanide hazards is given in Section 8 of this
handbook under Electrolytic Processes.)
• Cyanide bombing is potentially
dangerous.
• There is no point in using stronger A centrifugal planetary
solutions; they do not speed up the barrel machine
(courtesy,
process. Metalfinishing).
• Keep all process solutions alkaline.
• Avoid acidic conditions which will
liberate highly toxic cyanide gas.
• Work in properly constructed facilities
with good air extraction.
A vibratory finishing
machine (courtesy,
Metalfinishing).
57
• MATTE AND MIRROR FINISHING
Well-controlled matte finishes ranging from a
silky/satin "near polish" to a distinctly directional
brush-lines finish, can be an attractive way of
distracting attention from comparatively large areas
of flat or smoothly curved jewellery that is difficult
to polish uniformly and keep polished. Such
surfaces tend to show up faults because the image
of the surroundings is distorted. It may be better to
matte finish unprotected, particularly convex, areas
that are likely to be subjected to heavy wear than
to rely on preserving a high polish long-term.
Polished areas juxtaposed with matte finishes are a
very useful design feature. One may also progress
to coarser but still attractive milled, engraved or
diamond-cut patterns produced by edge tooling.
The tarnish resistance of high-carat gold alloys
ensures that the differences between mirror facets,
polished areas and controlled matte finishes is
preserved long-term.
A necessary feature of all these finishes is to
produce them from at least one grade of finish
more polished than the grade desired. This
helps judge the uniformity and boundary of the
matte finish; it produces the desired effect in one
pass with less risk of clogging. It is considerably
more difficult to produce a good effect by
approaching it from the coarser abrasive grade
finish.
Even without changing the grade of abrasive, it is
possible to produce an apparently different texture
by changing the "brushing" direction. For instance,
stroking a ring shank circumferentially with a
hand-pad of plastic mesh scourer such as Scotch-
Brite product will produce a medium matte finish,
while careful stroking transversely, across the
width of the ring band, will give a distinctly more
matte appearance. The depth of scratches is much
the same but there is greater scatter of incident Figure 5.7(a)
light. Similar differential effects can be produced
with grit blasting, (mini-jet grit blasters may be used
like a fine pointed brush) steel wire wool, steel or
brass wire rotary brushes but rotary abrasive flap
brushes and shaped meshes are the most versatile.
Highlight lines and mirror streaks can be
produced with highly polished sintered tungsten
carbide mini-tools, effectively as rotary
burnishers. Multi-point or single-point diamond
rotary tools can also be used to produce a clean
multi-facetted effect which requires no further Figure 5.7(b)
polishing. Again, it is best to arrange these
deeper cuts and mini facets on a previously
polished or carefully matted surface rather than
attempt to use this method of decoration to save
some previous stages in the overall finishing
process. Figure 5.7 illustrates some of the 'tools'
for achieving these effects.
Hammer texturing, repousse, chasing,
embossing, (including roll embossing) may be
used, preferably on annealed or half-hard carat
golds. It should not be necessary to re-anneal
carat golds during such work unless there has
been repeated reversals locally (in embossing, for
instance) which may give rise to fatigue cracking
or premature tearing. The most straight-forward
way of emphasizing texture contrast is by
maintaining the tooling in as highly polished
condition as possible, using single strong blows
or cuts at each point rather than a series of
overlapping applications and starting with a high
polish on the whole piece. The high-spots
should remain well polished and they, or
alternatively other areas, may then be matted
with rotary brushes, abrasive mesh shapes or
points as described in the section above. The
alternative method starts with a matte surface
and polishes the high spots. Chased or embossed
high-spots do not automatically take up a polish
from the impacting tools. On the other hand,
starting with a matte surface and deliberately
matting the tools does overcome the problem of
slipping and inaccuracy of hammering during
chasing. Gold alloy surfaces can be decorated by
granulation, or beading back from edges with a
58
•
INDENTATION AND BEADED
TYPE TEXTURES
welding torch. It is possible to retain more bead
height in granulation by soldering than by
welding where wetting between the whole lower
half of the bead and the surface is virtually
simultaneous with adhesion. Gold beads may be
made by pouring molten alloy into water or by
cutting scrap alloy into small pieces, dispersing
them in powdered charcoal and heating the mass
to around the melting point of the alloy. At the
melting point, surface tension takes over and Figure 5.8
pulls the scrap into a sphere while the charcoal
prevents both oxidation and amalgamation of the
beads. After cooling, the beads can be separated
by a strong water jet.
For unusual textures it is well worth exploring
the fusion of wire clippings, powder, even
carefully selected and arranged lemels, to a
surface by welding or soldering.
It is always useful to remember that individual
components can be textured differently and later
assembled by soldering or welding without
changing the texture contrast.
59
• ETCHING & ELECTRO-FINISHING
These techniques are applied on a craft scale in
the small workshop and on a large scale too. On
a medium scale, electro-polishing is, to some
extent, becoming an alternative to the sort of
automated mechanical processes described in
section 5.6. Large scale producers have a fully
automated and programme controlled plant with
an overhead placing gantry. Each operation on
the multi-batch process is pre-selected by the
process controller. The techniques are dealt with
in principle in chapter 8 of this manual, together
with electro-forming and stripping, which is, in
effect, the reverse of electro-plating.
 Many setters regard their contribution to the
production of a piece of jewellery as the most
important and the most skilled. Of the setting
styles, fine pavé settings are probably regarded
as the most demanding, reference 5.8. Some
setters specialize in hidden settings for pavé.
These rely on notches below the girdle of the
stones that engage with the setting prongs and
the stones are sprung into place. The result is
that the stones appear to touch at the girdle
without apparent means of support. In certain
classical setting techniques, the craft is indeed
advanced and tiring, but modern jewellery
technology can go a long way to reduce the
workload on the setting section. It is now
possible to cast relatively thin sections and
accurately dimensioned cavities so that they form
appropriate settings without the need to carve
the form from the solid base. It is also possible
to cast carat golds around some gemstones in situ
in the lost wax process although the process is
not widely used. Some modern designs make the
setting a major feature of the overall design, see
figure 5.8. In fact, it is not only the gold shape
that is controlled closely but the gemstones too.
What appear to be free-form modifications of
naturally occurring crystal shapes are actually
5 10
•
SETTING GEMSTONES
laboratory grown sapphire, spinel and amethyst
crystals carefully cut to specified dimensions and
angles to form assembly batches. A recent
development is for small (1.5 to 5mm) stones to
A ring to be set in Clamp – showing
be machine cut (usually from synthetic boules) the clamp leather insert
and pre-set in a setting that can be snapped in or
soldered into an assembly, reference 5.9.
Several classical setting techniques applied to
carat golds include:-
• bezel,
• burnished and grain-set clusters,
• burnished collet,
• channel,
• claw,
• gypsy,
• illusion settings,
• pavé,
• peg cluster,
• Roman
Figure 5.9 sketches the important aspects of most
of the above types of setting although only one
is dealt with in detail below. It will be seen that
the preparation of most of the settings involve
cutting out metal to receive the stone and then
forming beads, prongs, collet or channel edges Figure 5.9a
5 10
• SETTING GEMSTONES
to hold the stone in place. All of this has to be (0.25 carat). The stone is first measured across
done on a very small scale, and with the girdle and a conical burr is used to create the
considerable precision. The end result should be seat for the stone. The stone will be secured by
decorated or polished or burnished so that the scrolling up a bead from metal between pairs of
setting appears to be an integral part of the scribe marks cut very flat, almost parallel to, the
design. Some settings are better managed in flat surface. The pairs of scribe marks start from
white golds or, at least in lower carat golds. Most about 1.5mm beyond the rim of the burr hole
of these require considerable skill and correctly and each is cut in towards the edge of the burr
set and sharpened tools, if the craftsman is to hole to form an angle of about 30° to each other,
1
attain good productivity. The higher carat golds see figure 5.10. The working face of the setting
(CROSS SECTION) in general are softer to cut but the settings may tool can have a fairly steep rake for, say, 22 carat
Section of Channel Ring
not be very strong. It is for this reason that gold, because it is not too difficult to move
2
GRAVER
platinum or white gold settings are sometimes enough of the alloy in one cut. On the other
Bearing Cut With Tool
combined with carat golds to provide a more hand, a hard cast white gold would need a
3
secure seating and, in some cases, complement considerably more chisel-like edge, but the
Baguette In Channel the colour of the gemstones. This section smaller amount of metal moved would still be
4 concentrates on the workability of carat golds in strong enough to secure the stone. As the gold
Baguette Set
preparing a setting, compared with the relative alloy increases in hardness, the greater the need
Cross Section strength of the settings produced. This is the for keeping tool faces sharp, correctly angled
1 2
important design feature that has to be chosen and lubricated.
GRAVER Opening For Stone in Position carefully if stones are going to be set efficiently
Stone Star Marked Beads Raised
3 but securely. Most settings that are commonly
BEADING
TOOL applied to silver are equally possible in carat
Cuts Made Into golds, but allowances may have to be made in
Opening This angle up to 60° for 24ct.,
larger prongs, claws and beads. about 30° for hard white golds.

To illustrate this principle, we can consider a star

setting in more detail. A star setting uses stones Figure 5.10 The chisel face angle of a typical setting tool needs
Figure 5.9b as small as 4 points up to perhaps 25 points to be matched to the hardness of the carat gold to be scribed.
 From what has been said above, it should be
apparent that the efficient finishing of jewellery
pieces is a matter of good planning and then
patient consistent application of proven
techniques. The time penalty in going back to
correct a deeper than necessary scratch or similar
fault is also more significant. Every effort should
be made to avoid transferring coarser particles to
finer processes.
• Store different grades of tripoli wheels, buffs
and compo bars in separate plastic bags or
boxes.
• Keep abrasive papers flat, not face to face, in
stiff envelopes or A4 paper boxes, each
reserved for one grade only.
• Keep points, hand-pads and rotary shapes
strictly in separate plastic bags or boxes
according to grade.
• Ensure that each operative wears rough-
surfaced rubber tips on all fingers (or gloves)
and only processes one grade at a time
between changing or washing.
• Ensure dust extraction boxes are used
efficiently at every grade stage and keep the
filters in the dust extraction system clean.
• Separate grinding, buffing and final polishing
stages preferably into separate chambers.
• Always expose work to fresh abrasive/
polishing media rather than risk clogging.
5 11
•
EFFICIENCY, SAFETY AND
CLEAN WORKING CONDITIONS
• Maintain working place cleanliness at a high
standard; even grease from the hand and
atmospheric dust provides an unintentional
but effective grinding medium!
• As soon as jewellery is finished, wrap it
individually in tissue or put it into a divided
storage box or into a presentation case.
There is a potential conflict in managing the
environment around finishing techniques. There
is a need to avoid cross-contamination between
stages and also to maintain a clean breathing
zone for the operator. On the other hand,
powerful ventilation by suction from around the
work face appears to work against good gold
recovery from dusts and sweepings. Carefully
designed finishing processes should remove the
absolute minimum of gold alloy from surfaces
and a series of filters in the exhaust should trap
the very small amount sucked out. This is much
preferred to maintaining a positive air pressure
near the working face, building up a dusty
residue with greatly increased risk of cross-
contamination and “protecting” the worker with
only a face mask. Extracted dust is voluminous
but compacts down well and is easily incinerated
to a more concentrated residue containing the
small gold particles for later recovery.
5.12 REFERENCES
1. Finishing of the gold jewellery product, C.W. Corti,
World Gold Council.
2. Mass media surface finishing of jewellery, S.J. Nigro, Proc.
2nd Santa Fe Symposium, 1988, 189. Metchem Reserch Inc.
3. Bulk finishing of gold jewellery-I, Wet tumbling: Basic
Principles, M. Dreher and P. Taimsalu, Aurum, 1982, _9, 34.
4. Bulk finishing of gold jewellery-II, tumbling in practice,
M. Dreher & P. Taimsalu, Aurum, 1982, 10 __, 46.
5. Bulk finishing of gold jewellery-III, Centrifugal tumbling.
M. Dreher & P. Taimsalu, Aurum, 1983, 13 __, 45.
6. Decorative and functional mass finishing of precious
metals, M. Dreher, Proc. 5th Santa Fe symposium, 1991,
27, Metchem Research Inc.
7. Finishing the cast product, V. Faccenda, Gold
Technology, 1995, 17__, 29.
8. Fine pave diamond setting in jewellery manufacture,
Carlos Lucyk, Proc. 9th Santa Fe Symposium on Jewellery
Manufacturing Technology, 1995, 351, Metchem Research
Inc.
9. Designer Idea Book: Pre-set Stones, Swarogem, A-6112,
Wattens, Austria.
10. Comparative study of metal finishing techniques on
standard samples of cast gold, M. Dreher, Proc. 5th Santa
Fe Symposium, 1991, 27, Metchem Research Inc.
11. Practical mass finishing techniques and application for
jewellery, D. Goodrich, Proc. 8th Santa Fe Symposium,
1994, Metchem Research Inc (to be published), (see M.
Grimwade, Gold Technology, 1995, 15 __, 20).
12. Influence of grinding and polishing on surface properties,
D. Ott, Proc. 9th Santa Fe Symposium, 1995, Metchem
Research Inc.
13. Finishing Handbook, V. Faccenda, 1997, World Gold
Council (to be published).
6 ANNEALING AND HEAT TREATMENT
6 ANNEALING & HEAT TREATMENT -
INTRODUCTION
Annealing and heat treatment are processes used On the other hand, mechanical properties such
in the manufacture of jewellery whereby the gold as strength and hardness of some carat gold
alloys, as part finished components or final alloys can be increased through facilitating
jewellery pieces, are subject to a defined changes to the alloy microstructure by a lower
temperature above ambient for a fixed period of temperature heat treatment process known as
time and then cooled to ambient temperature ‘age-hardening’ or ‘precipitation-hardening’. To
under specific cooling conditions. The purpose take advantage of this phenomenon, an
of such treatments is either to restore the understanding the metallurgy of the carat gold
mechanical properties to a soft, ductile condition alloys is helpful, as described in section 6.2.
to enable further mechanical processing to be
carried out without risk of cracking or premature
failure or to optimise the properties of the
jewellery for service, for example to improve
wear resistance or reduce the tendency for stress
corrosion cracking.
When metals and alloys are cold worked they
become work (strain) hardened. Strength and
hardness increase with increasing amount of cold
work and at the same time the remaining
ductility and malleability decreases (Figure
6.1). If the amount of cold work is excessive,
cracking and fracture will occur because the
residual ductility has fallen to zero (ref. 6.1).
Pure gold can be rolled and hammered to gold
leaf, so thin that light can be transmitted through
it, or drawn down to a fine point because it has
extremely high ductility. The carat gold alloys
generally have good ductility although less than Fig 6.1 Effect of cold work on the strength and ductility of
that of pure gold. metals and alloys
FULL ANNEALING
When alloys are given large amounts of cold work
in rolling, drawing, hammering, sheet metal
forming, etc., it becomes necessary to restore
softness and ductility during fabrication in order to
avoid cracking and fracture by overworking. This
restoration process is known as annealing or,
more strictly, full annealing to distinguish it from
stress relief annealing (see later) and temper
annealing. Figure 6.2 shows the effect of
annealing temperature on various properties
measured at room temperature after annealing.
Initially, as a result of work hardening, strength
and hardness are at a high level and the ductility is
Fig 6.2 Effect of annealing temperature on the room
temperature properties of metals and alloys
61
•
PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE OF
ANNEALING
low. Annealing at relatively low temperatures has
little effect on these properties. However, if the
annealing temperature is raised sufficiently, the
strength and hardness will fall to a much lower
level and the ductility will be restored to a high
level. Annealing at higher temperatures will cause
a further slight decrease in strength and hardness
and the ductility will rise to a peak and then fall
as temperatures approach the melting range.
The other important property affected by cold
working and annealing is grain size. Metals and
alloys in the cast or previously annealed
conditions have a polycrystalline microstructure
Fig 6.3 Sketch showing the effect of annealing temperatures on
grain structure
made up of crystals or grains within which the
metal atoms are packed together in a regular
pattern. The grain size is the average size of the
crystals and this can range from a few micro-
metres (µm) to, occasionally, several millimetres.
The effect of working is to flatten and elongate
the grains along the direction of metal flow. With
large amounts of cold work, the micro-structure
becomes fibrous in nature and it is virtually
impossible to measure a grain size (and
meaningless). Full annealing causes new grains
to form from the fibrous microstructure by a
nucleation and growth process. This is
recrystallisation and it always accompanies full
annealing. Figure 6.3 shows that the grain size of
the fully annealed alloy is small at first but as the
annealing temperature is raised, the grain size
increases and quite rapidly at high temperatures.
In practice, it is possible to make a design
feature out of coarse grains but, usually, coarse
grains should be avoided.
Correct conditions for full annealing depend on
• annealing temperature,
• annealing time,
• amount of prior cold work,
• alloy composition,
• the grain size before working.
61
•
PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE OF
ANNEALING
Temperature and time are interrelated, the higher
the temperature, the shorter the time to achieve
the same grain structure and levels of strength,
hardness and ductility. Annealing with a torch
tends to be at a higher temperature for a shorter
time (and there is less precise control) than
when using a furnace. Ideally, the annealed
metal or alloy should have a small re-crystallised
grain size for optimum strength, hardness and
ductility. For this reason, gold alloy data sheets
(ref. 6.2) recommend an optimum amount of
cold work between anneals of 50-70%. For some
alloys that are difficult to work, it may be
necessary to anneal more frequently. It is easy to
quantify the amount of cold work for processes
such as rolling and drawing. For sheet and strip
the component; one has to learn by experience
when annealing becomes necessary. It is better
to anneal early rather than late rather than risk
incipient cracking due to overworking; annealing
cannot repair this sort of damage.
If annealing is done at excessively high
temperatures, grain growth can give an
unacceptably large grain size leading to a problem
known as the orange peel effect. When annealed
metal is worked, each grain or crystal deforms
slightly differently from its neighbours. This is not
obvious with small grain sizes but it can be seen
as a marked rumpled surface resembling the skin
of an orange on the outer surfaces of bent chain
links and die stampings when the grain size is
Table 6.1 recommends annealing temperatures
for carat gold alloys when furnace annealing for,
say, 30 minutes. When using a torch, the
annealing temperature, for a much shorter time,
is judged by assessing the temperature colour,
i.e. the degree of heat redness, by eye. It is
important that this should be done in a darkened
area, or at least under constant light conditions
as one’s judgement is greatly affected by light
from windows and fluorescent lights, etc.
TABLE 6.1 FULL ANNEALING TEMPERATURES
FOR CARAT GOLD ALLOYS
Alloy Annealing Temperature
Temperature Colour
°C

rolling, the amount of cold work (CW) is the large (Figure 6.4). Some 14 carat gold alloys are Fine Gold 200 Black Heat
reduction in thickness expressed as a percentage. particularly prone to show this effect. 990 Gold 800 *
18,21,22ct Golds 550-600 Very dark red
CW% = Initial thickness(to)-Final thickness(t1) x 100
9,10,14ct Golds 650 Dark red
Initial thickness (to)
Palladium White
For rod rolling and wire drawing, CW% is the Golds 650-700 Cherry red
reduction in cross section area.
Nickel White
CW% = Initial area(πr0 2) - Final area(πr12) x 100 Golds 700-750† Cherry red †
Initial area (πr02)
where π = 3.142 and r = radius of rod or wire * 990 Gold cannot be satisfactorily torch annealed.

† Nickel white golds may crack if rapidly heated to the full

It is not easy to quantify the amount of cold work annealing temperature. This is known as fire cracking. Heat
for die stamping or hand-crafted operations and slowly to at least 300°C, then raise the temperature to
700-750°C.
it is likely to vary from one point to another in Fig 6.4 The orange peel effect
Reference back to Tables 1.3 will show the
comparison of mechanical properties of typical
carat gold alloys in both the annealed and cold
worked conditions.
If 18 and lower carat coloured gold alloys are to
retain their soft ductile condition after full
annealing, they must be quenched, i.e. rapidly
cooled by immersion in cold water, from the
annealing temperature.
Slow cooling after annealing may cause further
micro-structural changes leading to hardening and
loss of ductility. These changes can be the basis for
heat treatments designed to deliberately strengthen
certain carat gold alloys; see Section 6.3.
Nickel-white golds should not be quenched from
the annealing temperature as this may lead to
distortion or even cracking. Neither should they
be slowly cooled as this can lead to some loss of
whiteness due to micro-structural changes within
the alloy. It is recommended that the alloys are
placed on an iron plate and cooled from the
annealing temperature in a direct air stream
(ref. 6.3).
61
•
PRINCIPLES & PRACTICE OF
ANNEALING
STRESS RELIEF ANNEALING
Low carat gold alloys such as 9,10 and 14ct may
be left in the work hardened condition to give
added strength and springiness for certain
jewellery applications such as spring clasps,
bangles, stampings, etc. In such cases there may
be a tendency for items to fail by cracking and
fracture some time after manufacture, or even
after purchase by a customer, due to a
phenomenon known as stress corrosion cracking.
As the name implies, it is caused by a combination
of stress and a corrosive environment. For these
alloys, the corrosive environment can be acid
fumes (e.g. from pickling solutions), domestic
cleaning fluids, (e.g. bleach), and chlorinated
swimming pools. The stress may be an applied
stress, i.e. a stress being applied to the article as a
consequence of wearing the jewellery, but it is
more likely to be a residual or internal stress
resulting from the manufacturing process. Most
working processes leave stresses locked into the
wrought product because of the non-uniform
nature of the deformation being applied. Full
annealing will remove the stresses but then the
added strength and springiness will be lost. Rapid
quenching will introduce internal stresses due to
the temperature gradients set up by uneven
cooling from the outside to the centre of the piece
being quenched.
The level of residual stresses can be significantly
reduced by stress relief annealing at a
temperature that is too low to cause
recrystallisation and softening. Items such as
clasps and bangles will retain their springiness
but the stress component responsible for stress
corrosion cracking is removed. In these
circumstances, the corrosive environment is
much less likely to cause failure. The
recommended stress relieving treatment for low
carat gold alloys is 30 minutes at 250°C. Stress
relief should preferably be done in an oven or
low temperature furnace, but it can be done
using a torch by gently re-heating at
temperatures low in the black heat range to
avoid full annealing. Stress relief should always
be done after doing jewellery repairs or re-sizing
operations on rings (see refs. 6.4, 6.5, 6.6).
62
• METALLURGY OF THE CARAT GOLDS
The basis for the coloured carat golds is the
ternary gold-silver-copper (Au-Ag-Cu) alloy
system. With fine gold, the gold atoms, which
can be considered as extremely small (sub-
microscopic) spheres, pack together in a regular
three-dimensional array known as a crystal
lattice. In practice, a piece of fine gold, or any
single phase alloy, consists of a large number of
crystals bonded together to give a
polycrystalline structure. The only difference
between neighbouring crystals (grains) is in the
orientation of the crystal planes and directions.
Some alloys have different types of atomic
packing giving different crystal structures and
the alloy is then referred to as a two-phase or a
multiphase structure (ref. 6.7).
BINARY ALLOY SYSTEMS
When silver is alloyed with gold in the binary
gold-silver (Au-Ag) alloy system, the silver
atoms replace some of the gold atoms in the
solid crystal structure. This is a substitutional
solid solution, i.e. the gold atoms are substituted
by the silver atoms. This will happen at all
compositions from 0 to 100% silver and at all
temperatures from the solidus down to room
temperature, and the system is said to display a
complete series of solid solutions. Whereas the
pure metals have a characteristic unique melting
temperature, (1064°C for gold and 960.5°C for
silver), the alloys melt and solidify over a range
of temperature between the liquidus and the
solidus. When copper is alloyed with gold in
the binary Au-Cu alloy system, again a complete
series of solid solutions is formed only from the
solidus down to a temperature dictated by the
alloy composition, e.g. to 410°C for an alloy of
75% Au - 25% Cu which will be recognised as
an 18ct red gold. The third alloy system which
influences the metallurgy of the carat golds is
Fig 6.5 The Gold–Silver alloy system binary phase diagram
the binary Ag-Cu system. Here, it is not possible
to form a complete series of solid solutions. The
silver lattice will only allow solid solution
formation from a very low level at room
temperature up to a maximum of 8.8 weight %
addition of copper at 779°C. Similarly, the
copper lattice will dissolve a maximum of only
8% silver at the same temperature. Alloys having
compositions lying between 8.8% and 92% Cu
will have structures below the solidus of 779°C
consisting of the two silver-rich and copper-rich
partial solid solutions (ref. 6.8).
Fig 6.6 The Gold–Copper alloy system binary phase diagram
Alloy behaviour can be described with phase vertical line can be drawn from the composition
equilibrium (constitutional) diagrams. Figures point on the horizontal axis at the bottom of the
6.5, 6.6 and 6.7 show the binary phase diagrams diagram. Micro-structural features in terms of the
for the Au-Ag, Au-Cu and Ag-Cu alloy systems, solid phase or phases present at any particular
respectively. Knowing the alloy composition, a temperature, the temperatures at the start and

Fig 6.7 The Silver–Copper alloy system binary phase diagram
completion of solidification on cooling from the
melt, i.e. the liquidus and solidus, and the
temperatures at which phase changes in the solid
may occur can be read from this line.
Example
Consider an 18ct red gold of 75% gold and
25% copper by weight. In Figure 6.6, draw a
line vertically from this point on the
composition axis to a melt temperature of say
1000°C. Follow the line down from this
temperature. The alloy will start to solidify at
the liquidus temperature of about 913°C. In
this case the melting range is so narrow that
the solidus temperature is only slightly lower
62
•
METALLURGY OF THE CARAT GOLDS
at 911°C. Within the solidification range, two having the atomic ratio one atom of gold to
phases co-exist, namely the liquid phase and three atoms of copper in the crystal lattice.
the solid solution, which by convention is
labelled by the Greek letter α. Below the TERNARY ALLOY SYSTEMS
solidus, solidification is complete and the alloy The ternary alloy system, Au-Ag-Cu, has to be
is single phase α-solid solution. There are no displayed on a three-dimensional diagram.
further changes as the alloy cools until a Compositions are plotted on a triangular base
temperature of 410°C is reached. At this with 60° angles (Figure 6.8). For example,
temperature, the α-phase changes to another drawing a line across from 58.33% Au - 41.67%
solid crystalline (compound) phase known as Ag to 58.33% Au - 41.67% Cu will construct the
AuCu because it is based on an alloy
composition where the atomic ratio happens
to be one atom of gold to one atom of copper.
This change has important implications for
processing 18ct alloys as will be seen in
Section 6.3. The dashed line at 385°C indicates
a modification to the structure of AuCu.
This example shows for gold-copper alloys, high
carat golds of 21ct and above, are essentially
single phase α-solid solutions from the solidus
down to room temperature. The 18ct red gold
will show a phase transformation (change) to
AuCu at 410°C and 14 (58% Au)and 10ct (42%
Au) red golds also show phase transformations
from the α phase to another phase labelled
AuCu3 because it is centred on the composition Fig 6.8 Composition base for the Au-Ag-Cu alloy system
62
• METALLURGY OF THE CARAT GOLDS
composition line for all ternary 14ct Au-Ag-Cu
alloys. Similar lines can be drawn for any other
caratage at the relevant gold content.
Consideration of the silver/copper ratio in the
carat gold will pinpoint its position on the
composition line. For example, an 18ct alloy
containing 12.5% Ag and 12.5% Cu will be
halfway along the 18ct line (at X) whereas an
alloy containing 20% Cu and 5% Ag will be at
point Y four-fifths (20:5) along the line towards
the Au-Cu axis. Temperature has to be plotted
Fig 6.9 The ternary phase diagram for the Au-Ag-Cu alloy
system
vertically from the composition base giving a
three-dimensional prism whose sides are made
up of the three binary phase diagrams Au-Ag,
Au-Cu and Ag-Cu (Figure 6.9). The phases
based on AuCu and AuCu3 will extend a small
way into the prism but the two phase region
referred to earlier in the Ag-Cu binary system
extends a long way into the centre of the prism
as is shown by the envelope of dashed lines.
Note that as the temperature increases, the
extent of this two phase region (region of
immiscibility) is decreased so that it becomes
possible for some 10 and 14ct alloys to be
single phase α-solid solution at high
temperatures and on cooling to become two
phased with a mixture of the partial solid
solutions α1 (based on a gold-silver rich crystal
phase with a small amount of copper in
solution) and α2 (based on a gold-copper rich
phase with a small amount of silver in solution).
Many commercial carat gold alloys have other
additives which will modify the positions of lines
and phase fields in the equilibrium diagrams.
For example, zinc additions further depress the
solidus and liquidus and also reduce the extent
and height of the solid two-phase region shown
in Figure 6.9.
It was emphasized in Section 6.1 that if 18ct and
lower caratage alloys are to be retained in their
fully softened ductile condition after annealing, it
is necessary to quench them from the annealing
temperature. The reason for this can be
explained in terms of the phase transformations
that may occur if the alloys are slowly cooled.
DISORDER-ORDER CHANGES
Reference to the phase equilibrium diagrams
shows that depending on the alloy composition,
slow cooling at rates required to approximate to
equilibrium conditions will cause the α-solid
solution to transform either to the phases AuCu
or AuCu3 or to the mixture of α1 and α2 or even
a mixture of α1 + AuCu (or AuCu3). The
transformations to AuCu or AuCu3 are known as
disorder to order transformations. Above the
transformation temperature, e.g. 410°C for AuCu,
the gold and copper atoms are dispersed in
random positions throughout the α-solid solution
crystal lattice even though the atomic ratio of
Au:Cu is 1:1 or 1:3. Below the transformation
temperature, the atoms move by a process
known as solid state diffusion to take up set or
ordered positions in the lattice, e.g. for AuCu the
lattice consists of alternate layers of gold atoms
63
•
HEAT TREATMENT OF CARAT GOLD
ALLOYS: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
and copper atoms (Figure 6.10). The
transformation is accompanied by considerable
increases in strength and hardness and a
reduction in ductility which explains why slowly
cooled 18ct red, and to a lesser extent the 9, 10
and 14ct red, alloys are difficult to work. On the
other hand, having completed working, slow
cooling induces significant extra strength. The
transformation to α1 + α2 (with increased
strength and hardness and loss of ductility) is
known as precipitation hardening. This type
of transformation does not have a great influence
on 18ct coloured gold alloys but there may be a
Cu atom
Au atom
DISORDEREDF ORDEREDF
Above 410°CF Below 410°CF
f.c.c. f.c.t.
Fig 6.10 The disorder to order transformation
large effect on 9, 10 and 14ct alloys, again
depending on their actual composition, and it
explains why some low carat gold alloys are
notoriously difficult to work.
Quenching or rapid cooling from above the
phase transformation temperatures prevents the
transformations from taking place so that the
high temperature single phase solid solution,
with its associated softness and ductility, is
retained at room temperature. Although in
theory, the phase diagrams indicate that the
transformations should still occur, the rate of
transformation is infinitely slow at room
temperature so that in practice they do not take
place. For more detailed reading, see refs. 6.9,
6.10, 6.11.
AGEING OR PRECIPITATION
HARDENING
Use can be made of these phase transformations
in jewellery manufacture by deliberately
promoting their occurrence by heat treatment at
a late stage in production just prior to final
finishing. The heat treatment is referred to as age
hardening and it is a means of increasing
strength and hardness in jewellery items by
63
•
HEAT TREATMENT OF CARAT GOLD
ALLOYS: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
precipitation hardening and/or ordering reactions of alloy composition is shown by comparing the
under controlled conditions of ageing hardnesses of 14ct ternary Au-Ag-Cu alloys at all
temperature and time to give optimum compositions in Figure 6.12.
mechanical properties. Annealing and water
quenching is sometimes known as solution Table 6.2 compares the mechanical properties of
treatment. The effect of a subsequent age certain 14 and 18ct alloys in the solution
hardening treatment is schematically shown in annealed and quenched condition with the age
Figure 6.11 by the ageing curve and the influence hardened alloys.

TABLE 6.2 EFFECT OF AGE HARDENING ON THE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOME 14 & 18
CARAT GOLD ALLOYS.
Fig 6.11 A typical age hardening curve
Composition % Colour Condition Hardness TS Elongation
Au Ag Cu HV N/mm2 %
58.5 20.5 21 Yellow Ann. 650°C-WQ 190 580 25
Aged 360°C-1h 270 800 3
58.5 10 31.5 (Cu/Zn) Pink Ann. 650°C-WQ 148 440 35
Aged 300°C-1h 242 593 3
58.5 9 32.5 Red Ann. 650°C-WQ 160 550 45
Aged 260°C-1h 260 700 12

75 12.5 12.5 yellow Ann. 550°C-WQ 150 520 40

Aged 280°C-1h 230 750 15
75 9 16 Pink Ann. 550°C-WQ 160 550 40
Aged 280°C-1h 285 850 7
75 4.5 20.5 Red Ann. 550°C-WQ 165 550 40
Aged 280°C-1h 325 950 4

Fig 6.12 Age hardening for all 14ct Au-Ag-Cu alloys WQ means quenched in water after annealing at the stated temperature
Considerable interest is being shown in
hardenable high carat gold alloys. A recent
development has been 990 Gold (23.76ct) with
properties quoted in Table 1.3. This is a
precipitation hardening alloy containing 1%
titanium and processing details, including
annealing and heat treatment conditions, are
given in Gold Technology No.6 (ref. 6.12)
The advantages of heat treating 9, 10, 14 and
18ct gold jewellery are that if the treatment is
done just prior to final finishing and polishing it
should be easier to produce a good surface
finish and the items will have increased scratch,
wear and dent resistance as a result of the added
strength and hardness.
strength, hardness and ductility. This would be a
problem in processing items from semi-fabricated
stock, e.g. die stampings from annealed strip and
machine-made chain from wire, as the variations
may lead to increased reject rates. In these cases,
and for the age hardening treatment described in
the preceding section, the required degree of
control can only be obtained by furnace
annealing. It is virtually impossible to control
temperature and time to develop the desired
mechanical properties using a torch. Furnace
annealing and heat treatment also permits the
use of protective gas atmospheres to prevent
oxidation of surfaces.

Full annealing can be done using a torch but its

effectiveness is very dependent on the skill and
experience of the craftsperson. Centuries of
making delicate and intricate hand crafted
jewellery have demonstrated that torch annealing
is a perfectly satisfactory process for this type of
jewellery manufacture. However, there is bound
to be a lack of control in ensuring the same
degree of heating and time at every point in the
item, leading to some variation in grain size,

63
•
HEAT TREATMENT OF CARAT GOLD
ALLOYS: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE
64
• TECHNICAL CONTROL
FURNACES
There are three main types of furnaces available for
annealing and heat treatment operations, namely,

• batch annealing (Figure 6.13)

• continuous belt annealing (Figure 6.14)
• continuous strand annealing.(Figure 6.15)

Care must be taken when negotiating the

purchase of furnaces that the correct type is
bought for a particular heat treatment
operation, alloy type and jewellery
application.

Batch furnaces consist of a single heating

chamber with “doors” and are the most common
type for jobbing jewellery makers. Items to be
annealed or age hardened can be placed on trays
or in specially designed baskets and pushed into
the heating zone. After treatment, the items are
removed and quenched, if this is required.
Modern installations have quench tanks
incorporated into which the items can be Fig 6.13 Electric Furnace for batch annealing with water quenching facility
mechanically lowered on completion of the heat
treatment. Long lengths of strip and wire have to
be coiled if they are to be annealed prior to
further working and because the outside of the and properties throughout the coil. This can be a of links in subsequent chain making.
coil will reach the required annealing problem for certain 14ct alloys which are prone This problem can be overcome for wire, or
temperature before the inside of the coil when to grain growth on annealing and hence there is chain, by using a continuous strand annealing
heated there may be some variation in grain size a danger of the orange peel effect on the surface furnace, see Fig 6.15.
 quenching is necessary to retain softness
and ductility for further working. Neither is
it suitable for age hardening treatments.

A continuous strand annealing furnace allows

Fig 6.14 Electric Belt Furnace
Continuous belt furnaces have a continuous wire
mesh or metal strip belt on which jewellery items
and parts are placed so that they travel into the
hot zone of the furnace and then into a cooling
zone which is usually a water cooled chamber
surrounding the belt. The items are collected at
the outlet to the cooling chamber. The annealing
conditions are set by the temperature of the hot
zone(s) in the furnace and the speed of the belt
through the furnace. This type of furnace is
widely used for furnace soldering (brazing) and
final annealing operations but it is not suitable
for annealing operations where rapid
drawn wire to be taken off one spool and be
passed as a single strand through a tube which
itself is surrounded first by the hot zone and then
a cooling chamber. As the wire emerges from the
tube it is re-spooled. Annealing conditions are set
by the hot zone temperature and the speed of the
wire through the tube. Because the single strand is
at temperature for a very short time there is little
opportunity for grain growth, there is uniformity
of mechanical properties along the length of the
wire and the rate of cooling is sufficiently rapid to
prevent undesirable ageing effects.
Modern furnace installations may use protective
atmospheres, and will incorporate temperature
measurement and temperature control and may
even have facilities for automated handling of
items at all stages including quenching.
Occasionally, salt bath installations are used for
annealing and heat treatment. These are vats
containing a salt which melts on heating. The vats
are heated either externally by gas or electricity or
internally using an immersion heater. Items to be
Fig 6.15 Electric Furnace for continuous (strand) annealing of wire
treated are placed in baskets which are immersed
into the molten salt at the required temperature
and time before removal and quenching. The
installations are relatively cheap compared to
furnaces as the method of heating and
temperature control is simpler. There is no need
for a protective atmosphere as the salt cover
gives protection from oxidation. The choice of a
suitable salt is dictated by the temperature and
type of process and this should be discussed with
the suppliers of salts and salt bath installations.
There are disadvantages to using salts. There is a
gradual loss due to drag-out on removal

64
•
TECHNICAL CONTROL
64
• TECHNICAL CONTROL
necessitating periodic replenishment. They can be
messy unless care is taken to keep the installation
and its surroundings scrupulously clean.
Safety note. Workers must wear protective
clothing such as aprons, gloves and face masks
to prevent burns from splashes and spills. All
parts and baskets, handling tools, etc. must be
completely free from moisture as reactions
between water vapour and molten salt have an
explosive tendency.
PROTECTIVE ATMOSPHERES
To prevent oxidation of surfaces during furnace
heat treatment, it is necessary to provide a
protective atmosphere which is at least inert but
which preferably will provide reducing
conditions where any oxide film is reduced back
to the metal. (The same is true of torch
annealing; the nature of torch flames was
discussed in Section 2.3). Nitrogen is an inert
atmosphere provided the alloy does not contain
a constituent such as titanium (which does react
with nitrogen), in which case argon is preferred
as an inert atmosphere. Reducing atmospheres
give what are sometimes known as ‘bright
annealing’ conditions and they contain hydrogen
and/or carbon monoxide as the reducing
constituents. This is in contrast to gases such as
oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour which
will provide oxidising conditions and which are
often present as minor constituents of
commercial atmospheres. An example of
reduction of a copper oxide film on the surface
of a carat gold alloy by hydrogen is:-
Copper (cuprous) oxide + hydrogen = copper +
water vapour
Cu2O + H2 = 2Cu + H2O
The protective atmospheres most widely used in
the jewellery manufacturing industry are forming
gas, which is a mixture of 80-90% nitrogen and
10-20% hydrogen supplied from two gas cylinders
with a mixer valve and gauge to obtain the
correct proportions, and cracked (dissociated)
ammonia. The latter atmosphere is produced in
a cracker plant by preheating ammonia and
catalytically dissociating it into its component
constituents of 75% hydrogen and 25% nitrogen.
The cracker plant is relatively small and can be
placed in the vicinity of the heat treatment
furnace. Cracked ammonia is a dry atmosphere
and is preferred particularly for alloys containing
zinc whereas cylinder gases can contain small
amounts of water vapour and oxygen. It is also a
cheaper atmosphere once the capital outlay on
the cracker plant has been absorbed. Further
reading, see references 6.13 and 6.14.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT AND
CONTROL
Modern furnaces have a means for measuring
temperature in the hot zone and also a means for
controlling the temperature at the desired level to
about +/- 1°C. It is possible also to programme a
complete heat treatment cycle including rate of
heating to the desired level, time at any
temperature and cooling rate. This refinement is
not usually required for annealing, age hardening
or soldering treatments but it is very important
for burn-out cycles in investment casting (Section
3.4). It is important to check that that measuring
thermocouples are operating correctly and that
the temperature within the hot zone is uniform.
Thermocouple readings will eventually drift from
their calibration levels with time and when this
happens the thermocouples will have to be
replaced. Further reading, see refs. 6.15 and 6.16
and Section 2.3 of this manual.
Furnace thermocouples and temperatures
should be checked at regular intervals using
a thermocouple and meter kept especially
for the purpose. It is advisable to ensure
that furnaces are fitted with a ‘safety fuse’
close to the hot zone. If the temperature
controlling device fails, the safety fuse
melts. This prevents the furnace from
seriously overheating causing burn-out of
furnace windings with an attendant high
cost of replacement and loss of production.
BLISTERING IN SHEET AND STRIP
One common defect in annealed sheet and strip is
the occurrence of raised blisters on the surface
although the defect was not present prior to
annealing. This is caused by the presence of
trapped gas introduced during the melting and
casting of ingots. Rolling flattens the gas porosity so
that it is not obvious. On annealing, the gas within
the pores expands and at the same time the
surrounding metal is considerable weakened at high
temperatures. Consequently the pores blow open
and raise blisters on the surface. The occurrence of
the defect is minimised by ensuring that gas is not
picked up during the melting process and this
means paying attention to the melting procedures,
e.g. the preferable use of electric heating methods,
use of a flux or an inert gas cover, etc.
DISTORTION AND DIMENSIONAL
INSTABILITY
It is not unknown for shaped parts to distort or
suffer dimensional changes during heat
treatment. This is due to a number of factors the
64
•
TECHNICAL CONTROL
most important of which are the residual stresses 6.10 Age Hardening of Au-Ag-Cu and Au-Ag-Cu-Zn Gold
Jewellery Alloys, W. S. Rapson, Proceedings of the
referred to earlier and also the weight of the Seventh Santa Fe Symposium on Jewellery
parts. The latter may lead to sagging if the parts Manufacturing Technology, 1993, To be published.
are unsupported in the furnace. The use of 6.11 Heat Treatment of 14 Carat Gold Alloy, C. P. Susz, M.
Linker, P. Orosz and D. Sapey. Aurum, 1982, 11, 17.
unnecessarily high annealing and soldering 6.12 990 Gold, Gold Technology, World Gold Council, 1992,
temperatures should be avoided. If the distortion 6.
6.13 Heat Treatment of Precious Metals and their Alloys, Mark
problem remains, it may be necessary to fully Grimwade, Proceedings of the Fifth Santa Fe Symposium
anneal the part and then apply a slight resizing on Jewellery Manufacturing Technology, 1991, 241.
operation in a die set to correct dimensions. 6.14 Controlled Atmospheres for Heat Treatment, R.Nemenyi,
edited by G.Bennett, Publ. by Pergammon Press, 1984,
ISBN 0-08- 019883.
6.15 Temperature Measurement for Jewellers, Eddie Bell,
6.5 REFERENCES TO FURTHER DETAIL Proceedings of the First Santa Fe Symposium on
6.1 Working and Annealing, Mark Grimwade, Gold Jewellery Manufacturing Technology, 1987, 245.
Technology, World Gold Council, 1990, 2, 17. 6.16 Temperature Measurement, Mark Grimwade, Gold
6.2 Gold Alloy Data, Gold Technology, World Gold Council, Technology, World Gold Council, 1991, 5, 10.
1990, 1.
6.3 Working in Precious Metals, E. A. Smith, 267-278, Publ.
by N.A.G. Press Ltd., 1978, ISBN 7198 0032 3
6.4 Environmental Effects on Gold Alloys, Mark Grimwade,
Gold Technology, World Gold Council, 1993, 9, 13.
6.5 Stress Corrosion Cracking Failure - Wrought Gold
Jewellery Alloys, G. Normandeau, Proceedings of the
Fifth Santa Fe Symposium on Jewellery Manufacturing
Technology, 1991, 323.
6.6 Residual Stresses, Mark Grimwade, Gold Technology,
World Gold Council, 1992, 8, 9.
6.7 Precious Metals Metallurgy, Paul Finelt, Proceedings of
the First Santa Fe Symposium on Jewellery
Manufacturing Technology, 1987, 29.
6.8 Basic Metallurgy for Goldsmiths - 2, Mark Grimwade,
Aurum, 1980, 1, 26.
6.9 Getting Increased Strength in Carat Gold Jewellery, Mark
Grimwade, Gold Technology, World Gold Council, 1994,
14, 10.
7 METALWORKING TECHNOLOGY
71
• METALWORKING TECHNOLOGY
Almost all jewellery making involves some metal
working technology on a small scale. Precision
casting and electro-forming might be exceptions
but as pointed out in the previous chapter, even
finishing and gem-setting are, in principle, metal
working in miniature. The simple re-sizing of a
ring shank, whether by stretching or “forging” up
on a triblet or down-sizing (reference 7.1),
requires an appreciation of the residual ductility
of the band. However, the term is normally
applied to producing semi-finished forms from
ingot and to significantly changing the size and
shape of such forms by further working, rather
than cutting into smaller pieces. At the heavy
end of the scale, machinery is needed, the cost
of which has to be justified by good productivity.
This implies that a relatively large throughput of
a limited range of section sizes, alloys and
tempers has to be produced without building up
a large and therefore expensive inventory.
Machinery was introduced to jewellery making
by Matthew Boulton, the Birmingham pioneer of
the industrial revolution in the 1770s. Prior to
that, craft jewellers were (and still are) adept at
making jigs and modifying simple tools to make
their work easier or more consistent. The
transition was probably the use of the fly press
for small scale forging, including blanking and
coining, but mainly to blank out or stamp simple sophisticated application of machinery is in chain
components to save repetitious hand sawing, making which is dealt with in section 7.7.
bending and cupping.
The jewellery manufacturer is faced with an
important decision. Does he install power-driven
machinery for occasional use and buy in alloy
ingot or does he buy in a small selection of
semi-finished sections (semis) that can be cut to
suit the design of individual pieces of jewellery.
Most jewellers opt for the latter. A less obvious
advantage of buying semi-finished sections is that
the size, temper, and full analysis, let alone the
caratage, can be under good control and
repeatable. Some further adjustment can still be
made by hand-worked machinery and small
batch heat-treatment; see chapter 5.
This chapter concentrates on the smaller scale
operations but says enough about some of the
larger scale to explain the range of different
properties available as semis. A very large
proportion of jewellery is produced by modifying
semis using relatively simple tooling. When there
is a demand for high productivity and quality
combined, machines, alloys, their optimum state
and method of working, all become more critical
compared with the adjustments that can be made
using craft methods. Probably the most
Metalworking changes an ingot of metal or alloy
into a semi-finished product and then further
into a decorative component or complete piece
of jewellery. It also improves the alloy
properties by breaking down and refining the
original cast structure. After casting an ingot the
three main working processes are:-
• Forging with an open face hammer, a pair
of open face dies, or a pair of closed dies;
• Rolling between plain cylindrical rolls for
slab, sheet or strip; or grooved rolls to
produce more or less elaborate section
shapes. Precious metals tend to be cold
rolled first in a break-down mill and
annealed at intervals. Later reductions are
made with finishing rolls, again with inter-
stage annealing, to control finish texture,
thickness and hardness. These methods also
encourage uniform fine grain size. If a
jobbing jeweller employs only one
mechanised form of working, it is likely to
be a small set of rolls. The more expensive
models have larger diameter, wider and
precision ground hardened steel rolls. The
most useful roll set, if only one is chosen, is
a combination of half the roll width carrying
a series of simple section grooves alongside
72
•
SEMI-FINISHED FORMS FROM
INGOT
the other half allowing reduction of flat strip
section, Figure 7.1. It is surprisingly difficult
to work a roll set by hand, even using long
lever handles to turn the rolls. Most carat
golds work harden quickly and the rate of
working is not so great that a lot of heat is
generated and retained in the work.
Consequently, reductions are limited to
about 25% to 50% between anneals with the
lower carat alloys being the less tolerant,
particularly nickel bearing white golds. Motor
driven rolls with a high reduction gear ratio
offer an easier bite at the start of a
reduction, a more uniform rate of working
which produces a flatter straighter product
Fig 7.1 Typical jewellers rolls for both strip and section.
and a heavier reduction between anneals.
Certainly with hand rolling, and usually with
motor-driven rolls, it is best to work a strip
or section in the same direction all the time.
Turning a strip over width-wise between
passes does help to keep the cross-section
parallel and reduces curl and flanges or fins,
but turning end to end tends to create more
distortion. It is often possible to head off
premature failure to complete a reduction by
grinding out cracks in the edges and ends of
sections before they spread.
• Extrusion, which squeezes a material under
hydraulic pressure from a container through
a section exit die so that it emerges as a
continuous length of that cross-section.
Extrusion is not much used in jewellery
making.
The products of the three processes described
above could be regarded as semi-finished
products ready to supply to the jobbing jeweller
but either the refiner or the jeweller may also
apply secondary working processes.
73
• HANDWORKING
Handworking may, in principle, involve any of
the above processes but usually on a small scale
using simple presses or hand-tools. In addition,
there are several jewellery making processes that
rely more on hand work than on machines and
are traditionally named. Several have been
mentioned in the section on finishing and
polishing jewellery. They include:-
• Section-drawing, of which the simplest
example is wire drawing.
• Stamping or press-forming which is often
used to convert sheet or wire into more
three-dimensional components. A special case
of stamping is blanking and coining.
• Hand-working by the jeweller, using a wide
variety of craft techniques such as bending,
sinking, raising, dopping, channel forming,
and mini-forging.
• Carving such as engraving which removes
metal in thin lines, or chasing which digs a
groove, impressing the metal but does not
remove it, (repoussé is the same done from
behind).
Traditional gold-smithing techniques are dealt
with in a design context in reference 7.1, and
brought up to date with newer alloys, quality
and safety standards.
In addition to grains, granules and solders, semi-
finished products include:-
• Sheet and strip. Sheet is limited by roll
width while strip may be rolled or sheared to
width. Both are available with satin to
polished finish; a satin finish is often better
for controlling spinning, stamping and deep
drawing.
• Wire and rod. These are prolific in jewellery
and particularly for chain making where some
manufacturers specialise in the high accuracy
of roundness, diameter and temper necessary
for high speed manipulation in chain making
machinery. Good uniformity of diameter and
controlled hardness is required in fine wire
and thread intended for filigree designs,
weaving and embroidery.
• Tape. The requirements of fine tape are
similar to wire but they are often produced Repoussé, hammering from the back
(from ref. 7.14).
by precision rolling under tension rather than
by drawing.
• Tube. The starting stock can be made by:
- soldering the seam in curve-formed and
drawn strip,
- deep drawing and redrawing a circle cut
from sheet,
- extrusion of hollow billet,
- continuous casting a hollow billet.
The type of redrawing that follows, depends on
the accuracy of section and concentricity
• Section. Tapes, wires, tubes are all sections
but the term tends to be used for other than
required. The most accurate lengths are made by
round or rectangular sections. Hexagonal,
hand drawing on long fixed bed draw-benches
octagonal, star-shaped and many other
using high precision (diamond) dies and a core
sections may be incorporated in jewellery
mandrel to maintain wall thickness and
design; D-shaped sections for wedding bands
concentricity. The problem with mandrel tube
are a prolific example.
drawing is removal of the mandrel. Short lengths
may be passed through sets of rolls or discs that
• Findings. Include the simplest circle of wire
used as a jump ring; bolt rings, swivels, snaps,
spin the tube and impart a slight twist to the
clasps, brooch fittings, conical collets and
outer surface relative to the core. This helps to
complete settings ready to accept a calibrated
release the mandrel. In some specialised tube
gemstone. There are thousands of such items
making, the mandrel is dissolved away. Tubes for
in different shapes, sizes, colours and
chain making can incorporate a flux and solder
caratages.
core especially for easy chain link soldering.
Engraving with steel tools.
Drawing down without a mandrel is called
sinking and the wall thickness may increase in
relation to the decreasing diameter of the tube.
Small gauge tube can be treated as hollow wire
and drawn continuously through multiple dies
with tensioning pulleys between stages, and
coilers, but concentricity is more difficult to
control.

73
•
HANDWORKING
74
• MACHINING
Machine tools form the basis of modern industry
and are used either directly or indirectly in the
manufacture of machine and tool parts. Among
the basic machine tools are the lathe, the shaper,
the planer, and the milling machine. Auxiliary to
these are drilling and boring machines, grinders,
saws, and various metal-forming machines.
In the past three decades engineers have
developed highly versatile and accurate machine
tools that have been adapted to computer
control, making possible the economical
manufacture of products of complex design.
Such tools are now widely used in general
engineering but much less commonly in
jewellery making.
A lathe is probably the most common type of
jewellery machine tool. It holds and rotates a
metal disc or section while a tool cuts material
away. The tool may be moved across the
direction of rotation to form parts that have a
cylindrical or conical shape or to cut threads. A
lathe may also be used to produce flat surfaces,
as a milling machine does, or it may drill or bore
holes in the work-piece. It is also used for
spinning which is a method of raising sheet into
round shapes. Formers or chucks are attached to
the lathe head so that they form the inside
surface of the sheet which is pressed against the
former using a polished steel burnisher. Work
hardening occurs very quickly particularly when
the sheet is rotated at 1000-2000 rpm. The metal
will require annealing several times in a deep
spinning and it is a matter of good judgement
when to go back over earlier work and give it a
cold-worked finish.
A milling machine feeds the work-piece
against a circular device with a series of cutting
edges on its circumference. The work-piece is
held on a table that controls the feed against the
cutter. The table conventionally has three
possible movements: longitudinal, horizontal,
and vertical; in some cases it can also rotate.
Milling machines are the most versatile of all
machine tools. Flat or contoured surfaces may be
machined with excellent finish and accuracy.
Angles, slots, fin or teeth shapes, and recess cuts
can be made by using various cutters.
Cutting Tools and Fluids. Because cutting
processes involve high local stresses, friction,
and considerable heat generation, cutting-tools
must combine strength, toughness, hardness, and
wear resistance at working temperatures.
Cutting-tool materials include carbon steels, high-
speed steels (containing tungsten, chromium,
vanadium, and carbon), tungsten carbide,
diamond and recently developed materials as
cemented carbide and ceramics.
In practice, gold alloys do not place much
demand on cutting tool performance. Cutting
speeds up to 300m/min (1000ft/min) with a
moderate feed rate are possible, even with tool
steels and certainly with cemented carbide tools,
but such performance is rarely if ever needed for
jewellery making. However, the greater the
difference between the hardness of the alloy and
of the cutting tool, the easier it is to make very
precise cuts. A diamond cutting edge can easily
produce a brilliant mirror finish in facetting a
carat gold surface while a steel edge may
produce some dragging.
Fluids are still used to cool and lubricate. This
increases tool life, reduces friction, decreases the
heat generated and the power required for a
given cut. Cutting fluids include water-based
solutions, chemically inactive oils, and synthetic
fluids.
Unconventional machine tools include
plasma-arc, laser-beam, electro-discharge,
electrochemical, ultrasonic, and electron-beam
machines. These machine tools were developed
primarily to shape the ultra-hard alloys used in
heavy industry and in aerospace applications and
to shape and etch the ultra-thin materials used in
such electronic devices as microprocessors. They
are more likely to be employed in making dies
and moulds for jewellery than directly on
precious metals by individual jewellery makers.
Plasma-arc machining employs a high-velocity
jet of high-temperature gas to melt and displace
material in its path. The materials cut are
generally those that are difficult to cut by any
other means, such as stainless steels and
aluminium alloys.
Laser-beam machining is accomplished by
precisely manipulating a beam of coherent light
to vaporise unwanted material. It is particularly
suited to making accurately placed holes, even in
very thin materials without warping the work-
piece.
Electro-discharge machining (EDM) also
known as spark erosion. A pulsating high-
frequency electric current is applied between the
tool point and the work-piece, causing sparks to
jump the gap and vaporise small areas of the
work-piece. Because no cutting forces are
74
•
MACHINING
Figure 7.2 EDM cut-out of white gold golfer that will fit neatly
into the contrasting yellow gold sheet, and vice versa.
involved, light, delicate operations can be
performed on thin work-pieces. There are two
basic types: one for sinking and one for cutting.
Sinking occurs when a three-dimensional
electrode shape reproduces its outline by sinking
into the work-piece. Cutting is more useful in
jewellery; it uses a travelling wire which acts in
effect like an electronic band-saw. Minimum radii
in the design are decided by the diameter of the
electrode wire but, otherwise, this is an accurate
method of producing an intricate design (figure
7.2) in gold sheet or several stacked several
centimetres deep, reference 7.7.
Electrochemical machining (ECM) creates an
electrolytic cell in an electrolyte medium, with
the tool as the cathode and the work-piece as
the anode. A high-amperage, low-voltage current
is used to dissolve the metal and to remove it
from the work-piece, which must be electrically
conductive. A wide variety of operations can be
performed by ECM; such as etching, marking,
hole making, and milling.
Electron Beam Machining. Electrons are
accelerated to high velocity as a beam in a
vacuum chamber to reduce the scattering. The
stream of electrons is directed against a precisely
limited area of the work-piece and, on impact,
the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted
into thermal energy that melts and vaporises the
material to be removed, forming holes or cuts.
75
• STAMPING
Some presses re-shape work-pieces without
cutting away any material; others shear material
away too. A press consists of a frame supporting
a stationary bed, a ram, a power source, and a
mechanism that moves the ram in line with or at
right angles to the bed. The ram carries dies and
punches designed for such operations as forming,
punching, and shearing. Mechanical presses are
capable of rapid production because the
operation time is that needed for only one stroke
of the ram, Figure 7.3(a). Occasionally, hydraulic
presses are used; they are slow but this may not
matter for a few-off jewellery operations.
Figure 7.3(a) Stamping of gold strip
The term Die applies to any of several types of
tools used for the press-working of cold metals.
Dies are used in pairs. The smaller die, or
punch, fits inside the larger die, called the matrix
or, simply, die. The metal to be formed, usually a
sheet or pre-cut blank, is placed over the matrix
on the press bed. The punch is mounted on the
press ram and is forced down by hydraulic or
mechanical pressure.
The simplest are piercing dies, used for punching
holes in the blank. Blanking dies stamp out
special shapes of sheet metal for later operations.
Bending and folding dies are designed to make
single or compound bends in the blank. Hollow,
cupped shapes are formed by drawing dies; if
the hollow is deep, redrawing dies are often
employed in a second operation. When a
finished part must have a bulge at the bottom or
in the middle, hydraulic dies are usually
employed. In these the punch is replaced by a
ram that forces oil or water into the part under
pressure, thus forcing the metal outward against
the matrix. Or, rubber punches may be used.
Curling dies form a curved edge, or flange, on a
hollow part. A special kind of curling die called a
wiring die is used to form a wired edge in which
the outside edges of the metal are tightly wound
around a wire that is inserted for strength.
A combination die is designed to perform more
than one of the above operations in one stroke
of the press; a progressive die permits successive
forming operations with the same die.
Jewellery designs have incorporated real coins
for many years but it is also possible to make
special components for jewellery that are not real
coins but rely on exactly the same principles. In
coining, metal is forced to flow into two
matching dies, each of which bears a reverse
intaglio of the relief pattern to be struck. Strip of
a specified thickness is fed into a blank cutting
press where it passes under the cutting tool
which shears the blank from the strip. The blanks
are collected and the surplus material or webbing
is returned for re-melting. The layout pattern of
the blanks in the strip and the necessary
clearance between blanks must be very carefully
planned to minimise the circulating scrap. To
ensure compliance with weight requirements
which is the principal control property world-
wide, all blanks are weighed. Those within the
narrow weight range are accepted; under-weight
are rejected; overweight may be adjusted by
linishing or by electrolytic stripping, or rejected.
The blank is then rimmed to raise a rim on the
edge of each blank to reduce the load required
to strike the coin and also to protect the surface
of the finished coin. The rim is created by forcing
the edge of the blank between a revolving disc
and a fixed segment, both of which carry a
profiled groove. As the blank rolls along the
segment, the edge of the blank is squeezed into
the groove, so upsetting the edge and forming
the rim.

The main characteristic of a coin that determines

whether it is a high grade proof item, a good-for-
Figure 7.3(b) preparingthe dies for coining.
circulation item or a reject, is the precision and
polish of the faces and edges. This largely
depends on the quality of the die surfaces. Proof
coins result from striking exact size and well
polished blanks between the most meticulously
cut and polished dies. Such dies are withdrawn
from service well before they show any
significant wear. They are prepared from high
grade alloy die steels, through hardened (usually
oil hardened) and tempered before final
polishing. It is not good economic practice to try
to re-cut old dies or produce new ones from
cheap low grade die steel. Figure 7.3(c) stamping with coining dies.

75
•
STAMPING
76
• WIRE-DRAWING
Jobbing jewellers use or modify wire and
sections for a wide variety of purposes. Most
keep at least one draw-plate. This tool is a metal
plate containing a number of tapered or bell-
shaped openings, successively smaller in
diameter (commonly about 4mm down to
0.5mm) and known as wire dies. A piece of bar
or rod is pointed carefully at one end, offered up
to and pulled through the largest die to make a
coarse wire. This wire is then drawn through the
next smaller opening, and then the next, until
the wire is reduced to the desired gauge. Wire-
drawing dies are subject to extreme wear and are
commonly made from at least hardened steel or
extremely hard materials, such as tungsten
carbide or diamonds. The wire is gripped on the
output side of the die with draw tongs which are
pliers with heavily serrated jaws to grip the work.
One or both of the handles will be curled back
to form a hand grip or location for a winch. The
latter is usually part of a mechanical draw-bench
which takes up a lot of space in a workshop but
is essential for large batches of heavy sections. A
simple one can be made from a length of steel
joist with the die braced at the one extreme and
a winch drum at the other. Commercial draw-
benches may have an endless chain or belt drive
to engage with the draw-tongs. Smaller sections
can be drawn by hand with plenty of inter-stage
Wire drawing gold
annealing but long lengths of small sections are
best drawn using a coiler drum to supply the
pulling power and coil the product at the same
time. In mass production, it is possible to run the
same wire stock through several (two to four)
reduction dies in series using increasingly fast
running pulleys between them. Most of the work
heat generated by one reduction is still present
as the wire enters the next die and this allows
more extensive reductions in the series than
would be advisable in large single die reductions.
It is worth remembering that the need for
mechanised section drawing also implies
considerable stored energy in the product during
the operation. When the last part of a section is
pulled through the die, it can recoil with
considerable force; keep out of the line of fire!
Round wire and simple section wire have prolific
uses in jewellery, ranging from simple jump rings
to network, basket weave and the architecture of
complex settings for large stones. Provided the
correct temper is chosen, most carat gold wires
can be plaited (reference 7.4) either singly or in
small bundles. Crochet (figure 7.4) is possible
too, reference 7.5. Braided wire can easily be
rolled or even redrawn and wire mesh can
similarly be rolled to consolidate the overall
section without losing all of the texture of the
braid or weave. This is a very useful technique
for batches of bracelet and necklace stock.
However, as in chain-making, these combination
techniques do depend on having a good
knowledge of the mechanical properties of both
the individual and the bundled wires. It is easiest
to braid high carat fully annealed golds but it is
possible to introduce a useful degree of
springiness into the combination by braiding,
say, quarter hard wires. Simple shaping, such as
by bending into a necklace or bracelet shape will
add a further degree of cold work but this
increment will be relatively small compared with
the prior cold work. Rolling or redrawing a
Figure 7.4(a) Gold wire crochet Figure 7.4(b) Drawing down the crochet chain for uniformity

combination will normally add a more significant

degree of cold work. Achieving a satisfactory
balance of ductility to make the combination
stock and then form it into a shape with just the
right degree of springiness, requires patient trial
and error (make notes of how both good and
bad trials resulted) or an analytical approach to
the working of alloys, reference 7.8.

76
• WIRE-DRAWING
77
• CHAIN-MAKING
Chain-making is now one of the most highly and deliver finished spooled chain at the other. Figure 7.5 Chain-making. (a) automatic machines running 24
hours a day with minimum supervision; (b) curb chain in
productive areas of precious metal jewellery. It is Figure 7.5 is a composite showing various stages production; (c) Hammering a curb chain; (d) The change in
also an area where the conditions for a designer- in such an integrated chain-making facility, shape caused by hammering; (e) Restoring flexibility after
hammering; (f) diamond cutting of chain link faces.
craftsman-producer approach and a profitable references 7.2, 7.11. Catalogue pattern style
mass produced catalogue pattern approach, are (figure 7.5) names differ a little from place to
at two extremes. The latter can only be place in the world but some common terms,
successful by employing fully automated sizes and machine rates are given in Table 7.1:-
machines. These integrate wire-drawing, wire on
spool input, link-forming, soldering and finishing TABLE 7.1 SOME COMMON TYPES OF
machines. At each stage, the output yield has to JEWELLERY CHAIN
be high; quality of bending, weaving, twisting, Type Wire diam. mm Links/min
soldering, and final finishing also have to be Single double curb 0.18 to 0.3 up to 300
consistent and high where visible. The narrow Single double curb 0.15 to 0.4 up to 400
profit margins can only be sustained by keeping Rope 0.3 to 0.74 60 Figure 7.5(a)
expensive machines continuously working at Fine cable 0.15 to 0.5 600
least one shift per day with no more than short
Venetian 0.08 to 0.4 500
periods to change tools and maintain clearances
0.2 to 0.8 300
and replenish continuous flow of wire
0.8 to 2.9 160
(consistent diameter and mechanical properties
Cable 0.18 to 1.8 160
adjusted to a particular design). This has led to
Triple curb 0.3 to 0.5 200
batteries of machines, each designed to make
one pattern but in a range of sizes by changing Quadruple cable 0.25 to 0.5 150

tool sets. They feed into automatic continuous Chinese rope 0.23 to 0.7 up to 80
soldering or welding machines that may have S-curb 0.2 to 1.0 80
two or three strands or are programmed to Ball or ovals 1.5 to 5 90 to 200
Figure 7.5(b)
change their programme to suit each pattern/size
batch in turn. The most advanced batteries of
machines are virtually small automatic self
contained factories that take wire in at one side
 To cope with varying working conditions, chain
making machines may have tool-steel working
surface parts but tungsten carbide inserts are
often used to maintain working surfaces for
longer periods. The optimum period is a balance
between wear of the tools causing unacceptable
size and surface variations in the chain and the
costs of re-polishing tool faces and having the
machine shut down while tools are changed.

Figure 7.5(c) Figure 7.5(e)

Probably the most critical stage in the (high-
speed) production of chain is the facing of the
link ends and their subsequent joining by
minimal soldering or autogenous welding,
continuously. The optimum combination of
wire size, temper, spring-back, parallel gap size if
any, and tool setting needed to do this
efficiently, requires a lot of experience to set up.
This is dealt with in reference 7.3. Once this is
done, it is important to supply wire to the chain-
making machine with constant diameter, constant
temper (which may not necessarily be fully soft),
Figure 7.5(d) Figure 7.5(f) and kink-free. Continuous strand annealing is
recommended. Best chain-making practice uses
gold alloys that are slightly over caratage to
compensate for the solders used that might
amount to up to 1% of the total finished chain

77
•
CHAIN-MAKING
77
• CHAIN-MAKING
weight. Some quality marking regulations insist
on solders that are only slightly below the
caratage of the parent metal; others allow base
metal solders but it is still necessary to ensure
that the finished chain assays at or above the
appropriate standard. The wire used may be :-
• Solder-filled. The carat alloy core simplifies
soldering and there is no discoloration of the
links so there is no need for flash plating.
The wire is expensive to make and it is
difficult to incorporate in recovered scrap.
• Hollow. Produced originally for spring-rings
but now more widely used for hollow links
for weight and economy reasons.
• Solid. The widest range of standard gauges
and colours.
Colour control in chain materials is an important
customer satisfaction factor, and emphasises the
need to produce large batches from ingots of
carefully controlled composition which is not
simply a matter of carat control, reference 7.4.
Until recently, the most common method of
joining has been furnace brazing (See reference
7.3) using either solder powder, rubbed or
attracted into precise gaps, or using solder-filled
wire. The solder powder can be preferentially
attracted to the gaps by treating the whole chain
with a degreaser followed by a application of
solder powder in a sugar and oil mixture. An
absorbent such as talcum powder then extracts
some of the oil but leaves the solder powder in
and close to the gaps. It can be arranged for the
solder powder to react exothermically when
passed through the heating zone; this localises
the heating effect still further.
Advanced on-line welding methods are also
increasingly used for joining continuous chain,
reference 7.3. Both electric discharge welding
Figure 7.6 A few of the several hundred designs of chain
and laser beam welding can localise or focus the
energy beam very narrowly and precisely. Laser
joints are made in a few milli-seconds. In
addition to carat gold wire, chain production
process is also applied to gold filled wire. This is
a base metal wire, e.g. brass, which is coated
with a carat gold, usually 10 carat, containing a
core of silver-copper solder and is analogous to
rolled gold strip. Sometimes a nickel underlay is
incorporated between the base metal and the
carat gold plate but this may give problems with
diffusion of nickel through the coating in wire
annealing and soldering.
Defects arising from the cast ingot or
continuously cast stock
• Piping and shrinkage porosity. A pipe is the
funnel-like depression at the top of a cast
ingot which results from shrinkage during
solidification. This will give a centre-line
defect along sheet, strip or wire, particularly if
the pipe surface is oxidised. The region
containing the pipe should be cropped off
before working and recycled as scrap of
known quality. Internal shrinkage porosity
should weld up and disappear provided the
inner surfaces are clean and free from oxide.
• Blistering on the surface of sheet and strip
may be caused by gas porosity trapped in the
cast stock (see Section 6.4) or arising from
reactions with the atmosphere during
annealing treatments.
• Inclusions in the cast stock are insoluble
particles such as oxides and silicides. These
can lead to problems of cracking during
working or to the formation of hard spots
which can affect the quality of final polished
surfaces. Inclusions may be pieces of crucible
or furnace lining which have fallen into the
metal or they may be formed by chemical
reaction, e.g. between absorbed gas and an
78
•
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF
DEFECTS IN WROUGHT ALLOYS
alloy constituent. Regular inspection of and solidifying with an oxide surface before
crucibles and furnace linings, cleanliness of being covered as the melt fills the mould.
working surroundings and a consideration of These can separate and peel away at the
possible reactions is important if inclusions oxide interface during working giving an
are to be kept to a minimum. uneven surface. Inspect ingot surfaces so
• Contamination of the melt may cause that they can be trimmed and filed
embrittlement and catastrophic cracking where necessary to smooth out
during working. The most notable example is depressions, remove splashes and spills,
the presence of very small amounts of lead and gouge out particles embedded into
which has usually been accidentally the surface.
introduced as soft solder traces in recycled
scrap. Do not recycle scrap of unknown
quality.
• Surface quality of the final product may
depend on the surface quality of the initial
cast stock. Remove surface oxide by acid
pickling prior to working as it is more difficult
(and costly) to remove the oxide after it has
been ground into the surface of sheet or rod.
Excessive amounts of a mould dressing such
as machine oil or trapped flux can give large
depressions in the ingot surface. A thin
continuous film of oil applied to the mould
wall is recommended and excess flux should
be removed before pouring the melt.
Splashes, slivers and spills are caused by
molten metal splashing on the mould wall
78
•
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF
DEFECTS IN WROUGHT ALLOYS
Defects arising as a result of the working
process
ROLLING OF FLAT PRODUCTS – sheet, strip
and foil.
• Finishing rolling should be done using
small diameter rolls with highly polished or
chromium plated surfaces to achieve a mirror-
bright finish. Roll surfaces should be
continuously wiped to keep dust and other
particles from scoring or marking the rolls or
being rolled into the strip surface. Cover the
Figure 7.7 Figure 7.9
rolling mill when not in use to protect roll
surfaces.
• Misalignment of the rolls leads either to
curvature of the strip to one side as it comes
out of the roll gap if it is relatively thick or to
a wavy edge on one side if it is thin strip
(Figure 7.7). Adjust the roll screws to give a
parallel roll gap.
• Roll bending under the action of the rolling
force required to reduce strip thickness can
lead to uneven thickness across the width of
the strip or to wavy edges on both sides of
Figure 7.8 Figure 7.10
the strip (Figure 7.8). Either decrease the
reduction per pass together with more
frequent interstage annealing to reduce the
rolling force or, preferably, use a four-high
rolling mill where small diameter work rolls
 are backed by larger rolls to prevent the work
rolls bending under load (Figure 7.9).
• Edge cracking is commonly caused by
overworking between anneals. It is important
to trim edges at the time it occurs as further
rolling will increase the danger of some
cracks suddenly running into the centre of the
strip and turning through right angles greatly
increasing the amount which has to be
scrapped (Figure 7.10).
• Gauge (thickness) control. Modern large
mills may have sophisticated automatic gauge
control systems but for the jewellery
manufacturer this may not be possible. Care
should be taken to ensure uniform thickness
along the strip length and across its width.
Variations in thickness will give variations in
forces required in subsequent sheet metal
forming operations and this may lead to
higher reject rates and risk of increased tool
wear and breakage. If strip is sold to a
specified minimum thickness, any additional
thickness over specification has to be paid for
by the strip manufacturer and for carat gold
strip this will be expensive. Finish rolling with
light reductions as sizing passes before final
annealing will help to control gauge.
78
•
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF
DEFECTS IN WROUGHT ALLOYS
ROD ROLLING
• Fins and laps. Fins are caused by trying to
push too much metal into the rolling groove,
i.e. attempt too large a reduction, so that the
rolls are forced apart and the excess metal is
squeezed out sideways (Figure 7.11). If the
fins are subsequently rolled into the rod they
become laps which form planes of weakness
and they can open up at later stages
Figure 7.11
particularly under torsion or a twisting motion.
Avoid excessively large reductions and
rotate the rod through 90° between each
successive pass.
DRAWING
• Cuppy wire. The most common defect in
drawing is breakage or necking down as the
wire emerges from the die (Figure 7.12).
There are four possible causes. Figure 7.12
a) The wire is overworked and requires
annealing.
b) The presence of inclusions can give
rise to weak spots in the wire.
c) Too large a reduction per draw is
being attempted. For large diameter
wires the reduction may be 25-45%
depending on the workability of
78
•
CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF
DEFECTS IN WROUGHT ALLOYS
the particular alloy but as the diameter
is decreased the reductions may
be down to 15-20%.
d) A breakdown in lubrication gives an
increase in friction between the
wire and die surfaces and this lowers
the reduction that can be given.
SHEET METAL FORMING
The occurrence of defects in sheet metal forming
and their prevention is a complex subject.
Fracture during forming will take place at the
weakest or thinnest point in the part being
formed. This is most likely to be where the sheet
has been bent under tension round an angle as
extra thinning will occur there. There is a
maximum or limiting size of blank that can be
successfully formed without failure occurring at
this point. It may be necessary to partly form in
one punch-die set and then further form in other
punch-die sets. The subject has been reviewed
(Ref 7.13) and this should be published in the
near future.
ORANGE PEEL EFFECT
The rumpled surface known as the orange peel
effect has been described in Section 6.1. It may
show up on chain link surfaces or on the surface
of die stampings. The effect is minimised or
prevented by control of working and annealing
schedules such that coarse grain growth does not
occur.
STRESS CORROSION CRACKING
This has been discussed also in Section 6.1 but it
is important to emphasize that low carat gold
jewellery items if left in the worked condition
will contain residual stresses and this leads to an
increased risk of stress corrosion cracking.
Residual stresses can be removed or reduced in
magnitude by stress relief annealing.
Most jewellery manufacturers buy in alloy strip,
wire, other sections, findings, possibly chain, and
solders. Unless they are making a large number
of a pattern for a specified catalogue line, they
are not likely to work from ingot, nor stock a
large inventory of different widths, thickness,
colour and caratage. Most purchase their flat,
round and bar stock from refiners or large
precious metal stockists.
They are more likely to cut a blank from strip or
a length of wire and then perhaps re-roll or re-
draw that piece. These small scale operations
must be carefully planned and controlled to
avoid precious metal physical losses or the need
for excessive scrap recovery, either of which can
easily wipe out a manufacturing profit. It is
important to maintain a discipline of good
economic efficiency. The following check list
highlights some of the many details that
contribute to a well managed operation.
• A certificate of assay should accompany all
incoming raw material. This gives
accountability should a difference of caratage
be discovered. It is a sound business decision
to assay incoming raw material irregularly on
a random sample basis.
• When manufacturing with gold pre-cut stock
it is extremely important to weigh all material
79
•
JEWELLERY MAKING
at key points in the manufacturing route.
• Clean machinery, tooling, floors and brushes
carefully and regularly. Every small sliver of
material should be recovered. If diamond
cutting is part of your manufacturing process,
then cleaning the machine and floor should
be a high priority.
• Hold tight tolerances of metal thickness and
accurate temper to keep gold losses down.
Apart from coining, most tools will produce
well enough with a small positive or negative
variance in thickness but this will produce
weight and hardness variation.
• If jewellery is sold by weight, then any
additional metal is paid for, but if sold at a
price per piece, then the dimensions,
particularly weight, are critical. If you are
locked into a price, the thickness of the
pieces is critical. Too thick and you may be
giving gold away. Even if your jewellery is
sold on an added value basis, because it
contains stones, say, then pricing your piece
on the basis of correct and consistent weight
is still very important.
• Precise weight, dimension and hardness control
play a major role in minimising process losses.
A jammed machine causes material losses as
well as delaying production. If a machine jams,
every tiny sliver of gold must be recovered.
• Some manufacturers produce a finished
product that incorporates findings. These
findings must have close inventory control.
7.10 REFERENCES
7.1 Adjusting & repairing gold jewellery-I & II, Aurum, 1982,
10
__, 38; 11
__, 48.
7.2 Profile (Balestra), Aurum, 1982, 10 __, 22.
7.3 Overview: Joining technology in chain manufacture,
Arfeo Canaglia, Gold Technology, 1995, 17 __, 20-25.
7.4 Metallurgical aspects of chain manufacture, D.P.Agarwal,
Gold Technology, 1995, 17 __, 16-18.
7.5 Profile-Henry Dunay, Aurum, 1982, 11 __, 30-38.
7.6 Professional Goldsmithing, Alan Revere, Chapman &
Hall, New York, 1991.
7.7 The spark and the snowflake, D. Malcolm Lakin, Aurum,
1980, 1_, 6-8.
7.8 Manufacturability of gold jewellery related to alloy
composition and properties, J.C.Wright and C.W.Corti,
Proc. 11th Santa Fe Symposium, 1997. Metchem
Research Inc.
7.9 Working in Precious Metals, Ernest A. Smith, 1933
(reprinted 1980), N.A.G. Press Ltd., London
7.10 The Fabrication and quality assurance of mill products in
the jewellery industry, C. Wynn Kilgore, Proc. 2nd Santa
Fe Symposium, 1988, 105, Metchem Research Inc.
7.11 Gold Chains and Mesh, parts 1-4, J. Wolters, Aurum,
1987-88, 31
__, 46: 32
__, 36: 34
__, 40: 36
__, 72.
7.12 Rolling mills for gold alloy – I, P. Taimsalu, Aurum,
1984, 18
__, 51; – II, Dellera, Aurum, 1984, 19
__, 47.
7.13 “Sheet Metal Forming Operations”, M. F. Grimwade
Proceedings of the Sixth Santa Fe Symposium on
Jewellery Manufacturing Technology, 1992 Metchem
Research Inc., (to be published).
7.14 Repoussé, Profile (Leo de Vroomen), Aurum, 1983, 13 __, 35.
8 ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
81
• ELECTROLYTIC PROCESSES
Three electrolytic processes may be useful in uniform alloy. As a consequence, electroforming
making jewellery; in increasing order of depth, of carat golds requires more sophisticated controls
they are:- than for near pure gold. For this reason, the
• electropolishing, in which electrolysis is used technology of electroforming is dealt with early in
to preferentially remove metal from micro- this section and plating and electropolishing later
peaks rather than from micro-valleys, so as relatively simpler processes.
producing smoothing.
• electroplating, whereby a relatively thin (often
only a few microns thick) layer of more noble
metal is deposited onto a less noble one, or
even onto a non-conductor for decorative or
protective reasons.
• electroforming, in which a relatively thick
layer of metal is deposited on a pre-formed
shape or mandrel which may or may not be
later removed. The deposit should be thick
enough to be self supporting. In engineering,
a further development is to deposit sufficient
Figure 8.1 Electroformed jewellery showing good detail and
material as to facilitate repairs and adjustments also relatively lightweight earrings yet solid looking; courtesy
of worn or broken components. Degussa AG. D-73502, Schwaebisch Gmuend.

Figure 8.2 Electroformed statue in carat gold.

Many of the electrolytic principles apply in the
same way to all three processes. The distinction
between electroplating and electroforming is often
only one of efficient economic control where the
Figure 8.3 Electroformed Chinese New
objective of plating is cosmetic and the product of
Year (animal of the year) models.
electroforming usually has to have structural Left/right: 3.7/5.5 cm high; 250/300
microns wall thickness; 38/50 sq. cm.
strength and a more complex shape. In general, it Surface area; 15/24g weight; courtesy
is technically easier to deposit pure metals than a Chow Sang Sang Ltd., Hong Kong.
Unlike casting or working solid precious metals
to produce jewellery, electrolytic processes rely
on the transfer of metal ions in solution from
one electrode (usually the anode or source of the
metal) to another (cathode or work-piece) under
the influence of an electrical force (voltage).
While metalworking changes the shape of a
lump of metal or alloy into a decorative
component, electrolytic processes develop the
surface or grow the shape. The electro-deposit is
usually quite hard unless annealed. This can be a
useful property but it can also lead to cracking
and distortion particularly in the case of
electroforms after removal from the mandrel.
Conditions have to be carefully chosen and
controlled to minimise these stress effects.
Electrolytes: The principal operating medium is a
solution of metal salts or electrolyte. This will
normally be an acid or alkaline aqueous solution
although a molten salt electrolyte might be used
for electrodeposition of platinum. The commonest
gold electrolytes are solutions of complex alkaline
gold cyanides in an excess of free cyanide ions.
These are very effective for plating and for
electroforming but they do require careful
temperature and bath composition controls.
82
•
TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS
With most cyanides, particularly alkaline
cyanides, there is no need for wetting agents, but
where surfactants are used they can be injected
by dosing pumps, little and often is usually
better than an occasional major injection.
Cyanide solution tends to break down more
readily under active aeration and with increasing
temperature, so, agitation, which is normally but
not always desirable in both electroplating and
electroforming, may be better by mechanical
means. Alkaline cyanide baths are sensitive to
organic impurities, both dragged in with new
work or air-borne or water-borne. Breakdown of
cyanide is accelerated by some organic
compounds and this may cause further organic
impurities too, so further accelerating the
process! To maintain a deposit that is structurally
sound and looks good, it is necessary to filter the
electrolyte, preferably continuously, and
occasionally also treat it with active carbon, say
at 2 to 6 week intervals.
Anodes: The anodes, which are connected to the
positive pole of circuit, may be soluble or inert.
Soluble anodes are dissolved away by the
electrolyte and transferred to the mandrels with
the electrolyte remaining, in principle, at the same
composition throughout. Inert anodes, such as
stainless steel or titanium mesh or sheet, conduct
electric current into the bath but the metal ions for
deposition are supplied entirely by the electrolyte.
It follows that the electrolyte will be denuded as
metal ions are deposited on the cathode mandrels
and the concentration must be restored
periodically or even continuously. Soluble anodes
are usually surrounded with fine mesh bags
(typically, fine woven polypropylene) to keep
back impurities from entering the electrolyte and
possibly the deposit. Similarly the electrolyte is
both agitated and filtered by pumping through a
fine filter mesh. The bath is covered as much as
possible with a transparent plastic cover so that
dust and airborne impurities are excluded.
Control: For reasons outlined below, it is easier
to control a pure gold electrolyte than a mixed
electrolyte containing, say gold, silver and
copper ions intended to produce a carat gold
deposit. The natural tendency is for the bath to
deposit one type of ion preferentially and this
changes the composition of the bath and tends
to produce a deposit with layers of different
compositions. To maintain economy, efficiency
and have the product acceptable under carat
82
• TECHNIQUES AND MATERIALS
gold quality marking conditions this layering
must be diminished to the point that the deposit
appears to be homogenous on a macroscopic
scale. Under control, cyanide electrolytes are
stable, but if free acid is introduced into an
alkaline cyanide bath, there is a significant danger
of hydrocyanic acid being released into the
atmosphere and this cyanide gas is extremely
toxic, often with fatal results. Strict control of all
impurities is very important in electro deposition
of both pure and alloy golds. Not only does
physical entrainment of impurities upset the assay
of the gold electroform, but impurities also
adversely affect the control parameters. Gases
tend to embrittle the deposit too. Hydrogen from
ionized water not only embrittles the deposit but
the bubbles physically prevent smooth deposition.
Electric power is most conveniently supplied
from a laboratory low voltage (up to 25 volts,
open circuit) supply unit, preferably having a
fully smoothed (less than 2% ripple) full wave
rectified direct current output. The simplest
control is to use an ampere.minutes or
ampere.hour meter which gives a reading
proportional to the mass of ions deposited.
A small scale appliance, typically, requires up to
15 Amps. Electroforming as an end process of a
gold refining plant requires a much higher total
current capacity. In fact, considerable attention
must then be paid to obtaining low resistance In effect, the electro chemical equivalent (the
connections everywhere in the output circuit to atomic weight divided by the valency) of a metal
ensure that the power is usefully employed in is the mass in grams liberated by 1 Coulomb,
transporting ions and not in generating heat. assuming perfect efficiency. The values for
Ideally, the voltage and current output should be copper, silver and gold are 0.329, 1.118, and
as independently controllable as possible so that 2.042 mg per Coulomb. The Coulomb is too
control can be varied from low current densities small a unit for calculations on a commercial
at start-up to high power for economic large scale and amp.hours are more convenient.
batch production. Figure 8.4 shows a simple
circuit diagram. In practice, the circuit may be Start-up: The conditions for starting a sound
controlled by a computer capable of adjusting deposit often differ from those applicable once
the plating conditions to compensate for shape an initial stable layer has been established. The
changes and bath composition changes. initial layer can be very delicate and may benefit
from low current density and no agitation until
Faradays Laws: The fundamental laws stable, after which the rate of deposition and
underlying electrodeposition processes are agitation can be stepped up considerably.
Faraday’s Laws (1883) which state:-
1) The weight of product at an electrode is
proportional to the quantity of electricity used. Power Control
2) The weight of different substances liberated
5-
by the same quantity of electricity are Busbars V A D
T
proportional to the chemical equivalents of Tank
Cover
the substances.
Agitator
Quantity of electricity, Q, = current ␹ time
= Amp.seconds or Coulombs Anode Anode Exhaust
+ve Spray and Fumes
or amp.minutes or amp.hours (Ah.) Cathode
(96,500 Coulombs = 26.8 amp.hours = 1 Faraday). –ve
Q is a very useful measure when calculating weight
of metal deposited or dissolved and when to make
maintenance additions of chemicals to solutions. Figure 8.4 Schematic diagram of an electroplating circuit.
Electroforming enables the jewellery designer to
create some shapes economically that cannot be
produced satisfactorily by other methods.
Replicas of “jewellery” models, the surface
texture of plants, flowers, minerals and other
natural objects, can be reproduced well. Stones
can be set by electrodeposition around them.
Complex shapes such as watch cases can be
electroformed instead of machining from solid.
The Mandrel: The normal starting point for
electroforming is a mandrel or model of the
required shape. Mandrels may be disposable or
permanent, external/convex/male or
internal/convex/female. A disposable material is
removed by melting, burning out or dissolving it
away. Wax is a convenient mandrel material for
electroformed jewellery because it is also the
basis of the lost wax casting process. However,
some of the commercial baths used for carat
golds operate near 60°C and the cheaper casting
waxes are too soft at such temperatures. As a
compromise harder waxes may be used and the
electroforming temperature is lowered to about
40°C. All waxes are non-conducting and so, for
electroforming they must be coated with a
conducting film. A convenient way of doing this
83
•
ELECTROFORMING IN GOLD
is to spray on a thin layer of finely dispersed
metallic particles in a lacquer using an airbrush
or using a paint brush but vacuum deposition or
chemical deposition from a reductant/silver
nitrate solution, are also used. Woods, metal and
tin-lead alloys that melt at low temperatures are
also used for permanent mandrels and they are
already conducting. Some permanent mandrels,
such as stainless steel, offer greater dimensional
stability and, possibly, better surface finish but
while they are already conducting, they also
have to allow easy separation from the
electroform. To do this we have to passivate the
surface of the permanent mandrel. Other
materials used for permanent mandrels include
plastics and rubber.
Jigs: The mandrels or moulds must be supported
on a jig so their position in the electrolyte bath
can be controlled. The jig must be able to
conduct electricity into the mandrel but the
exterior of the jig can be protected and is usually
not conducting. The jig support is connected to
the cathode and is often made such that it can
oscillate the mandrels in the bath. This
contributes to necessary agitation of the bath and
also oscillates the mandrel position relative to the
anode which, in turn, helps shape and thickness
control. Ions in an electrolyte tend to travel in
straight lines, in effect, along the lines of least
electrical and physical resistance.
Shape control: The shape of the mandrel and
the proximity of parts of the mandrel to the
anodes require careful planning to achieve the
desired shape. The principles are illustrated in
figure 8.5. The way the process exaggerates
nearby prominences compared with further and
flatter surfaces can be used deliberately but,
more often, we have to adjust the mandrel shape
or move or screen the anodes to compensate. We
may have to avoid protuberances and blind holes
(which the anode cannot “see”); we should use
smooth bends with generous radii rather than
sharp corners. The most successful electroforms
tend to be roughly equi-axed or disc shaped
with low surface profile details. In one system,
components are mounted on a cylindrical cage
carousel which oscillates or rotates between two
electrodes, one around the outside of the
carousel and the other within the carousel cage.
This exposes all components equally to the same
electrode geometry. It is also possible to place
inert screens at certain points to, in effect, put a
83
• ELECTROFORMING IN GOLD
partial barrier in the way of the ion stream. A
major way of controlling the location and extent
of deposits is to mask parts of the surface so that
ions are stopped from depositing on such areas.
There are suitable (polyurethane) varnishes,
lacquers, cellulose art fixers, for dipping, painting
or aerosol spraying available as stop-off agents.
Some stop-off agents are more suitable under
alkaline conditions, others under acid. Most
require from a few minutes to an hour to dry or
cure to the point that they can be handled
without smudging but it is advisable to arrange
production so that further curing overnight
precedes loading into the electrolyte. They vary
in their ability to be stripped away after plating;
the rubber-like coatings being easiest from this
point of view. Most respond to stripping better
after immersion in hot water (65°C) for a few
minutes.
Hollow Mandrels: It follows from figure 8.5 that
some precision would be lost in electroforming
statue-like objects as the object grows externally.
This may not matter, but some objects can be
electroformed much more accurately by using a
hollow mandrel. The mandrel is formed by first
coating the “statue” or model with a suitable
mouldable material (clay, wax, glass fibre
reinforced polymer resins) thick enough to be
Anodes
Figure 8.5 Typical deposit distribution tendencies.
self supporting later. This must then be removed
in two or more sections from the model and
reassembled as a hollow model. The anode(s)
and electrolyte are now introduced inside the
replica and the first plate layer meeting the
accurate inside of the replica now forms the
accurate exterior of the electroform which
continues to grow by thickening internally. In a
few cases it may be convenient to actually make
the hollow replica the “tank” for the electrolyte
but, normally, several are processed within a
normal electroforming tank but ensuring that
• Edges of flat sheet thicken
• Circles become oval
• Points grow spheres
• Concave surfaces appear to curl
• Right corners become bulbous
• Deep re-entrant angles do not fill
• Shallow re-entrants lose sharpness
• Fins tend to close together at tips
circulation of the electrolyte reaches into the
hollow replicas.
Total System Control: Large scale commercial
electroforming of near pure gold began around
1990 and there are now several turnkey process
suppliers, references 8.1, 8.2. More recent
developments have led to carat gold
electroforming, refs 8.2-8.5. The rate at which a
specific type of ion deposits from an electrolyte,
depends on:-
•concentration of the ion in the electrolyte,
•concentration of free cyanide in the
electrolyte,
• temperature,
• pH
• current density.
With 2, 3 or 4 different types of ions in the same
electrolyte, each having slightly different
optimum deposition conditions, it is evident that
building up a reasonably uniform composition of
gold alloy requires some form of iterative
control. The alloy is built up in successive micro-
layers by controlling the current density to allow
for changes in the different ion concentrations.
This requires computer control of the plating
conditions and continuous feed-back of
electrolyte conditions.
The computer estimates the total surface area of
the component(s) and makes an allowance for
the increase in surface area as the electroform
grows. The components are weighed before,
during and after electroforming and these
weights are used by the computer to correct the
alloy make-up of the electrolyte by automatically
controlling metering pumps for each of the
83
•
ELECTROFORMING IN GOLD
constituents. The ions involved are gold, copper, objects can be treated as combinations of thick
silver, or cadmium. Typical data for different triangles, rectangles, circles, and more three-
systems are given in table 8.1. However, the dimensional shapes as spheres, cones, cylinders
respective manufacturers or licensees should be and/or slabs. The surface of an object that is
consulted to obtain the most up-to-date range relatively disc- or plate-like can be found by
and operating details. In general, the actual drawing it life-size on squared paper, counting
caratage of the deposit may be higher than the squares (more than half a square covered counts
apparent caratage judged by its colour. While the as 1; less than half as zero), then doubling (for
precision of caratage control is responding to back and front) and adding 5–10% for the rim.
steady research and development, carat gold The purpose of calculating the surface area is to
electrodeposits are often targeted about half a
carat higher than the legal quoted level to ensure
no under-caratage.
Surface Area: A very important consideration in
electroforming is the calculation of area of the
surface for plating. Once the starting area is
known, it is not too difficult to calculate the
changes due to growing the electrodeposit.
Techniques vary from an educated guess later
corrected by experience, to computer aided
calculations based on an accurate drawing of the
object either produced by or scanned into the
computer. A reasonable compromise is to
mentally divide the object into several different
approximate geometric shapes, calculate the Figure 8.6 Electroformed hollow jewellery. Cut into 2 halves to
show complete removal of the wax core. (Degussa, Auruna-
surface areas of each and sum them. Flattish Form®).
83
• ELECTROFORMING IN GOLD
adjust the current density accurately during
electroforming. The current density might be low
at the beginning and high at the end of a forming
operation but a good knowledge of the surface
area is still required. Unfortunately, suppliers and
textbooks tend to quote optimum current
densities in various units. Strictly speaking, the
appropriate SI units are Amps per square metre,
A/m2, but this is too large a unit for most
practical electroformers (although it is surprising
how the total area adds up in multiple carousel
mounted operations). Amps per square foot
Figure 8.7 Rack of the Auruna-Form® process (Courtesy (A/ft2) are used in older UK texts and in the USA.
Degussa AG) Amps per square decimetre (A/dm2) are the
commonest usage. For approximate conversions,
there are roughly 10 square feet in 1 square
metre but the accurate conversion factor is A/sq.
ft = 0.0929 A/sq. m. A square decimetre is one
hundredth of a square metre.
TABLE 8.1 DATA ON ELECTROFORMING SYSTEMS As with electroforming, electroplating with pure
Electrolyte Enform 24 OMI Dito 24 Artform 18 Artform 14 Auruna-Form 18 Auruna-Form 14
gold is simpler to control than when depositing
carat golds. However, since the finished article is
Gold g/l 24 10-20 6 6 15 15
unlikely to have to meet precise marking
Copper g/l – – 45 45 – –
regulations as to caratage, and the plating
Cadmium g/l – – 1 1 – –
thickness is small, control of alloy coatings is not
Silver g/l – – – – 3 5
too difficult. Nevertheless, some high speed, high
Free cyanide g/l – Sulphite 18 16 10 10 efficiency baths require almost constant attention
pH 6.7 7.2 10 10 10 10 and analysis. This is also true of solutions
Temp. °C 35 65 65-75 60-65 45 45 intended to consistently maintain a particular
2
Current A/dm 1 0.5 1.5 1.5 1.20-2.0 1.2-2.0 colour in the deposit. A useful classification of
microns/min 1 0.33 0.5 0.56 1.0 1.0 gold and gold alloy plating solutions and
Deposit (carats) 23.75 23.75 18 14 18.50 14.50 detailed compositions has been given by
Gold 990+ 990+ 765 600 770 604 Weisberg, ref. 8.8. There are many variations but
Copper – – 160 325 – – most are based on alkaline, neutral or acid
Cadmium – – 75 75 – – cyanide solutions or on sulphite solutions. Table
Silver – – – – 230 396 8.2 outlines some of the systems. The caratage of
gold plate is controversial. It is possible to give
Colour Yellow Yellow Yellow Reddish Pale Yellow Pale Yellow
3 pure gold a thin flash of 14-22ct plate so that it is
Density, g/cm 17 17 15.5 13.5 15.8 14.0
tinted a different colour from mid-yellow. It is
Hardness, Hv – 300 (220) 425 (235) 425 (235) 220 220
also possible to change the colour of a 9 to 14ct
System Englehard OMI OMI OMI Degussa Degussa
gold base with a thin flash of higher carat gold
plate. Where only pure gold is deposited it may
be described as 24 carat plate but lower caratage
description of plate are more difficult to justify
scientifically. Electroplating, as opposed to
electroforming, is concerned with getting a good

84
•
ELECTROPLATING WITH GOLD
84
• ELECTROPLATING WITH GOLD
TABLE 8.2 DATA ON ELECTROPLATING SYSTEMS surface finish at minimum cost. This requires
good covering power at minimum thickness, but
Electrolyte 24ct yellow Yellow Pink Green White
still maintaining a satisfactory uniform colour. It
Gold g/l 1.25-2.0 1.25-2.0 1.25-2.0 1.25-2.0 0.4
is often more economic to produce most of the
Nickel g/l – 0.025 0.025 0.025 –
good finish prior to plating with only a flash of
Copper g/l – 0.13 1.1 – 2 gold. A typical pre-finish is bright nickel plate
Silver g/l – – – 0.05 – and the colour and texture of the substrate
Potassium Phosphate g/l 15 15 15 15 15 considerably influence the appearance of the
Free cyanide g/l 7.5 7.5 2 2 – gold plate, particularly at only a few microns
2
Current A/dm 1-4 1-3.5 2-5 1-4 3-6 thickness. Pre-brightened and pre-textured
Temp. °C 60-70 65-70 60-70 60-70 65-70 substrates appear quite different when plated
side by side in the same gold plating bath.
Obviously, plate thickness control is paramount
in good quality but economic gold plating. A
gold flash or colouring may be from 50 to 125
millionths of a millimetre, laid down in 5 to 30
seconds and usually appears bright as plated.
They do not usually need further brighteners or
grain-refining agents. To be termed electroplate,
the thickness should be over 150␹10-6mm; the
characteristics of the deposit itself virtually
govern the appearance of the surface.
During mechanical polishing, high-spots are
progressively reduced by abrasion and, at the
same time, surface layers tend to smear over
underlying layers and this has an additional
brightening effect. Tumbling can also add a slight
peening effect as pieces hit each other. Unlike
tumbling, electropolishing is fast, taking about 5
to 10 minutes to produce a good finish. The
process uses equipment very similar to
electroplating. The solution used is usually
potassium cyanide. Work-pieces are attached to
the anode connected to the positive pole of the
supply; the cathode may be stainless steel or
steel plate. The process is, in effect, the reverse
of plating. Gold is removed from the high-spots
of the work-piece due to the relatively low
conductivity and low mobility of the electrolyte
which prevents current reaching into the cavities
as easily as the high-spots. The result is that the
roughness of the surface is reduced on a micro-
scale. The appearance of the electropolished
surface will not be quite the same as a
mechanically polished one. In fact, previous
surface defects tend to be exaggerated by
electropolishing while mechanical polishing
tends to mask them somewhat. It is not unusual
to use both processes. Mechanical polishing after
85
•
ELECTROPOLISHING
electropolishing can close minor porosity while
still retaining the overall speed of
electropolishing in producing a reasonable finish
on irregular components such as precision
castings. Figure 8.8 shows the effect of
electropolishing on a 14ct casting. The general
appearance is considerably brightened more
efficiently than by manual polishing or barrelling,
but small casting defects are more obvious in this
case.
Fig 8.8 Effect of electropolishing on 14ct gold casting.
Left after polishing. Right: as cast.
Equipment for electropolishing is similar in
principle to that for electroplating although
current densities tend to be higher. Details of a
typical 10 litre set-up (see figure 8.9) are given by
Mulnet, ref. 8.6. Fink & Moster, ref. 8.7, deal with
the characteristics of a medium-scale production
process. Current densities employed in
electropolishing are often 10 to 100 times greater
than for plating. Any unnecessary resistance
should be eliminated because it will cause a
(heat) power loss that would otherwise be
transporting ions usefully. The cost of power in
electroforming and -polishing is a significant part
of the added value even if not of the gold value
involved. The D.C. side of the power supply
must be low resistance from the transformer
windings, through the rectifier and on to contacts
and connecting leads in the tank, capable of
handling up to 100-150A at 6 to 15 or 20V. The
actual currents will depend on the number and
surface area of the components, the voltage used
and the temperature of the electrolyte. After the
first few seconds when a bath is settling down,
the amount of metal removed is almost directly
proportional to time and to voltage. However,
the rate of removal for a given voltage setting is
greater the higher the caratage of the gold alloy.
85
• ELECTROPOLISHING
Figure 8.9 – This diagram
summarizes the major
components that make up
an electropolishing system:
A: Stainless steel (or
appropriate heavy-duty
inert plastic) container to
hold the electrolyte.
B: One or more immersion
heaters plus a temperature
probe/indicator.
C: Large stainless steel
cathode.
D: Anode, consisting of a
stainless steel framework
fitted with platinum hooks
for holding samples to be
polished.
E: Thick electrical leads
leading to an adjustable,
powerful DC power
supply.
F: Leads to the automatic
temperature controller.
G: Fume hood with high
efficiency extraction
system.
With a fixed configuration of cathodes in an
established tank, it is easier to control the whole
electropolishing system by controlling the
voltage rather than the resulting current. The rate
of removal also increases with bath temperature
so temperature needs to be controlled too if
voltage is to be used as the fine control on the
process. Figure 8.10 shows that when the current
density is plotted against voltage in a typical
electropolishing system, a short plateau occurs in
the (Jacquet) curve. This is the region where separate lots. The electrolyte and washings will
electropolishing occurs under reasonably good not contain as much gold as might be the case
control. for electroforming but it may still be worth
treating. Zinc dust may be used to precipitate the
Most commercial solutions operate at about 80°C gold or it can be sent directly to refiners if local
and that sort of temperature is best controlled by transport is safe, cheap and convenient.
immersion heaters rather than rely on the
internal resistance heating of the electrolyte or Current density, A/dm and voltage, V, in
external gas heating. Gentle bath circulation is electropolishing
advisable even for a small (less than 10 litres) 60
system and agitation is essential for a large one,
50
to assist level polishing conditions. High bath
Anode current density
temperatures and agitation combine to encourage 40
spray and vapour losses at the surface of the 30
bath which must be controlled.
20
Differential reflectivity or colour can be achieved
in a two-stage operation. As a first step, the 10
article is either electroplated or chemically 0
treated to remove, say, copper, and leave a 0 1 2 3 4
different shade surface. Areas can then be Applied voltage
stopped off and the rest electropolished to give
different colours and/or textures.
Fig 8.10 A typical current density/voltage curve for electro-
polishing. The part of the curve up to about 1.3v gives etching
Up to about 5% of the weight of an article is conditions; from about 1.5 to 3v polishing occurs, but,
increasingly from about 2.5v, gas evolution also takes place
removed during a typical electropolishing and this ultimately spoils the polishing effect.
operation. Most of this will be deposited on the
inert cathode as a spongy deposit and can be
removed at the end of each polishing session
with a simple scraper. Deposits from different
types of gold alloy should be recovered into
Cleaning: All articles entering any of the
electrolytic processes must be clean and, in
particular, free from grease or oil. Even finger
marks can easily affect the wettability of the
article/electrolyte. Pre-cleaning processes include
tumbling with detergent mixes (wet or dry) and
solvent degreasing. Typically, re-cleaning is
applied until the final rinse leaves a continuous
clean water film over the article. Articles then
drain easily and may be dried without further
handling; usually by hot air. The cleaning fluids
and rinse waters should contain no electrolyte
and so it may be more economic to handle and
dispose of them separately from post plating
rinses which may be contaminated with cyanide.
Cyanide: The most important hazard is the use
of cyanide in the majority of electro-processes for
gold. While cyanides are convenient in terms of
technical process control, there is no question
but that they are dangerous. A personal account
has been given by Roland Loewen, ref. 8.9.
“Cyanide” in general terms may refer to sodium
or potassium cyanide salts, or it may be a metal
cyanide complex, or a water-based solution of
these materials. There is no form of “cyanide”
that is not poisonous. Cyanides can cause
86
•
SAFETY AND CLEANLINESS
ASPECTS
death by absorption through the skin and very
quickly through scratches, cuts or abrasions. It is
also absorbed quickly through mucous
membranes such as the mouth, through the eyes,
through ingestion by eating or smoking, and very
rapidly by a breath or two of hydro-cyanide gas
that forms when acid mixes with the other forms
of cyanide mentioned above. Poisoning is
quick. An ambulance call or a run to an
emergency room is probably too slow.
Furthermore, cyanide poisoning is not all that
common and emergency rooms do not usually
have the knowledge or equipment to deal with
it. There seem to be some misconceptions about
this hazard. One is that cyanide smells like bitter
almonds. It does for some individuals and in
dilute concentrations, but it is not consistent for
all persons. A strong dose of hydrogen cyanide
gas can smell acrid, corrosive, rough but not
acidic. One breath of this is enough to result in
very definite poisoning symptoms within about
one minute. Another misconception is that
cyanide will not pass through the skin. It will,
but the rate through healthy skin is fairly slow.
The body can dispose of a limited amount of
cyanide. If only a small portion of the skin is
contaminated with cyanide, the rate of
absorption may be less than the rate at which
the body disposes of the poison. In this case no
effects are felt.
Speed of poisoning: Inhalation of hydrocyanide
gas results in very rapid poisoning, 30 to 60
seconds. Hydrogen cyanide can be absorbed
through the skin in about 3 minutes, while
abraded skin lets the poison through in about a
third of that time. Swallowing results in rapid
poisoning. Solid or liquid absorption through
mucous membranes, mouth, lining of the nose,
etc, is speedy. A splash in the eye is very quickly
absorbed, about as quickly as an intravenous
injection. Entry through a cut is almost
instantaneous. Absorption of cyanide (as
opposed to hydrogen cyanide) through the skin
is slower and varies from person to person. The
lag time may be as much as 90 minutes but is
often less. Skin entry depends not only on the
individual, but on the strength of the solution (or
the solid), temperature (hot solutions are faster)
and the area of the skin affected.
Rules for using cyanide: A healthy 70 kilogram
person will metabolise or destroy cyanide at the
rate of about 30 mg per hour. Therefore if
86
•
SAFETY AND CLEANLINESS
ASPECTS
cyanide enters the body at a rate below this, it is
adequately removed. There may be no sensation
that this is going on. Those who work carefully
in the presence of ordinary cyanide fumes
quickly wash away cyanide splashes and are
otherwise prudent in their work with this
material will feel no effects. It is not a cumulative
poison and once gone is not a problem.
However, this can lull the user into a false sense
of security. Anyone handling cyanide materials
should:
1. Keep all cyanide products in sealed
containers remote from foodstuffs, water
intakes and outlets.
2. Separate cyanides and acids so that acids and
acid spills cannot reach cyanides; ensure
cyanide liquids cannot flow under room
partitions into another room nor run into
drains where cyanides and acids could mix.
3. Keep ventilation in cyanide treating areas
brisk and active.
4. Ensure all cyanide processing is done in the
special area.
5. Never work alone and wear eye protection
and rubber or PVC apron, gauntlet gloves and
boots.
6. Be sure all cyanide materials are clearly marked.
7. Use a cyanide test kit to identify cyanide
containing liquids.
8. When the gold has been removed, destroy
the cyanide and use tests to be sure this is
complete.
9. Have a cyanide poisoning first aid kit.
10. Ensure everyone dealing with cyanide learns
and practices the appropriate first aid
measures.
Tank arrangements: The liquid surface may be
covered with lightweight floating spheres and an
efficient fume hood and extraction system is
required. Ideally, the main extraction flow should
be through vents around the edges of the tank
just above the bath surface. Rubber gloves
should be worn in handling the baths and the
work. Polished articles should be rinsed into a
controlled rinse bath (both to avoid discharge
into the unprotected surface water system and to
allow recovery of values) and traces of cyanide
should be neutralised in a chlorine bleach
solution.
Disposal of cyanide wastes: Acidification of
cyanide solutions is not a sound way of disposal.
Not only is it dangerous, but it merely trades air
pollution for water pollution. A better way is by
alkaline chlorination using household bleach.
Both bleach and cyanide solutions should be
diluted, about 15g/l. Active agitation is a great
help. It is prudent to test for cyanide and the
presence of excess chlorine to be sure that
destruction is complete. There are test kits for
this.
8.7 REFERENCES
8.1. “DITO 24” in Electroforming of carat gold alloys, Guy
Desthomas, Gold Technology, 4_, May 1991, World Gold
Council.
8.2. Electroforming in gold jewellery production, Franz
Simon. Gold Technology, 1991, 4_, 10-15. (Auruna-Form,
Degussa AG., Schwaebisch Gmuend, Germany.)
8.3. OMI Artform, Guy Desthomas, Aurum, 1983, (14), 19;
1983, (15), 17.
8.4. Electroforming of Gold Alloys – ARTFORMTM Process,
Guy Desthomas, Gold Technology, 16 __, July 1995, World
Gold Council.
8.5 Recent Developments in the field of electroforming, a
Production Process for Hallmarkable Hollow Jewellery,
Dr. Franz Simon, Gold Technology, 16__, July 1995, World
Gold Council.
8.6. An introduction to electropolishing gold, Georges
Mulnet, Aurum, 1980, 4_, 30-36.
8.7. Electropolishing Gold Jewellery, George Fink & Bruno
Moster, Aurum, 1981, 6_, 41-45.
8.8. Gold Plating, Alfred M. Weisberg, Metal Finishing,
228-242, USA.
8.9. Cyanide – the killer, Roland Loewen, Goldsmiths
Technical Digest 1989/90, 38, Worshipful Company of
Goldsmiths, London. See also: Small Scale Refining,
Roland Loewen, Metchem Research Inc., 1995, 79-88.
8.10. Recovery and Recycling in Gold Electroplating,
Mingyuan Pan and James Thibault, Gold Technology,
21
__, April 1997, World Gold Council.
9 RELATED BOOKS AND LITERATURE
9 RELATED BOOKS AND LITERATURE
In each chapter, there is given a list of further
references that contain more detailed
information, which the reader is recommended
to study. There are relatively few good text
books on the subject of gold jewellery
manufacturing technology, particularly those
based on the underpinning science and
technology rather than a craft approach. Most are
only available in English language editions.
Some of those books referenced are,
unfortunately, out of print; for example, Rapson’s
book, “Gold Usage” and Grimwade’s book,
“An Introduction to the Precious Metals”. A new
edition of Rapson’s book is due to be published
in late 1997 by Met-Chem Research Inc,
USA. Some ‘classic’ texts, however, have been
reprinted (e.g. by Met-Chem Research Inc and
National Association of Goldsmiths, London) and
are available. Although old, they contain much
useful information.
More up-to-date useful information on gold
jewellery technology was published in the World
Gold Council journal, Aurum. This ceased
publication in 1988 and is no longer available.
However, it was replaced in 1990 by the journal,
Gold Technology, devoted specifically to gold
jewellery materials and manufacturing
technology. Early editions contain some articles
and alloy data sheets reprinted from Aurum.
Relevant articles from Gold Technology are
heavily referenced in each chapter. All back
issues are available from World Gold Council
offices on request.
Another major source of gold jewellery
technology information is the published
proceedings of the Santa Fe Symposia on
jewellery technology. These are published, in
English, by Met-Chem Research Inc and, together
with their other books, are available from their
distributor:-
Book Crafters Distribution Centre, USA
Tel: +1 313 475 6989; Fax: +1 313 475 1395
Credit cards are accepted.
Other useful books and conference proceedings
are published by:-
International Precious Metals Institute,
4905 W. Tilghman Street, Suite 160,
Allentown, Pennsylvania 18104-9137, USA
Tel: +1 610 395 9700; Fax: +1 610 395 5855
 National Association of Goldsmiths Press Ltd,
Northwood House,
93-99 Goswell Road,
London EC1V 7QA, UK
Met-Chem Research Inc,
P.O.Box 680
515 Courtney Way,
Lafayette,
Colorado 80026-0680, USA
Tel: +1 303 665 0515
Fax: +1 303 665 1415
WORLD GOLD COUNCIL
PUBLICATIONS
Besides the journal, Gold Technology, available
from local Council offices worldwide (in English
and some other languages), World Gold Council
publishes a scientific and technological journal,
Gold Bulletin, which contains occasional articles
on gold jewellery technology.
It also publishes a growing number of jewellery
technology publications that complement this
Technical Manual and which the reader will find
invaluable. Increasingly, some of these are
becoming available translated into other
languages as well as English (contact your local
World Gold Council office for information). At
the time of printing, these include:-
1. Investment Casting - A technical advisory
manual for goldsmiths, published 1995.
2. The Assaying and Refining of Gold -
A guide for the gold jewellery producer,
published April 1997.
3. Manual of Casting and other Defects in
Gold Jewellery Production - an illustrated
guide of actual case studies, published
summer 1997.
4. Finishing Handbook - to be published
late 1997.
Information on these publications can be
obtained from World Gold Council offices
worldwide or direct to:- World Gold Council,
International Technology,
45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, UK
Tel: +44 20 7930 5171
Fax: +44 20 7839 6561
Internet: http://www.gold.org.

9 RELATED BOOKS AND LITERATURE

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND CREDITS
 This Technical Manual was produced by
Dr John C. Wright, with assistance from
Mr Mark Grimwade (chapter 6), and edited by
Dr Christopher W. Corti.
Acknowledgement is made of the support and
assistance from many colleagues in the
preparation of this Manual, including Liz Melville
who typed many corrections to the manuscript
and co-ordinated supply of material to the
printer.
Thanks are also given to the many people and
companies for providing information and
IECO srl, San Zena di Cassola, Italy
Murray Bovin, Bovin Publishing, New York, USA
H. Hilderbrand et Cie, Geneva, Switzerland
3M UK plc, Abrasive Systems, Manchester, UK
Manfrid Dreher, Pforzheim, Germany
Metalfinishing srl, Vicenza, Italy.
Alan Revere, San Francisco, USA.
Note: Whilst every care has been taken in the
preparation of this publication, World Gold
Council cannot be responsible for the accuracy
of any statement or representation made or the
consequences arising from the use of any
information contained in it.
Produced by: Dr John C. Wright
Assisted by: Mr Mark Grimwade
Edited by: Dr Chris W. Corti
Originated and printed by: Trait Design
Publication date: May 1997
Reprinted 2001
Copyright © 1997
Published by World Gold Council,
International Technology,
45 Pall Mall, London SW1Y 5JG, UK
Tel: +44 20 7930 5171
Fax: +44 20 7839 6561
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission in
writing of the copyright holder.

allowing use of their photographs, many taken

from their original articles in Aurum and Gold The Technical Manual is intended solely as a
Technology and the Investment Casting Manual. general resource for practising professionals in
It is impossible to name them all but they the field and specialist advice should be obtained
include:- wherever necessary.

M. Grimwade, Consultant to World Gold
Council, UK
D. Ott, FEM, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany
Degussa AG, Hanau, and Degussa Electroplating
AG, Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany
Enthone-OMI SA, France
Hean Studio Ltd, Herefordshire, UK
Sherwood Scientific Ltd, Cambridge, UK
Warning: In this Manual, Health and Safety and
Environmental pollution warnings have been
given when the situation especially warranted it.
It is emphasised that it is always important to use
appropriate and approved health and safety
procedures, equipment and facilities. Again,
specialist advice should be taken, where
necessary.

10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND CREDITS