Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology

Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology
Luis A. Anchordoqui
Department of Physics and Astronomy

Lehman College, City University of New York
Lesson III
February 23, 2016
arXiv:0706.1988
L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 1 / 29
Table of Contents
1 Stellar Evolution
Nucleosynthesis
White dwarfs and the Chandrasekhar limit
Supernovae

Stellar Evolution Nucleosynthesis
In previous class we have seen that...
G Star form when gaseous (mostly 1 H) clouds contract due to pull of gravity
G Energy releasy in 1 H fusion reactions
Literature: Longair: §8, 10, 12 & 13 HEA 09/ pag
produces outward pressure to halt inward gravitational contraction
As hydrogen fuses to form helium @ star’s core

helium formed is denser and tends to accumulate in central core
As core of helium grows
hydrogen continues to fuse in a shell around it
When much of hydrogen within core has been consumed
production of energy decreases at center and . . .
cannot prevent gravitational force to contract and heat up core
Hydrogen in shell around core fuses more fiercely
as T rises causing outer envelope to expand and cool
Surface T reduces + spectrum peaks at longer wavelength
(reddish)
By this time the star has left the main sequence:
It has become redder
It has grown in size
It has become more luminous
It enters red giant stage
Model explains origin of red giants as step in stellar evolution
Evolution of Sun-like
Stellar Evolution NucleosynthesisStars
Example
Sun has been on main sequence for ∼ four and a half billion years
olutionIt will
of Sun-like Stars
probably remain there another 4 or 5 billion years
As becomes red giant expected to grow out to Mercury’s orbit
E. Chaisson, S. McMillan “Astronomy Today”

If star is like our Sun or larger + further fusion can occur

As star’s outer envelope expands + core shrinks and heats up
When the temperature reaches about 108 K
helium nuclei reach each other and undergo fusion
Reactions are
Two reactions must occur in quick succession

because 84 Be is very unstable
Net energy release of the triple-α process is 7.273 MeV
Further fusion reactions are possible + 42He fusing with 126C to form 168O.
In very massive stars + higher Z elements ( e.g. 20Ne or 24
10 12Mg ) can be made

Red supegiants
As massive red supergiants age
stars produce “onion layers” of heavier elements in their interiors
@ T = 5 × 109 K nuclei as heavy as 56 56

26 Fe and 28 Ni can be made
Average binding energy per nucleon

begins to decrease beyond iron group of isotopes
Formation of heavy nuclei by fusion ends at iron group
As a consequence
core of iron builds up in centers of massive supergiants
Process of creating heavier nuclei from lighter ones

or by absorption of neutrons at higher Z
is called nucleosynthesis
Red Supergiant

Stellar Evolution White dwarfs and the Chandrasekhar limit
Sirius
Sirius @ 2.6 pc + fifth closest stellar system to Sun
Analyzing motions of Sirius Bessel concluded

it had an unseen companion with an orbital period T ∼ 50 yr
In 1862 + Clark discovered this companion + Sirius B
Following-up observations showed that for Sirius B M ≈ M
Sirius B’s peculiar properties were not established until 1915
Adams noted high temperature of Sirius B + T ' 25, 000 K

which together with its small luminosity + L = 3.84 × 1026 W
requires extremely small radius and thus large density of this star


From Stefan-Boltzmann law we have

R L 1/2 T 2
= ≈ 10−2 (1)
R L T
Mean density of Sirius B + ρ = 3 × 106 g/cm3
Lower limit for central pressure of a star in hydrostatic equilibrium
M2
Pc > = 4 × 1016 bar (2)
8πR4
What would be central temperature Tc needed
if pressure is dominated by ideal gas?
From ideal gas law
Pc
Tc = ∼ 102 Tc, ≈ 109 K (3)
nk
For such high central temperature
dT/dr in Sirius B would be a factor 104 larger than in Sun
This would in turn require larger luminosity L( R)
and larger energy production rate than in main sequence star
Stars like Sirius B are called white dwarfs
They have very long cooling times

because of their small surface luminosity
White dwarfs are numerous + mass density in solar neighborhood

main-sequence stars + 0.04M /pc3
white dwarfs + 0.015M /pc3
Typical mass in range 0.4 − 1M + peaking @ 0.6M
For white dwarfs + no further fusion energy can be obtained
White dwarf continues to lose internal energy by radiation

decreasing in T and becoming dimmer until its light goes out
Star has then become cold dark chunk of ash

For a classical gas + P = nkT

+ in limit of zero T also P inside star goes to zero
How can star be stabilized after fusion processes

and thus energy production stopped?
Solution to this puzzle:

+ main source of P in such compact stars has different origin
Pauli principle forbids fermions to occupy same quantum state
In statistical mechanics
Heisenbergs uncertainty principle + ∆x∆p ≥ }
together with Pauli’s principle
imply that each phase-space volume }−1 dx dp
can be occupied by only one fermionic state
make the following as- Stellar Evolution White dwarfs and the Chandrasekhar limit
A (relativistic or non-relativistic) particle in box of volume d3

averagecollides
separation
per timeAssumptions
interval ∆t of
= the
d/vmolecular
x once with yz-side of box
This means that the model of an ideal gas
Thereby it exerts Fx = ∆p x /∆t = p x v x /d
is consistent with the
Pressure produced by N particles
nt-like.
P = F/A = N p x v x /(dA) = np x v x
hole theyFormove ran- distribution with hv2 i = hv2 i + hv2 i + hv2 i = 3hv2 i
isotropic x y z x
in any direction with
olecules move at high 1
P= nvp (4)
3
ng elastic collisions. y
ecules exert no long-
vi
s, all molecules are

d m
vxi
toms, we can assume
ases rather well at low z x
the average, on the d d
If we use ∆x = n−1/3 and ∆p ≈ }/∆x ≈ }n1/3

together with v = p/m (valid for non-relativistic particles)
}2 n5/3
P ≈ nvp ≈ ⇒ P ∝ ρ5/3 (5)
m
For relativistic particles + v = c
P ≈ ncp ≈ c}n4/3 ⇒ P ∝ ρ4/3 (6)

Note the following important points:
Both pressure laws are polytropic equations of state + P = Kργ
Non-relativistic degenerate Fermi gas
has the same adiabatic index as an ideal gas + γ = 5/3
Relativistic degenerate Fermi gas
has the same adiabatic index as radiation + γ = 4/3
In non-relativistic limit + P ∝ 1/m
degeneracy will become important first to electrons
Pressure of degenerate non-relativistic electron gas
To good approximation + e− in Sirius B are non-relativistic

ρ
ne = (7)
µe m p
µe ≡ A/Z + average number of nucleon per free electron

For metal-poor stars + µe = 2
!5/3
h2 n5/3
e (1.05 × 1027 erg s)2 106 g/cm3
P ≈ ≈
me 9.11 × 10−28 g 2 × 1.67 × 10−24 g
≈ 1023 dyn/cm2 = 1017 bar (8)
Consistent with lower limit for central pressure of Sirius B

G Relate mass of star to its radius by combining
GM2
Pc ∼ (9)
R4
and 5/3
5/3 M KM5/3
P = Kρ ∼K = (10)
R3 R5
we have
GM2 KM5/3
= (11)
R4 R5
or
M(10−12)/6 1
R= = (12)
K KM1/3
G If small differences in chemical composition + neglected
there is unique relation between mass and radius
G Radius of white dwarf stars decreases for increasing masses
suggesting that there exists maximal mass
Assume pressure described by non-relativistic degenerate Fermi gas
Total kinetic energy Ukin = N p2 /(2me ) + n ∼ N/R3 and p ∼ }n1/3
}2 n2/3 }2 N (3+2)/3 }2 N 5/3

Ukin ∼ N ∼ = (13)
2me 2me R2 2me R2
Potentail gravitational energy approximated by Upot ∼ GM2 /R
Balance equation
}2 N 5/3 GM2
U ( R) = Ukin + Upot ∼ 2
− (14)
2mR R
For small R + positive term dominates

and so stable minimum Rmin exists for each M

If Fermi gas in star becomes relativistic + Ukin = Ncp
c} N 4/3
Ukin ∼ Nc}n1/3 ∼ (15)
R
and
c} N 4/3 GM2
U ( R) = Ukin + Upot ∼ − (16)
R R
Both terms scale like 1/R
For fixed chemical composition + ratio N/M remains constant
If M is increased + negative term increases faster than first one
If U becomes negative
and can be made arbitrary small by decreasing R
star collapses
Critical mass for U = 0 + Chandrasekhar mass MCh

Using M = NN m N + c} Nmax4/3 = GN 2 m2
max N
!3/2 3
c} MPl
Nmax ∼ ∼ ∼ 2 × 1057 . (17)
Gm2p mp
This leads to + MCh = Nmax m p ∼ 1.5M

Critical size determined by two conditions:
gas becomes relativistic Ukin . Nme c2 and N = Nmax
4/3
1/2
2 c} Nmax c} c}
Nmax me c & ⇒ m e c2 & (18)
R R Gm2N
This corresponds to radii found for white dwarf stars

} c} 1/2
R& ∼ 5 × 108 cm (19)
me c Gm2N

Life cycle of the Sun

Stellar Evolution Supernovae
Supernovae are massive explosions

Thermonuclear Supernova (Type Ia)
that take place at end of star’s life cycle
They can be triggered by one of two basic mechanisms:
I by sudden re-ignition of nuclear fusion in degenerate star
II by the sudden gravitational collapse of massive star’s core
Core-Collapse Supernova (Type II, Ib, Ic)

Supernova explosion

es
Sudden release of a large amount E into fluid of density ρ1

creates strong explosion characterized by strong shock wave
emanating from the point where the energy was released
22 Sedov andTaylor solvedbbc.co.uk

the problem of point explosion
in context of atomic bomb explosions
Order of magnitude estimates

Mass of swept up material + order M (t) ∼ ρ1 R3 (t)
Fluid velocity behind shock + order mean radial velocity
ush (t) ∼ R(t)/t (20)
Kinetic energy
R2 R5
Ekin ∼ Mu2sh ∼ ρ1 R3 = ρ 1 2 (21)
t2 t
What about thermal energy in bubble created by explosion?
If P is postshock pressure + thermal energy should be of order
3
Ethem ∼ PV (22)
2

Jumping conditions across a shock

If shock moves to right with velocity ush (t) + in shock rest-frame
background gas streams with velocity u1 = ush (t) to the left
and comes out of the shock with
higher density ρ2
higher pressure P2
lower velocity u2
For strong explosion + sound-speed of medium c1 1
Rankine-Hugonoit relations for shock tell us
P2 2γ(u1 /c1 )2 γ−1

= − (23)
P1 γ+1 γ+1
As background pressure + P1 = ρ1 c21 /γ ý in strong shock limit
2ρ1 u21
P2 ' (24)
γ+1

where P is the postshock pressure. To find this pressure, we need
where the energy was released. Such explosions
conditions across a shock.occur
If thefor
shock moves to the right with
the form of supernova then in the rest-frame of the shock the background gas streams
explosions.
Blast wave + spherically symmetric
the left, and comes out of the shock with a higher density ⇢2 , h
and with a lower velocity v2 .
HEA 12: Supernova Remnants (SNR)
Today:
u2 u1
shockwaves
evolution of SNRs
Next Class:
diffuse shock acceleration in SNRs
The Rankine-Hugonoit relations for the shock tell us
SN1604 (Kepler) SNR-0509-67.5 (LMC) SN1006
⇢1 v2 1 2
ock wave travel and what is left behind? The problem = of = +
⇢2 v1 + 1 ( + 1)M2
known as Sedov-Taylor explosion,
where after the two scientists
v1
alytic (and in part numerical) means in the context of M = c
1
Today, the problem can provide
is theaMachusefulnumbertestoftothevalidate
shock. For a strong explosion, the
cal scheme, because an analytic solution
background mediumfor it can small,
is negligibly be so that the Mach number
be compared to numerical results. Also, the problemRankine-Hugonoit relation is
in this limit. For the pressure, the
to demonstrate the power of dimensional
Chandra/HST/VLA/GBT analysis and
P2 2 M2 1
=
P1 +1 +1
2
More about order of magnitude estimates

With postshock pressure
we estimate thermal energy in shocked bubble
R5
Etherm ∼ P2 R3 ∼ ρ1 u21 R3 ∼ ρ1 (25)
t2
Total energy
R5
E = Ekin + Etherm ∼ ρ1 (26)
t2
Shock front radius 1/5
Et2
R(t) ∼ (27)
ρ1
Expanding shock wave slows down as it expands
1/5 1/2
2 E 2 E
ush = = R−3/2 (28)
5 ρ1 t3 5 ρ1

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Department of Physics and Astronomy

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 2 / 29

In previous class we have seen that...

As hydrogen fuses to form helium @ star’s core

E. Chaisson, S. McMillan “Astronomy Today”

E. Chaisson, S. McMillan “Astronomy Today”

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 5 / 29

If star is like our Sun or larger + further fusion can occur

Two reactions must occur in quick succession

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 7 / 29

@ T = 5 × 109 K nuclei as heavy as 56 56

Average binding energy per nucleon

Formation of heavy nuclei by fusion ends at iron group

Process of creating heavier nuclei from lighter ones

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 9 / 29

Analyzing motions of Sirius Bessel concluded

In 1862 + Clark discovered this companion + Sirius B

Following-up observations showed that for Sirius B M ≈ M

Sirius B’s peculiar properties were not established until 1915

Adams noted high temperature of Sirius B + T ' 25, 000 K

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 10 / 29

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 11 / 29

From Stefan-Boltzmann law we have

Stars like Sirius B are called white dwarfs

They have very long cooling times

White dwarfs are numerous + mass density in solar neighborhood

Typical mass in range 0.4 − 1M + peaking @ 0.6M

For white dwarfs + no further fusion energy can be obtained

White dwarf continues to lose internal energy by radiation

Star has then become cold dark chunk of ash

For a classical gas + P = nkT

How can star be stabilized after fusion processes

Solution to this puzzle:

Pauli principle forbids fermions to occupy same quantum state

A (relativistic or non-relativistic) particle in box of volume d3

s, all molecules are

If we use ∆x = n−1/3 and ∆p ≈ }/∆x ≈ }n1/3

P ≈ ncp ≈ c}n4/3 ⇒ P ∝ ρ4/3 (6)

Pressure of degenerate non-relativistic electron gas

To good approximation + e− in Sirius B are non-relativistic

µe ≡ A/Z + average number of nucleon per free electron

Consistent with lower limit for central pressure of Sirius B

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 17 / 29

G Relate mass of star to its radius by combining

Assume pressure described by non-relativistic degenerate Fermi gas

Total kinetic energy Ukin = N p2 /(2me ) + n ∼ N/R3 and p ∼ }n1/3

}2 n2/3 }2 N (3+2)/3 }2 N 5/3

Potentail gravitational energy approximated by Upot ∼ GM2 /R

For small R + positive term dominates

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 19 / 29

If Fermi gas in star becomes relativistic + Ukin = Ncp

Both terms scale like 1/R

For fixed chemical composition + ratio N/M remains constant

If M is increased + negative term increases faster than first one

Critical mass for U = 0 + Chandrasekhar mass MCh

This leads to + MCh = Nmax m p ∼ 1.5M

This corresponds to radii found for white dwarf stars

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 21 / 29

Life cycle of the Sun

L. A. Anchordoqui (CUNY) Astronomy, Astrophysics, and Cosmology 2-23-2016 22 / 29

Supernovae are massive explosions

Core-Collapse Supernova (Type II, Ib, Ic)

E. Chaisson, S. McMillan “Astronomy Today”