MARIN COUNTY FREE LIBRARY

31111 00108 8127

bed Kay
The Painter's Guide
to Studio Methods
and Materials
Revised edition of the book first published
under the title The Pointers Componion
 T.p; .M.
$6.95

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CO
o
The o
o
to
and Materials
As all serious painters know, choosing ro

materials is not just a matter of visit-

ing an art supply store, and using

them properly involves a good deal
more than following package direc-
tions. To bring his concept to a satisfy-
ing and enduring realization, the artist
needs a thorough knowledge of the
types of materials available, their po-
tentials and limitations, and the tech-
niques he can use to make the most
of them.
That's precisely the information he
will find in this book, presented in a
clear, concise, and convenient format.
Originally published under the title

The Painters Companion, this new edi-

tion hasbeen thoroughly revised to in-
clude new and more accurate
information, such as a careful analysis
of synthetic resins and acrylics. From
grinding pigment to displaying the
finished work, in every major medium
—oil, watercolor, gouache, tempera,
fresco, pastel— Reed Kay provides the
vital, basic facts that every painter
needs.
 Civic Center CT 1 71983
751 Kay
* Kay, Reed
,-. The painter's guide to
C_( . /4 studio methods and
,. materials
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751 Kay, Reed

The painter's guide to studio methods and
materials. Rev. ed. Doubled.ay Icl972] ^
,

265p. illus, CoU.'4lt LiDiAnrXf

Includes bibliography.
First pub. in 1961 under the title:
Painter's companion.

1. Artists' materials 2, Painting -

M Technique
EG 9/72
I. Title
79-175387 ,
The Painter^s Guide To
Studio

Methods
and
Materials

by REED KAY

Revised Edition of the Book

First Published Under the Title
The Painter's Companion

DOUBLEDAY & COMPANY, INC., GARDEN CITY, NEW YORK, 1 972

 PHOTO CREDITS
Nos. I, 8, 9, 12, 13, 19, 20, 23, 24 by Jonathan Goell
Nos. 2, 3, 4, 10, 14, 34 by Wayland Minot
15, 28, 29, 33,
Nos. 5, 6, 17, 22 courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachu-
setts
Nos. 7, 21, 25, 32 courtesy of the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University
Nos. 16, 18, 30 courtesy of the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum
No. 31 courtesy of the Baker Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New
Hampshire

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 79-175387

Copyright © 1961, 1972 by Reed Kay
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America
 Acknowledgments

First of all, I owe my education and interest in the subject of the

painter's materials to Mr. Karl Zerbe, to whom this book is
respectfully dedicated. I wish to thank the Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Isabella
Stewart Gardner Museum, the trustees of Dartmouth College,
and Mr. and Mrs. John J. Wilson for their generous permission
to reproduce photographs of paintings from their collections. I am
indebted to Mr. Joseph Pratt, whose photographs of the paintings
in the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum are reproduced, and
to Mr. James Ufford, who made the photographs of the pictures
from the Fogg Art Museum. I also wish to thank Mr. Wayland
Minot and Mr. Jonathan Goell, who made the photographs
which show the preparation of painting materials. I am indebted
to the late Henry Varnum Poor and Miss Anne Poor, Miss
Elizabeth Jones of the Fogg Art Museum, Mr. David Aronson,
and Dr. Myron Simon for their helpful suggestions relating to
the content of the book, but they cannot be held responsible for
any errors or omissions remaining in the text, for they are mine.
I am especially grateful to my wife, Frieda H. Kay, for her help
in preparing the typescript and for the support and encouragement
she has always given me. Finally, I wish to record my thanks to
Mr. Dwight W. Webb for his aid in the preparation of the
manuscript.
To Karl Zerhe
 1

Contents

Introduction i
3

Pigments i
7
Standards and Requirements, 17
Types of Pigments, 20
Color Groups, 22
Catalogue of Pigments, 37
Tests, 49
Toxicity, 53

Binders and Diluents 54

Drying Oils, 55
Water-thinned Adhesives, 59
Thinners and Solvents, 61
Varnishes, 7

The Oil Technique 79

The Manufacture of Oil Colors, 79
Factory-made Oil Colors, 86
8 I
CONTENTS
Materials and Equipment for Painting, 89
Painting Methods, 98
Protection of the Picture, 107

4
Supports and Grounds 117
Flexible Supports, 118
Grounds for Flexible Supports, 129
Rigid Supports, 136
Grounds for Rigid Supports, 139
Imprimatura, 148

5
Water Paints 150
Transparent Water Color, 151
Gouache, 157
Distemper or Size Painting, 159

6
Tempera 161

Pure Egg Yolk Tempera, 163

Emulsions of Egg and Oil, 167
Other Tempera Materials, 171
Tempera Underpainting for Oils, 172

7
Casein 175
Casein Solutions, 175
Casein Emulsions, 179

8
Encaustic Wax Painting 181
 n

CONTENTS

9
Cold Wax Techniques i88
Wax Emulsion (Saponified Wax, Wax Soap), 188
Wax Paste, 190

10

Fresco Painting 191

The Wall, 193
The Mortar, 194
Plastering the Wall, 196
Sketches, Cartoons, and Transfer Tracings, 200
Pigments and Equipment for Fresco Painting, 202
Painting Procedure, 204
Secco Painting, 208

II

Synthetic Resin Paints 209

Acrylic Emulsion Paints (Acrylic Polymer Tempera), 215
Acrylic Solution Paints, 224
Alkyd Resin Medium, 226
Polyvinyl Acetate Emulsion (P.V.A., Vinyl Polymer
Tempera), 227

12

Pastels 228

13

Gilding 239
I O I
CONTENTS

14
Appendix 245
Tables of Weights and Measures, 245
Temperature Scales, 250
Sources of Supplies, 250

15

Bibliography 254

Index 259
 1

Illustrations

1-13 facing page 74

1. Natural and synthetic resins

2. Dissolving dammar resin

3. Grinding oil paint

4. Filling tubes

5. Vincent van Gogh: Houses at Auvers

6. Detail of roofs

7. Tintoretto: Allegory of Fidelity

8. Spraying varnish

9. Protective backing for canvas

10. Stretching canvas

11. Folding the comer of the canvas

12. Applying glue-size

13. Applying oil ground

14— iS facing page 122

14. Materials for gesso

15. Application of gesso

16. Bellini: A Turkish Artist

17. Klee: Mauerpflanze

18. Sargent: Ponte delta Canonica

I 2 I
ILLUSTRATIONS
ig-24 facing page 146

19. The hinged mat

20. Attachment of the water color
21. Toulouse-Lautrec: Augusta
22. Bama da Siena: Marriage of St. Catherine

23. Preparing egg yolk tempera

24. Preparing egg yolk tempera

25-34 facing page 194

25. Egyptian Fayum: Lady with Earrings

26. Zerbe: Still-life with Fruit

27. Detail of fruit

28. Equipment for encaustic

29. Buming-in process

30. Piero della Francesca: Hercules

31. Orozco: The Prophecy

32. Degas: After the Bath

33. Application of bole

34. Application of gold leaf

 Introduction

The artist's problem in obtaining and using suitable materials

seems at first glance quite simple. Art supply shops ofTer ready-
to-use colors, canvases, thinners, and tools, in a great range of
quality and cost. It might be thought that since today's products
are of such high quality, the painter needs only to purchase
any one of them and to follow the directions on the label in
order to have a responsive vehicle for his ideas. Unfortunately,
it is not so simple or direct a process. On the shelves of most
art supply shops, one sees varnish mediums, wax mediums, wax
emulsions, casein tempera, stand oil, synthetic resins, and a
multitude of other media, each with its claim to superiority
over the rest. The same situation exists in the case of papers,
canvases, panels, colors, and the other studio necessities. Various
painters and teachers recommend specific combinations of media
and grounds as being the best on which to begin gouache on —
paper, oil on canvas board, encaustic on gesso panel, etc., the
suggestion often being made with economy or convenience in
mind. However, problems arise in the case of a painter or student,
no longer a beginner, but one forming his own style, who needs
to choose his materials, not on the basis of caprice, the preference

of a fellow artist, or the limitations of stock at the art supply

shop nearest him, but rather on the basis of his own individual
requirements. Opportxmity for free choice exists only for the artist
who is well acquainted with the various categories of materials,
knows their characteristic limitations, and has experimented for at
least a short time with most of the general types to see at firsthand
I
4 I
INTRODUCTION
how they behave under his own brush. Moreover, for many serious
artists, this is a continuing problem rather than one that is solved
once and for all in student days. Frequently, as a painter's pur-
poses and concepts change, so does his technical vocabulary. Thus
in his later work, Cezanne rejected the heavy palette-knife impasto
of his earlier pictures and turned to thin oils and water colors.
Degas, as he developed, became increasingly interested in the
chromatic possibilities of pastel; and Titian's early smooth glazes
were displaced in his later paintings by extensive opaque direct
passages. These changes were made by artists, knowledgeable in
their craft, who required new materials or methods to express new
ideas. Naturally, since each material differs from the rest in respect
to drying rate, brushing qualities, transparency and covering
quality, tonal and textural range, each carries certain implications
as to style and pictorial effect.
Besides being suitable to the painter^s style, the material must
be durable. The serious artist dedicates his work to an idea or
concept only after much trial and error, soul-searching, and hard
labor. Without doubt, it is this concept or attitude that is the
distinctive ingredient in a picture. However, once the idea has
been evolved, it is entrusted by the artist to a material in order
to give it concrete reality. The idea can remain vigorous and
subtle only as long as the material continues to exist.
Itmust be remembered that the materials used in making
pictures are fragileby comparison with those employed in architec-
ture and sculpture. Furthermore, the picture exists as a unique
object in contrast to a book or musical score, and so the failure
of a painting material is an irretrievable loss. These materials are
subject to physical and chemical laws that apply to all paintings
regardless of their aesthetic worth or intent. The aspects of these
laws that affect the practice of painting are not complicated,
but if they are not understood, the picture may soon develop
such defects and changes that it no longer represents the painter's
intentions. It may crack or peel; color may fade or darken; trans-
parent passages may become cloudy or opaque. These defects
may be caused by the use of faulty materials or by the ignorant
use of sound materials. It would seem obvious that the painter
owes it to himself and to his audience to keep such changes to a
minimum. First, because repairing a picture is a costly affair. Con-
 mXRODUCTION I
I
5
sequently, if his work needs the constant attention of restorers, his
reputation suffers among his contemporaries, and his work is cir-

culated less than it should be. Second, if after his death, his work
is in such bad condition that it must be touched up extensively
by conservators, his ideas may reach his audience in much diluted
form.
Today, most house painters know more than artists about the
technical aspects of painting. They are acquainted with the be-
havior of binders in paint, the adhesion of paint films to be
ground, the drying processes of oils and varnishes. If these matters
were understood in their simple physical aspects by the artist,
and if, at least for a period during his student days, he were to
familiarize himself with the various products he uses by grinding
his own colors, making his own varnish and paint vehicles, and
by preparing his own grounds, he might then be in a position
to avoid the poor craftsmanship that contributes nothing to his
artistic expression and is a serious threat to the physical survival
of his pictures.
It is worth noting that in the past the great painters did just
this. When the guilds flourished from the Middle Ages to the
fifteenth century, the young painter as apprentice learned to
grind colors and prepare the other materials for the master, thereby
learning his craft thoroughly by constant practice under expert
supervision. A similar situation existed from the fifteenth to the
late seventeenth century when the student worked in the studio
of a well-known artist. Although the system rigidly enforced
standards of craftsmanship (the guild could, and did, fine painters
deficient in their craft), it allowed for the radical aesthetic
development of such painters as Giotto, Michelangelo, Da Vinci,
El Greco, Van Eyck. The precepts of fine craftsmanship did not
hinder but, on the contrary, stimulated the fuU expression of
their talent.
When the guilds declined for economic and political reasons,
and their place as an educational force was taken by the nine-
teenth-century academy, rules of craft were jumbled together
with dogmatic rules for composition and expression. The indus-
trial revolution made available factory-produced art materials,
rendering it unnecessary for the painter to know how to pre-
pare his own colors and media. Rules without reasons naturally
I 6 I
INTRODUCTION

became tiresome and restrictive, irritating those members of the

painting community who had creative ideas. In their revolt
against the aesthetic of the academy, they also lost interest in the
craft identified with it. Thus, we find a noticeable decline of
good practice in the great paintings of recent times. Many are
actually in worse states of preservation than pictures hundreds
of years older.
We are in the position of trying to recover some of the knowl-
edge our predecessors had, while adding to it the discoveries in
synthetic and other materials developed in modem industrial
laboratories. If we accomplish this, new modes of expression may
be open to us, which will leave an enduring record of our
artistic activities.
 1

Pigments

STANDARDS AND REQUIREMENTS

Pictures are made by spreading color on a supporting material.
We willexamine separately the preparation and handling of the
color, the thinners necessary for spreading it, and the materials
upon which it may be applied.
Artists' paints are produced by combining a coloring agent

(dry pigment) with a liquid binding medium. The dry pigment

may be of natural origin, such as a native earth, or it may be
produced artificially in a factory. Through its particular physical
characteristics, it gives the paint its color and has other effects
on the durability, brushing properties, and drying speed of the
paint.
The binding medium is the liquid material that holds the
particles of dry pigment to each other and fastens them collectively
to the ground or support material.
Various thinners or painting mediums may be added to the
paint to bring about desirable brushing qualities.
The characterizing difference between the various techniques,
such as oils, water color, tempera, and fresco, rests on the fact
that each uses as a binding medium a substance distinct from
that employed by the others. On the other hand, with com-
paratively few exceptions, each category of paint lists the same
pigments as coloring agents.
I 8 I
PIGMENTS

General Requirements

A pigment used in artistic painting should satisfy at least the

following requirements:

1. It should not fade or change color when exposed to the

prolonged action of normal light.

2. It should not interact chemically in a harmful way with

any of the materials such as other pigments, binding mediums,
or grounds with which it must come in contact during nor-
mal painting procedures.

3. It should not "bleed" through or "migrate" through

dried layers of binder. Some colors which dissolve in their
binder, instead of simply remaining dispersed in it, continue
to stain layers of paint put on top of them, even when the
underlayer is thoroughly dry.

4. Its color and character should remain unaffected by

the acid or alkaline fumes found in the atmosphere to which
the painting will normally be exposed.

5. It should form with its binder a tough, physically stable

film, resistant to the sort of wear and handling which may
be expected for the picture.

6. It should not have poisonous effects when handled

with normal precautions in the artist's studio.

Specific Requirements

Oil
Pigments used in oil paints are bound together and to the canvas
by a drying oil, such as linseed oil, and are thinned by such

solvents as turpentine or mineral spirits. The different pigments

ground same oil, absorb different amounts of oil, dry at
in the
different rates, and form films of varying quality, from the desirable
tough flexible films to brittle or crumbly ones, which may crack
or peel in a short time. There are even colors (such as asphaltum
or bitumen) that never dry at all in linseed oil.
 PIGMENTS I
I
9
Pigments used in oil technique should dry in linseed oil to an
acceptable strong film.

Water Color, Gk>UAGHE, Egg Tempera

In transparent water color (aquarelle), gouache, and unvarnished
egg yolk tempera techniques, the pigments are bound in com-
paratively thin films to paper, cardboard, or a prepared wood
panel by solutions of gum arable, animal glues, or egg yolk. The
paints are thinned with water. Because these binders do not
encase the pigments so completely in a glassy film as is the case
in the oil technique, the pigments used in the water techniques
are more vulnerable to the effects of sunlight and the atmosphere.
Thus, pigments used in water techniques should not be espe-
cially sensitive to the chemical effects of acid- and sulfur-carrying
gases, which are present in city atmosphere, or to the bleaching
effect of sunlight.

Synthetic Resins
Industrial research has developed synthetic binders such as vinyl
or acrylic polymer resins which are now used extensively in artists'

paints. Some of these new binders have pronounced chemical

characteristics (for example, emulsions of the acrylic resins are
quite alkaline) that may limit the list of pigments used in these
techniques.

Fresco
In the buon fresco technique, dry pigments are ground with water
only and brushed on wet lime plaster. When the plaster dries,
the pigment is permanently bound to it but is not varnished and,
hence, not protected from the acid effects of the city atmosphere.
Furthermore, the lime in the plaster is a strong alkali which
bleaches out many pigments.
Therefore, the list of pigments available to the fresco painter
iscomparatively limited, containing only those colors that remain
unaffected both by acids in the air and the alkaline action of
lime.
2 o i
pigments

Pastel
For pastel painting, pigments are very loosely bound into lumps
on sticks, like chalks, using a dilute binder, such as gum traga-
canth. Colored drawings or paintings are made on paper or
cardboard with these chalks.
Sincemuch pigment dust is normally raised by this technique,
it is important that poisonous pigments be excluded from the
pastel lists, lest they be inhcded by the artist.

TYPES OF PIGMENTS
It is useful for the artist to know that pigments fall into one of
four general groups, according to the nature of their source or
manufacture.

Natural Mineral Colors

The (ochers, umbers, etc.) are mined from beds

"earth colors"
of earth and have been given their color by the presence in the
local soil of iron compounds (iron oxides and iron hydroxides),
along with varying amounts of clay, chalk, and silica. The color,
transparency, and strength tend to vary with the different deposits,
some yielding more desirable colors than others. These colors have
been in use since prehistoric tiir^es and have been found to be
permanent in all techniques. They must be well washed and
purified of any foreign materials that might adversely affect the
colors*permanence.
Although their collective color character tends toward a brown
quality (brick reds, sandy yellows, burnt oranges, etc.), they have
sufficient life and variety to produce rich and handsome har-
monies, even when used in a painting to the exclusion of most
other pigments.
When the natural earths are roasted or calcined they change
their colors, usually to deeper, warmer tones: thus raw sienna
becomes burnt sienna; raw umber, burnt umber; and so on.
These varieties are also permanent in all techniques.
The earth pigments include yellow ocher, burnt and raw sienna,
burnt and raw umber, light red, Indian red, Venetian red, terra
rosa, terrc verte, and burnt terre verte.
 PIGMENTS 2 I

Factory-made Mineral Colors

This group of colors, products of the laboratory and industrial

process, contains many permanent and important additions to the
painter's palette, such as viridian or cobalt blue. On the other
hand, not all artificial permanent and stable,
metallic colors are
for example, chrome yellow (lead chromate) which frequently
darkens.
Factory-made equivalents of the burnt and raw earth colors have
been available since the middle of the nineteenth century. Today
they are generally called "Mars colors," such as Mars yellow, Mars
red, Mars brown, etc. Like their natural counterparts, they are
permanent in all techniques and are somewhat freer from imdesir-
able impurities than the natural earth colors.

Natural Organic Colors

These are of vegetable or animal origin, such as bitumen or

sepia. They are rarely permanent enough for artists' use.

Artificial Organic Colors

These, like the natural organic colors, are compounds containing

carbon. While many (like mauve and magenta discovered in the
nineteenth century) are fugitive, some, such as phthalocyanine
blue and alizarin, are sufficiently permanent for artists' use. Since
i960 a growing list of artificial organic colors, demonstrating
increased permanence, has gained acceptance by artists and manu-
facturers of artists' colors.

Dyestuffs

A pigment imparts its color to paints by distributing its particles

through a medium such as oil, the particles remaining suspended
and undissolved in the medium. A dye, on the other hand, is a
coloring agent that dissolves in a medium completely, leaving
no trace of a particle structure. Most dyes are complex organic
compounds. Some, Hke carmine, which is made from an insect,
2 2 I
PIGMENTS
come from natural sources. Others, like alizarin, are synthetically
made in the factory, frequently with coal tar as the source.
The principal objection to the use of a dyestuff in painting
Is that it will often "bleed" or "migrate." That is to say, if a
layer of white paint Is put over a dry layer of orange paint
containing a dye, the white may become discolored by the orange
dye. This may happen even when the white is put next to the
orange dye.

Lakes

In order to be used In paints, most dyes must be precipitated

and fixed on particles of Inert material, called the base or carrier.
Thus, artificial alizarin dye is struck on a base, or "carrier," of
aluminum hydrate, and thereby Is made usable as an artist's
color. Such colors are called "lakes." The particles of which they
are composed may be likened to a snowball (the aluminum
hydrate base) dipped into grape juice (the alizarin dyestuff).

Toners

Toners are precipitated dyestuflPs or lakes of a very concentrated

nature, containing little inert carrier. They must be tested care-
fully for their tendency to bleed.

In summary, It may be said about these general groups:

Very many natural mineral pigments (especially the earth

1.

colors) are highly permanent and durable in all techniques.

2. Many artificial mineral colors are permanent.
3. Quite a few artificial organic colors are permanent.
4. Very few natural organic colors are peimanent.

COLOR GROUPS
The following section contains comparisons and comments on
the character of the pigments that are usually available In art
supply stores. They are arranged within color groups (reds, whites,
greens, etc.) tomake selection and comparison easier. The chief
concerns of the practicing artist In choosing his colors (either
 PIGMENTS I
23

in dry powder form or in the form of paint prepared by the

commercial manufacturer) might be listed as follows:

1. Permanence, in regard to the standards previously men-

tioned.
2. Drying speed in oil technique.
3. Special characteristics that may affect its handling
properties.

4. Toxicity.

Therefore, the on pigments carry comments on these

sections
factors. A list section indicating in summary form
follows this
the information on the color's behavior, origin, and chemical
composition. Palettes of pigments for the various techniques are
recommended in the chapters dealing with these techniques.

White Pigments

Since white paint, used alone and in mixtm-es vnth other colors,
makes up a very large proportion of all the pigment used in a
painting, the selection of a well-made white, suitable to the
painter^s personal method of work, is of greatest importance. It is
foolish to economize on this color by using house paint or cheap
substitutes, since the effect on the durability of the picture will
be spread throughout most of the painting.

Flake White (Cremnitz WnrrE, WnriE Lead) is basic

carbonate of lead, made by one of several industrial processes. It
was the chief white pigment used by artists from ancient times to
1834, when zinc white was made available as a pigment for
water color. When ground in linseed oil, it reacts with the oil
to form an unusually tough flexible film. It dries with exceptional
rapidity and speeds up the drying of colors with which it is
mixed. In the process of grinding white lead pigment into oil
paint, comparatively little oil is necessary to obtain a good paint
consistency. Thus, on drying it forms lean films which are pre-
ferred for groimds and underpainting layers. It brushes out well
in oil and covers well.
Its disadvantages are: (i) the toxicity of lead pigments, which
24 I
PIGMENTS
are cumulatively poisonous if taken into the human system (see
page 53; (2) a tendency to turn slightly yellow; (3) sensitivity

to sulfur fumes, which turn it black.

However, the danger of "painter's colic," or lead poisoning,
is considered remote if normal precautions of cleanliness are
observed (page 53). As to the darkening because of sulfur fumes,
this can be avoided in oil paintings by a coat of picture varnish

brushed over the dried film. The normal slight yellowing of flake
white in oils is not objectionable in the paintings of old masters,
such as El Greco or Rembrandt, where flake white films still

appear beautifully brilliant.

If flake white oil films are kept in the dark for some time,
they may yellow to an objectionable degree but will soon regain
their original brightness if they are exposed again to normal light.

In general, the rapid-drying and fine film-forming properties

of flake whites in oil still make them preferred by many painters.
In the water techniques (tempera, gouache, etc.), white lead
is more vulnerable
to hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere, since
these do not encase the pigment as does linseed oil.
binders
Consequently, white lead has been observed to darken somewhat
more frequently in these media than in oil and is adequately
replaced by zinc or titanium white.

LiTHOPONE (Orr's White) is zinc sulfide combined with

barium sulfate, and when first produced in 1874, it had the
characteristic of turning dark in bright light and returning to its

former whiteness in the dark. The modem product is much

improved and is used extensively in house paints and, to some
extent, in grounds for artists' colors. It is non-toxic, dries at
about the same rate as zinc white, and has strong tinting and
coloring quality.

Titanium White is titanium dioxide, a more recently de-

veloped pigment. It is not poisonous, covers well, and is very
stable, resisting well the and atmosphere.
eff"ects of heat, light,
Its chief disadvantages in oil technique are slow drying and its

soft, crumbly film quality, and therefore it is usually combined

with zinc white to form a better film. Improvements in pro-

duction processes make today's product free of some of the
 PIGMENTS I
2 5

disadvantages it had in the past. In water techniques, it stands

up well, although an occasional sample brushes badly.

Whiting (Natural Chalk) is calcium carbonate. It is

used by artists principally in making grounds and as a filler or

extender in gouache paints. In becomes transparent and
oil, it

yellow. Mixed with used to make window-

boiled linseed oil, it is

glazing putty. Precipitated chalk is made artificially and is even

whiter and more uniform in texture. Natural whiting is found
in the form of soft white rock, which is composed of the remains
of a sea organism {Poraminifera) The rock is crushed and ground
.

in water, and grades of varying particle size are produced. The

coarsest is called "Commercial Whiting," next is "Gilder's White,"
and finest and most suitable for studio use is the grade called
"Paris White."

Zing White (Chinese Whiie) is zinc oxide, a pigment that

has been used by artists since around 1840. It is a brilliant cold

white, somewhat whiter than white lead. In oil technique, zinc

white is very stable, but it is a much slower drier than flake
white and makes films that are hard and brittle. It is used
principally in prima painting (one layer of paint) or in
alia
finishing coats, since its slower drying and relatively brittle fiObn
qualities make it less desirable for underpainting. In water tech-
niques, these disadvantages do not exist, and so it is here a sensible
replacement for flake white. Zinc white is not poisonous. In dry
pigment form, the grade on the market most suitable for artists'
use is known as "pure zinc white, green seal."

Yellow Pigments

Aureolin (Cobalt Yellow) is potassiinn cobaltinitrite.

Because of its transparency, it is used in oils as a glazing color.
It is a rapid drier, permanent in oils and tempera.

Barium Yellow, Strontium Yellow, and Zing Yellow

are chromates of barium, strontium, and zinc, respectively, and
have not been well differentiated on the market, where they are
often sold under the name of "lemon yellow" or "citron yellow."
2 6 I
PIGMENTS
As a group they are all rather weak cool yellows, fairly permanent,
except in fresco. On exposure to light, they may assume a greenish
cast. All of them' can be easily matched with pale cadmium
mixtures.

Cadmium Yellows (Aurora Yellow) and Cadmium

Orange are bright strong colors, which have been recently de-
veloped and are available in several shades from light to deep. The
older "C.P." or "pure" cadmiums (cadmium sulfides) are more
expensive and stronger in tinting power than the more recent
cadmium "lithopones" or "cadmium-barium" colors (which are
co-precipitated with barium sulfate). Both types seem permanent
in virtually all mixtures if carefully made and if free from im-
purities and excess sulfur. They are questionable in fresco. They dry
rather slowly, especially since color manufacturers sometimes grind
them in poppyseed oil because the darkening of linseed oil may
be noticeable in the lighter shades.

Chrome Yellow, lead chromate, is poisonous and even in

the best grades is of questionable permanence. It is a good drier
in and brushes out well. Cadmium yellows, which are of
oils

superior permanence, can easily be substituted for all shades of

chrome yellow. Chrome yellow is found in mixtures with various
blue pigments (usually Prussian blue) to make chrome greens.

Green Gold (Nickel-azo Yellow) is a synthetic organic

pigment, sold as an artist's color, that has a pronounced green-
yellow quality. Accelerated tests indicate that its resistance to
fading is high, and it is expected to join the synthetic colors of
superior permanence.

Hansa Yellow, available to artists since the early 1930s, is

a synthetic organic dyestuff color. manufactured in a variety It is

of shades, from a reddish yellow, Hansa R, through medium

tones called Hansa G and 5G, to a cool greenish yellow called
Hansa loG. It resists fading, especially when used full strength,
but may fade in mixtures with white. It should be carefully
observed to see if it bleeds in the particular medium being
employed. Because of its bright tone it is sometimes substituted
 PIGMENTS I
2 7

for the cadmium yellows in less expensive lines of color, under

the name of "cadmium yellow hue," and it is used in mixtures
with blues and greens to make bright yellow greens.

Indian Yellow, the genuine product, processed from the

urine of cows that had been fed mango leaves, is no longer
obtainable. A synthetic lake of similar appearance and permanence
is substituted today.

Mars Yellow is a factory-made iron hydroxide that usually

resembles the tone of the natural earth yellows, such as yellow
ocher or raw sienna. It is j>ermanent in all techniques.

Naples Yellow, as traditionally made of lead antimoniate,

is infrequently sold today. It a useful color that has many of
is

the characteristics of flake white, such as a rapid rate of drying

and good film-forming properties. It shares the disadvantages of
flake white; that is, it is toxic and sensitive to sulfur. Both of
these defects can be overcome (see flake white).
What is sold today as Naples yellow is, more often than not,
a mixture, such as cadmium yellow, white (often zinc white),
and ocher. Naturally, such combinations will dry more slowly
and have inferior film quahties to true Naples yellow.

Yellow Ocher, Gold Ocher, and Raw Sienna are known

as the earth yellows. Together with their artificial counterparts,
the Mars yellows, they put at our disposal a very useful range of
duller yellow tones. If they are pure and of good quality, they
are permanent in all techniques. Since they vary in hue arid
opacity according to the geographical source of the pigment, there
is great color variety in the difl'erent brands on the market, a
condition that is to the advantage of the artist. In cheap grades
theremay sometimes be an admixture of a chrome yellow (lead
chromate) to "spark up" a dull pigment.

Red Pigments
Alizarin Crimson is a synthetic coal-tar lake that provides a
transparent red tending toward the blue tones. In mixtures with
28 I
PIGMENTS
zinc white, it produces tones that are somewhat violet. It is often
used as a glazing color because of its transparent nature. It is

sufficiently durable for use in oil and water color if well made,
though some grades may become slightly lighter with time. It is
not permanent in fresco. It is considerably more permanent than
the natural madder lakes which it replaces.

Cadmium Reds in all shades have properties similar to the

cadmium yellows. The so-called pure or "G.P." cadmium reds
consist of cadmium sulfide plus cadmium selenide. The cadmium-
lithopone reds are cadmium sulfide and cadmium selenide co-
precipitated with bariimi sulfate. All of the cadmium reds have
good tinting strength and should keep a clean brilliant tone.
The cadmium lithopones are somewhat weaker, but they are per-
manent. The "G.P." cadmium reds have been in use since 1907,
and the cadmium lithopones since 1926.

Madder Lake, made from roots of the madder plant, is the

natural counterpart of alizarin crimson. It contains natural alizarin
(1,2 dihydroxyanthraquinone) as well as a related dye called pur-
purin —the purpurin being less stable than the alizarin. Although
it has been used since ancient periods and has stood up moderately
well, madder is usually replaced today by the stronger and more
stable artificial alizarin.

Mars Red and the earth reds, Venetian Red, English Red,
Spanish Red, Caput Mortuum, Indian Red, Light Red, Burnt
Sienna are safe in all techniques and are extremely useful, partic-
ularly in mixtures. They may be found in a great range of shades
from warm brick-red tones to cool violet browns.

QuiNACRiDONE Reds (Monastral^ Reds) are recently de-

veloped artificial organic colors and have been used in artists'

paints since the early 1960s. Their lightfastness and durability seem
excellent, and they provide the painter with a useful group of red
and red-violet pigments, which he can use to mix clear violet and
purple tones. Paints made with these pigments are sold under com-
pany names such as Permanent Pigment Acra Red or Acra Crimson
IE. I. Du Pont, Inc., trade-mark.
 PIGMENTS I
2 9

(Permanent Pigments, Inc.) and Bocour Red (Bocour Artist Colors,

Inc.)

Red Toners like Rhodamine toner and Paratoluidine toner,

though brilliant and attractive and rather less expensive than the
cadmiums, must be carefully checked for bleeding and for fading
when tinted with white.

Vermilion (Chinese Vermilion, Cinnabar) is mercuric sul-

fide. Though the compound was found in the form of a native
mineral, called cinnabar, in Spain, China, and Austria, and this
natural vermilion was used by artists, methods of producing the
compound artificially have been known and used for at least ten
centuries. Although many examples of the color have survived un-
changed, there have been instances of vermilion turning black. Im-
purities in the pigment and exposure to direct sunlight seem to be
factors in causing this change. It is used in oils but rarely in tem-
pera or water color. It is not a fresco color. The pigment is gen-
erally replaced today by the cadmium reds, although the cadmiums
do not have the exact nuance of a first-quality vermilion.

Blue Pigments

Cerulean Blue, Cobalt Blue, and Manganese Blue are

all permanent in all techniques. They are very rapid driers because
of the cobalt or manganese that they contain. Since these are
expensive colors, cheaper substitutes are made by using artificial

ultramarine blue or phthalocyanine blue in mixtures to approxi-

mate the hue. Such substitutions should of course be clearly labeled
and should be correspondingly less expensive.

Phthalocyanine Blue, also called Monastral Blue and

soldunder various company names like Winsor blue, Bocour blue,
and Talens' Rembrandt blue, is a synthetic lake of recent origin
(1935)- % all possible accelerated tests, it seems to be fully per-
manent in oilsand water techniques. It is very strong; its hue falls
close to that of Prussian blue; and in mixtures it works easily
toward the greens.
3O I
PIGMENTS
Prussian Blue is said to fade somewhat in mixtures with
white, but in general it is fairly permanent. It is bleached by
alkalis and so cannot' be used in fresco. There are many grades on
the market, some better than others. Like certain diseases, it has
been called by German writers, "Paris blue"; and by the French,
"Prussian blue"; others have called it Antwerp blue, American
blue, Chinese blue, Milori blue, and Berlin blue. In many cases
phthalocyanine blue can replace it and is judged to be a more
permanent color.

Natural Ultramarine used to be made with great expense

and labor from lapis lazuli, a semi-precious stone. It was used in
the Middle Ages with strict economy, the amount often being
stipulated in the contract and thereby influencing the price of the
painting. It is very sensitive to dilute acids which bleach it, and
therefore if there is any acid in the air, it cannot be used in fresco.
The genuine pigment is very rarely offered on the market today.

Artificial Soda Ultramarine, a synthetic substitute for the

natural product has been in use since 1828. Like natural ultra-
marine, it is a beautiful pigment, which mixes easily toward the
violet side of the palette. It is permanent in oil and water color,

as is the natural material. Although stable in lime, it should not

be used in fresco, particularly out-of-doors, because of its sensi-
tivity to acids. This pigment is diJB&cult to grind to a buttery
paste in oils because it liquefies and turns stringy. Commercial
manufacturers usually add a substantial amount of stabilizer to
counteract this, which may account for the varying strength of
the different brands on the market.

Green Pigments

Since 1850 several important additions to the artist's palette have

given us a variety of strong permanent greens that were un-
available to the old masters.

Chrome Green is a mixture of chrome yellow (lead chro-

mate) and a blue, usually Prussian blue. Since chrome yellow is
poisonous and undependable and Prussian blue is a "borderline
 PIGMENTS I
3 I

color," it is little wonder that chrome green is considered inferior.

Being poisonous, it should not be found as often as it is in
beginners' paint kits, which are often given to children.

Chrome Oxide Opaque is a most stable color in all tech-

niques. This strong opaque middle-value green of good tinting
power is useful in mixtures with earth colors for strong olive-
green tones. One should remember the "oxide" part of the label
to differentiate this color from the so-called "chrome greens,"
which are mixtures made with chrome yellow.

Chrome Oxide Transparent (Chrome Oxide Brilliant,

ViRiDiAN, Guignet's Green), hydrous chromic oxide, is a cool
reliable green, related chemically to chrome oxide opaque, and

like it, permanent in all techniques. It combines well with the

yellows, whites, and earth colors to form useful mixtures. Un-

fortunately, it has been labeled at times "vert emeraude" which
leads to confusion with "emerald green," a pigment of entirely
different composition and properties.

Cobalt Green is made of oxides of cobalt and of zinc. It

is permanent in all techniques, dries rapidly and well, but has
little tinting strength.

Emerald Green (Vert Paul Veronese, Sghvsteinfurt

Green, Paris Green, English Green) is the very poisonous
copper acetoarsenite. It blackens badly in mixtures with many
other colors and in contact with sulfur, and so must be isolated
from other colors and the atmosphere by coats of varnish above
and below it. It is a color that should be avoided and is quite
unnecessary today.

Phthalogyanine Green (Mon astral Green) was de-

veloped in 1938 and is marketed under various company names,
such as Winsor green, Talens' Rembrandt green, Bocour green,
etc. A powerful tinting color, it seems permanent in all mixtures
in oil and water color. Combined with the cadmium yellows, it

yields very intense bright yellow greens. If Monastral blue is

3 2 I
PIGMENTS
added, strong cool blue greens are easily obtained. Results of ac-
celerated tests would seem to indicate that it is a reliable new color.

Terre Verte (Green Earth, Veronese Earth) is a gray-

green earth of little tinting strength and variable hue, dej>ending
on its place of origin. If pure, it is permanent in all techniques
and was freely used by the Italian old masters, particularly the
Sienese, for the cool flesh tones. In oil technique, it takes up large
amounts of linseed oil in grinding, which may cause it to yellow
slightly.

ViRiDiAN — see Chrome Oxide Transparent

Mixed Greens are combinations of various pigments, usually

blues and yellows. Naturally, one cannot generalize about them
since the components are variable, except to say that the painter
does well to mix them himself, for then he will always know the
components and quality of his color. Among the common mix-
tures are:

Hooker's Green, which is impermanent when made of

Prussian blue and gamboge;

Cadmium Green, usually cadmium yellow plus viridian.

Phthalocyanine Green Mixtures, which combine cadmium

or Hansa yellow with phthalocyanine pigment, are often sold
today in place of less permanent greens. Unfortunately, manu-
facturers often give these new, much more reliable, mixtures names
like "emerald green tint" or "Paul Veronese green tint" which
have always been associated with impermanent colors. Since they
went to the trouble and expense of offering the painter better
materials, it would have been in the interest of clarity, crafts-
manship, and business to have given these mixtures distinctive
new names.

Violet Pigments

The painter has few dependable violet pigments.

 PIGMENTS I 3 3
Alizarin Violet is less permanent than alizarin crimson, for
it contains more purpurin.

Cobalt Violet, Light may be cobalt arsenate, poisonous,

and permanent in all media, or it may be made of cobalt
phosphate, which is permanent and non-toxic.

Cobalt Violet, Deep is also permanent in all techniques.

It may be cobalt phosphate, which is not poisonous, or it may
contain some cobalt arsenate as well. Both pigments are very
rapid driers in oil and not too strong as tinting colors. Before
being used in fresco it should be tested for its behavior and
setting quality in lime.

Manganese Violet, though permanent in oils and tempera,

is not often seen on the market. It is affected by acids and alkalis
and so cannot be used in fresco technique.

Mars Violet, all Mars colors, is highly permanent in

like
all techniques. a dull violet-brown, often used by figure
It is

painters in place of Indian red.

Mauve, discovered in 1856, is the earliest of the aniline

(coal tar) colors. It is fugitive in all techniques.

QuiNACRiDONE VioLET (MoNASTRAL Violet) is a Synthetic

organic color, which, like the quinacridone reds, has been available
to artists since i960. Accelerated tests indicate that the color
should prove highly permanent and resistant to fading. Expand-
ing the rather limited range of violet colors available to the
artist, the quinacridone pigment adds a useful red-violet tone to
the painter's palette.

Ultramarine Violet and Ultramarine Red, like ultra-

marine blue, are permanent inoil and water techniques but are
not at present very popular. They are very useful tones and
adequate in tinting strength.
34 PIGMENTS

Brown Pigments
AsPHALTUM (Bitumen) is tar dissolved in oil. It was very
popular as a glaze, or "brown sauce," in the nineteenth century
when old masterish patinas were in vogue. It is impermanent for
it never dries completely and softens in heat. Rembrandt is said
to have used it in final glazes, where it might do less harm.
Nevertheless, it should be excluded from lists of usable colors
for the artist. Mummy is a variety of asphaltum no longer
availablefrom the original exotic source: in any case, not usable
for permanent painting.

Bistre is an impermanent color used in water color washes

and inks. It is made from the soot obtained by charring beech
wood.

The following earth colors furnish us with many stable brown

tones, warm and cold, permanent in all techniques:

Burnt Green Earth (Verona Brown, Terre Verte Bru-

lee) is a burnt variety of terre verte used in oil technique as a
transparent brown. It is permanent in all techniques.

Burnt Sienna has a rather orange tone.

Burnt Umber is a warm reddish brown and an excellent

drier since it contains manganese.

Raw Umber has a comparatively olive tone and yields cool r

gray mixtures with white. It takes up much oil in grinding.

Mars Brown, an artificial iron oxide, is permanent in all

techniques.

Mummy—see Asphaltum.

Sepia is made from the ink bag of the Mediterranean cuttle-

fish [Sepia officinalis) or squid. The genuine product is not used in
 PIGMENTS I 3 5
oils, only in inks and water color where it is fairly permanent.
However, it bleaches out in strong sunlight.

Van Dyke Brown (Cassel Earth, Cologne Earth) is

native bituminous earth, containing varying amounts of organic

humus and asphaltum. A very slow drier, it may bleed in oils and
is fugitive in water techniques. It is sometimes confused with the
umbers.

Black Pigments

Ivory Black is the most commonly employed black pigment.

Made by charring animal bones or ivory, it is light and fluffy, takes

up considerable oil in the grinding process, and dries slowly. Since
it may crack if used in a pure
state, it should, if possible, be

mixed with a more rapid drier, such as umber or phthalocyanine

blue. One of the few natural organic colors that are permanent
in all techniques, it yields bluish grays when it is mixed with
white.

Lamp Black is made from soot collected when fatty oils are
burnt. A slow drier, it yields rather soft films in oil. If free from
tarry substances, it is permanent in all techniques.

Mars Black is permanent in all techniques. Really a very dark

brownish black, which yields warmer tonalities of grays in mix-
tures with white than do the other black pigments, it is also a
better drier.

Gray Pigments

Paine' s Gray is usually a mixture of ivory black and a blue,

sometimes Prussian or phthalocyanine blue, plus a little white.
Such mixtures vary in and permanence according to
color, opacity,
the ingredients employed. The artist can easily make such mixed
tones.
36 I
PIGMENTS

Extenders and Stabilizers

The following materials are sometimes found in artists' paints and

grounds as additives to the pigments. They are used to improve
the texture or body of paints, or to modify other mechanical
cliaracteristics of paints without altering their color. They are also
used as extenders or adulterants to stretch expensive pigments
and cheapen the color.

Aluminum Hydrate is aluminum hydroxide, a light trans-

lucent powder often used as a carrier for lake colors and as an ex-
tender for oil paints. Transparent in oil, it does not mask the yel-
lowing of the linseed oil necessary to bind it in the paint film, and

therefore, oil paints containing liberal amounts of aluminum hy-

drate will turn yellow with age.

Aluminum Stearate is a white powder that forms gels with

oil or turpentine. Sometimes used in small amounts to prevent the
separation of pigments from binding added to var-
oils, it is also
nishes to produce flat, non-glossy coatings. An excess amount of
alumintun stearate in an oil painting produces soft, crumbly, and
slow-drying films.

Bentonite is an American clay, sold as a powder, that gels

when added to water. It is used to make pastel chalks less brittle.

Bole (Gilder's Clay, Armenian Bole, Red Burnish Gold

Size) is a natural aluminum silicate containing iron. It is a soft

native red clay, rather greasy in texture, which is used in gilding.

Diatom AGEOus Earth (CELnE, Diatom ite) is silicon diox-

ide formed by the remains of water plants. Large deposits of the
earth formed by these organisms are found in California. The
lightweight granular earth, sold in the form of a fluffy powder,
is often used as an aggregate to reduce the glossy appearance of
paints.
 PIGMENTS I 3 7

Kaolin (China Clay, Pipe Clay, Fuller's Earth) is hy-

drated aluminum silicate. Available as a fine white powder with a
rather slippery oily texture, kaolin is slightly adhesive when mixed
with water. The best grades are found today in native deposits
in England, though the name kaolin comes from China and in-
dicates a material from which the best white porcelain was made.
It is used as a carrier for lake colors, as afiller in paints, and as a

modifying material in pastels.

CATALOGUE OF PIGMENTS
The name of each color is followed by an indication of its perma-
nence in the technical categories of oil, water techniques (tempera,
transparent water color, and gouache), and fresco; the approxi-
mate date and place of its earliest general use; its drying speed in
linseed oil; and remarks on its special qualities.
The dates furnished are in some cases approximate. In many
cases, a color does not become generally available to artists until a
long time after its discovery. The list may be useful to those who
wish to verify in museums the permanence of certain colors. For
example, the dates for the introduction of zinc and titanium whites
indicate that until 1 834 the only white pigments available to artists
were the flake whites and chalks. Since we see that the whites
have stood up well in paintings executed centuries prior to 1834,
we can assume that flake white is indeed durable and useful.
In the case of commercially prepared colors, the same name is

sometimes given to two distinctly diff'erent pigments that resemble

each other as to color appearance while they diff'er materially in
permanence or For example, some color makers label
toxicity.
either cobalt arsenate or cobalt phosphate simply and indiscrimi-
nately as "cobalt violet." Thus, no distinction is made in name
between two chemically diff'erent substances, one of which (cobalt
arsenate) is poisonous, while the other is not. In similar fashion,

I have seen the label "vermilion" applied to both mercuric sulfide

and cadmium sulfo-selenide colors. The behavior characteristics
of the two pigments are quite different; the classical "vermilion"
pigment of antiquity (mercuric sulfide) reverting in occasional
samples to a blackened state, while the modem cadmium color.
3 8 I
PIGMENTS
though a little less brilliant, seems much more stable. Therefore, it
seems advisable for reference to include in our list the chief chemi-
cal constituents of ea'ch pigment we discuss, lest there be any con-
fusion as to the relevance of the listed description. In most cases,
manufacturers will supply on request a catalogue of their products,
including the chemical ingredients of each color. It would, of
course, be even more convenient if this information were to be
—
made available on the label of each tube a practice suggested as
long ago as 1938 in the proposals for the Commercial Standard
for Artists' Oil Paints (currently CS98-62) published and revised
periodically by the U. S. Department of Commerce and already
followed by some companies.
Symbols are used as follows:

Permanence:
A—^maximum permanence.
B —satisfactory permanence under controlled conditions.
F —not suitable for artistic painting.

Comparative Drying Rates in Linseed Oil Films:

A—^very rapid.
B—average.
C— slow.
F—non-drying.

Comparative Film-forming Qualities in Linseed Oil:

A—excellent (tough, flexible).

B— aversige good.
C— acceptable.
F —unacceptable (soft, crumbly, or very brittle).
Table of Pigments
 40 I
PIGMENTS

.4

•si i
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^ s ^
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.5 "^ "w

g I ^
c^ ^ a CO ^ -Ci,

Film Quality in Oils « PQ cq

Drying Rate in Oils

o a 0) G c 0)
O <u a < u t-i

U ^ e u
o c
^ C ^
< Q cu O
t;
O ^ < Is

ii X
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c:
•a
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u B
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3
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Oil «

Water Media t* cq
p;

Fresco
 PIGMENTS I 41

s 5
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<.>

fis

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t^ ^
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3
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P^l P) PQ

PQ

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S S V *M -G
c^
g O rt
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 42 I
PIGMENTS

a
2 ->

«-^ o
^ S -^i

^^
?^ >* S
:2? I S ^ 'is

^ Q f-v

Oh S

Film Quality in Oils

Brying Rate in Oils

C
n
o M<
U 00
< Q h: o w C/3 "* O O 2*

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-S ?! «^

.2 ^ i sil
.:5 o
CI >-< S V

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Oil U

Water Media

Fresco U^
 PIGMENTS 43

8 u, <»

^ 1 S §11
s ^ S

*0 .^ 13 o S
!I

2 3

P4 o rt

d
d
rj
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"to »S d w
Oi ST to rt o
en CO CO ,»-• CO
O 2> , T

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to
8 d § I
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d u
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5 -5 3

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-s d S
d ^ Gk ^ B
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S d Pi • M
u > d cj ^ z
O "^ rt ^ <
Q ^ ''d ca w
rt
o d
S U3 >S .52 u H

(s< (£4
 44 PIGMENTS

blue/'
contact

as
blue.
Fairly best •3
"Talens" etc.

"Winsor in such
in
alkali.
blue/'
Prussian come
only acids

as blue/'
to o
not

weak

Replaces Marketed
Rembrandt permanent i
1 "Bocour
Sensitive

grades.
Should
witJi
vinegar.

Film Quality in Oils PQ eq eq « «

Drying Rate in Oils ^ < O O u

Approximate
•5
and of
J, (I
3 00- ^ 3
Origin
Date Place
CO CJ

1 >->
silicate,
and
uli 3 plus
yellow
chrome

cad-

sulfide)

a. ted plus

Composition
=*
s
Chemical

'5
aluminum 3 "c^ (hydra

Chief 1.1 Sodium

sulfur
Viridian cadmium

o S oxide mium

c/3 c5

i g I n 2
LUE

""z J ^
BLU
JE, IN .^" 5 u
a: 3
V} ° g E < « W ^ ^ ^ J ^ 5
!^ w fe $ u « 3 u :^ E < ^H J 3

Z
C3
Ch
M S
RUSSI

c-
MERI

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ILOR

^,
LUE,

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< s
LTRA RENC

u<
^ P^ i2
H H 2
< J <
Z 3 Zj
S
^
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Oil < « < < <

Water Media <ii « < < <

Fresco PCK Pm Vh
 PIGMENTS 45

^1 . g
•~ 3 3 s'

3
<a -^ ::2

3^^
^ ^- c

11 t^ .§ ^ S ^ to s

PQ « «

*-* 00 00
;2§ CO ^ O
2 « u
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S ^3
vi

a s O P3
O u
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3 SI <1J OJ

2 S
a. a
a, o
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1-4 VM ^-^ CU to Q.

W
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2
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s i

ft^ < < tt <; fe <;

fc<
< < Ps< <J fl< <

p^ < < fs< < Pn

 46 PIGMENTS

^11

S K ??

S h «

5» K « o
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 I

PIGMENTS I 47

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48 PIGMENTS

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 PIGMENTS 49

On Quality of Pigments

Pigments are produced in grades that vary in regard to chemical

purity, uniformity of particle size, and trueness of color type.
Methods of refining, washing, compounding, and grinding colors
affect in a material way the tinting strength, film-forming prop-
erties, color, and durability of the paint. Thus, yellow ocher may
be native iron hydroxide in both brand "X" and brand "Y," but
one brand may use a pigment that is poorly selected and badly
washed and refined. Although both pigments could be correctly
labeled, "genuine yellow ocher, native iron hydroxide," the less-
carefuUy processed color might exhibit a muddier tone and age
in a disappointing way. In some cases, presence of impurities left

in the pigment may make it dangerous to combine it with other

colors. Many prohibitions concerning the intermixing of certain
colors apply to indifferently made pigments, but not to carefully
produced, top-quality versions of the same substances. Many
colors considered of "borderline permanence," such as Prussian
blue or artificial alizarin crimson, exhibit poor color stability in

cheap grades but if manufactured with great care, are permanent

under ordinary conditions.

TESTS
Many testing procedures exist to determine the identity, purity,
and stability of a given sample of pigment. Such tests, requiring
considerable apparatus or procedural training, are best carried out
by technicians in a chemical laboratory, but there are a few very
simple procedures by which any painter can inform himself con-
cerning particular qualities of a questionable pigment. It should
be stressed that no matter how simple a testing procedure is, if it

is to be at all useful, all samples kept for observation should be

dated and labeled. In addition, it is a wise precaution to jot down
in a notebook the source of material, date of test, and conclusions.
Labeling takes practically no time, and can mean the difference
between a pile of meaningless samples and an accumulation of
informative material.
5 I
PIGMENTS

Bleeding

A pigment's solubility in a given diluent or binder is a good in-

dication of its tendency to bleed. Solubility may be quickly deter-
mined in the following way. Place one half teaspoonful of dry
pigment a jar or test tube with a few ounces of turpentine.
in

Shake well for a few minutes. Then allow the colored mixture
to stand quietly for half an hour. If the pigment is not soluble in
turpentine, the pigment and liquid should separate from each
other, leaving the liquid clear. If it remains discolored by the
pigment, this is evidence of the pigment's solubility in turpentine.
The test may be carried out in the same fashion with oils, alcohol,
or water to determine the solubility of the pigment in each. It
can be assumed that a pigment will bleed or migrate when it is

employed in a technique that uses a liquid in which the pigment

is soluble.

Fading or Color Change Due to Action of Light

The pigment may be checked for light-fast qualities by grinding

it in a non-yellowing binder, such as gum-arabic solution, and
applying the paint to a piece of good quality white rag paper, di-
mensions 2"X6". When this sample is thoroughly dry, cut it in
two and place one of the halves on a window sill or wall where
it will be in strong light. The other half should be placed in an
envelope in a drawer where remain in the dark. After two
it will

months compare the two samples. If there is no apparent color

difiPerence, the pigment can be assumed to be reasonably light-

proof.
Since in most painting procedures the pigment frequently will
be diluted with white, test samples of the pigment mixed with a
substantial amount of zinc white pigment (e.g. i part of color to
20 parts by volume of zinc white) should also be made. There are
pigments that fade considerably when diluted, although they are
light fast when used full strength.
 PIGMENTS I
5 I

Color Stability of the Pigment when Combined with Its Binder

A given paint, produced by a pigment plus a binder, may be

checked for color change by exposing a sample painted on a non-
yellowing ground, such as a gessoed panel. The sample should be
hung on the studio wall in strong light (south light if possible)
and observed periodically at intervals of a month or more. Some
of the same paint should be kept in reserve in the tube and at a
later date, when a comparison is to be made, should be painted on

an identical ground. After drying well (about one week) it can be

compared with the test sample and any darkening or fading
noted.
The paint should be tested for its color stability when it is

mixed with white. One volume of the paint being tested should
be mixed with 20 volumes of zinc white paint and applied to two
test panels. After they have dried, one sample should be exposed

to a window facing south so as to receive strong sunlight for sev-

eral months. Half of the panel should be covered tightly with
cardboard or stiff paper to exclude light while the other half is

exposed to the sun. The second panel should be kept inside the
room, away from direct sunlight, as a control. After several months
the samples can be compared to see if the exposed section of the
panel in the window has altered in comparison to either the
shielded section or to the panel kept in diffused light.
Colors that appear identical or very similar, and are similarly
labeled by different manufacturers, such as the various brands of
"underpainting white," can easily be compared by painting out
swatches of each product. These swatches should all be of equal
size and thickness of application, painted without the use of a
diluent on a non-yellowing ground, such as a gesso panel or a good
quality canvas. They should be hung together in normal light and
compared periodically to determine which sample changes color
the most. I have samples of a widely distributed, nationally ad-
vertised underpainting white that were set out on a panel along
with several other white paints. While the others remained white,
in varying degrees of purity, within two years this paint changed
52 I
PIGMENTS
color SO Strongly that its hue was closer to Naples yellow than to
white.
Such samples, simpFy labeled, dated, and kept on a studio wall,
can be prepared at practically no cost of labor, money, or time and
if retained for a few years, are extremely informative.

Flexibility and Film-forming Properties of a Pigment or Paint

The character of a film formed by a given pigment can be com-

pared to some extent with that of other pigments by painting
samples of each on swatches of good quality primed canvas. After
these have dried well for a few months, a simple scratch test will
often show the difference between an extremely soft or crumbly
film and a tough durable one. Flexibility may be roughly evaluated
by rolling the two dried samples over cylinders, or between the
fingers, and noting the speed of cracking and the character of the

crack. Though such tests sound extremely primitive, they are suffi-
ciently sensitive to indicate to a knowledgeable painter at least the
extremes in differences of quality.

* * *
It should be understood, however, that it is dangerous to gen-
eralize too much from the results of tests like those above unless
the same results are obtained repeatedly with other batches of the
same materials. Thus, one should be cautious about leaping to the
conclusion that a new pigment, X, bleeds in oils, just because one
sample does so. Perhaps the tested sample was "improved" by the
addition of a dye material. On the other hand, if several samples
obtained from different sources should bleed, it would surely be
wise to question the color. Scientific accuracy is possible only
under carefully controlled conditions, and complicated problems
or fine distinctions of quality and paint behavior probably cannot
be investigated by most painters. However, even the gross results

of the above-mentioned tests can be extremely helpful to the prac-

ticing artist.
It is to be regretted that in a country of such vast technical
resources this one there is no independent non-commercial
as
institutionwhich exists for the purpose of systematic research into
the problems of artists' materials. Such an institution should have a
 PIGMENTS I 5 3
testingand research program to evaluate new and old materials
and procedures and should make the results available to artists,
thereby serving as a clearing house for information concerning
artists' materials.

TOXICITY
In general, the lead compounds and the arsenic compounds
should be handled with care for many of these pigments are
cumulative poisons. That is, small amounts may be absorbed into
the system, gradually building up sufficient quantity to cause
serious illness. This group includes flake or Cremnitz white, Naples
yellow, the chrome yellows, lead chromate greens, cobalt violet,
and emerald green. These colors should not be eaten, should not
be rubbed into open cuts or scratches, and if handled in dry
powder or chalk form, should not be inhaled. If the artist grinds
any of these colors himself, starting with the dry powders, he
should wear a mask to avoid inhaling the dust. In general, he
would be well advised to purchase them only in paste form, in
which state there is no danger from inhalation. It is a sensible
practice to wash traces of these paints from hands and fingernails
before sitting to a meal. If these simple precautions are taken,
there is no reason to exclude otherwise advantageous pigments.
 2

Binders and Diluents

As previously defined, a binding medium is the liquid in paints

and holds them
that carries the pigment particles together. When
it is brushed out it solidifies in such a way as to fasten the pigment
permanently to the support material.
The material used as a binding medium should satisfy the fol-
lowing requirements:

1. It should not change color as it ages.

2. It should retain its binding strength as it ages.

3. It should remain structurally stable with time, resisting

cracking, peeling, etc.

4. After it it should not be easily dissolved by

has dried
mild solvents used in normal cleaning operations.

5. It should not activate a radical color change in the pig-

ment.

6. It should not be unusually toxic or flammable when

handled with normal caution.

The diluent, or painting medium, should be employed only to

facilitate manipulation of the paint. It should not act upon either

the pigment or the binder in such a way as to lessen its con-

formity with the standards for each, listed above.
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
5 5

DRYING OILS
Oil paints are made by combining a dry pigment with a binding
medium of vegetable oil. The only usable oils are those that
solidify on exposure to air and light to form tough adhesive films,
which bind the pigments firmly to the support. Oils that do not
harden, such as castor oil or lubricating oils, are useless as paint
binders, since paint made with them would never dry. The oils

commonly used as binders in artists' paints are linseed oils, poppy-

seed oil, safflower oil, and walnut oil.

Drying Process

When ordinary paste (such as starch paste) dries, water evaporates

from it, leaving behind a solid adhesive film. When a vegetable
oil dries, the process is quite different. The oil absorbs oxygen
from the air and solidifies as it becoming measurably
does so,

heavier during this process and increasing in bulk. At the same

time, the oil undergoes another process; that of polymerization,
during which molecular arrangement is changed. By the time it
its

is solidifiedbecomes a different chemical substance, due to its

it

union with oxygen, and it cannot be liquefied again with normal

thinners to its original composition. The dried film is durable and
water resistant.

Linseed Oils

Cold-pressed Linseed Oil

When, without previously having been heated, linseed (the seed of
the flax plant) is crushed in a press, a very pale yellow oil is ex-
tracted, which is then allowed to stand in tanks until much of the
impure matter in the fresh oil settles to the bottom. Next, the "self-
purified" oil is drawn remove more impurities, and is
off, filtered to

sent to market bright and pure under the name "cold-pressed lin-
seed oil." This is the best of the linseed oils in which to grind pig-
ments for paints.
56 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

Raw Linseed Oil

When the linseed is 'steam-heated before it is pressed, it yields
more oil than it does when cold-pressed, but this oil is darker,
and inferior to the cold-pressed product in color stability, drying
rate, and film-forming quality. Such steam-pressed oil may be left
to stand in a tank until it throws off impurities or "mucilage,"
and becomes somewhat clearer. Yet, it remains much darker
so
than cold-pressed oil and is much inferior to it as an artist's ma-
terial. Marketed as "raw linseed oil," it is used in furniture finish-

ing and in cheap house paints. It may be identified by its com-

paratively sharp odor and taste.

Refined Linseed Oil

Since there is so little industrial demand for cold-pressed oil and
since it is not economical to produce, one usually finds in its stead
steam-pressed which have been refined, bleached, and treated
oils,

with chemical agents to a point where they have many of the char-
acteristics (acid number and iodine number) of the cold-pressed
oil. These are the oils usually employed for color grinding.

Stand Oil
Linseed oil that has been heated to about 300° C. under condi-
tions that exclude oxygen is referred to as "stand oil." It becomes
polymerized; that is, it changes its molecular structure while re-
taining its chemical ingredients. It has a lower iodine number
than the cold-pressed oil, dries slowly, yellows less than the other
linseed and forms a tough, strong film. It imparts to the
oils,

paint an enamel-like smoothness and tends to make the paint

fuse and blend. Because of its heavy consistency and low acid
number, it is used as an ingredent in the diluent or "painting
medium" in oil technique, rather than as a grinding oil or
"binder."

SUN-THIGKENED OiL
Since the twelfth century, sun-thickened oil has been made by
exposing cold-pressed or refined linseed oil to the action of sun
and air. The resulting product becomes partially oxidized and
bleached, is thicker and more viscous, and dries more rapidly
than the original oil. When used as a diluent or painting medium.
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
5 7
it a honeylike consistency to the paint and a characteristic
gives
quality to the brush stroke,and tends as well to retain the surface
textures of the paint films. It may be bought in an art supply
store or made in the studio in the following way:
Shake together equal volumes of cold-pressed linseed oil and
water. Pour into a shallow glass, or porcelain pan, to a depth
of one or two inches. Cover the pan with a plate of thin glass, so
as to keep out dirt and admit air at the same time.
Leave the pan on the roof or a window ledge for about two or
three weeks, stirring the mixture occasionally. After the oil has
become sufficiently thick, drain off the water by pouring or by
means of a separatory funnel. If necessary, filter out dust or grit
through filter paper or fine cheesecloth.

Boiled Oil, Blown Oil

These are linseed oils, processed with heat and/or driers, that
are not suitable for artists' use because of their tendency to darken
badly.

Other Oils

Castor Oil
Castor oil is obtained from a plant in India and is used in medic-
inal prescriptions, soap manufacture, and other industrial prod-
ucts. It does not dry to a solid film, as does linseed oil, even
after months of exposure to air. Castor oil hais been occasionally
used as an additive in attempts to impart flexibility to varnishes
or oils that otherwise would produce very hard brittle films. It is
not recommended for artistic painting.

PoppYSEED Oil
The oil is pressed from the seeds of the plant Papaver somniferum,

the source of opium. When poppyseed oil dries, its film yellows
lessthan that of linseed oil, and so it is used by some paint
manufacturers in the grinding of the white pigments and light
colors. However, it dries very slowly and forms films that are not
as tough and flexible as those formed by linseed oil.

Safflower Oil
Safflower oil is pressed from the seeds of the safflower plant {Car-
thamus tinctorius), which is cultivated in India. The plant also
 58 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

yields a fugitive dyestufF. The oil is rather slow-drying, and when it

is polymerized by heating, it gels. It has been used in India for

centuries under the name "Roghan" for decorative painting. The
plant is now cultivated in California, and the oil is used for in-

dustrial paints in combination with synthetic resins. Permanent

Pigments, Inc., of Ohio has used the oil to grind artists' white
paints ( "Everwhites" ) which are claimed by the manufacturer to
,

yellow less than linseed oil whites while retaining the drying speed
and other physical properties of linseed oil films.

Tung Oil (Chinese Wood Oil)

Tung oil is obtained from the seeds of a tree that grows in China
and Japan and is now cultivated in Florida. It is found in wood
finishesand especially floor sealers, for it dries hard and is resist-
ant to wear. It yellows and, if driers are not used, dries somewhat
erratically. It is not used in artistic painting.

Walnut Oil
Walnut oil is made by grinding and pressing walnuts that are from
two to three months old. When cold-pressed, the oil is thin and
clear, almost colorless. It dries more rapidly and thoroughly
than poppyseed oil and compares favorably, when fresh, with lin-
seed oil. It yellows less upon drying than does linseed oil and is
said to crack less. It may be "sun-thickened" by the same method
used for linseed oil. Walnut oil was used by Da Vinci, Diirer,
and Van Dyck for grinding colors but is not much used today,
perhaps because it turns rancid on prolonged storage, which in-
terferes with its profitable commercial distribution.

Waxes
Beesw^ax
Beeswax is used as a protective coating, as an ingredient in ad-
hesives, as a paint binder, and as a stabilizer in oil colors. It is

sold in the form of cakes, either bleached white or in its natural

yellowish color. It melts at about 65° C. and when heated in water,
turpentine, mineral spirits, or oil will dissolve. Beeswax does not
oxidize and polymerize as an oil does, but, rather, solidifies as it

sSv
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
59
cools to make an unchanged solid mass. It does not darken or
change color with age, and it resists the action of atmospheric im-
purities more than do the resins or oils. On the other hand, it is
somewhat more sensitive to temperature changes, becoming soft in
heat and rather brittle in cold. Another disadvantage is that it

remains more sensitive to abrasion and rubbing than does a dried

film of oil or varnish. It is sometimes adulterated with paraffin
(petroleum wax), which makes it more brittle.

Carnauba Wax
Camauba wax is obtained from a deposit on the leaves of the
Brazilian palm tree {Corypha cerijera). It is yellowish gray, harder
than beeswax, and more resistant to heat, for its melting point is

near 85° C, It tends to form brittle films, but its hardness causes
it to be occasionally recommended as an addition to wax varnishes
and the like.

WATER-THINNED ADHESIVES
Gums
Plant gums are exuded from trees and shrubs. They dissolve or
swell in water (unlike the resins, such as dammar or mastic) and
produce solutions that are adhesive enough to serve as paint
binders.

Cherry Gum is occasionaly used in tempera recipes. It is

soaked in water and strgiined to obtain a usable solution. It pro-

duces rather brittle glassy films.

Gum Arabic (Gum Kordofan, Gum Senegal) may be

bought as a fine white powder. It dissolves in hot water and is the
principal binder for water color or gouache.

Gum Tragacanth is used in making pastels. It swells in

water after it has been soaked, and the adhesive is then obtained
by squeezing the softened mass through a fine cloth.
6 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

Glues

Animal Glues (Rabbitskin Glue, Cologne Glue, Calf-

skin Glue). The most suitable glues for use as binders are pre-
pared from leather waste and are sold in sheet or granule form. The
best varieties for our purposes are called rabbitskin glue, Cologne
glue, or calfskin glue. They swell when they are soaked in cold wa-
ter and then may be dissolved by gentle heating. When dry, they
harden to tough leathery films but do not change chemically.
Thus, they can be dissolved again in water.

Gelatin is a purer form of hide glue, but lacks its toughness.

It is used chiefly as a sizing material.

Fish Glue is more easily dissolved in water and, therefore,

is not a good substitute for the hide glues.

Casein is made from skim milk and since the Renaissance

has been used as a binder for paints and grounds. It is somewhat
more brittle than rabbitskin glue but dries to a more water-resist-
ant film. Available today in the form of a dry yellow powder, it is

dissolved in water by means of the slow addition of a strong alkali,

such as ammonium carbonate. Modem casein colors, sold in tubes,
usually contain a plasticizer, such as glycerine, as well as ma-
terials to retard spoilage.

Dextrin is made by processing wheat starch. It is available

as a white powder and is dissolved in hot water to make a syrup.
It is commonly used as an adhesive or as a paint binder. Often,

colors labeled as poster paints or designers' paints are ground in

dextrin.

Synthetic Resins in Water-thinned Adhesives

Chemical research since the nineteenth century has developed

synthetic materials from sources such as coal or petroleum. Some
of these can be used in place of gums, resins, and glues obtained
from plants and animals. The synthetic resins described below
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS | 6 I

can be obtained as water-thinned emulsions, and they are used as

adhesives, binders for artists' tempera paints, fixatives, and protec-
tive coatings.

Methacrylate resin may be produced as solid sheets, crys-

tals,or liquids, known by such trade names as Lucite or Elvacite,^
Plexiglas, or Acryloid.^ The material can be obtained as a water-
thinned emulsion imder trade names such as Rhoplex^ AC 34,
and it is this type of emulsified resin that is commonly used as a
binder for many artists' colors sold since 1951 as "acrylic polymer
tempera." Its qualities and uses are described on pages 215 to

224.

Polyvinyl Acetate (P.V.A.) is a synthetic resin. When it is

prepared as an emulsion, it serves as the principal ingredient of

many milky white glues sold under such names as Elmer's Glue-All^
and Duratite White Glue.'' These products are widely used in the
industrial trades as and other ma-
adhesives for wood, paper,
terials. They room temperature and do not require
are liquid at
heating in a glue pot. The glue may be thinned with water, and it
forms films that are flexible, clear, and water resistant. It is neither
toxic nor flammable.
Especially pure grades of these polyvinyl acetate emulsions are
manufactured under such names as Everflex^ CA or Polyco"^ 953
For more than twenty years surtists have been using polyvinyl ace-
tate emulsions as binders for paint and gesso (page 227). In
addition these emulsions have been employed as adhesives to at-
tach paper, textiles, or other materials to a support surface.

THINNERS AND SOLVENTS

The following materials are used to dilute various types of paint.
Some are used to dissolve solid resins in varnish manufacture. They
IE.I. Du Pont, Inc.

2Rohm and Haas Co.

*Rohm and Haas Co.
*Borden Chemical Co.
5D. A. P. Inc., Dayton, Ohio
« W. R. Grace & Co.
7 Borden Chemical Co.
62 I
BENT^ERS AND DILUENTS
dry by evaporation, that is, they are absorbed into the atmosphere
and on drying leave little or no trace in the paint film. The artist
uses them to thin his* paints to a desirable working consistency
and to clean brushes, equipment, and himself of traces of paint.
He should be aware that some are extremely poisonous and that
some are highly flammable.
The fire hazard associated with each solvent is indicated by its

flash-point figure; that is, the lowest temperature at which the

material gives ofl" vapors that can be ignited. Hquid with aA flash
point below 150°?. is considered flammable; that with a flash
point of below 80° F. can be ignited at room temperatures, if ex-
posed to open sparks or flame, and should be handled and stored
with appropriate caution; that with a flash point below 40°?. is

considered extremely dangerous. Flammable liquids should be kept

away from sparks or open flame. If they must be heated, it should
be done in non-breakable vessels (metal, not glass), a double
boiler being the preferred container system. An electric hot plate
should be used rather than an open flame. The type of electric stove
that has its heating coil shielded by a metal cover is to be pre-
ferred to one that has its wire element exposed.

Water
In gouache, tempera, aquarelle, and fresco, water is used as the
thinner. If the ordinaiy local tap water contains too many foreign
substances, such as mineral salts, the ingredients of some tempera
emulsions may separate from each other or water colors may
curdle. In such cases, distilled water, obtained from a druggist,
should be substituted.

Turpentine
Tmpentine is used by the painter for thinning oil colors and for
making varnishes. It should be distilled from the oleoresinous
gum, obtained by tapping the live pine tree. When this gum is
distilled, the volatile "spirit" is collected and condensed to make

^'spirits of turpentine" (sometimes called "oil of turpentine").

The solid material left behind is called "rosin" and is used on
violin bows and in some industrial processes. The spirits of tur-
pentine should be completely free of water and should be fresh
and clear. Double distilled or "rectified" turpentine is sold in
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS | 63

small containers for artists' use. In the United States, the product
sold in bulk (quarts or gallons) under the name, "Pure Gum
Spirits of Turpentine" (regulated by the government in the Naval
Stores Act of 1924), must be pure and free from water. It is

usually fresh.
Wood turp>entine is extracted, not from the living tree, but from
logsand stumps which are ground up. It has a heavy strong odor,
and it is generally considered inferior to gum spirits as an artist's
material.
To test turpentine for any suspected addition of water, shake
together in a jar 3 volumes of benzene with i volume of the
turpentine. If the mixture clouds, water is present. Water may be
removed from turpentine by dropping into it a lump of quicklime
(calcium oxide), which will react with the water and combine
with it. Then the quicklime can be strained out of the container.

Turpentine should be stored in opaque containers without too

much space for air, lest the liquid become thick, yellowish, and
gummy through prolonged exposure to light and oxygen.
Turpentine is generally considered a safe material, provided
it is used with caution. Its flash point is about 95° F.
Some painters may find that they become highly sensitive to
turpentine. Such individuals may develop blistering skin irritations
on their hands after contact with even small amounts of tur-
pentine. The inflammation usually subsides after turpentine is

excluded from the painter's working procedures, but the condition

may return with even stronger effect over a larger area if the
painter comes in contact with turpentine again. While most artists
do not develop such allergic responses, the daily use of turpentine
to remove oil paint and varnish from the painter's hands pro-
motes undesirable dryness and makes the hands more susceptible
to irritation from such granular dust as charcoal, pastel, and
pigments. Prepared hand cleaners and soap compounded especially
to remove grease would seem a preferable clean-up material.
Mineral spirits, described below, seems to dry the skin less than
turpentine and might be preferred in cases where soap is not
adequate.
While turpentine vapors are not considered especially poisonous,
where ten or more people may be working in
in class situations
one studio, each with an open container half full of turpentine
64 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

and where the room temperature may reach

for a brush cleaner,
75°-8o°F. with very little ventilation, the atmosphere may be-
come unhealthy. Solvents used for brush cleaning should be in
brush-washing containers that have hinged lids so they can be
closed when not in use. Thereby unnecessary evaporation of sol-
vents into the studio atmosphere can be avoided. Such "brush
washers" can be obtained at art supply stores, and aside from
being convenient aids for brush cleaning, they reduce considerably
the concentration of undesirable solvent fumes in the studio.

Petroleum

A wide range of thinners and solvents is manufactured from

petroleum. The crude petroleum is a mixture of materials that
can be separated from each other by distillation, since they boil
at different temperatures. These petroleum products are composed
of several different types of hydrocarbons (compounds of hydro-
gen and carbon) : paraffins, naphthenes, olefins, and aromatics.
The petroleum products containing high percentages of aromatics
are generallymore active solvents. Those which contain chiefly
naphthenes and paraffins are called aliphatic hydrocarbons and
are used where strong solvent action is not required.

Aliphatic Thinners —Petroleum Products

Within the range of the aliphatic hydrocarbons there is a variety

of materials, beginning with the very rapidly evaporating gasolines,
which are distilled at comparatively low boiling ranges of tem-
perature, down to the kerosenes, which evaporate very slowly and
are distilled at high-temperature boiling ranges. Between these two
extremes, there is a group of products which are designated in a
rather general way as petroleum solvents, mineral spirits, ligroines,
naphthas, or benzines. A material in this group can be more
precisely identified by an indication of its boiling range. When
necessary, this information, as well as specifications concerning
the product's composition (percentages of naphthenes, olefins,

paraffins and aromatics), can usually be obtained from the dis-

tributor or manufacturer.
 binders and diluents | 65

Kerosene
This is a petroleum product that evaporates very slowly and, if
it is not especially rectified for artists' use, often contains non-

drying greasy materials. It is rarely employed as a paint thinner.

Petroleum Aliphatic Thinners, boiling range I50°-200°G.

(Mineral Spirits, Petroleum Paint Thinner)
These liquids,from petroleum and marketed as "paint
distilled

thinners," vary somewhat as to exact character depending upon

the manufacturer. They are sold under company names such as
Varsol^ or Amsco^ Odorless Mineral Spirits. They affect the paint
film in the same way as turpentine and, although somewhat
cheaper, can safely be used in its place. However, because they do
not dissolve solid dammar resins, they cannot be used as a tur-
pentine substitute in making dammar varnish or in diluting heavy
concentrations of dammar solutions. The flash point of mineral
spirits is around 95° F.

Petroleum Aliphatic Thinners, boiling range 90°-i6o°G.

(V. M. and P. Naphtha, Benzine)
Benzine is a general term used to describe petroleum products
that are more volatile than "mineral spirits" but less volatile than
gasoline. The name is outmoded and contributes to misunder-
standing, especially since can be confused with benzene (synony-
it

mous with benzol), the poisonous aromatic solvent. A standard

grade of petroleum aliphatic thinner with a flash point near 35° F.,
sold as V. M. and P. Naphtha, is used in picture-cleaning processes
and, occasionally, by house painters as a substitute for turpentine
or for volatile petroleum thinners. Commercial brands of
less

naphthas should be checked to be sure that they do not

painters'
contain substantial percentages of aromatics. This information
can usually be obtained from the dealer or manufacturer.

Gasoline
This petroleum product has no more harmful effect on the paint
film than turpentine or petroleum paint thinners. However, most
8 Humble Oil & Refining Co.
^American Mineral Spirits Co.
66 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

brands available today contain added substances that are very

poisonous. Furthermore, gasoline presents a serious fire hazard,
its flash point being below 30° F. For these reasons, it is recom-
mended that it never be kept in the studio.

Aromatic Solvents —Petroleum and Coal-tar Products

The aromatic hydrocarbons employed for their solvent action on
waxes, rubber, and resins were for many years obtained chiefly
from coal tar, a product made from coke and coal gas. Benzene,
toluene, and xylene, the principal aromatics, were often desig-
nated according to their source, as coal-tar products. However,
aromatic hydrocarbons can be obtained from petroleum, and by
the 1950s, in response to increased demands for aromatics, the
petroleum industry, through improved techniques, was producing
substantial amounts of aromatics from selected petroleum frac-
tions.

The aromatic compounds are flammable, and some are ex-

tremely poisonous.

Benzene (Benzol)
This solvent is found in many commercial brands of paint re-
movers, brush-cleaning solutions, rubber cement, and shoe polish.
It isan aromatic compound that has a strong solvent action, a
dangerously low flash point (around 12° F.), and is highly poi-
sonous. Prolonged inhalation of its fumes is believed to cause
types of blood cancer, aplastic anaemia, and agranular cy-
tosis. I advise the artist to dispense with all products containing
benzene since safer substitutes are now available. If it must be
used, care should be taken to work out-of-doors. One should note
the labels on containers of paint removers and brush-cleaning
solutions to find out if benzene is present.

Toluene (Toluol) and Xylene (Xylol)

These solvents are aromatic compounds and are safer substitutes
for benzene (benzol) since they are less toxic and have flash points
of 45° F. and 80° F. respectively. However, impure commercial
grades may contain substantial amounts of benzene. Therefore,
caution should be exercised in purchase and use.
 binders and diluents | 67

Naphtha
In the painting trade, the term naphtha is applied indiscrim-
inately to volatile distillates of either petroleum or coal tar.
may contain benzene, toluene, and other aro-
Coal-tar naphtha
matic components. The flash point is around 35° F.
Solvent naphtha contains toluene and xylene. It is made when
benzene is removed from coal-tar naphtha by distillation. The
flash point is 80*^ F.

Petroleum naphtha is a grade of petroleimi solvent, sometimes

labeled V. M. and P. (Varnish Makers' and Painters') Naphtha.
Its flash point varies, depending on the manufacturer, between
35° and 50° F.

Alcohol {Spirits of Wine, Spirits of Cologne)

Grain or Ethyl Alcohol is used in varnish making, gilding,

and other studio operations. Though it normally contains about
5 per cent water, a grade exists, called absolute or anhydrous
ethyl alcohol, that is water free. This is the best material to use in
varnishes.With the exception of the absolute grade, ethyl alcohol
does not mix with turpentine. It does mix well with water and,
in fact, combines readily even with atmospheric moisture. Grain
alcohol is taxed and is usually available only to licensed users or
on prescription. Its flash point is 57° F.

Denatured Alcohol is ethyl alcohol made imfit for drink-

ing by additions of a variety of materials, but these additions
may also spoil the alcohol for use as a solvent for varnishes.
However, some denatured alcohols sold as shellac thinners are
usable in the studio for varnish solvents.

Methanol (Wood Alcohol, Methyl Alcohol) has many

of the properties of ethyl alcohol and mixes readily with it, but it
is highly poisonous and can cause permanent injury to the eyes.
It has a flash point of 54° F. In small amounts, it is used to
denature ethyl alcohol. It should not be kept in the ordinary
studio.
68 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

Glycerine, although it is not volatile, is classified as an

alcohol. It is used as a plasticizer, chiefly in gum-water solutions.
Hygroscopic in character, it imparts its tendency to absorb water
to mixtures in which it is an ingredient.

Ketones

Acetone, produced by the fermentation of grain or by process-

ing petroleum, is an extremely strong solvent that will dissolve
natural resins, cellulose nitrate, vinyl resins, and many other ma-
terials. It can mix well with linseed and other solvents.
oils, water,
Dried oil films can be dissolved by acetone, and so it is used in
some commercial paint removers. It should be employed with
adequate ventilation, for it is irritating and highly volatile, and
should be handled with respect for the fire hazard implicit in
its very low flash point (o°F.).

Methyl Isobutyl Ketone is used as a solvent for some

vinyl resins. Its vapors should not be inhaled and precautions
should be taken against fire, since its flash point is 73° F.

Because many of the names of the volatile solvents are am-

biguous, or at least very similar to each other, a short list of the
important solvents follows, grouping the various materials ac-
cording to their source and listing the approximate flash point
and distillation boiling range of each.
Table of Solvents and Thinners
 Boiling Point
Range C.° Flash Point F.° Remarks

Aliphatic
Hydrocarbons
(Petroleum
Derivatives)

GASOLINE 40°-i20°C. <30°F. Fire hazard.

BENZINE Check for benzene or high

V.M. & P. NAPHTHA 90°-i6o''C. 20°-50°F. aromatic content.

MINERAL SPIRITS I50°-200°C. 90°-i05°F.

KEROSENE i8o°-285°C. 8o°-i30°F.

Aromatic
Hydrocarbons
(Petroleum
and Coal-Tar
Derivatives)
Very poisonous, fire hazard,
BENZENE (benzol) 78°-82°C. I2°F. strong solvent.

COAL-TAR NAPHTHA 88°-i4i^C. 35^F. Contains benzene, toluene,

xylene.

SOLVENT NAPHTHA i35°-i90°C. 8o°F. Contains toluene, xylene.

TOLUENE (toluol) i09°-ii2°C. 45°F. Impure grades may contain

benzene.

XYLENE (xylol) i37°-i42°C. 8o°F.

Turpentine
Hydrocarbons

CUM spirits of I55^-I74°C. 95^F.

TURPENTINE

WOOD TURPENTINE i57°-i64°C. 90°-iii°F.

Alcohols

ETHYL (ETHANOL) 75°-79°C. 57°F.

METHYL (methanol) 64°-66°C. 54°F. Poisonous.

Ketones

ACETONE 55°-57°C. o°F. Strong solvent for oil films.

 BINDERS AND DILUENTS 71

Boiling Point
Range C °
Flash Point F.° Remarks

METHYL EIHYL KETONE 79°-8i°C. 30°F.

METHYL ISO-BUTYL
KETONE ii4^-ii7°C. 73°F.

Oils

LINSEED S^o^F.

VARNISHES
Varnishes are used as coatings on finished paintings to protect the
picture against dirt and impurities in the atmosphere, as additions
to liquid paints to change their brushing and drying character,
and as intermediate sizing or isolating layers to facilitate the
painting process.
They are made by dissolving solid resin in a liquid solvent or
by melting a resin in an oil. The resins are usually obtained from
trees which exude the gummy material when the bark is incised
or "tapped," although some resins are fossil remains from dead
trees. The resin hardens on exposure to air, producing crystal
lumps or and comes
"tears," to market where it is
in this form,
graded according to size and clearness of the lumps and labeled
according to point of origin, as for example, "Dammar resin
tears, No. i Singapore." More recently we have had made available
to us many artificial resins manufactured for industrial purposes.
(Illustration, plate i.) Some of these may prove to be worthwhile
substitutes for the natural resins in particular painting procedures.
Varnishes may be considered in two groups: spirit varnishes and
cooked-oil varnishes.
Spirit varnishes (simple solution varnishes) are made by dis-

solving the resin in a cold solvent, such as spirits of turpentine

or alcohol (spirits of wine). The resin used is usually one of the
"soft" resins, such as dammar or mastic. It yields a varnish that
dries to a solid state through the simple evaporation of its solvent,
but then can be returned to its liquid state by reapplying the
same solvent. The spirit varnishes dry more quickly than any of
7 2 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

the drying oils, since all that is required for their complete hard-

ening is time enough for the solvent to evaporate into the air,
while the oils must go through the lengthier oxidation and poly-
merization process.
This type of varnish can be very easily made, in good quality,
by the artist in his studio.
Cooked-oH varnishes are produced when certain resins are melted
in hot oils, frequently with the addition of metallic driers. They
are then thinned with a volatile solvent. These resins are usually
harder resins, such as one of the copals, and yield varnishes that,
when dry, aremuch more resistant to the solvent action of thin-
ners. Such varnishes are usually made by large-scale industrial
operations.

Natural Resins

Dammar
This resin is obtained by "tapping" a Malayan tree, Agathis
Dammara. The best grades on the market are No. i Singapore
and Grade A Batavia. Dammar resin dissolves readily in turpen-
tine but not in alcohol or mineral spirits. The usual varnish con-
centration is pounds of resin to one
a "five-pound cut," that is, five
gallon of turpentine. A smaller amount in the same concentration
of "five-pound cut" varnish can be produced by dissolving Ys oi
a pound (or lo ounces by weight) of resin in a pint of turpentine.
It may be made as follows:
Wrap the clear lumps of resin in a piece of fine cheesecloth
and tie the cloth so as to make a closed bag, leaving about a foot
of string as a "hanger." Put one pint of fresh turpentine into a
clean, dry wide-mouth jar. The jar should have a capacity of at
least one quart. Lower the bag of resin into the turpentine.
Punch a hole and thread the string
in the center of the jar lid
through this hole. Fasten it so that the bag of resin does not
touch either the sides or the bottom of the jar. (Illustration,
plate 2.) When the resin has dissolved throw away the cheese-
cloth bag, which will contain a surprising amount of bark and
dirt. If the resin contained much bark or other impurities, there
may be a brownish deposit on the bottom of the jar. This can be
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
7 3
removed by allowing the solution to stand until all the impurities
have settled. The clear varnish is then strained through cheese-
cloth into another container.
Caution: While the varnish is being made, do not allow any
trace of water to come in contact with the jar, the turpentine, or
the resin, lest moisture be trapped in the varnish, causing the
film to dry with a bluish frost known as "bloom."
Dammar varnish will brush out to a smooth glossy transparent
coating and will dry very rapidly, since it hardens as soon as the
turpentine evaporates from the film. It will darken to some extent
with age, turning faintly yellowish brown, forming a film which
is brittle compared to that of linseed oil. Like all simple solution
varnishes, after its film has thoroughly dried it is easily redissolved
by its thinner, in this case, turpentine. After the varnish has aged
for many years, a stronger solvent is required to remove it.

For additions to painting medium, dammar is usually made as

5-pound cut, which contains about i part by weight of resin to
1^4 parts by weight of turpentine.
For heavy picture varnish this is reduced to a 3^ -pound cut.
This varnish contains, by weight, about i part of dammar resin
and 2 parts of turpentine.
A more dilute picture varnish is often preferred, and this can
be made by reducing the dammar resin concentration to a 2^-
poimd cut. This produces a varnish in which there is approxi-
mately I part by weight of danmiar resin combined with 3 parts
by weight of turpentine.
For retouch varnish, the concentration of resin is further re-
duced to a I -pound cut containing less than i part by weight of
dammar resin and 7 parts by weight of turpentine.
Dilution and use of the varnish is described on pages 109-14.

Mastic
Mastic resin is exuded in small round tearsfrom certain trees
that grow in the Mediterranean region. When
it is chewed it

softens —a characteristic distinguishing it from Sandarac which it

resembles. It may be dissolved in turpentine or alcohol but not in
mineral spirits. Mastic resin is said to "bloom" more readily than
dammar varnish, and it yellows slightly —some say more than
7 4 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

dammar. The artist can make it in his studio by the same method
described for dammar solution.
When combined with boiled
heavy-solution mastic varnish is

linseed oil, a produced called MeGilp. This

jellylike
is salve
painting medium imparts a handsome surface and brushing qual-
ity to oil paints. However, it is noted for its tendency to darken

and turn brittle with age, causing cracked surfaces and deepened
tones.

Shellac
Shellac is an insect secretion, gathered in India. When it is puri-
fied and refined it yields an orange-brown resin. This is easily

dissolved and further thinned by alcohol (denatured ethyl) but

not turpentine or mineral spirits. It yellows more than dammar

and mastic and becomes quite brittle, cracking when applied in

films. Shellac must be obtained fresh, for it does not endure

storage too well. Also, it should be kept in glass containers since

prolonged contact with metal, if much air is present, tends to
darken it. Available in good quality either as orange shellac, or as
a white bleached shellac, it finds a limited use in the studio as a
sizing material for absorbent panels and as a fixative for drawings,
when it is very much diluted with alcohol.

Copal
The name copal covers a large group of varied resins —
some
fossil resins and some "tapped" from the live tree. There are
great differences in color, hardness, and transparency. Soft copals,
like Manila resin, can be dissolved cold in alcohol. The most
frequently employed copals, that is to say the hard copals such as
Sierra Leone or Zanzibar cannot be directly dissolved in
resin,

turpentine or alcohol. They must first be heated to about 200° C.

and then melted into hot linseed oil.

When this varnish dries, the film is very glossy and hard. It
cannot be easily redissolved, like the spirit varnishes, by turpen-
tine or alcohol. It is said to darken badly or to cause cracking,
but since so many varieties exist on the market, it is difficult to

be sure that this applies to all grades and types.

1. The natural and synthetic resins shown above can be dissolved to make
picture varnishes, isolating coatings,and ingredients in painting mediums.
From left to right, they are dammar, mastic, and vinyl acetate resin.
In the scoop is n-butyl methacrylate resin. (See page 71.)

2. Dammar resin is made into liquid varnish by suspending it in pure spirits of

gum turpentine. The cheesecloth bag, which filters out bark and other
impurities, is discarded when the resin is completely dissolved. (See page 72.)
3. Oil paint suitable for artists' use must consist of permanent pigments
thoroughly dispersed in a minimum amount A heavy
of linseed oil binder. glass
muller can be used to make the paints in the studio. (See page 83.)

4. The oil paint made in the studio can be put into tubes by means
of a painting knife. When the tube has been filled, the open end

is folded a few times and then crimped with the wide-jaw pliers.
5. Houses at Auvers, 1890, by Vincent van Gogh ( 1853-90) . Oil on canvas,
28%" X 23%". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts.
The landscape by Vincent van Gogh shows the expressive use of a direct
painting technique in which each stroke of paint defines simultaneously the
color, the proportion, and the perspective of his subject. The detail
(plate 6) indicates that he did very little repainting as he drew with
his color. (See page 98.)
6. Houses at Auvers. Detail of roofs.
7. An Allegory of Fidelity (detail), unfinished, circa 1570-80,
by Tintoretto (1518-94). Oil on canvas, 43^" x 41". Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. This unfinished picture by
Tintoretto shows the stages in which an indirect painting can be
developed. In the lower part of the canvas, the monochromatic underpainting
is still visible, indicating the principal volumes of the figure. In the head

and upper torso this vigorous underpainting is concealed by finishing glazes

and semiopaque strokes, which add local color changes and smaller
surface forms. (See page 105.)
 W/ '01
\^ vhw
L^fe-^^ IL^Izi.^^^^

^^^^""^^ !^
8. A portable sprayer can be used to apply uniform coatings of picture varnish
or pastel fixative. The can fill the removable reservoir with his own
artist
varnish, fixative, or paint, and he can replace the propellant can when
it is empty with an inexpensive refill. (See page 112.)

9. A cardboard screwed to the back of the stretcher bars will protect the
stiflF

canvas againstmany serious injuries that can be caused by careless

handling. Washers should be used to prevent the heads of the /a" wood
screws from going through the cardboard. (See page 116.)

«^
 f\\

10. Unsized linen is stretched evenly over a frame made of mitered wooden
stretcher bars. The fabric is fastened to the frame with upholstery tacks,
so that the weave of the canvas runs parallel to the edges of the frame.
(See page 123.)

11. The corner is neatly folded and tacked at the right-hand end of each
stretcher bar (as it is seen from the back of the canvas) . The corner tack is

driven closer to the back edge where the miter joint is thicker and
less likely to split. (See page 123.)

risi
 )

12. A sizing of rabbitskin glue solution is brushed lightly and evenly into the
weave of the raw linen. The glue-size protects the fabric from the
deteriorating effects of the linseed oil in the next layers of priming.
(See page 126.)

13. A priming consisting of flake

white ground in linseed oil is

thinned with turpentine and

applied to the linen after the
rabbitskin glue sizing has dried
thoroughly. It is brushed well
into theweave of the fabric, and
any excess is removed with
the painting knife.
(See page 131.
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
7 5

Synthetic Resins

During the last thirty years, resins developed in the laboratory

have replaced natural resins in many industrial processes. Some
of the common groups of these organic compounds are the acrylic
resins, the alkyd resins, the styrene resins, and the vinyl resins.
Artists have experimented with many of these products, and some
seem to be promising substitutes for certain traditional materials.
The artist himself is usually poorly equipped to test and com-
pare the color stability, retention of adhesive quality, and flexibility

of these numerous new products. He must rely on the claims and

reports manufacturer or on another enthusiastic artist.
of the
Since most of these materials are developed with a particular
industrial specification in mind, they may not be completely ap-
plicable to the problems of the studio. They should be carefully
and thoroughly tested before they are too enthusiastically en-
dorsed.

Acrylic (Methacrylate)
Various types of acrylic resins (see pages 224fT) are manufactured
under brand names such as "Lucite" or "Elvacite,"^^ "Plexiglass,"
or "Acryloid."^^ Many of the acrylic resins are soluble only in
strong solvents such as acetone or the aromatic hydrocarbons.
However, a few, such DuPont's Elvacite 2044, which is n-butyl
as
methacrylate, or Elvacite 2045, which is isobutyl methacrylate,
can be dissolved in turpentine, V. M. and P. Naphtha, or toluene.
These resins are sold in the form of white granules or beads,
which may stick together in storage, especially in warm tempera-
ture, to form soft chunks that look like dry artificial snow. They
can be dissolved by the same method employed to make dammar
varnish described on page 72. An acrylic resin already dissolved
in mineral thinner is sold as Acryloid F-io by Rohm and Haas
Company.
Acrylic resins dissolved in petroleum thinners or turpentine are
used in various brands of picture varnish (see page 113) for their
10 E. I. Du Pont, Inc.
11 Rohm and Haas Co.
7 6 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

clarity, flexibility and agreeable gloss which is attractive to many

painters.
Solutions of acrylic resins in petroleum solvents have been
employed as fixatives and protective coatings for work done on
paper in pastel and other drawing media (see page 235).
In addition, solutions of acrylic resin in turpentine and mineral
spirits have been used as binders for the artists' paints described
on page 224.

Vinyl (Polyvinyl Acetate, P.V.A., Polyvinyl Chloride-

Acetate)
Vinyl resins are synthetic materials (see page 227) that have been
used since 1930 in industrial manufacturing. They are sold under
trade names such as Vinylite.^^ The two principal vinyl resins that
have been used by artists are polyvinyl acetate and polyvinyl chlo-
ride-acetate (see page 211).

Balsams

These oleoresins are thick varnishlike liquids which are obtained

by incising the bark of certain coniferous trees. They are used
almost as they come from the tree and are diluted, when necessary,
with turpentine or alcohol. They may thicken in the container,
so that theypour very slowly. In this case, heating the container
gently in a water bath, or double boiler, will make them more
liquid.

Strasbourg Turpentine and Venice Turpentine are

the two balsams in common use. Their properties are very similar.
As additions to oil paint, they produce films that are very glossy
and enamel-like. They do not yellow excessively. As an addition to
painting mediums, a little goes a long way, small amounts impart-
ing all the desirable characteristics of these balsams, while larger
amounts cause smeary effects and slow drying of the paint.

CoPAivA Balsam, an oleoresin used in the past in restoring pic-

tures, was said to rejuvenate dried and cracked linseed oil films.
^ Union Carbide Corp.
 BINDERS AND DILUENTS |
7 7

It should not be employed in painting media because it has a

tendency to dissolve and penetrate linseed-oil films.

Driers

Driers or siccatives, materials which are added to oil paint to speed

the hardening of the paint film, are usually metallic salts dissolved
in drying oils or resins. In general, it can be said that they darken
the paint and weaken the quality of the film. They should be
employed very cautiously or, if possible, avoided altogether.

Lead Drier, Manganese Drier, and Cobalt Linoleate

Drier are the types usually found on the market today. Of these,
the cobalt drier is considered by most authorities to be the least
harmful. Siccatif de Courtrai contains lead and manganese driers,
plus oils and thinner. Siccatif de Haarlem is said to contain
boiled oil and varnish.
Driers should not be poured at random into the palette cup to
be mixed in indefinite amounts with the painting medium. The
correct small percentage of drier (usually 2 or 3 drops to a spoonful
of paint) will speed the drying as efficiently as a much larger
amount. An excess of drier may cause the paint to become gummy,
and it and cracking. By systematically de-
insures later darkening
creasing the amount of drier, the artist can soon ascertain the
smallest amount of siccative that will cause the color to dry at
an acceptable rate.
In many cases, a fast-drying painting medium, made up of such
ingredients as dammar varnish, sun-thickened linseed oil, and tur-
pentine, used with a palette of fast-drying pigments, can develop
paintings that will dry with sufficient speed to please most artists.

Such combinations are safer to use than the addition of driers.

It may be noted that pigments that contain lead, manganese, or
cobalt, the three metals used in making siccatives, are all very
rapid driers in linseed oil.

Retarders

Retarders are materials that slow down the rate of drying of oil
paint. They are very little used today but were extremely popular
7 8 I
BINDERS AND DILUENTS

during the nineteenth century with painters who wished to work

"wet-in-wet" over long periods of time. It is generally felt that
they do the paint films no good.

Oil of Cloves and Oil of Spike, essential oils expressed from

plants, have been used as retarding agents. When employed, they
should be added to the painting medium in very small amounts.
Poppyseed oil might preferably be substituted for the essential oils
when a slow-drying oil color is desired.
 The Oil Technique

THE MANUFACTURE OF OIL COLORS

Oil colors are made by mixing an adequate amount of cold-
pressed linseed oil with a pigment to make a smooth buttery paint.
When the paint is absorbs oxygen from
applied to a surface, the oil

the air and polymerizes to form a

which binds the pig-
solid film,
ment to the canvas or panel. The dried film is tough and flexible,
resistant to abrasion and water, and is not easily soluble in normal
diluents, such as turpentine. The paint will keep well for long
periods when stored in containers, such as tubes or jars, that
exclude the air. It is desirable to use only as much oil as is

absolutely necessary to bind the pigment in a film of good flexibility

and adhesiveness. Since all linseed oil yellows to some degree, the
more oil that is used in the paint, the greater the amount of sub-
sequent yellowing.
Pigment ground with a drying oil may settle out of the oil paint
afterprolonged storage, leaving excess oil at the top of the con-
tainer and poorly bound pigment at the bottom. To prevent this,
a small amount (about 2 per cent of the volume of the paint) of a
material called a stabilizer is added, which causes a better disper-
sion of the pigment in the oil and, therefore, gives the paint better
quality. It may also impart a buttery quality to certain colors
which otherwise grind out in either a stringy or an excessivelyv
liquid consistency. Aluminum stearate and beeswax are materials
frequently employed as stabilizers.
The industrial manufacturer of artists' colors must consider
8 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
certain problems of distribution. His products must keep in

salable condition and appearance on the dealer's shelf, often after

long periods of storage. Consequently, stabilizers may be used more
generously than would be necessary if a color were to be used up
immediately after it was made. Also, he is under some pressure from
artist consumers, who are often not too well informed as to the
natural character of their materials, to provide colors that are all

of the same buttery consistency and the same drying rate, regardless

of the natural tendencies of the various pigments. For these rea-

sons, he may resort to driers and "modified" linseed oils more than
he would under ideal circumstances.
It must be kept in mind, however, that today the color manu-
facturer has at his disposal machinery that can be controlled to
produce minute changes in the character of his products. He has
behind him the accumulated knowledge of generations of artists

and color makers concerning standards of quality and sources of

supply. He often subsidizes a research staff of chemists and techni-
cians to maintain the necessary quality controland standardization
to compete with other manufacturers. Above all, he knows that

his reputation and long-range economic survival depend solely on

the quality of the paint he produces. Although an artist's ignorance

of materials may be sometimes overlooked because of his expressive
strength and painterly skill, no such refuge exists for the com-
mercial color maker. For the sake of his reputation, he must try to
turn out a superior product. There is no question that he is capable
of doing so when he sees a demand for it.
On the other hand, there may be several reasons for an artist to

grind his own colors, at least at the outset of his career. Fii^t of all,
thereis economy. For a very small outlay of money for materials

and with the expenditure of a relatively small amount of labor,

an artist can produce in his studio very acceptable paints at a frac-
tion of the cost of commercial colors. Since they need not contain
much they may be stronger, to a surprising extent, than
stabilizer,

comparable commercial "student-grade" paints. Second, by grind-

ing his own colors, he gains knowledge of their ingredients and
character and can better understand how he can use and modify
even the industrially manufactured products. Third, he can ob-
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | 8 I

tain colors produced, so to speak, to the specifications of his own

technique and style. That is to say, by manipulating standard
materials, he can make a color that is faster or slower in its drying;
more or less buttery; or more or less fusible.

To grind oil colors in the studio, the following equipment and

materials are used:

Equipment
SPATULA about 6" to 8" long, flexible steel blade well
riveted to a wooden handle. A professional-
quality cooking spatula serves very well.

SCRAPER 3" wide. A flexible steel wall scraper, used by

house painters to remove wallpaper, is excellent.

PALETTE KNIFE Straight blade, less than /2" in width.

PLIERS Artist's canvas-stretching pliers or upholsterer's

pliers.

GRINDING MULLER 3/4" facc, made of glass.

GRINDING SLAB 1 8" X 24^X^/4" thick.

The grinding slab can be made of J4" plate glass, with edges that
have been ground smooth and rounded slightly so they are not
dangerous to handle. The surface of the slab should be prepared
in the following way:

1. Put the slab on a solid table or bench and tack 5/2"

wooden stripping around it so that it cannot move about

on the table. Put a sheet of heavy cardboard between the
slab and the table to act as a cushion and to prevent the
glass from cracking.

2. Put a few tablespoons of medium-grit carborundum on

the slab. Add enough water to make a loose paste.

3. Using the glass muller, grind the paste with a circular

motion over the slab until the whole surface of the glass has
been roughened by the carborundum. This may take about
8 2 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE

15 minutes. Rinse both slab and muller with cold water until
all traces of carborundum paste are completely removed. Dry
thoroughly with, a clean cloth. When they are dry, both the
slaband the face of the muller .should have a frosty tooth.

Clean all traces of carborundum from the bench.

This surface should last for many hours of grinding. If, after

much use, it becomes too smooth, it should be roughened again

with carborundum.

Materials

DRY PIGMENTS onlv artist-gradc pigments listed for oil

technique (page 90) should be used.

THINNER pure gum spirits of turpentine or mineral

spirits.

WAX pure white beeswax.

TUBES i''X4" "studio" size, pure tin, aluminum or

lead.

OIL first choice, pure cold-pressed linseed oil; or if

this is unobtainable, well-refined linseed oil,

free from traces of chemical-refining agents.

STABILIZER the painter who grinds his colors in his studio

can employ as a stabilizer a paste made of
beeswax dissolved in linseed oil. Such a paste
may be made in the following way:

1. Measure into a metal container, such as the

top of a double boiler, 7 fluid ounces of
linseed oil. Weigh out i ounce (av.) of bees-
wax, break it into smaller pieces, and put the
wax into the oil.

2. Heat the mixture over an electric hot plate

until the wax dissolves completely in the oil.

Do not get the wax too hot or it may darken.

3. Shut off the heat and remove the mixture

from the stove.
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | 8 3

4. When the mixture of oil and liquid wax has

cooled sufficiently store it in a covered jar or
tin can.

GRINDING OIL The pigments may be ground simply, using

only pure linseed oil as the grinding oil, or if

a stabilizer is desired in the finished paint,

prepare the grinding oil by combining:

8 fluid ounces wax paste stabilizer

(see recipe above),

24 fluid ounces (1/2 pints) linseed oil.

Put the wax paste in a quart jar and stir it to

be sure it smooth and free of lumps. Add
is

the oil gradually, a few ounces at a time,

and stir the mixture so that the paste is

evenly distributed in the oil.

When used with average pigments, this

grinding oil will produce paints containing

roughly 1/2—2 per cent by volume of wax.
Slightly more or less wax paste may be used,
according to the nature of the particular
pigment being ground.

Procedure

1. Put some dry pigment in the center of the grinding slab

and add some grinding oil. MLx wdth a spatula until a very
stiff paste is obtained. Set the pile of color paste in one
comer of the slab, using the wide scraper to move the paste.

2. Take a small amount (about a tablespoonful) of color

paste from the pile and put it on the center of the slab. Grind

this with the muller, using light pressure and a circular mo-
tion, gradually widening the circle until most of the slab is

covered with the color. Continue grinding over the color until
the paste is veiy smooth and no grittiness can be heard as
the muller goes over Use the spatula frequently to re-
it.

move up on the sides of the muller and

the paste that rides
regrind this paste. Set the smooth ground color, which now
can be called paint, in a pile on a corner of the slab opposite
the color paste. (Illustration, plate 3.)
84 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE

3. If the color becomes too liquid when it is ground with

the muller, add more dry pigment to the mixed color paste
before proceeding further.

4. Continue amounts of the color paste until

to grind small
all and is a smooth
the color has been ground with the muller
buttery consistency that will stand up in peaks like com-
mercially produced tube paints.

5. When all the paste has been thus ground into paint, mix
it well with the spatula in the center of the slab or grind
it quickly once more to insure a homogeneous quality through
the whole batch. It is now ready to be put into tubes.

6. Hold the tube with the cap pointing down and the open

end pointing up. Loosen the cap slightly to avoid trapping

air in the paint. Use a narrow palette knife to feed the paint
into the open end of the tube. Grasp the tube lightly around
the cap and the collar, and tap the heel of your hand sharply
against the table to make the paint settle into the cap end of
the tube. Do not tap the cap directly on the table or the tube
will dent and crumple. As more paint is added, tap frequently
to eliminate air pockets in the paint. When the tube is filled

up about i" from the open end, close the end by pressing
to
down on it lightly with the edge of the spatula, about 1/2"
from the end of the tube, to eliminate a little paint and all
the air in the bottom of the tube. Take care not to cut the
tube by pressing too hard with the spatula. Fold the end
several times, using the spatula to obtain a straight fold.

Crimp the folded end of the tube with wide-jaw pliei*s.

(Illustration, plate 4.)

7. Close cap of tube well. Clean outside of tube with a rag

that has been moistened with mineral spirits. Gummed labels
or masking tape may be applied to identify the color.

8. Clean the slab, muller, and tools with mineral spirits and
rags. Then, wash the equipment thoroughly with steel wool
and soap and water or scouring powder. Be sure to rinse
away all traces of the soap from the slab, tools, and muller.
Dry well with clean rags before using the equipment for the
next color.
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | 85

Notes

A. The brushing and drying character of the paint may be

altered by changing the composition of the grinding oil used
as a binder.

B. Addition of resin varnishes to the grinding oil will

accelerate the setting of the color, inhibit "sinking in" of
colors, and produce glossier films. Up to 10 per cent of
heavy dammar varnish to 90 per cent linseed oil may be
used. Sun-thickened linseed oil or Venice turpentine may
also be useful here.

C. Poppyseed oil may be added to the grinding oil to pro-

duce colors that will dry slowly and yellow somewhat less
than they would with pure linseed oil. Poppyseed oil also
produces paints that are more buttery and "short" than
those ground only with linseed oil, and so it may sometimes
be added in small amounts (up to 10 per cent) to the grinding
oil when a pigment has a tendency to grind out to a stringy
or runny state.

D. The grinding oil or binder should be prepared at least

a day or so in advance to allow for complete assimilation of
the ingredients.

E. Casein or o.g'g emulsion are sometimes added to the colors

to produce a "short" brushing quality.

F. Whiting may be added to "stretch" colors to be used for

sketching paints or where permanence is not essential. Such
additions cause the paint to yellow more with age.

G. Zinc white, viridian, ultramarine blue, and, occasionally,

the yellow ochers should be allowed to stand for a day or
so in closed containers after they are first ground in oil. If

they revert to a more liquid consistency, they should then

be reground with more dry pigment. Ultramarine in particu-
lar becomes so liquid and stringy that additions of wax
stabilizer or poppyseed oil are required to give it a buttery
consistency.
8 6 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
H. Manufacturers often use a white powder, aluminum
stearate, as a stabilizer, in amounts up to 2 per cent by
volume of the total volume of paint. In oil colors, this inex-
pensive material is transparent and does not materially affect
the color quality of the paint. However, just because of this
transparency it does not hide the yellowing of the additional oil

required to bind it into the paint film. Furthermore, its addition

in any great quantity makes the paint film spongy or crumbly.
For these reasons, though very small amounts can be accepted
as useful, particularly in the case of certain "difficult" pigments
(such as ultramarine blue), larger percentages are considered
to be adulterations of the quality of the paint which will cause
it to age badly.

I. Beeswax is more easily controlled than aluminum stearate

as a stabilizer in small batches of paint. However, as in the
case of the other stabilizers, 2 per cent of the total volume of
the paint is usually considered the limit for improving it. Ap-
preciableamounts in excess of 2 per cent will result in a paint
that may behave well initially but will age poorly and will be
deficient in tinting strength.

Storage

Dry pigments are best kept in glass jars securely covered to avoid
the absorption of moisture from the air.
Oils used as binders and diluents should be kept in full jars.
As the oil is used, clean glass marbles may be dropped into the
jar to maintain the level of oil in the vessel and thus keep out air.
Turpentine is best stored away from light and air in well-closed
dark-glass containers. It should not be kept too long or it may
become yellow and gummy.
Varnishes should be stored in tightly closed containers so that
no water gets into the varnish.

FACTORY-MADE OIL COLORS

There are two grades of oil colors on the market today, fairly well
differentiated in price.
The so-called "artist-grade oil color" is understood to be made of
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | 8 7

the best materials available and processed by the best methods

known to the particular manufacturer. The pigments are supposed
to be carefully selected for chemical purity and for the particular
shade of color that the manufacturer considers best for that pig-
ment. The oils used as binders should be of the best quality avail-
able, free of impurities. They should dry well and yellow as little as
possible. Stabilizers should be kept to the minimum, being used
only to correct undesirable pigment characteristics. There should
be the maximum amount of pigment in relation to binder, con-
sistent with the production of good flexible color films, and it

should be carefully ground to the optimum consistency for brush-

ing quality, good dispersion in the binder, and correct particle
size fora good paint-film structure. In some cases, special grinding
procedures are necessary to produce paints meeting these specifi-
cations.
The second grade of colors, known as "student grade," is sold
at a lower price than artists' colors. In most raw ma-
cases, their
terialsand production techniques are less refined and more typi-
cal of mass-production methods than should be the case with
the artist-grade colors. Sometimes the pigments may be slightly
below the absolute top grade in chemical purity, strength, or
color character. In other instances, stabilizers may be employed
somewhat more liberally than in the corresponding artist's color,
and the oils may be less refined and purified. Less pains may be
taken to maintain the maximum ratio of pigment to binding oil,
and grinding operations may be briefer and less meticulous. Many
of the expensive pigments in the artist-grade color lists are replaced
in the student grade by mixtures of cheaper pigments which ap-
proximate, more or less, the hue of the original color. Thus, one
often finds in the student grade a mixture of ultramarine instead
of cobalt blue, or mixtures of phthalocyanine blue instead of
cerulean blue. In somewhat similar fashion, cadmium lithopones
are often substituted for cadmium sulfides.

Because of the better quality of oils and smaller amounts of

stabilizer employed in the artists' colors, one expects them to re-
tain their tone with less yellowing than is the case with students'
colors. The have a markedly higher tint-
artist-grade colors should
ing strength in mixtures, and it should be possible to intermix them
more freely. It can be stated, however, that many brands of stu-
8 8 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
dents' colors, particularly those manufactured in America, are of
remarkably good quality, considering their price, and give very
good value.
Some color manufacturers grind their more expensive artist-grade
white paints in poppyseed oil. Such whites appear brighter and
less yellowish than those ground in linseed oil. It should be noted
that these poppyseed oil paints will not dry as rapidly as linseed oil
whites made of thesame pigments, nor will their films be as tough
and flexible. White paints ground in poppyseed oil should not be
used for underpainting or for priming canvas.
In recent years, many manufacturers have offered quick-drying
whites, sometimes called underpainting whites, which are thinned
and handled like oil colors, though they dry much more rapidly.
The specific ingredients that give these paints their setting qual-
ities are not usually indicated on the label or in the catalogue.
In general, it may be assumed that, in respect to ultimate durability,
they are not an improvement over standard artist-grade flake white
or zinc white oil color. However, they are a great convenience
when a rapid-drying foundation underpainting is desired. I advise
the artist to test samples of any brand he employs habitually since
great differences in color stability exist between brands, at least in
those samples that I have observed during the last ten years. In two
years, samples of one widely advertised underpainting white de-
veloped the tone of a well-made Naples yellow, while other brands
remained as white as an excellent flake white.

Labeling Procedures

For reasons stated previously it would be to the advantage of the

artist if all tubes of factory-made colors carried on the label specific

statements indicating:

A. The chemical name of the pigment as well as the stand-

ard name.

B. The oil used as a binder and its processing, if any.

C. The chemical name of the stabilizers used and the

amount used in terms of the percentage of the total volume
of the tube's contents. Such a label might read as follows:
 .M"'

THE OIL TECHNIQUE | 8 9

ViRiDiAN Green —hydrous chromic oxide in refined linseed

oil, aluminum stearate 2 per cent by volume.

Obviously, such labeling would not tell the artist everything he

needs to know. The quality of pigment, the purity of the oil,

and the care taken and tubing techniques would still

in grinding
be unknown factors affecting the permanence of the product. How-
ever, he would at least be sure that the pigment had not been adul-
terated with an impermanent green, such as chrome green, that
some oil such as castor oil or tung oil had not been substituted for
linseed oil, and that his tube was not one third full of aluminum
stearate and whiting.
Suggestions for standard names for artists' colors and the iden-
tification of each color name by a specified chemical composi-
tion are contained in the Commercial Standard CS-98-62, pub-
lished by the U. S. Department of Commerce. A manufacturer who
states on his labels that his oil paint conforms to CS-98-62, guaran-
tees that the names and chemical composition of his pigments
agree with those of the Standard, that his vehicles are pure linseed
or poppyseed oil with no more than the permitted percentages of
driers added, and that the brushing quality, tinting strength, per-
centages of extenders, and drying rates of his paints meet the re-
quirements of the Standard.

MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT FOR PAINTING

Color Lists

It should be clear that there can be no universally preferred list

of colors or"approved palette" for any painting technique. From

the rather extensive list of pigments that, in a given medium,
perform acceptably in regard to permanence and handling qual-
ities, each artist selects those colors that best serve his individual
needs and tastes.

The following list, from which such a selection can be made

for the oil technique, omits rare colors and those that have be-
come obsolete and indicates those that can be easily obtained in
good quality and satisfy the requirements for the oil technique
when they are employed by a knowledgeable painter.
go I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
WHITE Flake, Cremnitz, or lead white
Titanium white
Zinc white

YELLOW Cadmium yellow, light, medium, and deep

Cobalt yellow (aureolin)
Green gold
Hansa yellow
Mars yellow
Naples yellow
Ochers and siennas

ORANGE Cadmium orange

Mars orange
Sienna, burnt

RED Alizarin crimson

Cadmium red, light, medium, and deep
Earth reds (caput mortuum, English, Indian,
light red. Mars, Spanish, Venetian, etc.)

Quinacridone reds

BLUE Artificial ultramarine blue

Cerulean blue
Cobalt blue
Manganese blue
Phthalocyanine blue

GREEN Cobalt green

Chrome oxide opaque
Green earth or terre verte

Phthalocyanine green
Viridian (chrome oxide transparent)

VIOLET Cobalt violet, light and deep

Manganese violet
Mars violet
Quinacridone violet
Ultramarine red or violet

BROWN Mars brown

Sienna, burnt
Umber, burnt and raw

BLACK Ivory black

Mars black
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE |
9 I

It should be remembered that artists have produced great work

with extremely simple palettes. El Greco is said to have used only
four or five colors. On the other hand, very extensive palettes have
been employed by such fine colorists as Delacroix and Cezanne.
The insistence that color orchestration is dependent upon a
limited palette, or conversely upon an extensive palette, is as un-
reasonable as the assertion that the string quartet has a higher or
lower aesthetic potential than the full orchestra. Obviously, some
artists demand a fuller instrument for the statement of some of
their ideas; others are more at home with, or are more challenged
by, the limitations of a sparse range of effects.

For the student or beginner, there may be some wisdom, at least

at the outset, in limiting himself to a colors. He can then see
few
how can be exploited by using simple mix-
far a simple palette
tures and broad harmonies, and he can become knowledgeable
about the "personality" of each of the colors he employs. Later,
another group may be chosen, again limited to a few colors, and
the qualities of these pigments investigated. Thus, in time he will
become familiar with the characteristics of each of his colors.
For example, it is interesting to see what can be done with a
simple group of four ordinary colors, such as ivory black, flake
white, a light yellow ocher, and an earth red, like English red or
light red. Such a palette can produce green tonalities on the
olive sideby mixtures of ocher and black; oranges may be obtained
with the ocher and red; the cool grays obtained with ivory black
and white will approximate bluish tones in contrast with earth
reds; a speck of earth red plus white plus black yields dull lavender
tones, and so on. Of course, the general key will be rather muted,
but even with such a rigorously limited palette, a gifted colorist
can discover many subtle and beautiful chromatic possibilities.

In general, the fewer colors in each mixture the better, since the
intermixing of many pigments combines their optical impurities,
causing a general dullness in the painting.

Tools and Equipment

The Palette
The list of colors an artist uses is sometimes referred to as his
palette. In this section, however, the word palette denotes the
9 2 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
surface on which piles of paint are set out to have them ready for
application to the canvas.
The palette may, be the conventional wooden one, made of
thin wood (about %6" thick), carried on the artist's arm. Small
sketching palettes are usually about io^Xh"- Large studio
palettes come in many shapes and may range in size up to
ly'^Xsy". The size and shape will vary according to the personal
preference of the artist, but there should always be sufficient

area for free uncramped mixing and handling of color. If the

palette is to be held on the arm, it must balance well. A new
wooden palette should be rubbed with linseed oil and any excess oil
wiped off with a dry rag. When the oil dries, the wood will be
less absorbent and will serve better as a mixing surface. The

colors are squeezed from tubes onto the palette, usually close to
the outer edges, leaving a large area free in the center for mixing.
At the end of a day's work, the center area is cleared of unused
paint with a scraper or palette knife and is wiped with a rag
moistened with turpentine. Some painters prefer to leave a trace
of paint rubbed over the mixing area, which will eventually de-
velop a hard glossy surface with a middle gray tone.
Instead of wooden slabs of glass or marble may be
palettes,
used. These are kept on a table top near the easel. If glass is
used, it should be ^4'' plate, the sharp edges and comers should
be rounded by grinding (any glass cutting shop can furnish such
a slab), and the edges should be taped with surgical adhesive tape,
so that they do not chip and cause injury. Some painters prefer
to coat the underside of such palettes with white paint, in order
to judge their colors on a surface that is the same color as their
white canvas.
Hardened paint may be more easily removed from the glass or
marble surface than from the wooden palette. One uses a razor
blade fastened in a holder — the same tool that is used to scrape
window glass. On the other hand, the wooden palette has the

advantage of being more portable.

Palettes made of pads of treated paper are also available. At
the end of a work session the top sheet, on which the colors have
been mixed, is peeled off the pad and discarded, making it un-
necessary to clean the surface. Such disposable paper palettes are
considered a convenience and can be purchased in several sizes.
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE |
9 3

Painters who mix very large amounts of colors in a vigorous way

may find that the surface rumples.

Brushes
In a sense, the brush might be considered the physical extension
of the painter's fingers,which should pick up and deposit the paint
exactly it, in exactly the right amount. If the same
where he wants
job is attempted with a stick or a rag, it will become apparent that
the brush is a complicated and ingenious tool, which is remarkably
sensitive to the will of the artist. A good brush must be made by
hand, of the finest grades of raw materials, and manufactured with
a high degree of experience and craftsmanship. A good brush, if
properly cared for, will perform well and last a long time. A cheap
brush, mass-produced of poor material, will wear out very quickly
and, more important, will never perform adequately, even when
new. Therefore, it is more economical to purchase brushes of the
highest quality.
For technique the most frequently used brushes are made
oil

of white hog bristles. The bristles are set into a rubber or resinous
compound and enclosed in a metal ferrule, which is then attached
to a wooden handle. The bristles often have a natural curve, and
great care is necessary in setting them so that the tip of the bristle
curves in toward the center of the brush rather than straggling
out in random directions. Furthermore, the most desirable qualities
of uniform resiliency and durability can be obtained only when the
tips of the bristles are left untrimmed, the natural ends of the

bristles being used to make the tip of the brush. For this reason, the

hairs must be sorted into batches of uniform size before they are
used in artists' quality brushes. In cheaper brushes, the bristles

are often set at random and then trimmed to make an even tip. It

is possible to distinguish brushes made with untrimmed bristles

from those that have been trimmed by looking at the ends of the
bristles. The natural ends have a tiny branch or "flag" which is

visible upon close examination.

Bristle brushes are set in varying shapes and lengths, which
yield strokes of differing character. Flat brushes with square comers
are produced in two lengths: the longer ones called "flats," the
shorter "brights." "Filberts" are rather fuller with rounded comers.
"Rounds" are circular in cross section and correspond in shape to
94 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
the brushes used before the nineteenth century. Each type is avail-
able in sizes running from very small (^o) to large (^12).
Softer brushes are available for oil technique and are employed
where smoother surface or finer detail is required. They are usually
made of red sable and may be purchased in various shapes rounds, :

flats, or brights. Other soft hair brushes (ox hair, squirrel hair,

etc.) are considered by most artists to be inferior to the best red

sable brushes and should be less expensive. Soft hair brushes may
be set in quills as well as in metal ferrules.
The best brush may become completely useless in a short time
if not cared for properly. At the end of a day's work, the paint-
filled brush should be wiped on a rag or newspaper, in order to
remove excess color. It should then be rinsed in mineral spirits
(or in water if the brush has been employed in a water technique).
Finally, it should be well washed in soap and water in the follow-
ing way:

1. Wet the brush in warm (never hot) water.

2. Rub it lightly on a cake of white laundry soap.

3. Rub the bristles on the palm of your hand until a lather

is made and the color in the brush is carried out by the soap.

4. Rinse the brush thoroughly in warm water.

5. Repeat the whole process as many times as is necessary,

until the lather remains white and untinged by color and the
brush is as clean as when new. It is especially important that
no oil color dry out at the base of the bristles near the ferrule.
Finally, take care to rinse the brush very thoroughly to remove
all traces of soap.

6. Squeeze the damp clean brush Hghtly between the thumb

and fingers to shape up the bristles so that they dry into the
correct form.

This should be done at the end of each working day to keep

the paint from hardening in the brush. Attempts to salvage brushes
in which paint has dried are usually unsuccessful. The paint may
be softened and removed by high solvents, but the bristles never
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE |
9 5
recover their resiliency. If, occasionally, it is inconvenient to wash
out the brushes, they should be left suspended in turpentine,
mineral or oil in a container designed to keep the weight
spirits,

of the brush from resting on the bristles. Such metal-spring rigs

are available in art supply stores. However, this procedure of leav-
ing dirty brushes to soak overnight in turpentine, mineral spirits,

or oil is not to be recommended as habitual practice, since the rub-

ber or compound in which the bristles are set may be affected. A
brush of good quality that has been given good care can be ex-
pected to give excellent service through many years of painting.

Brush Washer
During the painting process and after a work session, the artist
cleans his brushes in a solvent such as turpentine or mineral
spirits. A metal container for such cleaning solutions, fitted with a
cover to prevent unnecessary evaporation of the solvent, is a useful
item of studio equipment. Such "brush washers," sold in art supply
stores, are usually fitted with a wire-screen insert, against which the
brush can be lightly rubbed to clean it of excess color.

Knives
Spatulalike palette knives are used for clearing the palette, mix-
ing colors, and other studio chores. They come in many sizes and
shapes. A knife with a tapered blade, five or six inches in length,
is a useful all-around tool. It should be equally limber all the way
to the end —not weak in the middle of the blade.
Painters who use knives as well as brushes to apply paint to
the picture generally have a number of "painting knives." These
are made in various shapes and sizes of trowel-like forms with bent
shanks and triangular blades and are selected according to in-
Such painting knives are usually very flexible and
dividual taste.
made of good stock. Among the artists who
should be carefully
have employed them in the past are Rembrandt, Courbet, and
Cezanne.

Palette Cups
Palette cups are small metal containers used to keep a quantity of
diluent within easy reach. They usually have a spring clip of
some sort to attach them to the palette. Some are fitted with
96 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
plastic "friction" covers, which effectively prevent the diluent from
drying up between working periods.

Boxes, etc.
Wooden or metal boxes may be purchased that are designed
to hold brushes and tools, containers of painting medium, a
small palette, and more than a dozen studio-size tubes of paint.
Such boxes are useful, particularly if work is to be done away
from the studio.
For work in the oil technique, it will be necessary to have,
in addition to the tools and materials listed above, a suitable
canvas or panel (which is described more completely in the
section on grounds and supports). Many artists use such drawing
materials as charcoal, pencils, or chalks to make light indications
on the canvas, preliminary to the actual painting.
Clean lintless rags are very useful for cleaning palettes and
brushes, and for certain painting procedures among them, —
glazing and scumbling. Sterilized rags of good quality can be
bought from dealers who supply house-painting materials.

Thinners and Painting Mediums

The simplest way to paint in oils is to brush a single coat of
oil color, just as it comes from the tube, onto a canvas. Such an
uncomplicated method of painting is apt to cause fewer defects
in the physical structure than more complex
of the picture
procedures.However, the brushing quality of the paint as it
comes from the tube today is not agreeable to most artists, who
find that they prefer paints of greater fluidity with different
setting characteristics. Therefore, almost all painters add some
liquid to the paint to assist them in spreading and manipulating
it. This liquid diluent or painting medium may be made up of
varying proportions of drying oils (such as the linseed oils,

poppyseed oil, or nut oil), combined with varnishes (such as

dammar), and diluted with a volatile solvent (such as turpentine
or mineral spirits).
The painter should remember that such painting media should
be used as sparingly as possible, for their oily content will
increase the yellowing of the paint films, and their varnish content
tends to make the films more brittle and more vulnerable to
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE |
9 7
solvents. Painting media should be considered as necessary evils
that must be employed with an awareness of the troubles inherent
in excessive use.
In any single picture, the composition of the painting medium
should not be changed unsystematically through the successive
layers paint. Haphazard mixing of small quantities of oil,
of
varnish,and turpentine in the palette cup may yield combinations
that vary considerably from one working period to the next. It
is much better to mix a half pint or so of medium in advance

and keep it handy in a bottle labeled with the date and recipe
of the mixture. In this way, the medium may be kept uniform
throughout the picture, and the various ingredients will always
be thoroughly mixed. It is also possible to relate the results
obtained in the particular painting to a specific known recipe
rather than to a random mixture. The recipe may then be altered
subtly and precisely when a slightly different rate of drying or
quality of brushing is desired.
Although, today, the various color manufacturers still offer
prepared painting media bottled under brand names, most
paintersbuy the ingredients (oils, varnishes, and diluents) from
the manufacturer and make up the painting medium to suit their
individual needs. No single recipe is recognized as superior for all

requirements, and the painter should experiment to develop the

medium most useful to him. The drying and handling properties
of the various ingredients are mentioned in the preceding section.
A typical recipe for a painting medium can be used as a starting
point for individual experimentation:

2 parts by volume linseed oil (cold-pressed,

sun-thickened, or stand oil)

I part by volume dammar varnish (5 -pound

cut)
6 parts by volume turpentine

These proportions can be varied, but the percentage of varnish

should not be increased, since dry paint films, which include
heavy amounts of soft resin like dammar, can be redissolved too
easily in turpentine. Unless the paint has been ground with an
excess of oily binder, it is not advisable to use turpentine alone
98 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
as a painting medium, since it tends to spread the paint over too
great an area, with the result that the binder can no longer
form a continuous' pigmented film. In cases of extreme over-
thinning, when the paint dries the pigment may powder off, or
the film may crack. It will be found that even small additions
of the various oils and varnishes will alter considerably the drying
speed and brushing quality of the paint. In general, rather than
an exotic concoction of many ingredients, the recipe for the
painting medium should remain as simple as possible.

PAINTING METHODS

Direct Painting

Direct painting (also known prima or premier coup

as alia

painting) refers to a method by which the artist applies each

stroke of paint to the canvas with the intention of letting it

stand in the picture as part of his final statement. There is to

be no retouching or overpainting after the first layer of paint has
dried.
Direct methods have been used since ancient times, and the
work done during the earliest periods in most cultures is single
layer direct painting. More recently, in Italy in the sixteenth
century, in Holland in the seventeenth century, and in France
in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, diiect painting tech-
niques have been vehicles for a wide range of pictorial ideas,
from the rich sparkle of Frans Hals, to the cool directness of
Manet, and the frank immediacy of much of the Synthetic Cubist
work. (Illustrations, plates 5, 6.)
A direct method obliges the painter to decide what final effect

he wants in any given portion in his picture. He must then try

to hit that target in one shot. That is to say, he must get his

final effect as he wants it in the first stroke, without planning

to return and paint over it to make it darker or lighter, or
warmer or cooler, when
As he goes on to each succeeding
it is dry.
part, he must keep himself at the same pitch, first planning or
sensing the final impact of each passage and then trying to realize
it immediately. As he progresses, each stroke must relate accurately
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE |
99
to every other color which he has already put on the canvas.
Ideally, when he covers the last bit of bare canvas the picture is

finished, and there

no necessity to retouch anything.
is

The great difficulty and challenge of pure direct painting is

that the painter must be able to deal with all the problems of
the picture at the same moment. For example, if he is painting
a head, when he comes to the chin he must put each stroke of
paint on the canvas so that it states simultaneously the location,
size, and shape of the chin, the modeling or volume of the chin,
the color of the chin under the given circmstance of light,
and the way the color unites with all the other colors surrounding
it in the picture.
Naturally, very few painters have felt bound to adhere strictly

to pure direct methods, and so, many pictures, begun in the

spirit prima paintings, are retouched and corrected and
of alia
elaborated upon after the first layer of paint has dried. However,
it is my opinion that to the degree that an artist tries to make
each stroke count as the final effect, to that degree he is painting
directly. If later he decides that a particular passage is un-
satisfactory, he may obliterate the faulty section by scraping it

out or by painting an opaque neutral tone over it. He may then

repaint that area, trying once more to realize his final effect

immediately. Technically,he may not be painting in a single

layer, but his thought process and range of effects nevertheless
relate to the spirit of direct painting.

Technical Procedures

This section, like the one describing indirect procedures, is

intended as a general guide and not as a substitute for the
personal instruction of an experienced artist. The procedures of
other and traditions may be useful when they serve as a
artists

base from which experiments may be conducted consistent with

the individual aims of the artist.

In the case of direct painting, from a technical point of view

the procedure is often kept quite simple.

I. On a clean canvas, the general location of large masses

can be put in lightly with pencil or charcoal.

10 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
2. The palette is set with a complete range of the colors
to be used during the sitting, the colors usually being placed
near the outer, edge of the palette. The palette cup is
fastened to the edge of the palette, and a small amount of
painting medium is put into it.

3. The colors are thinned on the palette, as they are used,

by dipping a brush into the palette cup, bringing out the
desired amount of painting medium, and mixing this with a
brushful of paint. Colors may be intermixed, although most
writers suggest that the mixtures should be kept as simple
as possible; that is, they should consist of no more than two
or three colors.

4. Colors are applied to the canvas with brushes, palette

knives, fingers, rags, sponges, or any other instruments. Un-
successful passages may be removed by scraping them off
with the palette knife.

Some painters begin with the darks and gradually work up

to the lights; others reverse the procedure. Some employ brilliant

intensities from the beginning; others begin with neutral tones.

The organization of the picture is, of course, a highly personal
and individual matter, and a method that is most suitable and
efficient for one painter may be a total waste of time for another.

Indirect Painting

Indirect painting involves procedures in which the final effects

in a picture are built up by gradually layers placing several
of paint, one over the other, the upper layers modifying, but
not altogether concealing, the lower layers.
The indirect painter puts his first strokeson the canvas with
the expectation that he will paint over them again when they
are dry in order to change their effect in some way. Therefore,
when he puts on his first layer of paint, called the "underpaint-
ing," he does not try for a finished effect, complete in final
color, drawing definition, and pattern emphasis. Instead, at the
beginning of his work he concentrates on one or two of these
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I O I

problems, and depends upon (and makes allowance for) the

subsequent layers of paint to develop and modify his under-
painting until the remaining problems are finally solved.
Indirect methods of painting have been employed in the past
by many artists including Duccio, Van Eyck, and El Greco. More
recently such painters as Soutine, Modigliani, Rouault, Braque,
and Paul Klee have utilized the optical effects of indirect proc-
esses.

The existence of indirect painting arises from the fact that,

while paint may be used opaquely to conceal what is beneath it,

it also can be applied so as to be transparent, revealing to a

greater or lesser extent what it covers. For example, an oil color,
such as cadmium red, in paste consistency may be brushed over
an area of thoroughly dried yellow paint. If it is applied evenly
and fairly heavily, it will conceal the yellow color entirely.
Alternatively, the red paint may be thinned with an appropriate
diluent and may be spread so thinly over the dried yellow color
that it lies over the yellow like a sheet of red cellophane, tinting
the area a fiery orange color, while allowing the shape and every
surface brush mark on the yellow area to remain visible. The
orange tone thus obtained, by superimposing a layer of trans-
parent red on
opaque yellow, will differ considerably in
an
optical character from an orange made by combining the same
red and yellow pigments in direct mixture on the palette. The
directly mixed tone will have a weighty solid opacity, while the
orange tone produced through the indirect or "optical" mixture
of the two colors will have a more luminous vibration, rather like
that seen in stained glass when light passes through ?t.
By exploiting this characteristic of the oil technique, painters
found that they could develop a brilliant luminosity whose exact
character was unobtainable in the direct techniques. The pro-
cedures most conmionly used in indirect painting are called glaz-
ing and scumbling.

Glazing
A glaze is an almost transparent film of color laid over another
paint surface, modifying the original tone of the area. It is

usually a dark color placed over a lighter one. Some colors, like
 10 2 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
alizarin crimson or viridian green, tend naturally toward a glazelike
transparency. Almost any color can be used as a glaze if it is

thinned enough and ^placed over a lighter tone.

Scumbling
A scumble is related to a glaze in that it is a film of color
laid over another paint surface so that it modifies the original
color but does not completely conceal it. Unlike a glaze, the
scumble is usually a light color placed over a darker one. Some
colors (Naples yellow, for example) are particularly suitable for
this technique, but any color may be combined with opaque
white and used as a scumble when it is placed over a darker
tone. Scumbles are usually characterized by a pearly opalescence
or by a soft smoky optical effect.

Mediums
The film of either a glaze or a scumble must be thin enough
to allow the paint below it to be visible; otherwise the glaze or

scumble would be completely opaque and its chief characteristic

would be lost. The simplest way to obtain the required thin
transparent film is to take a little color straight from the tube,
for example ultramarine blue, and rub it over a solid, dry, heavily
applied area of light underpainting, let us say in this case, pure
white. If the blue is scrubbed on vigorously with the brush, or
rubbed on with a rag or fingertip, it will spread over the white
underpainting as a clear transparent tone of rich blue, which can
be made lighter the more vigorously it is rubbed and dispersed.
The white underpainting must be dry and hard as a rock to
withstand the rubbing of the blue paint, or it will smear into the
blue and produce a muddy mixture. If the paint is rubbed over
too large an area, the binder may be stretched too far and may
leave the pigment badly attached to the picture. However, most
oil colors now on the market contain sufficient oil to prevent
this occurrence.
A different character of glaze or scumble may be obtained by
thinning the paint with a diluent or "glazing medium," so that
it need not be rubbed. This medium may be made up of various
combinations of oils, varnishes, and volatile solvents. As in the
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I O3

case of the painting medium, the personal requirements of each

artistmust determine the exact composition of such a medium.
A painter, who wishes to glaze rather heavily and to obtain an
even vitreous film over an area, may want a glaze medium that
can be applied evenly and rapidly to the picture surface. He
may also want the glaze to set quickly so that the picture may
be placed upright in a short time without the paint's trickling.
Such rapid mediums contain varnish or driers or
setting both,
along with the and require a certain skill in handling,
oils, since
they quickly become tacky and then cannot be reworked or easily
removed.
A typical recipe for this sort of medium is:

3 parts by volume of stand oil

2 parts by volume of dammar varnish (5-pound
cut)

3 parts by volume of turpentine

I or 2 drops of cobalt drier per pint of medium

Another painter may prefer a slower setting material so that

he can deepen or lighten it, remove it or add to it, or reinforce

modeling transitions with it. Such a medium might consist solely of

stand oil with a little turpentine added.
In general, the medium used the better. The glaze or
less

scimible should be made lighter or thinner by dispersing or rub-

bing, rather than by adding excessive amounts of glaze medium
as a diluent.
When discussing the merits or disadvantages of a given glazing
medium, one must keep in mind the way it is to be used. If
only small amounts of medium are added to conventional tube
colors, such factors as the yellowing of a particular oil (sun-
thickened oil, for example) or the possibility of redissolving a
soft resin varnish (like dammar) are much less hazardous than
they would be if the painter were to use large amounts of the
medium in proportion to the tube color. The practice of adding
glaze mediums to oil paint until it has the consistency of a water
color wash seems to me to be unnecessary and to magnify all

the technical dangers of the oil technique. The desired effects can
usually be obtained with less medium and more skill.
10 4 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE

Notes

A. The glaze or scumble actually accentuates all brush

marks and surface irregularities in the underpainting. Thus,
the character and direction of all strokes in the underpainting
should be meaningful and consistent with the painter's pur-
pose.

B. Colors diluted with too much glaze medium may trickle.

Sometimes, such over-thinned color develops small spots in

the dry film which look like dust spots. Actually, they are
particles of color clumped together like islands of pigment
in a sea of oil.

C. The underpainting must be bone dry before it receives

a glaze or scumble.

D. Glazes containing so much medium as to create a glassy

surface are dangerous, since subsequent films cannot adhere
well to them and must crack at the first movement of the
canvas.

E. Glaze films containing high amounts of spirit-resin var-

nishes (such as dammar) in relation to the oil and pigment
content are extremely vulnerable to cleaning operations, since
the varnish is always resoluble in the cleaning agents used
by most restorers. Glazes that are the final or finishing films
on a picture are especially vulnerable since they are usually
thin.

F. Pictures glazed with slow-drying colors and very slow-

drying mediums (such as walnut oil or poppyseed oil) should
be shielded from dirt and dust while they dry.

G. Unsuccessful scumbling or glazing effects may be re-

moved while the glaze is still fresh without disturbing the
undcipainting, by wiping the surface with a clean soft lintless

rag, moistened, if necessary, with a little tuipentine. Such

removals are possible only if the underpainting was thor-
oughly di-y before the glaze was applied.
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I O5

Technical Procedures

Technical complication and variety increase with indirect paint-

ing. One method frequently employed may be described in the
following general terms:

1. A brush drawing involving only one or two colors is

developed to mark out the important locations and divisions

on the canvas. The paint is thinned by means of a "lean"
medium (such as i part sun- thickened oil, ^ part varnish,

3 parts turpentine) to a brushable consistency which flows

rather easily.

2. The dark and light contrasts are developed by the use

of a "lean" fast-drying white (like flake white) in all the
light areas. In the light middle tones, the white is mixed
slightly with another pigment (ocher, for example, or Indian
red). Darks are produced by adding more color to the white,
but all darks are kept much lighter than they will appear in
the finished painting. The main effort, at this point, is to
produce strong placement and gesture of shapes and volumes.
These should be expressed broadly with little surface detail,
but should be accurate as to the relationships of the larger
major pictorial masses. At this stage, the effect of this under-
painting must be lighter, both in the lights and the darks,
than the artist wishes the finished picture to be. (Illustration,
plate 7.)

3. When this underpainting has dried thoroughly color

relationships are developed over the light monochrome by
the use of glazes. These may be brushed on and then
modified by wiping them down with a rag or the fingers
so that they emphasize and reinforce the drawing and move-
ment of the underpainting.

4. Color effects are strengthened and made more definite by

vigorous direct painting into the glazes (either when the
glaze has dried or while it is still wet) with substantial strokes
of opaque color. Glazes that have lowered the tone of an
I O6 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
area too much may be scumbled over with a lighter color
to raise their Drawing and edges are redefined,
tonality.

especially where glazing or scumbling has caused a passage

'

to lose its initial strength.

Notes

In considering the many possible variations of this procedure, it

is wise to keep in mind a few of the possible difficulties.

A. The glaze tends to darken the general tone of the

picture. To compensate for this, the underpainting must be
kept considerably lighter than the final painting.

B. The glaze and the scumble tend to create soft, unified,

diffused effects. Therefore, the underpainting should be
strong, even somewhat "harder" than the anticipated final

effect.

C. If the quality of the glazeis not relieved by some

opaque painting and vigorous redrawing, the total effect
of the picture may become too washy, spotty, and transparent.

D. In all indirect processes where more than one layer of

paint is anticipated, successive layers should be applied "fat
over lean." This rule is explained below:

Rule for Sequence of Oil Films

When layers of oil paint are placed one over the other, problems
arise which affect the durability of the picture. First of all, the
upper layer must stick well to the one below it, otherwise it will
peel off. Paints that are rich in binding oil dry to a very glossy
smooth finish. The more oil, the glossier or "fatter" the surface
will be. Paint containing less oil will not stick well to such a
non-absorbent surface. For this reason, the traditional rule of
painting (both artistic painting and house painting) has always
been that the first layers of paint put on a surface contain less
oil than the subsequent layers. Thus, a picture should be planned

so that the underpainting is quite "lean" (that is, rich in pigment

and low in oil content) and the layers above it become progres-
sively "fatter" (oilier).
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I 7

There is another important reason for this rule. As previously

explained, linseed oil oxidizes as it dries. It unites with oxygen
from the atmosphere, becoming heavier in the process. Further-
more, it moves as it dries, expanding and contracting its bulk
considerably. Since the film dries from the top (where the air
is) toward the bottom, it may be dry or tacky on the surface
while it is still oxidizing and swelling below the surface. If a
film of "leaner" paint containing less oil is placed over such
a half-dry underpainting, the lean film may become thoroughly
solid and dry before the fat film has completely gone through
its drying process. In such a case, the movements of the lower
film may cause the dry upper film to crack and fracture, in much
the same way that heaving ground may cause a concrete sidewalk
to crack.
Because of these facts, a painter who develops his pictures in
several layers of paint should use a painting medium in the
upper layers that contains a higher percentage of oily ingredient
than does the medium in the lower layers of the underpainting.
(Varnish is not considered an oily ingredient since it does not
expand on drying.) Therefore, the medium for underpainting
should contain somewhat more varnish and turpentine, while
the medium for overpainting should contain more oil. If possible,
the underpainting should be applied as a denser drier paste
(thinned with medium), while the overpainting should be
less

richer, oilier, and slightly more fluid. Fast-drying colors, like lead
white or Naples yellow, are to be preferred in the underpainting,
and the slower-drying pigments, such as zinc white or cadmium
yellow, should be reserved for overpainting whenever possible.

PROTECTION OF THE PICTURE

Varnish Coatings

Most paintings displayed today are exposed, at one time or

another, to a great deal of oily dirt. City air carries many im-
purities, and these are deposited upon the picture surface. One
may easily observe this by examining the inside of a glass window
after it has gone unwashed for more than one year. If it is wiped
I O8 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
with a damp amount of greasy black
clean cloth, a surprising
soot comes off. A picture hung in the same room naturally would
collect the same amount of dirt, and since its surface is not as
smooth and non-absorbent as window glass, it would retain even
more grime than the window does. It should be added that these
city dusts frequently carry materials that interact chemically with
those pigments that are sensitive to sulfur, acids, or alkalis. Once
dirt becomes embedded in the surface of a painting, it is extremely
difficult to remove without disturbing the paint itself.

For this reason, a picture must either be protected by a trans-

parent material like glass, or be sealed off from the atmosphere
by a coating of transparent varnish, so that, when its surface
becomes soiled, it can be cleaned with mild solvents without
endangering the upper paint films.
Other reasons exist for the application of varnish. A coating
of varnish will protect the painting against the wear of handling
and any light which might otherwise mar its surface.
scratches
Also, varnish uniform degree of either matteness
creates that
or gloss across the entire picture area, which makes it possible
to see a picture well from many angles.
When a varnish ages, it may become darker, lose its trans-
parency, or become brittle and crack. In such cases, it must be
removed and replaced by a fresh coat of protective varnish. Usu-
ally, the restorer employs a relatively mild solvent on a wad

of soft cotton to remove the old varnish, while leaving intact

the final glazes and layers of paint. Thus, one of the requirements
of a picture varnish is that it should be easily removable by
means of solvents which are not so strong that they quickly
attack films of dried oil paint. Of course, the varnish should
remain transparent as long as possible and should retain enough
flexibility to follow any movements of the paint films, supports,
and grounds used in the picture.
The most common materials found in protective picture
varnishes are simple solutions of dammar resin, mastic resin, or
methacrylate resin in turpentine or petroleum solvents. These
all satisfy, to roughly the same degree, the requirements listed

above: (i) they remain transparent for a long time; (2) they may
be easily removed; (3) they can be applied easily in a thin film;
(4) they dry rapidly, lessening the possibility that dust may be
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I O9

caught and embedded during the drying period; (5) they do

not use thinners which easily dissolve dried films of oil paint.
Varnishes made with hard resins (such as copal) cooked in
hot oils are not suitable for picture varnish, because when they
darken, it is very difficult to remove them from the picture.
Picture varnishes may be bought ready to use at any reliable
art supply store or may be made in good quality easily and
inexpensively by the artist as described below.

Procedures for Applying Final Picture Varnish

Some writers recommend that the artist allow the picture to

carry on its drying processes for at least a year before applying
a protective varnish. They warn that if the varnish is applied
too early, the difiPerence in the drying activities, like expansion
and shrinkage, between the varnish and the oil films may cause
cracking. However, under modem city conditions, the danger to
the unprotected painting from dirt and grime seems to me greater
than the risk involved in premature varnishing. In most cases, six
months would allow an oil painting of normal thickness to become
sufficiently dry for a light coat of dilute varnish to be safely applied
to it. The more dilute the varnish, the less apt it is to cause fresh
paint to crack. It is the very heavy, glassy, strong, and rapid-
drying varnish that often cracks because it cannot follow the
movements of the oxidizing oil paint. In applying the varnish, the
following procedures should be observed:

1. Use a clean dry cloth or kneaded eraser to clean the sur-

face of the picture so that it is free of dust. If necessary, a
small amount of turpentine or mineral spirits on a cotton
wad may be used to remove oily dirt. The cotton wad is

dipped into the liquid, squeezed out so that it is moist, not

wet, and then rubbed gently and systematically over the
picture.

2. Dilute 4 fluid oimces of normal 5 -pound cut dammar

varnish (made as described on page 72) with 2^4 fluid
ounces of fresh gum spirits of turpentine. This will produce
a concentration approximating a 2^ -pound cut or about
I part by weight of resin in 3 parts by weight of turpentine.
I I O I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
A small amount (up to 5 per cent of the
of stand oil

volume of the diluted varnish) may be added to increase

flexibility and to retard the setting of the varnish so
that it can be more an even coating.
easily applied in
A heavier varnish may be used on pictures that have
dried for more than a year. This concentration (approxi-
mating a 3^ -pound cut) can be prepared by adding i fluid
ounce of fresh turpentine to 4 fluid ounces of the normal 5-
pound cut dammar varnish. Stand oil may be added, in an
amount not to exceed 5 per cent of the total volume of the
diluted varnish, to prevent the varnish from setting too
rapidly as it is applied.
Stir the mixture of varnish, turpentine, and oil, and allow
it capped bottle
to stand overnight in a to be sure that the
ingredients are thoroughly combined.

3. Lay the picture face up on a clean table, w^hich should

be situated between you and a window, so that its surface is

clearly illuminated with raking light and no shadows cross

it.

Pour a small amount of varnish into a clean dry cup or

4.

saucer. Refill when necessary from the varnish bottle.

5. Apply the varnish with a clean white bristle brush about

2" wide. A thin even coating is generally preferred today for
the following reasons: a heavy glassy coating does not increase
the protection materially; it is more difficult to apply evenly;
its high reflective surface makes it more difficult to see the
picture well from many angles; it is more apt to cause
cracking; and its darkening will be more noticeable than that
of a thin coat.
Dip the brush and drain off the excess varnish against the
rim of the cup. Start in one corner and brush the vaniish on,
covering an area about eight inches square, taking care to
get the varnish into the weave and brush strokes of the
painting. As soon as this is done, stroke over the area in one
direction in order to insure an even application. Proceed
quickly to the adjoining area and continue systematically to
cover the entire surface, square by square. There should be
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | III
no overlapping ridges or puddles. Check frequently to see
that there are no missed spots or blemishes.

6. As soon as the varnish has set (usually five minutes or

so) the picture can be put upright in some place that is free
from dust and moisture, so that it may dry thoroughly.

7. Discard any varnish left in Do not put it back

the cup.
in the bottle. If the bottle is capped and stored away
tightly
from moisture and light, the varnish will keep indefinitely.

8. Allow the varnished picture to dry a few days. If the

picture absorbs the varnish, causing matte areas to develop,
give the painting a second thin coat of varnish, using the
same procedure (steps 2-7). A very dry, absorbent picture
may require three coats of thin varnish. In any case, two or
even three coats of thin varnish will be more durable and more
pleasing in appearance than one heavy coat poured on in an
attempt to saturate a very absorbent surface.

Notes

A. While it is liquid, varnish is capable of picking up

water vapor or free moisture, which then becomes trapped
or locked in the drying varnish film and causes a bluish,
cloudy effect (known as "bloom") that is extremely difficult,

if not impossible, to remove. Therefore, great care must be

taken to prevent any contact between the varnish and any
water moisture. The varnish brush, the containers, the turpen-
tine, and the picture must be free from any trace of water.

B. Varnishing should be done on a warm, bright, dry

day, when there is little atmospheric moisture in the room.

C. The room in which the varnishing is done should be

clean and free of dust. If it must be swept out, allow plenty

of time (several hours) for the dust to settle after the

sweeping.

D. Paintings that contain isolated areas, too fresh and soft

to withstand varnishing with the bristle brush, can be var-

nished with a soft sable brush, but the presence of such sur-
112 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE
faces would usually indicate that the picture should be al-

lowed to dry longer before being varnished.

E. Some painters prefer to apply varnish coatings with

spray equipment rather than a brush. For this purpose, a
small spray gun, using replaceable pressure cans to propel
a fine spray, can be bought for less than $5.00 in art supply
shops. (Illustration, plate 8.) More expensive spray equip-
ment, allowing for more adjustment of the spray and having
larger reservoirs for the varnish, is manufactured for industrial
use and may be worth its higher cost to the artist who expects
to do extensive spraying of coatings or color films. For use
in the sprayer, the usual brushing varnish is thinned with
additional solvent.
The degree be controlled by adjusting the
of gloss can
position of the spray gun As the
in relation to the picture.
spray unit is used closer to the picture, the surface becomes
glossier. If it is worked from a greater distance, a less-glossy

surface is obtained. When the desired distance from the

picture is determined the gun should be moved steadily
from one side of the painting to the other, going slightly
beyond the picture's edge each time to prevent an excessive
accumulation of varnish trickling or building up too much
in one area. If the picture is placed flat on a table, there
will be less risk of accidental trickles or drips of varnish.
Before proceeding to varnish the picture, it is wise to
spray a test surface to be sure that the spray nozzle is clear,
that the varnish is thinned to the appropriate consistency,
and that the sprayer is being held at the proper distance
from the picture. By building up the varnish gradually,
through several successive applications of fine spray rather
than one heavy layer, a better appearance is obtained, free
of excessive gloss or spotty areas. After the work is fin-

ished, the spray gun should be emptied of remaining varnish,

and a little clean solvent, such as V. M. and P. Naphtha
or acetone, should be put in the reservoir and sprayed
through the gun to clear it of traces of the resin.
Since any spray application tends to put a good deal of
solvent and resin in the studio atmosphere, it is important to
take precautions against unhealthy inhalation of the vapors. A
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I I
3

spray booth fitted with an efficient exhaust fan is desirable

if continuous extensive spraying is to be done.Even if exposure
is only occasional, a respiratory mask should be used. A
respirator designed to protect the wearer against organic
vapors should be selected, rather than one that ofTers pro-
tection only against dusts. These units are not expensive
and are fitted with replaceable filters for protection in in-
dustrial spray-painting work.

F. Solutions of acrylic resins are often used as picture var-

nishes. The acrylic films are clear and under accelerated tests

show no tendency to darken. They are considerably more

flexible than the natural resin varnishes. The painter can
use n-butyl methacrylate (Elvacite^ 2044) make a varnish
to
by the same process that he employs to dissolve dammar (page

72). Five pounds of the acrylic resin dissolved in i gallon of

turpentine or V. M. and P. Naphtha yields a heavy solution.
A smaller batch of the same consistency is made by using
5 ounces (av.) of resin to 8 fluid ounces of solvent. This
stock solution is thinned to a convenient brushing fluidity by
adding approximately 2 fluid ounces of turpentine to i fluid
ounce of the stock acrylic solution. If the varnish is to
be used in a spray gun, it must be thinned with more
solvent (up to 5 parts by volume of solvent for each part
by volume of stock acrylic solution) so that it may be
applied in a thin uniform coating.
It may be noted that the acrylic film remains resilient and
slightly soft, and therefore the varnished picture should not be
allowed to remain pressed against another surface, since it may
stick to it.

Under ordinary circumstances, the freshly dried acrylic film

is by turpentine, xylene, or toluene and can be
easily redissolved
removed without danger to the layers of oil paint in the pic-
ture. However, as the acrylic film ages and is exposed to high

temperature and light, it undergoes a gradual change, per-

haps as a result of alteration or cross-linking of its molecular
structure, which makes it more resistant to the action of
solvents and more difficult to remove from the picture.
IE. I. Du Pont, Inc.
114 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE

Retouch Varnish

Sometimes a picture must be sent out of the studio before it has

aged enough to receive the regular picture varnish. It can be
given a minimal protection by the application of a coat of very
thin "retouch" varnish instead of picture varnish. Retouch varnish
is applied by the procedure outlined above for picture varnish,
and it is made by combining:

I ounce dammar varnish (5-pound cut)

2 or 3 ounces puregum spirits of turpentine

Since it is much more dilute than picture varnish, retouch

varnish does not give the picture as much protection from at-
mospheric impurities, but it will serve until the paint has aged
enough to receive the heavier varnish. At that time the picture
varnish is simply applied on top of the retouch varnish by follow-
ing the above-outlined steps.
Retouch varnish is also used as an intermediate varnish. If a
picture is built up through more than one painting session, it
often happens that it dries matte in some sections while it may be
glossy and rich in others. This may be due to the fact that the
paint used in the dull areas containsless binding oil or medium

than that used in other parts of the picture. In these instances,

before he paints over such dull spots the artist should give them
a light coat of retouch varnish. If this varnish also dries dull,
additional coats of retouch varnish should be applied until the
matte area disappears and the color regains its original quality.
If painted upon before this is done, the dull area will absorb
binding medium from the new paint, causing the overpainting in
turn to "sink in" and become dull. In extreme cases, this too-
absorbent underpainting may draw enough binding medium
off
to leave the pigment in the overpainting insufficiently bound to
the surface, with the result that the paint film may powder or
chalk off. There is another reason for using retouch varnish;
namely, that artists find it unpleasant to paint over excessively
dry-looking areas, which make it difficult to judge accurately the
 THE OIL TECHNIQUE | I I
5
fresh color that covers them. Furthermore, it is said to cause a
betterbond between the layers of paint.
One must note that if retouch varnish is used to excess, it may
cause unpleasant trickling and create a glassy surface on which
subsequent layers of paint will not hold well and may crack.
The objective is a lean, egg-shell surface, not too dull, not too
glossy, to which overpainting will hold well. Retouch varnish
should not dry upon the surface as a continuous film, but rather,
it should be absorbed into the dry surface just enough to bring
back its color.

Ready-made Varnishes
There are many preparations of varnish sold for protective coat-
ingsand for retouch varnish, which are marketed under a com-
pany name, simply as "Brand X Picture Varnish" or as "Brand B
Retouch Varnish." In many cases, these are excellent products,
often well-balanced dilutions of resins (dammar, mastic, or acrylic)
in a good solvent. However, when the contents are not completely
and specifically listed on the label or in the manufacturer's cata-
logue, the careful artist is justified in treating the mixture with
caution, if not suspicion. It should be obvious that it is of no
help to the artist when the manufacturer describes the contents
of the mixture as a "clear non-yellowing elastic resin" without
further specific definition of its composition. The painter should
know at least the general category of the material he is using so
that, as more information becomes available about it from un-
biased sources, he may apply it intelligently.

Some picture varnishes are now sold in pressure spray-can dis-

pensers. Their worth depends chiefly on the quality of the varnish,
rather than on the packaging. When spray cans are used, a little

practice on a worthless canvas is advisable to insure control of the

character of the film sprayed on a given surface. Varnishes in
pressure spray cans, which have not been compounded to meet
artists' requirements but rather to serve as all-around protective
coatings for utilitarian objects, should not be substituted for pic-
ture varnishes.
I I 6 I
THE OIL TECHNIQUE

The Back of the Picture

The back of a picture can be damaged by puncture, moisture, or

greasy dirt. A sheet of heavy cardboard or thin Presdwood fas-
tened across the back of the canvas stretchers will give the painting
substantial protection. In preference to corrugated cardboard, a
heavy-ply illustration board or process board with a smooth
water-resistant finish should be used. It should be cut i" smaller
than the outer dimensions of the unframed painting, so as to fit

across the back of the canvas stretcher frame, and it should be

attached to the wooden stretcher bars by means of brass screws,
5/2" long, spaced about 8" apart. Countersunk washers should be

used to prevent the screws from working through the cardboard.

(Illustration, plate 9.) The edge of the backing board should
not be sealed with tape, but rather should allow some circulation
of air to prevent mold and moisture from accumulating. Such a
backing prevents people who are handling the picture from past-
ing labels directly onto the back of the canvas, writing on the
reverse of the fabric with a crayon or marker, or leaning a sharp
object, such as the corner of another picture, against the back
of the canvas. Damage resulting from mistreatment of the back of
a canvas may become evident from the front of the picture only
at a later date, but injury, both to the ground and to the paint
film, may be serious though not initially visible. The protective
backing board, applied at little expense and effort, will keep the
picture in good condition much longer and may avoid the ne-
cessity of some costly repairs.
 4

Supports and Grounds

Pictures may be made on a wide variety of supporting surfaces,

such as wooden panels, textiles stretched on frames, sheets of
metal, plastered walls, or cardboard. In order to serve their pur-
pose as supports, these materials are usually given a coat of prim-
ing, called the ground.
Although artists' supply stores sell many support materials al-

ready prepared with grounds, such as primed canvases, gessoed

panels,or coated papers, many artists prefer to prepare their
grounds and supports themselves. This chapter describes the ma-
terials and procedures for such preparation. Some remarks con-
cerning the selection and quality of ready-made materials follow
at the end of the chapter.
Most artists soon become aware that the character of the sup-
port, with its ground, has an immediate effect upon their painting
method. Some grounds are rough as burlap, others smooth as
ivory; some are as absorbent as blotting paper, others as non-
absorbent as glass; some are bright white, on which each stroke
of color stands out with a vibrant chromatic impact, others may
be deep brown, on which the same colors may seem rich, mellow,
and mysterious. All of these factors affect the ease with which the
artist establishes his "aura" in the first stages of the picture. Thus,
artists develop certain requirements or preferences in regard to
the surface on which they paint, and failing to find ready-made
that which they desire, they often produce this material them-
selves.

It should be added that the studio manufacture of panels and

I I 8 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
canvases is not as laborious or time-consuming as might be imag-

ined, and that very substantial economies may be made by the

artist with no sacrifice of quality of material.

Finally, the artist who purchases his material ready-made should

inform himself as to its ingredients and process of manufacture,
so that he can select, in a more knowledgeable way, that grade
of material which he needs.
As the foundation of the picture, the support with its ground
coats has a great effect on the durability and survival of the
painting. If the support material performs badly, the picture soon
suffers, and the operations involved in holding together a painting
while its support is falling apart are difficult and expensive. The
following points should be kept in mind when a support is se-

lected.

1. The support must wear well. That is, as it ages it should

not crack or become so brittle that it may break or fall apart
when moved or handled.

The support should change its shape as little as possible

2.

after the picture has dried. Movements of expansion, warping,

contraction, etc. should be kept to a minimum.

3. The nature of the support should be such that layers of

paint and priming can adhere well to it. The strength of the
bond between the support and the layers of paint is affected
by the tooth or roughness of the support and its absorbency
or porosity.

FLEXIBLE SUPPORTS

Paper

Paper used by artists, whether for drawings, water colors, or other

techniques, should be made entirely of rags, preferably linen rags.
Properly prepared, it permanent supports.
will last as long as other
Wood-pulp papers darken and become brittle with age. "News-
print" paper, a very cheap wood-pulp paper, turns yellowish
brown and breaks up very quickly (a year-old newspaper provides
a good idea of its durability) ; in spite of this it is used extensively
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I I
9
by students as drawing paper. The cheapest white drawing papers
are only slightly more expensive than newsprint, but are a great
improvement on it in respect to permanence.
Paper may be torn or damaged more easily than wood, metal,
or fabric, but when there is concern for the fragility of a drawing
or water color on paper, it can be glassed, matted, and backed
with a rigid material, such as a heavy rag cardboard, and thus
protected against puncture or accident.

Textiles

Heavy fabrics have been used as supports for pictures at least

since the thirteenth century. They have several obvious advantages
over wood panels. Textiles are lighter than panels, and even large
paintings on canvas may be easily moved. Textiles may be ob-
tained in very large sizes, making possible the execution of large
decorative paintings. The back of a painting done on textile is

more accessible than that of a panel picture to various restoration

techniques.
On the other hand, textiles, being flexible and thin, may be
punctured or damaged more easily than rigid panels. Furthermore,
textiles expand and contract in response to moisture, even to
atmospheric humidity. Since this movement is often quite vig-
orous, paint films applied to textiles must be sufficiently elastic

to withstand such movement without cracking.

Linen
Textiles made of hemp, jute, cotton, and flax have been em-
ployed by artists. Linen fabric, woven of flax fiber, is preferred
over the other textiles because of its durability, because it accepts
sizing and priming films very well, and because it becomes brittle

less rapidly than most other fabrics. Also, in respect to expansion

and contraction as a result of moisture, it is less troublesome. It
may be obtained in a great variety of weights, from light to heavy,
and in many weaves, running from rough to smooth. The fibers

used in making artist's canvas should be of equal weight in both

directions, warp and weft, so that the movements of expansion or
contraction are equal in both directions. It should be of heavy
close manufacture, but should permit the ground coats of prim-
12 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
ing to be forced down into the interstices of the weave. Very
flimsy fabrics ofwide mesh should be avoided, for they do not
have the strength to support heavy layers of ground and paint. If
untreated linen is held up to the light, it can easily be com-
pared with other samples for character and quality of weave.

Cotton
Cotton is usually considered second choice to linen. Sailcloth or
"cotton duck," heavy, tightly woven cotton fabrics, are often
used to make student-quality canvas. As mentioned above, cotton
does not age as well as linen, and it seems to expand and contract
more in response to moisture. Furthermore, in most cases the
character of the weave appears more regular, mechanical, and
less interesting to paint upon than that of a good grade of artist's

linen.
Mixtures of linen and cotton or linen and nylon should be
avoided for the fabric is apt to show uneven shrinkage or expansion,
due to the fibers' differing rates of moisture absorption.

Jute
Jute is often found in rough fabrics, such as burlap sacking. It is

inexpensive and so is sometimes used by students for sketches, etc.

Jute becomes extremely weak and brittle with age and should not
be used for permanent painting. Those artists who are fond of
its rough, heavy surfaces should be able to find a heavy linen
textile of comparable weave to use in its stead.

In general, heavier textiles are used for larger, thicker paintings,

while thinner and lighter fabrics of finer weave are used for
smaller pictures. However, the selection of the weave is a question
of the artist's personal preference, and first-quality canvas is avail-
able and equally permanent in a great variety of weaves from
smooth to rough.

Stretching the Canvas

Artist's canvas is sold by the yard, either coated with a factory-

applied sizing and ground, or as a "raw" natural linen, ready to be
glue-sizedand primed. To be used as a support for a picture, it
must be either mounted on a rigid panel by means of an adhesive.
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS I 2 I

or stretched and tacked securely to a wooden frame or chassis.

Wooden stretcher bars, with machine-made mitered corners, can
be purchased in various lengths, and a frame of these stretcher
bars can easily be assembled in the studio. When the canvas,
which has been stretched on the frame, has been primed and
finished, it should be tight as a drum and free of wrinkles or
waves; all four comers should lie flat on a flat surface (that is,
the frame should not be warped) all four corners should be 90°
;

square; and the canvas weave should run parallel to the bars, not
at a bias to them. Stretching a canvas well is simply a matter of
paying attention to routine details. A disregard of any of them
usually results in much time being spent in attempting to correct
a badly wrinkled surface or a badly warped frame. Baggy wrinkles
can create unpleasant shadows over the surface of the finished
painting. A
warped picture always hangs away from the wall in a
fashion that most find disturbing. Framing a picture that is off
square or warped is frequently difficult and expensive. There are
several ways to get the desired result. The following procedure,
a common one, is basically the same for raw unprimed linen as for
canvas primed by a commercial manufacturer.

Equipment

HAMMER
SCREW DRIVER

RULER

TRY SQUARE Carpenter's 7" try square.

PLIERS artist's canvas-stretching pliers or upholsterer'

pliers.

Materials

CANVAS artist-quality unprimed canvas that is free of

starch or stiffener. If there is a suspicion that
such material exists in the canvas, rinse it out
well in clear warm water. Allow canvas to
dry thoroughly. As an alternative, ready-primed
12 2 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
artist's canvas, single- or double-primed, can be
used.

CHASSIS four wooden stretcher bars. Examine them

carefully at time of purchase, and be sure that
they are not warped,

TACKS ^6 upholsterer's tacks (carpet tacks).

Procedure

1. Assemble stretcher bars to make frame. Check corners

with try square to be sure they are 90° exactly.

2. Cut fabric from roll. Mark the piece 3" longer and 3"
wider than the frame. That is, if the stretchers are 24"X3o">
the canvas should be cut 27''X33". This allows a 1/2" over-
lapon each side of the frame, which is needed to get a grip
on the canvas during the stretching operation.

3. Place the canvas (primed side dowm, if it is a ready-

primed canvas) on a smooth surface such as a large table.

Put the assembled stretcher frame on top of it in such a way
that it is centered and there is an equal amount of excess
canvas around each side of the frame. Be sure at this point
to line up the weave so that it runs parallel to the sides of
the frame.

4. Mark the center of each stretcher stick, using a ruler to

determine the center.

5. Bend the excess canvas up over the narrow edge of one

of the short sides of the frame. Keep the frame flat on the
table and tack the canvas to the center of the narrow outside
edge, using the center mark as a guide. Do not drive this or
any of the subsequent tacks all the way into the wood, but
rather drive them only half way so that they may be easily
removed later. Drive a second tack into the same stretcher
bar about 3" from the end. Drive a third tack about 3" from
the other end. Thus, one side of the frame has three tacks in it:

one in the center and one at each end.

li
14. Simple equipment is needed for the preparation of glue gesso. A small
scale,accurate to 54 of an ounce (avoirdupois), is very useful, along with a
quart measure calibrated in fluid ounces. An electric stove can be used
to warm the glue, while a double boiler prevents the mixture
from boiling. (See page 139.)

15. After the first coat of glue

gesso is scrubbed on, following
coats are applied evenly with a
wide brush, each coat at right
angles to the one preceding it.

(See page 140.)

16. A Turkish Artist, circa 1479-80, by Gentile Bellini (1429-1507).
Gouache on parchment, 7 J/4" x 5/2". Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum,
Boston, Massachusetts. While gouache is regarded by many as amedium for
loose sketchy cfTects, it has often been used for fine linear detail and
uniform color areas. Gentile Bellini combined these elements of miniature
A Turkish Artist.
painting with his Venetian style in this small picture of
(See page 150.)
17. Mauerpflanze (Wall Flower), 1922, by Paul Klee (1879-1940).
Pen and water color on paper, 11J4" x 13". Museum of Fine Arts, Boston,
Massachusetts. In the studio, the water color painter is not obliged to
paint rapidly or to work with naturalistic subject matter. Paul Klee's subtly
modulated washes express subjects of his imagination. He employed the
water media for a major portion of his work, often combining them with pen
drawings on a wide variety of papers and fabrics. (See page 150.)
18. Ponte del la Canonica, Venice, by John Singer Sargent
(1856-1925). Water color on paper, I7/2" x 11//'. Isabella Stewart
Gardner Museum, Boston, Massachusetts. The Ponte delta Canonica
shows the brilliant effects of light which Sargent could command
with aquarelle to suggest forms rather than to define them completely.
Traveling artists have often used water colors for on-the-spot
studies, such as this one, because the materials are compact and
quick-drying. (See page 150.)
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I 2 3

6. Tack the canvas at the center and ends of the opposite

bar. Do the same for the two remaining sides.

7. Pick up the frame and canvas and stand it on edge.

Remove the center tack that was driven in first. Pull the
canvas tight by hand, or with stretching pliers, and replace
the first tack. Now remove the comer tacks, tighten the canvas,

and tack the corners again. When tightening the canvas always
pull away from the center toward the comer. Do the same
with the tacks in the opposite stretcher bar, pulling the can-
vas tight. Repeat the process with the two remaining sides.

8. Drive a tack on each side of the first tack, about 2"

away from it. Pull the canvas tight before putting in tacks.
Also, pull canvas slightly toward corners to be sure to elimi-
nate folds or wrinkles between tacks.

9. Do the same on the stretcher bar on the opposite side.

Be sure each tack is directly opposite the tack it faces so

that the tension of the canvas is kept even. Then do the
same on the remaining two sides. (Illustration, plate 10,)

10. Continue to put tacks at 2" intervals on all sides until

the canvas has been secured up to the comers. Remove

the original corner tacks.

11. Make a neat fold in each comer and tack it. Be sure
the corner tack goes into the heavy part of the joint. Tack the
excess canvas down to the back surface of the stretchers.
(Illustration, plate 11.)

12. If there are any wrinkles or folds, remove the tacks at

that point with a screw driver, pull the canvas tight to
eliminate the fold, and tack it again.

13. Corner wedges or "canvas keys" are supplied with the

stretcher bars. They are driven into the inside comers of the
frame after the canvas has been stretched to take up any
slack that may come about at a future time. If the canvas
has been well stretched, they should not be needed in the
beginning. If used carelessly, they may spread the joints of
12 4 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
the stretcher frame so far as to cause the canvas to tear at
the comers.

14. When the canvas appears to be properly stretched, drive

the tacks in all the way, unless it is anticipated that the pic-
ture will be removed from the stretchers in the near future.

Notes

A. Canvas that already has a ground on it must be stretched

tight and smooth. Usually, stretching pliers are necessary to

do a good job easily. On the other hand, raw linen that
will be sized and primed after it has been tacked onto the
stretcher frame need not be as tightly stretched, and the job
is best done by hand, without pliers, for the fabric can be

expected to tighten up considerably by itself when it is glue-

sized. In fact, if a heavy raw linen is used, trouble may result

if the fabric is stretched too tightly, since the contraction

may be great enough to break the stretcher joints.

B. The back
of the stretcher bars can be marked off at
regular 2" intervals, starting from the center of the bar. These
marks will then serve as an accurate guide for the even place-
ment of tacks. Alternatively, some artists use the width of the
stretching plier*s jaws to gauge the interval between tacks.

C. Heavy-duty staples driven by a staple gun are sometimes

substituted for tacks. The advantages would seem to be that
each staple has two points of contact, that the gun may be
operated with one hand while the other hand is holding
the pliers, and that it is a faster, neater, and less expensive
operation.

D. Two or three heavy staples, driven across the miter-

frame
joint of the assembled stretcher frame, will keep the
from going out of square during the stretching operation.
Temporary wooden braces diagonally across each comer will
serve the same purpose. These may be quickly made of any
odd pieces of scrap wood and temporarily nailed to the
stretchers. They are taken off after the canvas has been
stretched.
 ^ SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I 2 5

E. If a long canvas, for example 26"X48"5 is stretched on

an unbraced frame, the tension of the canvas may cause the
middle of the 48'' long side to bow inward so noticeably as
to be a framing problem. Such canvases should be braced
against the tension by nailing a 24" cross brace between the
centers of the 48'' stretchers. Once the canvas has been well
stretched and sized, the brace can be removed. Of course the
stretchers with factory-made cross pieces are more convenient,
but they are expensive.

F. If a primed canvas is stretched on a damp rainy day, it

will remain tight in humid weather. If it is stretched on a

dry warm day, it will be apt to loosen to some extent in
a humid atmosphere.

Sizing the Flexible Support

Since most unprimed support materials are very absorbent, it is

difficult to paint upon them directly. Therefore, a very thin

solution of glue is brushed into the surface to reduce its absorbency
so that the artist may manage his brush with more ease and
control. Steps for the application of this glue solution, or "sizing,"
are outlined below.
It is most important that, without exception, textiles which
are to be primed with an oil ground receive a coat of size. The
size protects the textile fibers against the action of the linseed oil,

which would cause the textile to become brittle and to dis-

integrate.
The textile should be sized just enough to make the next layers
of paint or priming adhere well to it. If the support is sized
with too much glue, it will become brittle and non-absorbent,
and the paint will adhere to it badly and may even crack or
peel off, as it would from a glassy surface. If the support is

sized with too little glue, the support may absorb much
too
binder from the next layers of paint or ground. The paint may
then powder off when it dries, as though it were applied to a
blotter.
12 6 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS

Equipment
BRISTLE BRUSH 2" widc.

HOT PLATE

DOUBLE BOILER 01 clean metal container like a coffee can.

Materials

WATER I quart (32 fluid ounces).

GLUE I J/2-2 ounces (av.) rabbitskin glue (available

as a dry powder, granulated, or in sheets).

Procedure

1. Put 1^2-2 ounces (av.) of the dry glue into a quart of

cold water. If the glue was bought in the form of sheets,
it should be broken into small pieces before being put in the
water. Allow it to soak 3 hours, or overnight if possible. At
the end of this period, the glue particles will be swollen,
but they will not have dissolved.

2. Gently heat the glue-and-water mixture in a double

boiler until the glue dissolves completely, making a brown
brothlike liquid. If an ordinary quart container is used instead
of a double boiler, be sure to stir the glue as it heats, so
that the heavy particles do not settle to the bottom and
Never boil the glue.
scorch. When boiled, it loses its strength

and must be discarded.

3. Be sure that the raw linen support is free of oily films

or dirt. It should be stretched on a frame as outlined in the
previous section.

4. Apply warm glue solution to the support with a 2"

bristle brush. Start at the center of the stretched fabric and
make the coating as thin and even as possible. (Illustration,
plate 12.) A heavy coat of size is undesirable. To prevent
the fabric from raveling or fraying apply glue-size all the
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | 12 7

way to the edges which have been folded over to the back of
the stretcher bars.

Notes

A. A coat of size in which there is too high a proportion

of glue, or which is too thickly applied, may leave a con-
tinuous glossy layer of glue on the surface of the support.
This may crack easily, especially on canvas. The size should
sink into the support completely, filling its pores to some
extent but not producing a separate film on its surface.

B. Rabbitskin glue seems best as a sizing material but

weak solutions of casein or gelatin may be substituted.

C. Size, like all glue solutions, spoils rather quickly and

loses its strength. Discard it as soon as it begins to give off
a bad odor (two weeks' maximum). It will keep better if

stored in a clean container at a cool temperature. On cooling,

it will gel and must be gently heated to become liquid again.

D. Rabbitskin glue begins to set as it cools. In thin films,

it begins to "dry" by cooling and gelling and then hardens

more thoroughly as the rest of the water evaporates. Its dry
film remains hygroscopic; that is, it takes in water easily and
swells as it does so. In fact, if hot water is applied, the glue
can be redissolved.
A sized support may be made more moisture resistant by
spraying with a 4 per cent formaldehyde solution
it easily
obtainable in a drug store.

E. The shape and degree of fineness of the granules of the

glue, as it is sold today, vary so much that a teaspoonful
of finely granulated glue may hold much more glue (by
weight) than the same teaspoonful of the same glue in the
form of rougher bigger granules. Consequently, when an ac-
curate measure is wanted in a glue recipe, one should deter-
mine the amount of glue to be used by weighing it on a
scale. All glue recipes in this book indicate the amount of
glue in ounces avoirdupois (av.) that is, by weight. An
;
12 8 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
inexpensive small postal balance scale^ can be bought at most
stationery shops. It is accurate for weights from J4 ounce (av.)
to 8 ounces (av.) /graduated in ^
ounces, and is a most useful
item of equipment for the who makes grounds or colors.
artist

However, if no scale is available, the proportions of the recipe

given above for glue-size can usually be approximated by the
following method:

a. Put 1 6 fluid ounces of water into a quart beaker

or measuring glass which is marked off in i -ounce di-
visions.

b. Gently add dry rabbitskin glue until the level of the

water rises an additional 1^-15/2 fluid ounces; that is,

just a little higher than the mark on the measuring glass

that indicates 17 fluid ounces.

c. Put the glue-and-water mixture into the double

boiler and add to it 16 fluid ounces of water to bring
the total volume to 32 ounces of water plus the im-
mersed glue.

d. Allow the glue to soak 3 hours, or overnight if

possible. Then heat and dissolve the glue as in step 2

above.

When it is first put into water, one ounce by weight of glue

usually displaces 34 of an ounce (by volume) of water.

F. It should be noted that hide or rabbitskin glues vary

somewhat in strength according to the age and source of the
material. Therefore, the recipes are given with room for
adjustment within limits, such as from 15/2-2 ounces (av.)
of glue for size.

G. The sized canvas should be allowed to dry under natural

conditions. The canvas should not be exposed to intense
heat from radiators, stoves, heat lamps, or direct sunshine
in order to accelerate the drying.

1 See Sources of Supplies, page 251.

 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I 2 9

GROUNDS FOR FLEXIBLE SUPPORTS

General Importance of the Ground

After the support has been properly sized, it should receive a

layer of paint called the ground. This ground is usually made of
some sort of white pigment, bound to the support either by a glue-
water binder (such as casein or rabbi tskin glue) or by a drying
oil (such as linseed oil).
The ground is important for several reasons, and painters have
known for centuries that a support primed with a good ground
is preferable to a support that has received only a coat of size.

First of all, the ground surface allows a more controlled and

stronger paint handling than is possible on a support with no
ground for it more evenly absorbent. Second, if any repairs to
is

the back of the canvas should become necessary, the restorer may
work with less hazard to the painting when there exists a layer of
ground between the textile and the picture.
But, the most important reason for the ground is that It allows
the painting to retain its original brilliance of color, especially if

the picture is done in oil colors. Most paint films become con-
siderably less opaque as they age. If they have been applied over
a dark surface, such as sized linen or a wood panel, the colors
will appear darker with age. If they have been painted over a
white surface, they will become brighter and more luminous with
age.

Oil Grounds

On flexible supports, such as linen textiles, the ground coating

must be flexible in order to follow the movements of the ex-
panding and contracting textile without cracking. White lead
pigment, ground in linseed oil, seems best to fulfill the require-
ments for this ground. Such "oil grounds" as they are called, are
flexible and tough. Furthermore, they are fast drying and "lean,"
and so are appropriate as the first paint film in a fat-over-lean
sequence. The raw textile is stretched and tacked to a wooden
130 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
chassis as described in the section on stretching canvas. Then, it

is sized with glue-water as described in the preceding section.

When the size has dried well, two coats of oil ground are applied
in the following way:

Equipment
BRUSH 2" or 3" bristle.

PALETTE

PALETTE KNIFE preferably about 6" long and trowel-shaped.

Materials

CANVAS artist's unprimed canvas, stretched on chassis,

and sized with glue-water.

OIL PRIMING Dutch Boy2 white lead paste, ground in linseed

oil, or any brand of flake white paste which
is made up of 90 per cent basic carbonate
of lead and 10 per cent pure linseed oil.

TURPENTINE pure gum spirits of turpentine.

Procedure

I. Thin the white lead to the consistency of sour cream.

It should be a little thicker than heavy house paint. About
12 fluid ounces of turpentine will be required to thin a
5 pound can of industrial white lead paste. If the artist's

flake white in linseed oil is used (see note A below), about

10 fluid ounces of turpentine will be needed to thin each
quart of flake white, since it is usually less stiff than the
industrial comes from the
white lead. Put the paste, as it

can, on a clean palette. Add turpentine slowly and rub up the

paste with the palette knife or spatula. If a larger amount,
such as a quart, is more convenient to
being prepared, it is

put the paste into a gallon paint bucket. Then add the
turpentine slowly and mix it with the paste by means of a

2 National Lead Co.

 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I 3 I

paddle or a mechanical paint stirrer. Make up enough

paint so that two coats may be applied from the same batch
of material.

2. Apply the thinned paint to the face of the sized canvas,

with either a two-inch brush or a palette knife. Cover a
small section (about 6"X6") at a time. Force the paint
down into the weave, so that it gets a good grip in the
surface of the textile. There is no need to coat the excess
canvas on the back section of the stretcher bars. (Illustration,
plate 13.)

3. Before the paint sets, remove excess paint by scraping

with the palette knife. The coating should be even, very
thin, without streaks, and must be forced well down into the
weave. Avoid leaving a scraped line where the canvas lies

over the inside edge of the stretcher bars. Put your hand
under the canvas and lift it away from the stretcher bar as
you scrape over it. Store the remaining priming paint in a
tightly covered container in order to prevent evaporation of
the turpentine.

4. Allow the canvas to dry well in the light (usually 3-6

days in a warm dry place is enough). Then apply a second
coat of white lead, of the same consistency, in the same way
as the first. Before painting on the canvas allow the second
coat to dry for at least two weeks in a place where it will be
exposed to light.

Notes

A. Some manufacturers of artists' materials now sell flake

white ground in linseed oil, packaged in pint, quart, or
gallon cans. While it may be somewhat more expensive to
employ these flake whites for priming canvas in place of an
industrial white lead such as Dutch Boy, they have the
advantage of being compounded or selected specifically for
artist's use, and they seem to yellow less than the industrial

white lead. These flake white paints must be thinned with

132 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
turpentine to the correct consistency for using as primings,
as indicated in step i.

The painter should distinguish between the artists' brands

of flake white that are labeled by the manufacturer, "ground
in pure linseed oil," and the artists' flake white oil paints

that, in some brands, contain poppyseed oil or safflower oil.

These oils should not be used in the priming coat since they
dry too slowly and their films are less suitable than that of
linseed oil paint for the ground of the painting.

B. Glue-size must have a chance to dry well (minimum

24 hours) before the canvas is primed with the oil ground.

C. White lead grounds should be dried in the light or they

will darken appreciably.

D. If white lead oil primings have darkened from being

stored in a dark place, they may be restored to their original
condition by exposure to sunlight for a few days.

E. If primed or sized canvas is dented by accident, and

the resulting bump cannot be eliminated by stretching that
section with pliers, moisten the area carefully from the back
of the canvas with a damp sponge or rag. Often the moisture
alone will straighten out the bump. If it does not, moisten it

again and restretch that area.

F. All linseed oil grounds yellow slightly with age.

G. Zinc white pigment, ground in linseed oil (such as zinc

white artist's color or a commercial zinc paste similar in
consistency to the industrial white lead paste), may be added
to make a whiter ground. Such mixtures should not exceed
I part zinc white to 2 parts white lead. This mixture will yel-
low less than the white lead ground. It will dry much more
slowly and will yield films that are less tough and less flexible

than white lead.

H. Small amounts of oil color may be mixed with the

white paint to produce a tinted ground, but a white ground
is best for keeping the luminosity of the picture. If a toned
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
3 3

canvas is desired, it is best obtained through the use of an

imprimatura (see section on imprimatura, page 148).

I. One should note the date of application of the second

coat on the edge of the stretcher to prevent painting on the
canvas before the ground has dried thoroughly.

Synthetic Resin Grounds

Artists who use acrylic paints sometimes prefer to apply the

ground to unprepared linen, and for this purpose acrylic priming
materials are sold by many art supply manufacturers. These
materials are usually labeled "Acr\lic Pol^-mer Gesso" and are
sold under brand names such as "Liquitex Gesso,"^ "New Temp
Gesso,"* Such primings contain an acnlic emulsion binder
etc.

and white pigment such as titanium dioxide, either by itself or

in combination with whiting (calcium carbonate). The priming
is supplied in paste form and can be used unthinned. as it comes
from the container, or slightly thinned with a little water. The
untreated linen fabric is fastened to the wooden stretchers, using
the method described on page 122. No sizing with glue is required,
and the acr)'lic primer is brushed directly onto the stretched
fabric. It does not darken with age and is extremely flexible.

Procedure

Apply the first coat of priming so that it is brushed well

1.

into the weave of the textile. Smoother work will be obtained

by thinning the acrylic priming, using about i volume of
water for each 4 volumes of priming.

2. When the first coat has dried completely so that it has

no wet streaks, a second coat may be applied at right angles
to the first. Additional coats, applied in the same way at
right angles to each other, improve the canvas.

3. Any roughness in the final surface may be removed by

lightly rubbing it with fine sandpaper after the ground has
dried well.

3 Permanent Pigment, Inc.

4 Utrecht Linens, Inc.
13 4 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS

Notes

A. The acrylic priming tends to have rather less body

than an oil priming of the same number of coats. This
allows the weave of the fabric to be more conspicuous, while
the initial strokes of the painting seem to stand out with
less relief on the prominent textile weave. Painters who find
this unsatisfactory should apply more coats of priming, using
as many as three to five coats on the fabric.

B. Since the acrylic priming does not contract upon drying

as does rabbitskin glue, the canvas should be tightly stretched
before the priming is applied. In addition, it may be neces-
sary to tighten the canvas after the priming dries by pulling
out the tacks on two adjoining sides of the canvas and re-
stretching the fabric.

G. The acrylic priming does not always adhere well to

oil-painted surfaces, and so the practice of priming over old
oil paintings with acrylic primers is not recommended. The
priming does adhere well to raw linen, cotton, paper,
Masonite, or unpainted wood.

Commercial Products

Primed Canvas
Commercially primed canvas, prepared with an oil ground, may
be bought by the yard in various widths, single primed (with one
layer of ground) or double primed (with two layers of ground).
The worth (and generally the price) of these products depends,
naturally, on the quality of their ingredients and workmanship.
The back of the canvas should be examined to see that the textile
is and strongly woven with no runs or bad irregularities.
tightly
The ground may be checked by bending or flexing
quality of the
a corner of the canvas. The ground should not crumble easily, nor
should it be limp and overpliable, but rather, it should be some-
what springy and tough. Slight yellowing does not by itself in-
dicate an inferior ground, since white lead would yellow if the
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
3 5

canvas were rolled for any length of time. Such yellowing, due to
may be easily remedied by exposing the canvas
white lead content,
to light for afew days, during which time the yellowing should
disappear. However, some manufacturers fear that the yellowed
white lead ground will be less salable, and so they use non-yellow-
ing grounds made of titanium or zinc pigment. As a rule these are
not so tough and elastic as white lead grounds. Some commercial
canvases are tinted a light cool gray to mask the yellowing of the
ground. To insure the condition of commercial canvas which must
be stored in rolls, softeners or plasticizers, such as glycerine, may
sometimes be added, with dubious effects on the durability of the
canvas.
Canvas is now sold prepared with acrylic resin priming of the
type described in the previous section on synthetic resin grounds
(page 133).

Canvas Boards
Canvas boards are usually made of the cheapest cotton canvas,
mounted on cheap cardboard. The weave is mechanical in ap-
pearance and vastly inferior to that of a good grade of prepared
artist's canvas. Such boards have not even economy to recommend

them, since an equivalent area of canvas can be stretched from a

roll of prepared canvas of much better quality for a similar cost, so
long as the artist is willing to stretch the material himself. Of
course, these remarks do not apply to expensive custom-made
panels of good linen mounted on permanent supports, such as rag
cardboard or Presdwood.

Raw Linen
Fabrics used as supports for pictures should be manufactured to
meet artists' requirements. Frequently, linens woven for table
cloths, etc.have cotton admixtures, or are not as densely woven or
strong as artist's linen should be. Unsized fabrics should be priced
according to the weight per square yard and the number of threads
per square inch. When
one compares the prices of canvas, it is im-
portant to bear in mind not only the
cost per running yard, but
also the widths of the fabrics being compared. One yard of 54"-
wide canvas at $3.35 is not cheaper than one yard of 84'' canvas
at $3.75.
136 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS

Primed Paper
For sketching purposes, inexpensive papers coated with a ground
are sold usually in tablets. These should not be considered for
permanent painting for they become brittle very soon.

RIGID SUPPORTS

Wood Panels
Egyptian sarcophagi (2000 B.C.), Renaissance panel altarpieces,
and American Indian totemic carvings are included in the wide
variety of wooden objects and surfaces that have been embellished
with color by artists and artisans of diverse cultures. The use of
independent panels of wood as bases for pictures dates from at
least the first century a.d. when wooden panels were used in the

Egyptian Fayum portraits.

Many varieties of wood have been employed, but the most com-
mon have been poplar, oak, linden, pine, and various hard-
woods, such as mahogany and walnut. All wood has a cellular
structure which enables it to absorb water. The cell walls absorb
and discharge atmospheric moisture and swell or contract in the
process. This continuous movement of the wood, which may show
up as warpage or expansion or cracking, is, of course, a source of
danger to the picture. The best protective measure the artist can
take against the movement of the wooden support is a careful
selection and preparation of a well-seasoned panel. Panels are pro-
duced either as plain-sawed or quarter-sawed lumber, depending
on whether the log was cut radially or tangentally. The quarter-
sawed wood is to be preferred since the grain on the front and
back of the panel is more nearly the same. When the panel is pre-
pared for painting, it should be given the same number of priming
coats on front and back, so that the tension on both sides is

equalized. Finally, a coat of oil paint should be applied to the back

to correspond to the picture on the face of the panel and to pro-
tect the back of the panel from moisture. The attachment of re-
straining braces to the panel should be left to specialists in conser-
vation of pictures, since the grid of braces, or "cradle" as it is
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
3 7

called, must be expertly made and fitted and can do more harm
than good if improperly constructed.
Wood may sometimes be attacked by fungi, which cause dry
rot, or by certain insects, which eat and destroy wood. There are
effective chemical treatments that can control these deteriorating
agents.
The maximum width of a wood panel is usually determined
by the width of the tree from which it was taken, but panels may
be made by joining several boards together, edge to edge. Such
joints, however, are always potential sources of trouble for they may
separate or break open.
Well-seasoned panels may be made from sections of old furni-
ture, but care should be taken to resurface the wood and to clean
off all traces of the old finishing materials, such as varnishes and
stains.

Plywood
Plywood is made by gluing several layers of wood together. The
grain of one layer of wood usually runs at right angles to the
grain of the next layer, thus reducing the risk of warping.
Plywood panels are obtainable in large sizes.They are stronger
than solid wood of corresponding size and should be less apt to
expand and contract than solid wood.
The most obvious defect of plywood is the possibility that its

various layers may separate if the adhesive used to hold them to-
gether is not of superior quality.
Plywood used for pictures should be J4" to %" thick.

Standard Masonite Presdwood (untempered)

Standard Masonite Presdwood used in the building trades is a

hard composition board made of wood fibers pressed v^th heat.

No binder is added, the particles being held together by the
natural adhesives in the wood. It can be obtained in sizes up to
4'X8' and in thicknesses of ^" and ^''. Since it has no grain, it

resists warping, though very large sheets when placed erect will
bend of own weight. It does not crack and has a very small
their
expansionand contraction rate. Furthermore, it is inexpensive
compared to almost any other support material.
The "untempered" material is light brown in color and is to
138 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
be preferred to panels known as "tempered" Presdwood. The
tempered material contains oily additions to the wood fibers, which
make the panel more weather resistant but less apt to hold prim-
ing coats well.
The chief disadvantage of Presdwood is its tendency to dent
and shred at the edges and corners when the unprotected panel is
subjected to rough handling.
Larger sizes (over 24"X3o") of Presdwood panels should be
braced with strips of wood glued along the four edges of the back
of the panel; cross pieces may be added. The braces should be
applied with glue, such as a hot hide glue or a cold polyvinyl
acetate glue, never with nails or screws. Ordinary "G" clamps may
be used to hold the strips overnight while the glue hardens. Con-
tact cement can be used without clamps.
In actual practice, many painters often omit the bracing until
the picture has been completed. Then, they brace the paintings
they consider successful, or they rely on the purchaser to see to it

that the panel is cradled. However, the best practice is to brace

the panel before it warps, even before the ground is on its surface.

Metals
Copper, aluminum, zinc, and steel are much less absorbent than
other supports. Paint films can adhere to the surfaces of these
metals only if they are well roughened to provide a "tooth," and
if they are very clean and free of oily compounds. Though they
have had occasional use in the past, they are seldom used for easel
painting today.

Cardboards
Cardboards and heavy papers should be made of 100 per cent
linen rags with no wood pulp added. Boards made with wood pulp,
such as chip board, "Upson Board," "Beaverboard," etc., become
brittle and fall apart within a relatively short time. They should not
be used for peiTnanent paintings, and since they are no cheaper
than ^"
untempered Presdwood, they are best avoided even for
sketchesand student work.
Well-made rag cardboard, like rag paper, is a durable permanent
support and will last centuries if it is not torn or abused.
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS 139

GROUNDS FOR RIGID SUPPORTS

Glue Gesso

On rigid supports, such as Masonite Presdwood or wood panels,

a "gesso" ground, made of white pigment mixed with a water-
soluble glue, is often used in place of the oil ground. The gesso
ground has these advantages over the oil ground: it does not
yellow in the slightest degree as it ages; it can be used as a ground

for both oil and water- thinned techniques (such as tempera or

water color) and it is inexpensive to make and apply. It is, how-
;

ever, much less flexible than the oil ground and is best used only on
rigid supports.
'

Equipment (Illustration, plate 14.)

MEASURING CUP I quart capacity graduated in ounces.

DOUBLE BOILER

BRUSH 2" or 3" bristle.

SCALE postal scale graduated in ^ ounces (av.)

from to 8 ounces.

Materials

GLUE 2/2-2% ounces (av.) dry rabbitskin glue.

WATER I quart.

SANDPAPER medium and fine grades.

FILLER roughly !/» quarts of filler will be used for

each quart of glue water in the gesso. The
filler is made up by volume measure as
follows:

9 parts whiting (Paris White grade or, as

second choice, Gilder's grade).
I part dry zinc white pigment (green seal
grade) or titanium white pigment.
Although it may vary, 2 pounds of filler
140 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
usually fills a quart measure, thus, the
proportions will be approximately:
»i quart glue water.
3 lbs. filler.

Procedure

Sand panels thoroughly with medium sandpaper to re-

1.

move any dirt or grease and to provide a slight "tooth" to

the surface. Then remove all dust from surface with a cloth.

2. Size the panel, front and back, using the recipe and pro-
cedures described under section on sizing the flexible support.
Allow sized panel to dry thoroughly (at least overnight).

3. Soak glue for gesso in water a minimum of 3 hours

(overnight is better) until it swells.

4. Warm the glue in the double boiler until it is completely

dissolved. Do not boil the glue. Remove
from the stove
it

when it is dissolved. The double boiler will keep it warm

and liquid for a long time. If it should cool and thicken later,

put it back on the stove and heat it gently.

5. Slowly add a small amount of glue to the filler and stir

to make a smooth stiff" paste, free of lumps.

6. Add more glue until the white mixture is the consistency

of heavy milk. Stir slowly and avoid bubbles. If there are
heavy white granules in the mixture (from roughly ground
zinc white), strain the gesso through cheesecloth to produce
a smooth consistency.

7. Apply mixture to sized panels. The first coat should be

applied thinly, scrubbed or stippled on with a brush that
is not too full, thus providing a surface on which the sub-
sequent coats can hold.

8. Just as soon as the first coat is dry to the touch apply

the second coat with even strokes parallel to one edge of the
panel. (Illustration, plate 15.)

9. Apply third coat as soon as second coat is dry enough to

 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I 4 I

be painted over without being picked up. The direction

of the strokes should be at right angles to the previous coat.

10. Apply fourth and fifth coats in same way as step 9, each
coat running at right angles to the preceding one.

11. When possible, apply coats of gesso to the back of the

panel, with one coat on the back being applied for each on
the front, as soon as the front coat has dried enough to be
handled. This helps to make the tension equal on both sides

of the panel, and so it is less likely to warp.

12. When the panel is thoroughly dry, smooth it well with

fine sandpaper to eliminate all ridges and lumps. Dust panel
well before using.

Notes

A. An alternative method for making the gesso requires

the preparation of the filler and the glue water as described
in steps 1-4 above.
Then, slowly sprinkle the filler into the warm glue. Avoid
adding large amounts of filler too rapidly or air bubbles will
form. As the filler is added it absorbs the glue water and
settles to the bottom. When all the filler has been put in the
glue water a small island of dry filler may remain un-
combined, and this should be stirred gently into mixture.
Next, stir the mixture gently to be sure it issmooth and
there are no lumps of unmixed filler at the bottom of the
container. The two-inch bristle brush can be used for this
purpose. Stir slowly and avoid the formation of bubbles. The
white mixture should be the consistency of heavy milk or
light creard. If there are gritty white granules in the mixture
(caused by roughly ground zinc or titanium white in the
filler), strain the whole batch through cheesecloth to produce
a smooth consistency. This is the gesso ready to be applied.

B. If the gesso can be rubbed off very easily by sandpaper,

not enough glue was used in the mixture and more should
be added. If the gesso sands with too much difficulty, there is
an excess of glue present and whiting, mixed with a little
142 f
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
warm water, should be added. It is wise, before applying the
gesso to the panels, to try on a piece of scrap wood or
it

Presdwood, testing it with sandpaper to see if the gesso is the

right strength.

C. Casein or gelatin solutions may be used to replace rab-

bitskin glue solution in the gesso, but the rabbitskin glue is

superior in flexibility and toughness to the other materials.

(See section on casein for the recipe.)

D. Whiting may be used alone, without the addition of zinc

or titanium white, but it will not make as opaque and white a
gesso.

E. Precipitated chalk may be used as the filler instead of

whiting, but this artificially manufactured calcium carbonate
is lighter and fluffier than natural whiting, and the recipe
should be adjusted for the substitution. In combination with
I quart of the glue water described above, about ^ of a
pound of precipitated chalk will be needed. The dry chalk
will bulk approximately 24 ounces by volume. A substitution
of titanium or zinc white for i o per cent of the volume of the
chalk will increase the covering power of the gesso.

F. The number of coats may vary with the requirements

. for the particular job and with the skill of the craftsman.
Sometimes as few as two are used; sometimes as many as ten.
Two thinly applied coats are more eff"ective and will look
better than one heavily brushed coat in which brush strokes
show.

G. The gesso will froth or bubble violently if it is stiiTed

too vigorously or heated too much, and as a consequence,

pinholes or small blisters will appear in the coats on the
panel. These are almost impossible to remedy with subse-
quent coats. Keeping the gesso to a medium warmth and
stirring gently helps to avoid pinholes. To some extent, a
small amount of ox gall (about !4 teaspoonful to a quart of
gesso) helps break the surface tension that causes the bubbles.

H. The gesso should be stirred frequently to keep the filler

from settling out of the mixture to the bottom of the container.
 :

SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I

43
I. If no scale is available for weighing the glue, the pro-
portions of the recipe can be approximated by the following
method

a. Put 16 fluid ounces of water into a measuring glass

that is marked off in one ounce intervals.

b. Gently add dry rabbi tskin glue until the level of

water rises an additional 2 fluid ounces, that is up to the
mark that indicates 18 fluid ounces.

c. Put the glue-and-water mixture into the double

boiler and add to it 16 fluid ounces of water, to bring the
total volume to 32 ounces of water plus the immersed
glue.

d.Allow the glue to soak 3 hours, or overnight if pos-

Then heat and dissolve the glue as in step 4 above
sible.

and combine it with the filler as in steps 5 and 6.

When it is first put into water, one ounce by weight of
glue usually displaces ^ of an ounce (by volume) of
water.

J. Heavy grooves are caused by applying the coat too thickly,

or rebrushing the gesso too much as it begins to set up on the
panel.

K. Panels may be finished to a very smooth surface by the

following method:

a. Wet a clean cotton cloth and wring out excess

water.

b. Fold it neatly into a pad about 3"X3".

c. Polish surface of panel with wet pad, working in

even, small, circular strokes, going rather rapidly across
the panel. Do not polish too long in one spot, or the gesso
will be dissolved right down to the support.

L. Whenever layers containing glue solution (whether in

gesso, gilding mixtures, or distemper paints) are applied one
14 4 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
over the other, it is best to keep the glue at the same concen-
tration through all the coats. If a stronger glue solution is

painted over a w,eaker one, it will crack badly.

M. If continued heating drives some of the water out of

the gesso after several hours of work, add a little warm water
to keep the glue from getting too strong (see preceding note).
If the final coats are a trifle weaker than the earlier ones,
no harm is done.

N. Glue gesso, like all mixtures containing animal glue, will

decompose within a rather short time. Stored in a clean con-
tainer and in a cool place, it will gel and may be kept for
several days. As soon as it begins to spoil, it will have a bad
odor and must be discarded. In any case, it should not be
kept more than two weeks. To restore the gelled gesso to
liquid state, simply heat it again in the double boiler.

O. Gesso can be applied to heavy rag cardboards by the same

procedures outlined above for Presdwood and wood panels.

P. Raw linen or paper can be mounted on a rigid panel

of Presdwood or plywood by using a rather strong solution of
rabbitskin glue (3 ounces by weight of glue to i quart of
water —soak overnight and heat gently) It can then be ges-
.

soed in the usual way. The glue should be brushed over the
panel rather liberally. The textile should be dipped in the glue
and the excess glue squeezed out. While the panel
solution,
is wet the textile is spread over it and smoothed flat by
still

rubbing from the center toward the edges to press out the
bubbles. Excess fabric is folded over the edges of the panel
and pressed to its back. The panel should be allowed to
dry well (overnight) before it is coated with the gesso. Such
panels need no additional sizing before the gesso is applied
and usually receive only a thin application of gesso, so that the
weave of the textile is not totally obscured.

Linseed Oil Emulsion Grounds

Oil grounds and glue gesso grounds can be easily contrasted by

noting that oil grounds are superior in flexibility, although they
 "*
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
45
yellow to some extent, while gesso grounds retain their whiteness,
although they are by comparison Emulsion grounds, or
brittle.

so-called "half-chalk" grounds, have been made in an attempt to

combine the advantages of the two types of priming. Such recipes
call for a glue gesso, made in the usual way except that the filler

is composed of 50 per cent each of zinc white and whiting, instead

of the usual 90 per cent whiting. To this gesso, boiled linseed oil is

added, in an amount that can vary from about 10 per cent to 30

per cent of the original volume of the gesso. The oil is stirred in very
gradually, and an emulsion is produced of water and linseed oil held
together by the glue as an emulsifying agent. These grounds have
been recommended for canvas supports in place of white lead oil
grounds. However, in my experience, these emulsions have dark-
ened as much or more than well-made oil grounds, and there is
the additional risk that the boiled oil may separate from the emul-
sion and concentrate at the top of the film. Furthermore, linseed
oilemulsion grounds do not seem to be materially more flexible
than glue gesso grounds. For these reasons, it seems to me that lin-
seed oil emulsion grounds combine the worst features of both con-
ventional types of ground material.

Commercial Products

Gesso
Premixed gesso may be bought in the form of a dry powder or a
liquid mixture. The dry material is a combination of rabbitskin
glue, whiting, and zinc (or titanium) white pigment. It requires
the addition of water and a period of soaking and heating to ef-
fect the solution of the glue. Its use eliminates the necessity of
weighing the glue and measuring the filler. (Of course, the artist

must still make for himself the glue-size material for the prelimi-
nary sizing of the panel.) When carefully made of high quality
materials, such premixed gesso gives excellent results. Several such
products have been on the market for many years and have proved
reliable.

Commercial gesso preparations, sold in liquid form, cannot em-

ploy rabbitskin glue since this would solidify and spoil in storage.
Instead, they use as binders, casein solutions or one of the more
146 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
recently discovered synthetic resins. These materials may behave
slightly differently from the glue gesso in regard to brushing quali-
ties, absorbency, or surface texture, but if well prepared, can give
good results on a rigid support.

.The use of commercial house paints, such as the latex or casein

water-thinned paints, as a substitute for artist's gesso is not rec-
ommended. These products are not made with artists' standards
in mind, and although they are excellent materials for the decorator
or house painter, they are usually not sufficiently permanent for
artists' use. Since a quart of glue gesso may be prepared in the
studio for less than a dollar, such house paints do not represent
great economy, and they are not recommended even for sketching
panels.

Acrylic Primings
The acrylic emulsion primings (such as Liquitex Gesso or New
Temp Gesso) mentioned on page 133 as primings for flexible
supports are used on rigid supports as well. They remain liquid
without being heated and are applied directly to the paper, card-
board, wood, or Masonite Presdwood panel. No preliminary sizing
is recommended. Generally, three coats of such primings give ac-
ceptable results, and the surface is less absorbent than that of the
traditional glue gesso. Since it is ready to use as it comes from the
container and requires no measuring or preparation, except for
optional thinning with water, many painters prefer it to the tradi-
tional glue gesso because of its convenience. On the other hand,
artists who are accustomed to the absorbency and surface quali-
ties of the glue gesso sometimes find the aciylic priming noticeably
different, especially in such techniques as egg tempera or encaustic.

Prepared Gesso Panels

Most gessoed panels sold today in art supply stores are made by
spraying gesso on Presdwood. The gesso usually has either a casein
or an acrylic resin binder. These panels may have a rather different
textural appearance from hand-made ones. The surfaces are often
more regular, much more absorbent, and require more sizing
to make them receive oil colors well. (See notes on imprimatura.)
19. A window mat serves to display water colors, drawings, and
and separates them from the glass in
pastels their picture frames.
The mat and backing board should be made of 100 per cent
rag-fiber cardboard, called museum board. (See page 157.)

20. The water color is fastened to the rag-board backing with two
small hinges pasted to the back of the paper at its upper corners.

Masking tape or other pressure-adhesive tapes should not be used.

A longer hinge holds the window mat to the backing board.
(See page 157.)
21. Augusta, 1890, by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec (1864-1901).
Gouache on cardboard, 23^" x 15". Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Massachusetts. The usefulness of a toned ground can be seen
in this painting by Toulouse-Lautrec, as it is the tan paper support,

visible between the brush strokes, that supplies the unifying middle tones
in the picture and mphasizes the character and rhythm of the paint.
<

(See page 158.)

 "^

^^^^'%J wW?!^
^

22.Marriage of St. Catherine (detail), by Barna da Siena ( ?-1381).

Egg tempera on gilded wood panel, 53" x 42 J/^". Museum of Fine Arts,
Boston, Massachusetts. The photograph shows how egg tempera was
applied systematically in thin strokes, their direction determined by the
position of the form. In this procedure only three or four carefully mixed
tones were used to model each form over a preliminary grayish-green
monochrome. (See page 161.)
 23. For use as a binder in
pure egg yolk tempera, the
yolk sac is separated and its

surface dried of traces of

white. (See page 164.)

24. The yolk is held and the

sac punctured to provide
the pure egg yolk painting
medium. A little water is
added before it is combined
with the artist's pigments.
; See page 164.)
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
47

Re-using Old Canvases and Panels

It often occurs that a student or artist finds that he has no fresh

canvas or panels in his studio, while at the same time he has at
least one picture (painted by himself or a friend) that he considers
worthless. The question is often asked: "What is the best way to
paint over such an old picture?" Of course, the answer is that the
practice of painting over old canvases is bound to bring many
troubles as the picture ages. The new paint often adheres badly
to the fat layers on the surface of the old picture. Often, the old
picture shows through as the paint becomes more transparent
with age. Furthermore, such practice may become habitual, and
the artist eventually comes to depend upon the color vibrations of
an existing picture for his ground. However, if a well-dried old
canvas must be re-used as an emergency measure, the following
steps may minimize later troubles:

1. Scrape all thick paint strokes and high impasto from

the old picture with a palette knife.

2. Use a knife or flexible razor blade to reduce as much as

possible of the remaining paint, taking it down as close to the
ground as possible without scraping the ground itself. A draw-
ing board or small wood panel placed under the canvas will
keep it from sagging under the pressure of the scraper.

3. Using medium sandpaper, roughen the canvas or panel

evenly with overlapping short circular strokes so as to pro-
vide a "tooth" over the whole surface. Be sure not to sand
through the ground to the support.

4. Dust the surface thoroughly and wipe it down with a rag,

slightly moistened with turpentine.

5. Give the surface a thin coat of light gray oil color.

The artist should remember that when he scrapes down the

surface of an old picture, he raises dust containing the pigments
employed in the painting. He should protect himself with a respir-
148 I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
atory mask against the risk of inhaling poisonous dust from lead
or other toxic pigments.
The use of paint removers is not recommended for they cannot
be easily cleaned from the surface. Traces of the remover may
continue to affect the ground and the new painting.

IMPRIMATURA
A finished gesso panel quite absorbent. Like a good paper sur-
is

face, it and it can be painted upon directly with

drinks in colors,
tempera or water color. However, before it can be satisfactory as a
ground for painting in oils, its absorbency must be reduced. If a
stroke of diluted oil color is put on a gesso panel, too much of the
binding oil may be drained off into the gesso, leaving a powdery
unsatisfactory film of color. To avoid this condition, an "im-
primatura," or weak size, made of varnish or glue may be applied
to produce the desirable "egg-shell" surface on which oil colors
can best be used.

Materials (one of the three following mixtures should be used)

VARNISH I part dammar varnish, 5 -pound cut, reduced

with 2 parts turpentine.

SHELLAC I part shellac 4-pound cut, best quality

white, reduced with 2 parts alcohol.

GLUE 2^2 ounces (av.) rabbitskin glue, soaked three

hours in i quart water, then heated gently
to dissolve.

Procedure

1. Using a wide brush, quickly apply varnish or shellac to

panel with generous strokes. Be sure to cover evenly and com-
pletely, leaving no bare spots.

2. Immediately wipe off panel with a clean cloth. This will

remove all excess size from the panel and should leave it with
an "egg-shell" surface, which will be uniformly absorbent.
 SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS | I
49

Notes

A. If the imprimatura dries too quickly to be wiped down,

it may leave a glossy film to which oil color will not adhere
well. To slow down slightly the drying time, a few drops of
linseed oil may be added to the varnish-turps mixture.

B. If the imprimatura should dry with too high a gloss, rub

it down gently with a rag that has been moistened in the
appropriate solvent (turpentine for varnish; alcohol for shel-
lac; water for glue, gelatine, or casein).

C. Oil color may be added in small amounts to the varnish

imprimatura. This will produce a toned ground. Although
it may appear streaky as it is brushed on, it will even out
when it is wiped down with a rag. Such grounds, tinted to
a middle tone, tend to unify a painting, especially in those
early stages when a pure white ground is found by some
painters to be disturbing or uninteresting.

D. The imprimatura should dry almost immediately after

being wiped down and can be painted upon as soon as it is
completely dry. But when convenient it is preferable to allow
it to dry overnight before painting over it.

E. Since the absorbency of an oil ground is well balanced

for the oil medium, it is unnecessary for the durability of the
picture to size an oil-primed support, although the artist may
apply a tinted imprimatura for other, non-technical, reasons.
 Water Paints

The history of water-thinned paints, similar to present-day poster

paints and water colors, goes back many centuries before the
Christian era. The Egyptian, Greek, and Roman artists used
binders made of vegetable gums, hide glues, milk products (casein),
and many other which could be thinned in water.
sticky materials
Pictures made with such have ranged in expressive char-
colors
acter from the cool decorative balance of the Egyptian tomb paint-
ings to the vibrant intensity of the early Christian manuscript
illuminations. One should not assume that there is anything in-

herent in any of the water techniques that restricts these media to

sketchy spontaneity or to a weak visual impact.
For a painter familiar with the characteristics of oil colors, one
distinguishing factor about the water techniques is that they dry
rapidly. This makes it possible to work one layer of paint over
another in rapid succession and so to develop a color idea quickly.
For this reason, water media, such as gouache or transparent water
colors, have often been favored as materials for quick color
notes or sketches.
Secondly, the oil painter finds that he can safely dilute water
media to a very free-brushing consistency, and that he can work
in flowing line with an ease impossible with buttery oil colors. This
line may become an clement of a free, robust style, such as we see
in Rouault's water colors, or it may be used in a restrained precise
delineation, as is shown by some of Diirer's transparent water
colors.
Furthermore, it usually becomes apparent that water techniques
tend toward brilliant clear tones in the lighter range of values.
 WATER PAINTS | I 5 I

rather than toward the rich mysterious darks commonly associated

with oil techniques. This by no means indicates "candy-box" har-
monies, but rather the high brilliance of some of Klee's water
colors, as opposed to his oils, which are deeper in color, or the
rather restrained elegance of Bonnard's gouache paintings, as con-
trasted with the rich, lush color of his oils.

On the other hand, it is worth noting negative characteristics

which limit the water techniques. First of all, their films will usually
crack if they are applied as thickly as an oil paint impasto. There-
fore, their textural range is quite subtle by comparison to the pos-
sibilities of high relief in oils or encaustic painting. Second, colors
in water technique cannot be fused and blended with the easy
precision that the oil technique allows. Thus, it is difficult to pro-
duce in water technique a kind of explicit reconstruction of weighty
volume, such as Rembrandt developed in the oil technique, with
its fluent blending and rich textures. Instead, the water media
usually lend themselves to graphic suggestion of volumes and to
broad simplifications of light and color relationships.
It may be useful to consider the water media in two main
groups; namely, those that form films which can be easily dissolved
again when water is applied to them, and those that when dry are
resistant to re-solution in water. In the first group are such paints
as transparent water color (aquarelle), gouache, size or distemper
colors, and various so-called poster paints. These employ gums or
glues or starch products as binders, which do not undergo any
chemical change when they dry or when they dissolve. Rather, they
dry only by the evaporation of the water content of the paint and
may be dissolved by the addition of some water to the dry ma-
terial. In the second group are the various tempera paints, which
change their chemical composition or are polymerized as they dry
and so become relatively water resistant after they harden. The
binders of these paints usually consist of a combination of an ad-
hesive material, an oily or resinous material, and water.

TRANSPARENT WATER COLOR

Many writers use the term "aquarelle" to distinguish transparent
water color from other water techniques that employ opaque
covering colors. Aquarelle color is applied in very dilute washes
152 I
WATER PAINTS
or glazes, usually over a white ground. It can be painted carefully
and deliberately, beginning with the lightest tones, which are
gradually strengthened until full intensity and depth are obtained.
Alternatively, it can be handled directly and freely, beginning
with the elements that the painter feels are of greatest importance
to a direct statement. Corrections are sometimes made by flooding
an area with water, and then blotting it away, removing much
of the pigment at the same time.

The Binder
Water color binder is made by dissolving gum arable in very
hot distilled water.

3 ounces (av.) gum arabic

6 fluid ounces distilled water
1/2 fluid ounces glycerine

The glycerine makes it easier to dissolve the colors in water during

the painting process, and small amounts of honey and sugar syrup
may be added for the same purpose. Ox gall, or a wetting agent used
in photographic processing, may be used to increase the paint's abil-

ity to spread easily.

It should be possible to make dilute washes with water colors

without causing the color to become grainy or uneven. Therefore,
very fine grinding is necessary. This is difficult to manage, since
the gum water thickens on the grinding slab during the grinding
operation. Also, each pigment presents different problems in hard-
ening or solubility, and the production of a set of water colors
requires, for each color, careful adjustment of the binder recipe
and of the pigment binder ratios. For these reasons, most artists
buy their colors from commercial color makers whose equipment
and knowledge allows the manufacture of superior products. Ex-
cellent water colors are available in solid cakes or in tubes.

The Pigments
The gum binder is very thin and the water colors often merely
*'stain" the paper surface rather than forming appreciable in-
 WATER PAINTS | I
5 3

dependent films. Therefore, the pigments are vulnerable to the

effect of light, dirt, and atmospheric chemicals to a greater ex-
tent than in the oil media, which encase the pigments in a pro-
tective film of binder. Thus, lead pigments, such as flake white,
Naples yellow, the chrome yellows and greens, which might react
to sulfurous impurities in atmosphere, are replaced, where pos-
sible, with less sensitive pigments. With these exceptions, the pig-
ments are rated for permanence in water colors the same as
oils. The following color list contains pigments that are
they are in
permanent if the necessary conditions for the care and display of
water colors are observed. (See section on care of water colors, page
156.)

WHFTE Titanium dioxide

Zinc oxide

YELLOW Cadmium yellow (all shades)

Cobalt yellow (aureolin)
Hansa yellow
Mars yellow
Raw sienna
Strontium yellow
Yellow ocher

ORANGE Cadmium orange

Mars orange

RED Alizarin crimson

Cadmium red
Earth reds (English, Indian, Venetian, etc.

Mars red
Quinacridone reds

BLUE Cerulean blue

Cobalt blue
Manganese blue
Phthalocyanine blue
Ultramarine blue

VIOLET Cobalt violet

Manganese violet
Mars violet
Quinacridone violet
Ultramarine violet
15 4 I
WATER PAINTS
GREEN Chrome oxide opaque
Green earth (terre verte)
Mixtures of phthalocyanine green and blue
with cadmium yellows
Viridian

BROWN Burnt green earth

Mars browTi
Sienna, raw and burnt
Umber, raw and burnt

BLACK Ivory black

Lamp black
Mars black

Equipment
Brushes used in water color are usually made of soft hair,
though bristle brushes are occasionally employed by some painters.
Pure red sable brushes are universally considered the best since
they are soft, resilient, and have excellent points. Well-made
red sable brushes are very expensive, but substitutes, such as
"camel hair" (really squirrel and other hair) brushes, exhibit
noticeable differences which make them harder to control. Usually
three first-rate brushes —small (;^3 or ;^4), medium (^7 or
^8), and large (7^12) — serve the
will artist better than a dozen
cheap brushes. A flat soft hair brush, about i" in width, is a
useful addition to round sables. Fine sable brushes
the three
may be purchased in quill mounts without wooden handles,
as well as in metal ferrules which are attached to handles. After
use, brushes should be washed in mild soap and water and then
thoroughly rinsed in clear water. A sponge is useful to moisten
paper.
Tube water colors are customarily used with a metal palette
that has small depressions into which the moist color is squeezed
from the tube. Such palettes also have large sections in which
washes may be mixed.
It is convenient to have two containers for water: one in which
the brush may be rinsed; the other for clear water to dilute
the colors. For outdoor work and traveling, unbreakable plastic
bottles made of polyethylene are convenient.
 WATER PAINTS | I 55

Diluents

Ordinary water is usually employed to thin aquarelle. However,

in some places the tap water contains mineral salts or other

substances that may cause the colors to curdle or behave poorly.
Most writers recommend that distilled water be used, but painters
tend to use whatever water is easily available. If the washes

spread badly, or smooth paper is used, a little ox gall liquid

if

can be added to the water to allow a smoother application

of the colors. If one wants to prevent the first layers of the
picture from being picked up or redissolved by subsequent washes
of color, a few drops of acrylic tempera medium or polyvinyl
acetate emulsion can be added to the water. This will cause the
paint to dry to an insoluble layer in a few minutes.

Supports and Grounds

The most common support for aquarelle is paper. However,

aquarelle has been used on silk and other thin fabrics, gessoed
surfaces, parchment, and ivory. Usually, no ground is required
for paper, ivory, or parchment. The surface should be free of
grease or oily material; it may be wiped down with a dilute
solution of ammonia water in order to remove any oily deposit
that might prevent the water color from penetrating.
Papers should be handmade linen rag papers. Cheaper sub-
stitutes made of cotton or wood pulp do not behave as well.

Naturally, since aquarelle is a glazing technique any darkening

of the paper will lower the tone of the painting. The paper
must be well sized while it is being made, or it will be too
absorbent to work upon with ease. Papers are sold by the sheet,
priced according to the weight of a ream. The common weights
are 70 pounds up300 pounds. Most papers are produced in
to
three surfaces: hot pressed (smooth), cold pressed (medium), or
rough. Some of the best known brands are Fabriano papers from
Italy, Arches papers made in France, Whatman and Royal Water
Color Society (R.W.S.) papers from England. A watermark, show-
ing the manufacturer's name, is visible when the paper is held
to the light.
156 I
WATER PAINTS
Papers that are not of extremely heavy weight will wrinkle
and pucker when they are painted upon with water colors. Most
painters prefer to stretch the paper to prevent this. First, the
paper is moistened liberally with clear water, either by soaking it

a few minutes in a tub or by wetting both sides with a sponge. It

stretches when wet, and in this expanded state it is spread out on

a drawing board. Its edges then are taped down by means of
gummed brown-paper tape of the sort that is used on packages.
As the paper dries it becomes smooth and tight as a drum.
Some artists use special stretching frames, which are made for
this purpose. They consist of two frames, one of which fits
snugly inside the other. The wet paper is clamped between
them while it dries tight, no glue or tape being required. For
rapid work which does not require precise handling, blocks of
water color paper may be satisfactory. These usually consist
of two dozen sheets of paper, held together at the edges by
glue and light fiber. Such paper requires no stretching or backing
board, but it will buckle more than stretched paper if the painter
works over it a long time.

Care and Display

Finished work should be protected against atmosphere and direct

light as much as possible. Unframed water color paintings can
be safely stored in a portfolio. When exhibited, they must be
protected by glass which should be separated from the picture
by means of a cardboard mat. Water colors, drawings, and
other pictures made on paper supports can be stained by con-
tinuous direct contact with wood or wood-pulp cardboard, such
as commercial chip board or wood-pulp mat board. Therefore,
both the backing board and the mat for any picture of value
should be made of rag cardboard, called "museum board." The
adhesive in many masking tapes and other tapes which are
not moistened with water hardens and dries with age, becoming
difficult to remove without damaging the support. Paper strips,

held with a water-soluble adhesive, such as starch paste, are to

be preferred for fastening the picture to the backing board. The
drawing or painting should not be pasted down along all four
edges but, rather, should be attached by its two upper cornei^s
 WATER PAINTS [ I 57
paper hinges, like those used by stamp collectors,
only, using small
which are pasted to the back of the picture and to the backing
board. Thus, the picture, fastened only at two points, is freer to
expand and contract without tearing in response to humidity
changes. A window mat, cut to the proper dimensions, is then put
over the picture and fastened by a rather long gummed cloth tape
or paper hinge, not to the water color or drawing, but to the
edge of the backing board. (Illustrations, plates 19, 20.)

GOUACHE

Binder and Pigments

The term gouache is used rather loosely to indicate opaque

water color media. Today, the most common binder employed
in gouache is the same as that used in water color; that is, a
combination of gum arabic and various plasticizers and preserv-
atives. The list of pigments that may be safely used in gouache
is the same as that for transparent water color. The chief difference
in the compounding of the gouache colors is that a white pig-
ment, such as precipitated chalk or whiting or, occasionally, zinc

white, is added to the pure pigments in order to make all of

them opaque. Since gouache painting is less dependent than
aquarelle on the clarity of transparent washes, gouache colors
do not require such fine grinding and, for this reason, can easily
be made in the studio.
The dry pigments are mixed before they are ground
usually
with approximately equal amounts of whiting or precipitated
chalk. The binder is made up according to the recipe for water
color binder (page 152), and A (sodium
^4 teaspoon Dowicide^
orthophenyl phenate) can be added to prevent spoilage. Each
color takes up a somewhat different amount of binder, some
requiring as much
4 parts by volume of pigment to i of
as
binder, others taking as little as 2 parts by volume of pigment
to I of binding medium. The colors are mixed with the spatula,
ground with the muller to a rather liquid consistency, and then
stored in jars or tubes. A dry sample of the finished paint should

iDow Chemical Go.

158 I
WATER PAINTS
be rubbed with a soft cloth. If the paint has been properly
compounded, little^ pigment should stain the cloth.
An alternative method is to add a small amount of white water
color to regular aquarelles to give the effect of gouache painting.

Supports and Grounds

Grounds for gouache may be the same as for aquarelle. However,

although aquarelle is almost always painted on a bright white
ground, gouache has been very often used on a toned ground.
Linen rag paper, gessoed panels, rag cardboards, and the like are
most often used for gouache painting. Most of the gouache
painting at the turn of the century was executed on toned
supports such as cardboards of a middle gray or brown tint.
These tones come through the loose strokes of gouache with a
lively silvery effect and often serve throughout the picture to

create harmonious middle tonalities. Lautrec's gouaches, such as

the one reproduced here, demonstrate the expressive potential of
this method. (Illustration, plate 21.)

Painting Methods

The color can be well thinned with plain water. Optionally,

the painter can add acrylic resin emulsion or polyvinyl acetate
emulsion to the water to make the dried films more water resistant.
The gouache combined with passages of transparent
is often
water color washes and with drawing media, such as pastel.
The paint is usually built up to a slight impasto, which gives it
a general effect closer to lean oil technique than to aquarelle, but
it will crack quickly if it is applied too heavily.

Care and Display

Gouaches, like aquarelles, are usually shown under glass and

should be protected in storage from atmospheric impurities.
Occasionally, gouache is varnished, but this results in a great
change in the optical qualities of the colors, causing glossy
transparency where matte opacity originally was intended and
giving the painting a thin and often spotty look. If the painting
 WATER PAINTS | I 59
is ultimately to be varnished, the artist must anticipate and
make allowances for these changes as he develops his picture.
The varnish must be very dilute, or it may cause the heavier
strokes of gouache to crack.

DISTEMPER OR SIZE PAINTING

Distemper or size paint usually refers to colors ground in glue
size and applied in a manner related to gouache or tempera
painting. The history of the medium is a long one, extending
from ancient Near-Eastern tomb decoration through oriental
painting and mural decoration in the early Renaissance and in-
cludes works by Vuillard and Bonnard at the beginning of the
twentieth century. The colors dry quickly with a matte surface.
The characteristic key is high, and the general effect is light and
airy in tonality. It may be thought of as a colored gesso, using the
same glue binder but substituting the colored pigments for whit-
ing.Like gouache, it may be built up to a subtle impasto but
will crack if applied too heavily.

Materials

PIGMENTS the list of colors that are permanent in

aquarelle may be used in distemper.

BINDER 1^-2 ounces (av.) rabbitskin glue is soaked

overnight in i quart water. The mixture is

then gently heated in a double boiler.

FILLER kaolin, China clay, or whiting.

DILUENTS plain water, or water plus a few drops of

acrylic resin emulsion or polyvinyl acetate
emulsion.

Preparing the Colors

1. Colors ai'e ground stiffly in water to a paste consistency.

2. Warm glue water can be given an addition of kaolin

(about 3 parts by volume of glue water to i part by volume
of kaolin).
I 6O I
WATER PAINTS
3. Warm binder is added to the color paste (3 parts pig-
ment paste to I part binder on the average).

Supports and Grounds

All grounds, exceptan oil ground, can be used. Paper, parchment,

and ragboard do not require a ground. Gessoed wood or Presd-
wood will take distemper painting well without an imprimatura.
Distemper has been used on plaster walls as a retouch medium
over a fresco decoration.

Painting Methods

Brushes may be either bristle or sable. The color may be thinned

considerably with water. Thin layers may be put over each other.

Notes

A. Distemper paint will crack if layers of color with a

heavier glue concentration are painted over those with a
weaker concentration.

B. If the color gels, heat it gently over a hot plate to

liquefy it again. Do not boil or bum it.

C. To make the painting more water-resistant, spray it

with 4 per cent formaldehyde solution.

D. Expect the colors to dry to considerably lighter tones

than they have when wet.

Care and Display

Distemper paintings are often varnished. They may first be given

a dilute coat of clear glue size. When this has dried thoroughly,
any picture varnish may be used over them so long as it is diluted
enough to avoid causing cracks. More usually, the distemper
painting, like aquarelle, is shown under which keeps the
glass,

tones light and matte, none of the airy quality being lost through
a deepening of tone caused by varnish.
 Tempera

The rich depth of oil colors with their great textural range
of effects, from solid paint heavily "buttered" on with the palette
knife to thin virtreous glazes, has made the oil medium out-
standingly popular among artists. However, major work has been
produced in other media by painters to whom oil techniques
were either unavailable or unattractive. The tempera medium
was a commonly used material between the twelfth and fifteenth
centuries, and although displaced by oil techniques before the
sixteenth century, it has been revived from time to time with
enthusiasm. One has only to look at the detail of a panel by
Barna da Siena (plate 22) to understand the strength of effect
that this medium can produce when handled by an artist who
understands its potential. It has a fine linear quality, which allows
for an easy handling of complex caligraphy. On the other hand,
it can show, in broader masses of tone, a beautiful translucency,

which allows one color to play through another in a pearly

iridescence. Above all, it has a clear, decisive color impact, un-
yellowed and unmuffled by the brown haze that surrounds many
badly executed oil paintings. Although tempera often is associated
with close, precise, hard effects, it can be handled with great free-
dom when the artist wants broader atmospheric qualities. Such
combination of graphic detail and translucent washes may be seen
in Ben Shahn's paintings.
Today the term tempera is used to distinguish water-thinned
paints that dry to a somewhat waterproof or at least water—
resistant —
state. Distemper paints, with binders usually of animal
 —

I 6 2 I
TEMPERA
glues, vegetable gums, or starch, may be redissolved easily in
water after they have dried. In contrast, tempera paints produce
films thatbecome' much more water resistant because their binders
are emulsions. An emulsion is a mixture of an oily or a resinous
material and a watery material. These two ingredients, which
ordinarily do not combine with each other, are held together
by means of a third material called the emulsifying agent
usually a sticky adhesive. This emulsifier keeps droplets of one
liquid evenly suspended in the other and prevents the suspended
droplets from joining together to re-form a mass that could
separate from the emulsion.
To the painter, the advantage of the emulsion media is that
they combine some of the desirable qualities of the oil medium
with many of the characteristics of the water media. In general,
tempera paints may be built up to an impasto appreciably higher
than that possible with gouache or aquarelle. Also, the tempera
colors can have a rather deeper color key and a greater range
of transparent and translucent enamel-like effects than those
of distemper. On the other hand, temperas set much more rapidly
than oil colors, and therefore they may be overpainted more
quickly. Furthermore, they do not yellow or darken as much as
oil colors. Of more interest to the artist is their distinctive
calligraphic or brushing quality.
Of course, not all tempera paints behave in the same way.
As might be expected, the more oily material in the tempera,
the closer the tempera comes to the appearance and behavior
of oil paint. As the oil content in the tempera recipe is decreased,
the paint tends toward the character of the distemper water paints.
It should also be added that when one combines the virtues

of the two differing binders, one also combines, to some extent,

their faults. Thus, tempera paints are less flexible than oils and
may be expected to crack if they are built up too heavily or
rolled or flexed too frequently. Pictures painted in tempera may
be somewhat softer than oil paintings andmore easily scratched.
If the oil content is too high, they may yellow more than distemper
paints. However, none of this argues against the use of the
material, only against the attitude that tempera is a kind of
magic paint that will automatically solve each painter's problems.
It should be understood that tempera has its technical limita-
 TEMPERA I
163
tions, but within these limitations, powerful, inventive, and endur-
ing work has been done.

PURE EGG YOLK TEMPERA

The simplest tempera technique is the one that uses pure egg
yolk alone as a binder. Egg yolk is a natural emulsion, contain-
ing fatty oils, watery material, and the emulsifying agents, lecithin
and albumen. The classicaltempera techniques are
egg yolk
clearly described in // Libro dell'Arte, a book written more than
five hundred years ago by the Italian painter Cennino Cennini.
An excellent translation by Daniel V. Thompson is available today,
and for details concerning the basic procedures and refinements
of this technique, the artist will do well to consult it. The
contemporary egg yolk technique does not differ in the technical
sense from the procedures of the fourteenth century. It is un-
complicated, may be adapted to individual preferences, and has
proven its durability in the many paintings that survive in good
condition from the trecento.

Equipment
PALETTE glass or porcelain.

PALETTE KNIFE OR
SPATULA

GLASS JARS 2- Of 4-ounce Capacity with screw tops.

Materials

BINDER one fresh raw hen's egg.

DILUENT preferably distilled water, but ordinary tap

water does well for most painters.

PIGMENTS artist-grade dry pigments. All pigments

permanent in oils will be permanent in
egg yolk tempera, but the lead pigments
(flake white, Naples yellow, chrome yellow
and green), as well as cobalt arsenate and
emerald green, are usually eliminated today,
since they are poisonous and would be
handled in tempera as dry pigments.
164 I
TEMPERA

Preparing the Cohrs

Grind each pigment with pure water to a stiff paste. Use

1.

either a palette knife or a glass muller and slab to rub up

the pigments to a smooth consistency. Put the pigment-water
paste into a glass jar. Cover the jar and tap it on the table
a few times to eliminate air bubbles. The pigment-water paste
may be stored indefinitely if a little water is poured over it

from time to time, to prevent it from drying out, and the

jar covered tightly. Screw-top covers, made of hard plastic
rather than metal, are to be preferred since they do not rust.

Break the egg and separate the white from the yolk by
2.

passing the yolk between the shells. An egg separator, such

as used in cooking, will do the job well, or the egg may be
broken into an ordinary strainer.

3. To dry the surface of the yolk in order to remove all

traces of the white, pass the yolk from hand to hand, and
wipe the empty hand on an apron. Soon, the yolk will be
left dry and free of egg white. (Illustration, plate 23.)

4. Pick up the yolk firmly between thumb and forefinger

and hold it over a clean jar. Puncture the yolk sac with a
knife and allow the contents to run into the jar. (Illustration,
plate 24.) Throw away the yolk sac.

5. Add a little water (about 5/3 teaspoonful) to the egg

yolk and stir it. This is the binding medium for pure egg yolk
tempera.

6. Take a amount of pigment-water paste from the

small
jar on the palette. Add an equal volume of egg
and put it

yolk binder and combine them thoroughly by means of a

palette knife. This is the egg tempera paint ready to use.
It may be diluted with water to a thinner brushing consistency.

Some pigments may require slightly more binder, others less.

The paint may be tested in the following way to determine

whether or not the proportion of pigment to egg is correct.
Brush out a sample of the paint on the glass palette and allow
 TEMPERA I
165
it to dry overnight. Scrape it from the glass with a razor blade.
It should come off the glass in a continuous shaving. If it powders
off in small crumbs, the paint was made up with too little egg
yolk binder.
The egg will spoil in a short time, usually two or three days
in a warm room. Refrigeration or the use of preservatives, such
as vinegar, carbolic acid, cloves, or camphor, will retard the
spoilage but may affect either the binding strength of the egg
or the color of some of the pigments, such as ultramarine blue.
It is this tendency of the egg binding medium to spoil that
prevents the artist from grinding large amounts of egg tempera
color in advance and storing it in tubes or jars. However, small
batches of pigment may be ground directly in egg, without being
first made into a pigment-water paste, if the color is to be used
up in a short time.

Supports and Grounds

Egg yolk tempera is best restricted to the traditional rigid support.

Its film is not as flexible as that of oil paint, and it may crack
when it cannot follow the movements of a flexible support, such
as canvas. Early tempera paintings were most often done on
wooden panels. Today, artists often substitute Presdwood panels

for the natural wood. A linen cloth of fine weave was often
mounted over the panel (as described on page 144 in the section on
grounds for rigid supports). Its purpose may have been to prevent
joints in the panel or cracks in the wood surface from becoming vis-
ible through the finished picture. Today, some painters still mount
such textiles over the panel. The panel is gessoed in the usual
way and requires no imprimatura to hold the egg paint well. It
should be clean and free of oily or greasy spots, since oily surfaces
would repel the water-thinned tempera. If rag paper is used as a
support, the paint films should be kept thin lest they crack
with the movement of the paper. The paper can be mounted on
a rigid backing before it is used.

Painting Methods

Painters familiar with gouache or poster paints sometimes over-

I 66 I
TEMPERA
look certain characteristics of egg yolk tempera. If it is used too
heavily, in the manner of a pasty gouache, a dead waxy ap-
pearance may result. A more typical translucent quality can be
obtained in the following way:

1. Thin the tempera color on the palette with water.

2. Dip the brush in the color and then wipe the brush
lightly against a paint rag.

3. Paint lightly on the gesso ground, using the brush rather

like a colored pencil. A
good sable water color brush will
hold enough color to allow a single brushful to cover a sur-
prisingly large area with a hatched tone.

4. Tones may be gone over a second time and strengthened

and graded after the lower layer has had a few minutes to
set. However, it is better to wait as long as possible to avoid

picking up the color and thus creating a muddy effect.

5. Egg tempera painting should be allowed to dry in the

light.

Care and Display

When the color has dried well, it may be polished with a clean,
lintless cloth, such as silk, cotton, or fine linen. It should rub up
to a semigloss. Some painters value this surface quality so highly
that they show their work with no further surfacing. Others
exhibit their temperas protected under glass like water colors.
Most artists varnish their tempera paintings with a thin varnish,
such as dammar in turpentine.
When the picture is varnished, the contrast between very thin
areas and areas of slight impasto is often much more noticeable.
The varnishing of tempera paintings often seems to emphasize
certain passages in ways that were not intended, especially in
reworked areas of opaque paint. Often these areas, which would
not be conspicuous if the picture were left matte, become isolated
or accentuated when the varnish makes, transparent the surround-
ing pa.ssagos of thin paint. Either . such contrasts of opaque
 TEMPERA I
167
and transparent must be anticipated and their effects utilized

in the total picture plan, or else they should be eliminated by

keeping the paint densities rather evenly distributed.
Egg yolk tempera paintings are moisture resistant, as contrasted
with gouache or distemper, but they are not waterproof and
should not be washed or spattered with water. Tempera paint
films may be softer than those of oil colors, and care should be
taken to protect them from being scratched or abraded.

EMULSIONS OF EGG AND OIL

The character of pure egg yolk tempera may be considerably
altered by the addition of drying oils (or other fatty ingredients,
such as resins and water. The egg acts as the
and waxes)
emulsifying agent which holds the oily ingredient and the water
together. Paint ground with such an emulsion as a binder has
some of the characteristics of egg yolk tempera and some of the
qualities of oil paint. It sets rapidly upon evaporation of its
watery content, but due to its increased oily content, it may be
fused and blended more easily than pure egg yolk tempera. It
forms more flexible films and may be safely built up to a higher
impasto than that which is safe for egg yolk paint. It dries to a
"lean" film and has been often used as an underpainting material
in the "mixed technique," followed by glazing and overpainting
in oils.

Materials

CONTAINER clean bottle, may be rinsed with alcohol.

EMULSIFIER I fresh raw hen's egg.

OILS I measure (equal to volume of egg) of fatty

ingredients,which may be heavy-body stand
oil, sun-thickened oil, dammar varnish,
saponified wax, Venice turpentine, or any
combination of these.

WATER
I 68 I
TEMPERA

Procedure

1. Chip a small opening about 5/2" in diameter at the top

of the ^gg. Put entire contents of eggshell, both yolk and white,
into the bottle and shake or beat well.

2. Fill empty eggshell with oily ingredients (for example,

34 sun-thickened oil plus Yz heavy dammar varnish). Pour this

into the bottle and shake well to combine it with the ^gg.

3. Add up to two eggshells-full of water. Shake well to in-

sure that water and oil are completely emulsified. This emul-
sion is then used as a binder for pigment. The resulting
paint may be thinned either with water or with additional
emulsion.

Notes

A. The emulsion will keep for a long time without spoiling

if it ismade in a clean bottle and stored in a cool place.
Preservatives are not necessary.

B. An emulsion that is in the process of spoiling loses

its adhesive and should be discarded. Emulsions
strength
that are kept from spoiling by means of preservatives after
a while lose binding strength noticeably.

C. Never re-use a flask in which an emulsion has spoiled

since any new emulsion put in it is very apt to spoil quickly.

D. Occasionally, an emulsion may produce paints that

curdle or do not dry. Such failures may be caused by
eggs that are not fresh, water that is not quite pure, in-

sufficient shaking of the ingredients, or adulterated oils.

E. Emulsions may be made using only egg yolk in the above

recipe, instead of the whole tgg,

F. Naturally, by varying the components of the fatty ingre-

dients, one can change the behavior and brushing quality
of the resulting paint. Thus, emulsions containing stand oil
 TEMPERA I
169
as the main fatty ingredient brush out in a smoother, oilier
manner, while larger percentages of dammar varnish result
in paints that seem "shorter'* and leaner.

G. The amount of water may be decreased, and some

recipes eliminate it altogether. This will bring the paint
very close to the qualities of an oil paint. Such paints may
be thinned only with emulsion, not with water.

Preparing the Colors

All pigments that are permanent in oil or water techniques may

be used in egg emulsions.
1. Pigments may be ground in water to make a pigment-
water paste (as in pure tgg yolk tempera). The ^gg emulsion
may then be added to small amounts of this paste, "temper-
ing" only enough pigment for each session's work.

2. Alternatively, the emulsion may be mixed directly with

dry pigments on a glass slab with a spatula. Paint made in
this way will contain less water than colors made by the
first method. It is best to mix fresh paint for each session's
work for it will not keep indefinitely.

Each time the emulsion is poured from the flask, it should be

shaken briefly to make sure it does not begin to separate.
Paints made with the egg emulsion binder should not be ground
too stiffly since the binder is weaker than that of oil colors,
much of it being water. They can be tested in the following
way to see that they contain the correct proportion of binder
to pigment. If they are painted on a sample panel, allowed
to dry well, and rubbed with a clean cloth, they should not give
up loose pigment and should have formed a hard continuous
surface. After a drying period of about a month, egg emulsion
films should be water resistant.

Supports and Grounds

Egg emulsion paints may be used on all rigid supports. Since

they are leaner than most oil paints, it is advisable not to use
I 7 O I
TEMPERA
them on oil grounds (see "fat over lean" in Oil Technique, page

106). Although I have seen pictures carefully painted with egg

emulsion on canvas, which have remained in fine condition

for twenty years, I believe that, unless the painter is willing to
work very systematically and rather thinly, the flexible textiles

are much less suitable than the rigid panels as supports for
egg emulsion paints. Emulsion paints are more flexible than pure
egg yolk tempera, but they are not so flexible as oil paints. They
will crackmore quickly, when applied too heavily, and cannot
follow movements of the support so easily as oil paints can.
Presdwood panels, gessoed in the usual way and finished with a
very dilute imprimatura, seem the best support for egg emulsion
paints. Linen, mounted on the panel before it is gessoed, pro-
vides additional "tooth," so that heavier impasto strokes will
form a better bond to the surface.

Painting Methods

Colors ground in egg emulsions can be thinned with water or

emulsion. They are usually applied with a bristle brush, but
sables are used occasionally.Although these paints set very quickly,
if applied in layers of any appreciable thickness, they require
somewhat more time to dry completely than does pure egg yolk
tempera. They retain the marks of the brush and so make possible
an incisive impasto, which is quite definite, even when it is
comparatively low in relief.
Where higher impasto relief is desired, oil colors, either hand
ground or factory made, can be combined with tempera colors
ground in egg emulsion. The proportion can vary from mix-
tures containing 2 parts by volume of oil paint for each part of
tempera, to those containing equal parts ofoil paint and tem-

pera. Such combinations should be well mixed with the palette

knife and may be thinned with turpentine or with the egg
emulsion.

Care and Display

Paintings in emulsions of egg and oil are varnished and dis-

played like oil paintings.
 TEMPERA I
171

OTHER TEMPERA MATERIALS

Tempera paints can be prepared which use glue or gum solu-
tions as emulsifiers in place of egg. In general, these recipes
produce paints that, compared to corresponding egg tempera
emulsions, are more apt to crack and are less resistant to water.
Most glue tempera recipes call for a glue of about the same
quality and strength as that used in gesso, combined with about
one half its volume of a heavy oil, such as sun-thickened oil or
stand oil. Pigments can be ground in this emulsion, and the
colors thinned with a medium made by diluting the emulsion
with an equal part of warm water.
Gum arabic (Senegal) can be put into solution by adding
2 volumes of very hot distilled water to i volume of gum arabic
fine powder. To this solution is added up to one half of its
total volume of heavy oily ingredients, such as stand oil or
heavy dammar varnish. Since this emulsion produces paints that
are comparatively brittle, writers who recommend it suggest ad-
ditions of glycerine (from 5-10 per cent of the total gum- water-
oil mixture).
Gum arabic tempera produces colors that can be thinned with
water or with the binding medium. The paints handle beauti-
fully, making possible crisp impasto strokes as well as long strokes
which are not unpleasantly ridgy. They blend and fuse much
more easily than other tempera paints and are unusually effective
in underpaintings for oil glazes, producing luminous clear effects.

I believe that the superior handling properties of these paints is

due, in part at least, to the addition of the glycerine. Un-

fortunately, this same material causes the paint to dry to a
very hygroscopic state (see page 68) ; that is, the films are apt
to absorb moisture easily. A final coating of ordinary picture
varnish does adequate protection against water, and
not give
therefore, like water colors, gum arabic tempera pictures should
be shown under glass. However, a gum tempera, like an oil,
loses much of its textural effect under glass, in contrast to a
water color or pastel, which, having little impasto, is less altered.

Thus, the necessity for a protecting glass cancels out one of the
chief advantages of this medium over other temperas. Gum tern-
172 I
TEMPERA
pera paints require more attention to precise detail in their
manufacture than do other tempera colors since they seem some-
what more liable to cracking or embrittlement, even in rather
thin films, than either oil colors or egg emulsions. I have seen
samples of gum tempera paints that began to crack badly after
remaining in excellent condition for ten years. This is an ex-
ception to the general rule that water-thinned paints will crack
very quickly, almost immediately after they dry, if they are going
to crack at all.

Synthetic Resins

Tempera paints using emulsions of synthetic resins as their binders

are described on pages 215-27, in the chapter on synthetic resin
paints. These are known as acrylic polymer tempera paints and
polyvinyl acetate emulsion paints. Like the traditional tempera
paints, they are thinned with water, utilize an emulsion for their
binder, and dry to a water-resistant film. However, these synthetic
temperas are much more flexible, adhesive, and waterproof than
the tempera paints of the past.

TEMPERA UNDERPAINTING FOR OILS

Artists who prefer to develop their paintings in several stages,

rather than by an alia prima procedure, often rough out their
ideas in underpainting and thenthem and strengthen the
refine
emphasis in subsequent layers of oil The underpainting
paint.
medium should dry rapidly, should allow changes and erasures
to be made quickly and easily, and should permit a strong and
fluent handling of large contrasts of tone and shape. In addition,
it must be lean enough in its oil-pigment ratio to receive and

hold firmly the oil-color overpainting. Glue colors, pure egg yolk
tempera, emulsions of egg and oil, and casein temperas have
been used effectively as underpainting materials. Though each
material has its distinctive brushing character, the following ac-
count summarizes the procedures by which these water paints can
be used in underpaintings for oil technique. Individual artists have
 TEMPERA I
173
made countless variations upon these procedures in adapting them
for their own purposes.

1. Over a suitable lean ground, the drawing is indicated in

dilute India ink, or tempera color, and is allowed to dry well.

2. A toned imprimatura, containing dammar varnish, tur-

pentine, oil color, and a drop of stand oil, is applied and
wiped down so as to leave a semi-matte surface like toned
paper. It should not remain as a continuous heavy layer of
paint on the surface of the ground.

3. The main pictorial masses are blocked in, either when

the imprimatura is still wet or after it has dried, using a
tempera or a glue paint. The paint is kept thin and meager,
and the imprimatura is allowed to show through the under-
painting to var)dng degrees, thus producing optical grays.
Changes and corrections are easily made by wiping out the
faulty areas with a moist cloth. The underpainting always aims
at a strong effect, although the actual paint handling may be
either very loose or very precise and tight in its distribution
of strokes. It is almost always much lighter in value than the
anticipated final effect.

4. When the tempera or distemper underpainting has dried

hard and well, it is given a very thin coat of retouch varnish
to keep it from becoming so absorbent as to hinder the over-
painting.

5. Transparent glazes are worked over the underpainting,

strengthening color effects and developing chromatic con-
trasts. These are oil colors, usually thinned with a glazing
medium. If an emulsion was used in the underpainting, the

glaze medium should contain the same oily ingredients. Glazes

should be rather meager, not too diluted with medium, and well
rubbed into the underpainting.

6. Opaque colors, applied so as to appear substantial and

solid in contrast to the luminous transparent glazes, are
brushed into the glazes while they are wet or when they have
dried. This paint may be a rich tempera, or it may be oil
17 4 I
TEMPERA
color. If a tempera, it is most frequently restricted to isolated
accenting touches or calligraphic details since a continuous
layer of tempera might crack when placed over an oily glaze.
Such strokes should be put into the wet glaze to become
part of that layer, rather than to lie on top of it.

In such mixed techniques, the rules of "fat over lean" paint-

ing must be observed, particularly in connection with the follow-
ing points:

A. Strokes of lean tempera will crack if they are painted

over excessively glossy layers of dry oil paint to which they
cannot adhere.

B. Very slick oil grounds will not permit the tempera

underpainting to obtain a good bond with the support.

C. The tempera underpainting must not be piled up too

heavily or it will crack.

D. The sequence of heavy glaze and heavy impasto over-

painting cannot be repeated indefinitely. If too many such
layers are piled one over the other in an attempt to correct
errors or search out forms, cracking is very likely.

In general, the combinations of tempera and oil techniques

yield great luminosity and lively vibration which can be developed
in three or four layers of paint. Painters who require the accumu-
lation of many more overpainting layers of thick paint probably
will find other procedures more sympathetic.
 7

Casein

CASEIN SOLUTIONS
Casein is prepared from skim milk. It can be obtained from chem-
ical supply houses in the form of a yellowish white powder, which
is dissolved in water by means of a strong alkali to make an ad-
hesive syrup. It is used by wood workers as a glue, and by artists

principally as a fixative for drawings and as a binder for colors

and grounds. It dries to a film that is considerably more resistant
to water than that of rabbitskin glue. The solution may be pre-
pared in the following way:

Equipment
DOUBLE BOILER porcelain enameled (since metal can spoil
casein). Its capacity should be as large as
possible, I gallon or more if available, since
considerable foaming takes place.

HOT PLATE

Materials

CASEIN 4 ounces (av.).

WATER I quart (32 fluid ounces).

ALKALI I ounce (av.) of ammonium carbonate

which may be obtained from a druggist.
176 I
CASEIN
PRESERVATIVE ^ tcaspoonful of Dowicidc A (sodium
orthophenyl phenate) crushed in ^2
teaspoonful of water.
Procedure

Put 4 ounces (av.) of casein in 22 fluid ounces of v^arm

1.

water. Allow to soak about 20 minutes and stir briefly to be

sure the powder is completely moistened.

2.Crush I ounce of fresh ammonium carbonate crystals in

a little water to make a smooth mixture.

3. Pour the ammonium carbonate into the casein. There

will be a slight foaming reaction as the ammonium carbonate
mixes with the warm water. Stir the mixture well for a few
minutes; the casein will dissolve in the water to make a
smooth heavy syrup free of lumps or granules. This is the
adhesive stock solution.

4. Heat the solution to 180° F. (water boils at 212° F.),

stirring it constantly, and keep it at this temperature by pro-
longed cooking for twenty minutes. The heat drives out the
excess ammonia which could affect alkali-sensitive pig-
gas,
ments, and it also destroys harmful enzymes in the casein. The
temperature should be measured with a cooking thermometer
since solutions cooked below 170° F. become watery and weak
in a short time, while those cooked above 190° F. become
gummy.

5. After the solution has cooked for twenty minutes, cool

it room temperature as rapidly as possible by putting the
to
enameled container into a pail of cold water or ice. Continue
stirring until the heavy liquid is completely cooled. If the

casein is not cooled rapidly to room temperature, chemical

hydrolysis (decomposition) is likely to take place, causing
the solution to become watery and gray and to have a strong
sulfurous odor.

6. Add the Dowicidc A preservative and stir well.

7. The casein solution should be diluted with water in the

 CASEIN I
177
following strengths, depending on whether it is to be used as
a binder for colors or gesso:

A: Binding medium for colors

Add 10 ounces of water, which will bring the final con-
centration to

4 ounces (av.) casein

I quart water

B. Binder for gesso.

The
casein solution of 4 ounces of casein to 22 ounces of
water should bind 4 pounds of whiting zinc white filler. This—
heavy mix is diluted with an additional quart or more of wa-
ter. Casein gesso remains liquid at room temperature, requires
no heating in a double boiler, and for this reason is somewhat

more convenient than glue gesso to handle and apply.

Notes

A. The casein solution will retain its adhesiveness only a

short time (about ten days) under normal conditions. Al-
though its spoilage can be prevented by the addition of pre-
servatives, it is advisable to make up fresh batches of casein
solution every week or so as needed.

B. Casein powder should be fresh for it changes strength in

a few months as it ages.

C. Concentrated ammonia water (22° Baume), which is

sold in drug stores, may be used instead of ammonium car-
bonate crystals to dissolve the casein powder.

a. Soak 4 ounces (av.) casein in 22 fluid ounces water.

Mix ^2 tablespoon ammonia water with an equal amount
of water.

b. Add the diluted ammonia water drop by drop to the

casein, stirring constantly until the casein is completely
dissolved. Do not stir with a metal instrument.
178 I
CASEIN

c. The solution should be heated to 180° F. in a double

boiler for twenty minutes with constant stirring to drive
out all excess ammonia gas. There should be no anrnio-
niacal smell left in the casein syrup.

d. Cool the solution at once to room temperature

and add the Dowicide A.

Preparing the Colors

The pigments (all those that are permanent in aquarelle and

gouache) may be ground first in water and then tempered with
casein binder. If the artist prefers, he may grind his color di-
rectly in the binder, usinga spatula to combine the pigment with
the casein solution. Such colors do not keep well in storage, and
only enough for one session's work should be ground at one time.

Supports and Grounds

Like the other traditional water-thinned paints, casein colors

should be used on rigid supports, such as panels of wood or
Presdwood, rag cardboard, or on flexible supports, such as rag
paper or linen, that have been mounted on a rigid backing. If the
paint is used in thin layers, unmounted heavy paper will be satis-

factory, but heavier paint films will crack on a flexible support.

The mounted paper or cardboard requires no ground. Glue
or casein gesso is used as a ground on the other supports. In an
emergency, zinc white, ground in casein for use as a color, will
serve instead of the usual gesso ground to coat a surface. No im-
primatura is necessary to reduce the absorbency of the gesso. If a
toned ground is desired, it can be obtained by a wash of casein
color applied to the finished ground.

Painting Methods

Sable or bristle brushes may be employed, with water serving as a

thinner. The brush should be well moistened, and enough water
should always be used to thin the paint. The palette is usually
made of glass or enameled metal. The colors are often handled
like distemper or gouache, with a moderate impasto. They can be
 CASEIN I
179
thinned to a wash consistency that approximates aquarelle. Casein
can be used more easily than gum and glue paints for indirect
effects because a layer of casein color will not easily dissolve when
a second coat is painted over it. Thus, it is possible to build up
passages in opaque solid casein color, which can be gone over in
a few minutes with very watery glazelike washes, without dis-
turbing the first layer of paint. The colors dry to a matte surface.
Acrylic resin emulsions or emulsions of polyvinyl acetate can be
combined with casein color to increase the latter's water resistance
and flexibility. This is most easily done by adding these materials
to the water diluent in the palette cup. Brushes should be cleaned
after each working period in the usual way with soap and water
and then well rinsed in clear water. Once they harden, casein
colors cannot easily be washed from palette or brushes. Colors that
have dried on the palette cannot be moistened again and re-used.

Care and Display

Casein paintings may be shown under glass, or after they have

dried well they may be varnished with a thin picture varnish.

CASEIN EMULSIONS
Casein solution can serve as an emulsifier for fatty ingredients;
for example, it can replace the egg in emulsion paints. Mixed di-

rectly with linseed oil, casein produces emulsion paints that turn
quite yellow, though they brush out well. Therefore, casein is

usually emulsified with wax, oleoresinous balsams, such as Venice

turpentine, or heavy resin varnishes, such as dammar.
On the other hand, casein colors and oil colors may be directly
combined to produce rapid-drying paints. The procedure is to add
I volume of casein color to i volume of oil paint as it comes from

the tube. These should be well mixed with a palette knife on the
palette. These paints may be thinned with casein solution or
casein emulsions made with wax, resins, or balsams such as those
mentioned in the preceding paragraph. I have not observed the
slightest yellowing of such combinations of a studio-made casein
white with an oil white.
Colors may be purchased ground in casein and packaged in
I 8O I
CASEIN

tubes. Also, casein is the usual binder for those prepared liquid
gesso products that are not made of synthetic resins. Such com-
mercial products contain additional materials to prevent harden-
ing in the container and some sort of preservative to prevent
spoilage. Some brands composed of emulsions of casein and
are
another material, usually a natural or a synthetic resin, added to

improve flexibility or brushing qualities. Commercial casein colors

generally behave well, although sometimes they do not stand up
perfectly in storage. This is true of many other water-thinned
paints, such as gouache, which also will occasionally harden in
the tube. It should be added that isolated samples of commercial
casein tempera paints have darkened considerably, so test swatches
of commercial products should be made and checked.
The above-mentioned materials are not to be confused with in-
expensive house paints that contain casein. These house paints
perform their function admirably, but they are not made to meet
an artist's requirements.

^. A
 8

Encaustic Wax Painting

The Greek painting of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.

classic

is said tohave been a wax technique. Portraits made in the first

century a.d. with wax paints have been found in the Fayum
district of Egypt. They are in excellent condition today. Techniques

involving the use of melted wax as a binding medium for paint

were in common use until the eighth century a.d. Although they
were displaced during the Middle Ages by painting methods that
required less equipment, the wax techniques have been revived

periodically during the last century and have interested many con-
temporary painters because of their distinctive character and their
several advantages over the other techniques. (Illustrations, plates

25, 26, 27.)

In encaustic painting, hot melted wax, usually combined with
small percentages of varnish or linseed oil, replaces the more
familiar tempera or oil binders. The pigments are combined with
the wax while it is in a warm liquid state. The colors are applied
to the support with brushes or spatulas and harden immediately
as they cool. Heat is often applied to the picture surface to remelt
the wax colors so that the various layers of paint become fused to

the ground. Such pictures do not darken or yellow at all with age.
They remain damage, decay, and many of the
resistant to moisture
chemical agents that cause the deterioration of oil or tempera

paintings. Surfaces in encaustic painting may be developed from

highest impasto to the thinnest glaze, from matte effects to bur-
nished brilliance, from clearest transparency to complete opacity. In
short, encaustic wax technique is adaptable to a very wide range
of stylistic effects and is a highly permanent medium.
I 82 I
ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING

Equipment (Illustration, plate 28)

BRISTLE BRUSHES

SPATULAS or
PALETTE KNIVES

ENCAUSTIC PALETTE

In order to keep his wax colors fluid, the encaustic painter uses
a metal palette somewhat like a griddle, which is kept evenly
warm (at about 225°?.). In the past, charcoal stoves were used
to heat the palette,making the apparatus bulky and inconvenient.
Today, electric-heating elements are used to construct a convenient
and easily controlled palette of the following description. A hol-
low steel box, about i8"X24"X2", is fastened to the top of a two-
burner electric hot plate, which should have a switch controlling
high, medium, and low heat. The top surface of the steel box,
which can be constructed by a sheet metal worker, should
easily
be of 54 '' stock, while the remaining sides may be of lighter gauge
steel or iron. The hollow box provides a 2" air space between the

hot plate and the top of the box so that the heavy metal can be
heated evenly without hot spots. The switch is usually set at "high"
and then kept
for about fifteen minutes of preliminary heating,
at "low" to maintain an even working temperature of around
200° F. Smaller electric palettes can be bought ready to use.^

BURNiNG-iN TOOL a heat lamp mounted in a bowl reflector.

Materials

PIGMENTS all pigments permanent in oil or water

techniques may be safely used in encaustic.

BINDER pure bleached white beeswax is best. It

may be obtained from a dnig store,

dammar varnish, 5-pound cut

sun-thickened Unseed oil

Venice turpentine.

THINNER pure gum spirits of turpentine or mineral

spirits.

1 See "Sources of Supply" page 251.

 ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING | I 83

Binder

The binder for encaustic is made by combining beeswax with a

resin or an oil. The wax alone is not sufficiently hard or tough to
resist heat or abrasion.

WAX-RESIN BINDER
8 parts by volume melted beeswax
i^ parts byvolume dammar varnish
J/2 part by volume Venice turpentine

WAX-OIL BINDER
8 parts by volume melted beeswax
2 parts by volume sun-thickened linseed oil

At the beginning of a session's work the wax can be melted in a

tin container and the varnish or oil added to it. The proportion of
the ingredients can be varied slightly according to the preference
of the artist. Oil or resin has been used up to 30 per cent of the
total without changing the character of the paint. Some painters
combine both oil and resin with the wax. The mixture will solidify
in the tin if it is removed from heat and needs only to be put back
on the stove to be liquefied. Although it will keep in usable condi-
tion for a time, it is better to make a fresh batch for each day's
work, so that the oil in the mixture is always fresh.

Preparing the Colors

Dry pigments are combined with the binder on the warm encaustic
palette. The melted wax-resin or wax-oil binder is added to the

dry colors and quickly mixed to a smooth consistency with a spatula.

If any of the pigments are too granular or rough to combine easily

with the hot binder, they may be first mixed to a stiff paste consist-
ency with turpentine or mineral spirits and stored in jars. Small

amounts of such pigment pastes can then be put on the palette and
combined with the melted wax-resin or wax-oil binder. This would
correspond to the tempering of a pigment-water paste in the tem-
pera technique. Once a batch of color has been mixed with a wax
184 I
ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING

binder, it can be kept on top of the heated palette in small tin

cans or in compartmented mufiin tins, so that good-sized batches

of liquid color will be available if they are needed.
Alternatively, the color may be prepared and stored in the form
of large tablets, using only melted wax without any resin or oil. To
do this, dry pigment is added to melted wax on the hot palette,
and the mixture is put into tins to cool. Such tablets or sticks can
be stored indefinitely and remelted as needed. When the artist
wishes to use one, he simply rubs it on the hot palette until a
sufficient puddle of color is melted. At this point he must add his
oil or resin to the liquid wax color. After a brief mixing with the
spatula, this is applied to the panel. The tablets may be made
using either a single pigment plus wax or combinations of several
pigments and wax. Tablets containing pigments and wax, plus
oils and resins, have been made, but sometimes they handle or
dry badly — possibly because the oil ages.

Supports and Grounds

It is my opinion that unless the wax binder contains heavy

amounts of linseed oil, the safest support for encaustic painting
is a rigid panel, such as wood or Presdwood. Although canvas,
primed with a very lean oil ground, has been used successfully
with encaustic paints that have a wax-oil binder, such paintings
must be kept quite thin. Furthermore, they should be displayed,
stored, and shipped with care that they are not exposed to vigorous
changes of temperature. In cold temperature, or under any cir-

cumstances that cause the support to flex or move, the painting

will crack. Since very can avoid the temptation to paint
few artists

in moderately heavy layers in wax technique, and still fewer can

control the conditions of shipping and displaying of their works,
and since the limits of safe practice are so much more restricted
when flexible supports are used, it seems to me that rigid supports
are to be preferred. On panels, the ground is glue gesso, which
takes encaustic paint very well. No imprimatura should be applied
since it is desirable for the wax paint to penetrate well into the
ground.
 ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING | I 85

Painting Methods

If the surface of the support is kept warm by means of a heat

lamp, it is possible to apply hot wax paint with a brush and to
rework it wet-in-wet, though with much less facility than is possible
in oil techniques. When the heat is withdrawn the support cools,
and the paint sets immediately.
Alternatively, the paint may be applied to the unheated support.
In this case, the paint hardens as soon as it touches the cool
surface,and so handles more like a fast drying gouache or tempera.
However, in encaustic the artist is not limited to thin layers and
the extremely low impasto of tempera. Glazes and scumbles may
be applied in rapid succession without waiting for the usual dry-
ing period to elapse.
Corrections may easily be made by heating an area and re-
moving softened paint with a spatula, or the hardened paint may
be scraped away with a palette knife or flexible razor blade.
Although the color is liquid and brushable on the warm palette,
it may be thinned further with pure turpentine or mineral spirits.

As must take care to avoid thinning

in all techniques, the artist
the paint to such an extent that the pigment powders off the
surface because it has not enough binder to hold it.
Colors left to harden on the cool palette will become liquid
when the stove is switched on again and can be used during the
next working session. But it must be remembered that the oil con-
tent remains fresh for only a limited time.
and palette can easily be cleaned by warming
Brushes, knives,
them on the palette and then wiping off the paint with a clean
rag. They can be given a final rinse with mineral spirits.

Burning-in

The final step in any encaustic method is the "burning-in." The

painting is placed face up, flat on a table top. A heating lamp
mounted in a bowl reflector is moved back and forth about six
inches above the painted surface until every part of the surface
has been evenly warmed. The wax must be softened enough so
 I 8 6 I
ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING

that the paint layers are fused to each other and to the ground.
Excessive heat may cause bubbling or too much liquefying of the
paint, thus blurring the effect of an area. Strong, but not exces-
sive heat, will cause pigments of lighter weight to rise to the top,
while heavier ones sink. Thus, if a layer of heavy pigment, like

chrome oxide opaque, is painted over a lighter pigment, like

ivory black, it will cover the ivory black completely and opaquely.
Then, when the area is burned in, if enough heat is applied, the

ivory black will begin to float up through the chrome oxide opaque
in a characteristic pattern. The experienced practitioner will pre-
vent this when unwanted, but at other times he can control and
utilize selectively these surface effects, which are typical of encaustic
painting. After the first buming-in, the painting can be reworked,
and then the burning-in process can be repeated. When the bum-
ing-in is finished, the paint hardens to a rich matte surface, which
can be left as the final surface or can be polished with cloths or
brushes to any degree of brilliance. As the paint ages, it becomes
harder and less liable to damage by scratching or melting.

Equipment for Burning-in

The burning-in equipment may consist of nothing more elabomte

than an extension cord, a socket, and a diathermic heat lamp, such
as is sold in drug stores. This can be held at the desired distance
over the picture and will do an adequate job. An old-fashioned
heating lamp, which has a heating coil element mounted in a
copper reflector bowl, spreads heat evenly over a larger area and
may be more useful. (Illustration, plate 29.) The heat lamp can
be suspended with an adjustable cord over a table so that the
lamp can be moved back and forth at a constant height. To ac-
complish this, a set of wood braces can easily be made to support
a curtain rod, the lamp being suspended from the rod and thereby
moved over the picture. If frequent burning-in is called for, this
is a great convenience. More elaborate heating elements can be
made to order, with rheostat controls to increase or decrease the
intensity of heat or to limit the area of application. Blow torches
have been used but are not recommended because of fire hazard.
 ENCAUSTIC WAX PAINTING | I 8 7

Care and Display

Encaustic paintings are not usually varnished. The wax binder pro-
tects the pigments against moisture and atmospheric impurities.
Should it be desirable to protect the painting against surface
grime, a thin final coating of wax paste, made as indicated on
page 190, might be used. As previously noted, encaustic paintings
should not be exposed to extremes of temperature, for cold may
cause them to crack, and extreme heat may soften the paint.
However, many of the general problems in the conservation of oil
and tempera paintings, such as the yellowing, embrittlement, and
gradual oxidizing of drying oils, do not exist in encaustic paint-
ings. If they are suitably protected against careless treatment, they
should remain unchanged for centuries.
 Cold Wax Techniques

Wax may be dissolved in a volatile thinner such as turpentine,

or it may be emulsified in water. By such processing, it becomes a
room temper-
liquid or a paste that will not immediately congeal at
ature and so may be spread with a brush. Such wax pastes or
liquids will not become very hard or tough when they dry, and
for this reason they cannot be used by themselves as paint binders.
However, they have been used for centuries in combinations with
other hardening materials, such as glues and resins, to make bind-
ing and painting mediums. Paints made with such wax combina-
tion mediums exhibit, to varying degrees, the characteristics of wax
paints. They usually dry to a rather silky matte surface, which may
be left as final or may be polished to a waxy gloss after a suitable
drying period; the color key is usually strong and high; when
fresh most of these paints may be annealed or heated slightly to
produce a fused layer of paint and softened edges of color areas;
and when dry they are resistant to moisture and to chemical
change. On the other hand, if they are not used carefully, they
may produce and susceptible to damage
films that are quite soft
by scratching, which dry to brittle states, or that do not adhere to
their grounds as strongly as do the conventional oil or tempera
paints.

WAX EMULSION (SAPONIFIED WAX, WAX SOAP)

Wax can be emulsified in water by the action of a strong alkali.
A creamy white liquid is formed, which will remain in usable
condition for years. It is particularly useful in casein tempera
 .

COLD WAX TECHNIQUES | I 89

emulsions since linseed oil often yellows badly when it is mixed

with casein solution, while wax does not. The wax emulsion is
made in the following way:

1. Boil 6 ounces of water in a clean enameled pot (2-quart

capacity)

2. Break i ounce (av.) of pure white beeswax into small

pieces and drop them into the boiling water.

3.When the wax has melted completely, crush 5/3 ounce (av.)
of ammonium carbonate, mix it to a smooth paste with a little

water, and pour it gradually into the hot water-wax mixture,

stirring it continuously. The mixture will foam and become
milky. Keep heating the mixture and stir it until the foaming
subsides.
Instead of ammonium carbonate, ammonia water may be
substituted. Mix ^2 teaspoon of water with /a teaspoon of high-
strength ammonia water (22° Baume) and add this to the
hot water-wax mixture. Stir for a few minutes.

4. A white creamy emulsion of wax and water is immediately

formed. Drive off all the excess ammonia gas that remains in
the emulsion by heating it gently until no trace of ammoni-
acal odor remains. Stir the emulsion as it is heated.

5. Remove the emulsion from the hot plate and stir it while
it cools. While it is still very liquid pour it into a wide-mouth
glass jar. It will keep in excellent condition for years.

Wax-emulsion Tempera

This saponified wax can be used as an ingredient in tempera

emulsions in place of part of the linseed oil or other fatty material.
It is often recommended as the fatty ingredient for glue or casein
emulsions since it does not yellow. When combined with such
water glues or e.g'^ binder it may be mixed as follows:

I part by volume saponified wax

I part by volume casein or glue solution
1/2 parts by volume water (less may be used)
I 9 O I
COLD WAX TECHNIQUES

Tempera paints made with such wax-glue emulsions may be

thinned with water.
Grounds, equipment, painting methods, and care of the pictures
are the same as those used in the other tempera techniques.

Wax-emulsion Oil Medium

The saponified wax may be mixed with dammar varnish, poppy-
seed oil, or small amounts of Venice turpentine to serve as a
painting medium for oil paints. The pure saponified wax, thinned
only with turpentine, may medium for tube
be used as a paint
oil colors. In wax medium should be added sparingly
all cases, the
to oil paints since heavy amounts of wax will cause the paint to
dry with a rather soft, waxy surface and a somewhat crumbly
film that does not have strong adhesive quality.

WAX PASTE
Another method by which wax may be employed in tempera rec-
ipes, and as an addition to oil colors, is through the use of simple

solutions of wax in turpentine. Melt i ounce (av.) of pure white

beeswax in a clean metal container. When the wax becomes liquid
shut off the hot plate and remove the container to a safe distance
from the stove. Add 3^2 fluid ounces of tuipentine or 2 J/2 fluid
ounces of mineral spirits to the melted wax, stirring the mixture
until it cools and forms a smooth paste. The paste obtained may
be added to tempera recipes as part of the oily ingredients or com-
bined with resins or oils to make a painting medium for oil colors.
It should not be used with oil paints to such an extent that it

causes the color to form films that remain excessively soft. If the
pressure of a fingernail can still easily dent or scratch the surface
after it has dried for two or three months, either too much wax
was used in the painting medium in proportion to the other resins
and oils, or too much medium was employed on the palette in
proportion to the oil paint.
 10

Fresco Painting

The procedure appKing colors to a wall of damp fresh lime

of
plaster is buon fresco painting. The pigments are usually
called
ground only in water and painted thinly on the fresh plaster.
As the plaster dries, the pigment particles are locked into the sur-
face of the wall. Examples of the fresco technique survive from
the Minoan period {1700 b.c), the Pompeian period (100 b.c. to
A.D. 79)5 and, of course, from the Renaissance. Contemporary

fresco methods have not departed in any fundamental technical

way from the ancient practices. More than any other painting
technique, fresco painting has been associated with the aesthetic
and technical problems of architectural decoration.
The painting in fresco becomes part of the surface of the wall,
not an additional film. From this fact it derives some of its

strongest advantages. Wlien it is used by an artist who understands

its potential and limitations, it can embellish and emphasize a
wall surface and give the effect of having been made to the exact
requirements of the room in which it has been placed. Because of
the absence of a glossy impasto it can be seen well from many
points in the room without the interference of the annoying glare
that is characteristic of a large varnished oil painting.
The general idea that a fresco must be a crowded, overpowering
painting, involving hundreds of figures posed in heroic attitudes,
ignores a large part of the past production in the medium. Fresco
has served as a vehicle for ideas of great solemnity and fervor, as
I 9 2 I
FRESCO PAINTING
shown in the great Pompeian murals at the Villa dei Misteri, but
it has also produced decorative, almost chic, effects in some of the
Minoan frescoes at ' Knossos. The variety of effects possible in
fresco is easily demonstrated by a comparison of the Mantegna
frescoes in the Camera degli Sposi in Mantua, the Pompeian
frescoes of putti in the house of Vettii, Goya's frescoes in the dome
of the church of San Antonio de la Florida, and the murals of
Orozco. (Illustrations, plates 30, 31.)
The difficulties and limitations of fresco are perhaps better
known than the advantages of the medium. They too derive from
the role of the wet lime plaster in the painting procedure. First of
all, the fresco palette is limited to those colors that are not affected
by the strong alkaline action of the lime in the plaster. Also, since
the pigments are not encased in a wax or oil binder, they are
somewhat vulnerable to atmospheric impurities, such as hydrogen
sulfide, and thus still more pigments are eliminated from the fresco

palette. In addition, the colors change considerably as the plaster

dries out, and it requires more advance calculation to judge the
ultimate color effect than is needed in many other techniques. Also,
one can work in true fresco only as long as the plaster remains
wet, and, therefore, corrections and second thoughts are some-
what more troublesome to execute in this medium than in others.
Finally, the fresco is, in almost all cases, permanently installed in
the building and so is only as permanent as the wall on which it

is painted. Moving a fresco is a much

problem thangreater
moving an easel picture. Consequently, wartime destruction and
peacetime redecoration have taken a considerable toll of the im-
portant frescoes of the past.
Since the fresco technique involves important differences from
conventional easel painting at every step of the procedure, it is

best learned by firsthand apprenticeship to an experienced fresco

painter. The following account of fresco painting is intended only
as a general outline of the technique which may serve to interest
some painters in its possibilities. Mr. Olle Nordmark's book, Fresco
Painting, gives a detailed account of the tools, materials, methods,
and equipment of the fresco painter. A knowledge of these details
is necessary to anyone who wishes to undertake serious work in
the medium.
 FRESCO PAINTING | I
93

THE WALL
The wall that supports the plaster for fresco painting is usually
made of either brick or metal lath. It should be separated by an air
space from the outside wall of the building and so constructed
that no moisture seeps through it to the painted plaster. It must
be evenly absorbent and rough enough to afford a key or mechani-
cal bond to the mortar that is to be put on it.

Brick Walls

Brick walls should be cleaned of all old plaster. The mortar be-
tween the bricks must be cut back to a depth of about one
quarter inch below the face of the brick. If the bricks are very
smooth, they should be hacked to roughen them with a hammer
made for the purpose. This is unnecessary in the case of walls
made of hollow clay tiles with a grooved surface. Bricks that have
been baked to a dull violet color, instead of to the usual bright
earth-red tone, will not be as absorbent. Where possible, they
should be replaced with the regular absorbent bricks. Bricks some-
times show a white deposit on their surface. This efflorescence
is caused by moisture penetrating the brick and bringing out of
it salts, such as sodium sulfate, gypsum, and other ma-
various
terials.These come to the surface as a whitish moldlike deposit
which can work its way through the plaster and ruin a fresco
painting. Therefore, all bricks of this sort should be removed and
replaced before the wall is prepared for painting. Finally, the brick
wall should be thoroughly hosed down with water several times,
after which the mortar is applied.

New Walls

When a new wall can be constructed for a fresco inside an old

building wall, the danger from seepage and efflorescence is greatly
reduced. The old building wall is cleaned and waterproofed by
giving it two coats of asphalt waterproofing compound, and
wooden 2''X4'' framing, called furring strips, are nailed to it. To
19 4 I
FRESCO PAINTING
the furring strips are nailed screens of galvanized heavy metal lath
on which the mortar will be applied.

THE MORTAR
The mortar used to surface the wall for fresco painting is most

important since it corresponds to the gesso or oil ground in

other techniques. The ingredients of the mortar and the way in
which it is applied to the wall determine the durability of the
final picture, the length of time the artist will have to finish his
painting, and the final surface texture of the fresco. High-calcium
lime is the binder of the mortar. To it are added various aggregates,
namely brick dust, fine sand, marble dust, or marble meal. The
fresco painter normally works with a mason or helper who can
take expert care of the plastering operations. But since the re-
quirements for the fresco wall are quite different from those for
the normal building wall, the artist must know the process
thoroughly so that he may intelligently supervise and control the
preparation of materials and the production of the wall on which
he is to work.

The Lime
The best lime is made by burning calcium carbonate, found in na-
ture in the form of limestone, marble, chalk, and shells. This burnt
lime becomes calcium oxide and is called caustic lime, quick lime,
or hot lime. It may be purchased from dealers in building supplies,
in either lump or powder form, under the name of high calcium
lime. It should contain no clay, magnesia, or gypsum, since these
may impair the setting qualities of the plaster or may cause efflores-

cence. Powdered lime is to be preferred to lump lime. When water

is added to quick lime or calcium oxide, it is changed to calcium
hydroxide or slaked lime. This slaked lime, when properly aged,
takes on the plastic putty consistency that makes a superior mortar.
When the slaked lime putty is applied to a wall, it first sets by evap-
oration of the water content and then absorbs carbon dioxide from
the air and returns once more to its original form of calcium car-
bonate. When it absorbs the carbon dioxide, it forms on its surface a
 k' : ^^^^^:^;^
Lady with Earrings (detail), Egyptian Fayum (second
25. Portrait of
century a.d.).Wax paint on wood panel, 14" x 7". Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The high expressive quality
and unfaded condition of such portraits as this one, painted with waxes
more than 1700 years ago, has been an incentive for nineteenth- and
twentieth-century artists to attempt the reconstruction of the
encaustic-wax technique. (See page 181.)
 by Karl Zerbe (1903-
26. Still-life with Fruit, 1940, ). Encaustic wax on

Presdwood, 29" x 40". Collection of Mr. and Mrs. John J. Wilson,

Boston, Massachusetts. Adapting the ancient hot-wax technique to modern
implements and materials, Karl Zerbe used the encaustic method for
contemporary purposes. Short, quick-drying touches are contrasted with
softer effects, which are achieved by remelting the surface of the
wax painting. (See page 181.)

27. Still-life with Fruit.

Detail of fruit.
28. The encaustic stove shown here is heated by a two-burner electric
hot plate. Bolted to the electric stove, a shallow steel box serves as the mixing
surface for the artist's pigments and the hot wax binder. (See page 182.)
29. An electric heating lamp with a bowl-shaped reflector can be used to
"burn in" the encaustic surface. Other metal reflectors can be designed to
concentrate the heat over smaller areas. (See page 186 )
30. Hercules, by Piero della Francesca (circa 1420-92) Fresco, 59/2" x 49/2''..
.

Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, Boston, Massachusetts. The Hercules

is painted in earth pigments probably mixed with lime white or
bianco sangiovanni. The anatomical detail in the figure is conveyed through
closely related tones, which are quite light even in the shadows, keeping
the figure's silhouette effective as mural design. (See page 192.)
 I

31. The Prophecy of Uuetzalcoatl (detail), 1934, by Jose Clementc Orozco

(1883-1949). Fresco. Baker Library, Dartmouth College, Hanover,
New Hampshire. By permission of the Trustees of Dartmouth College.
This example of twentieth-century fresco, picturing The Prophecy of
Quetzalcoatl, shows the use of transparent washes more than the adjoining
areas, which arc given a heavier, more direct opacity. The section is
fitted around the architectural moldings of the room, accommodating its

pattern to the wall space. (See page 192.)

32. After the Bath, circa 1895, by Hilaire Germain Edgar Degas
(1834-1917). Pastel on cardboard, 28" x 22^". Fogg Art Museum,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. The pastel color is built up
both in wide strokes and in shorter touches, but the large effect of light
and structure is never lost. The color is modified by the vibration of one set of
strokes loosely applied over another, rather than by excessive blending.
(See pages 228, 237.)
33. Gilder's clay or bole is mixed with rabbitskin glue and painted in several
thin layers over the smooth gesso wherever gold leaf is to be laid.
The mixture should be the consistency of heavy house paint, and it is

applied with a soft flat sable brush. (See page 241.)

34. The gold leaf is by means of a wide brush called a gilder's tip and
lifted
deposited on the smoothly finished bole. A mixture of water and alcohol
is brushed over the bole just before the gold leaf is laid on it. The glue in the

bole becomes sticky again just long enough to fasten the gold to the panel.
(See page 241.)
 FRESCO PAINTING | I
9 5

porous mass of calcium carbonate crystals called a lime crust. It is

this lime crust that holds the pigments of the fresco painting in the
surface of the wall.

Making the Lime Putty

The quick lime is carefully combined with water in a wooden
trough until a fairly liquid consistency of slaked lime is attained,
a long-handled hoe being used to mix them together. Considerable
heat is given off and care should be taken to avoid bums while
mixing the lime with water. The slaked lime is then shoveled
into a storage pit so that it may age as long as possible, several
years when practical. The structural quality of lime putty improves
continuously with age, and aging is a further guarantee that there
are no unslaked clumps of quick lime left in the mixture, which
could cause trouble later. Aged lime putty may be bought from
suppliers of construction materials, but further aging in a pit will
improve it. When the lime putty is stored, it must be covered.
Storage pits should be dug in the earth well below the frost line
to keep the putty from freezing. The pit should be lined with
sand and gravel, and the storage box and cover, constructed of
tongue and groove wooden boards, is put down into it. After
the lime putty is shoveled from the trough into the storage box,
water is poured over the mixture and left standing to prevent its

drying, the cover is put on, and earth is shoveled back over it.

In the past, European masons often used lime twenty-five to

fifty years old, each generation of masons putting down a new
batch of slaked lime, so that succeeding generations would have
a replenished supply of well-aged lime putty.

The Aggregates
Inert aggregates are added to the lime putty to give the mortar
strengthand stability. Lime putty by itself would shrink too
much and would crack. Sand, marble dust, or particles of crushed
brick or unglazed tile can serve as aggregates, slightly coarser
material being used in the lower coats of mortar and the finer
aggregates in the top layers. The sand should be sharp, free of
196 I
FRESCO PAINTING

clay, loam, gypsum, or mica. Aggregate materials should settle

to the bottom of a jar of water without leaving the water cloudy.

If they are not clean, they must be washed on a screen with a
hose and spread out again to dry. They should be stored in
clean burlap sacks for if they are piled on the ground, they may
pick up impurities which might later cause efflorescence. Marble
dust or marble meal, if obtained from a sculptor, should be
checked with a magnet for particles of tool steel which could
The sand or other aggregate must be dry when
rust in the fresco.
it iscombined with the lime putty since a coating of water on a
grain of sand would prevent the lime from sticking closely to it.

Mixing the Mortar

The following remarks on sand mortar apply as well to mortar
made with other aggregates. The sand and lime are combined in
r, clean wooden trough. First, the sand is measured in by the
pailful. If the lime putty has been stored a long time, a thin
lime crust may have formed on its top surface, and this should
be removed. It is then strained into the mixing trough through
a sieve or screen to catch all lumps and bits of crust. The putty
will make a very dry mixture with the sand, but no water should
be added at this point. The sand and lime putty must be
thoroughly hoed and chopped together and can then be left to
combine for a day or so in a covered trough. Only when the
mason is ready to lay it on the wall are small amounts of water
added gradually to bring the mortar to a usable consistency.
Water can be added to the mortar only after the sand is intimately
combined with the lime putty for otherwise the sand particles
would become surrounded with an envelope of water, which would
interfere with the perfect contact of the lime with the sand.

PLASTERING THE WALL

The wall is covered with four different layers of mortar com-
position. Their combined thickness
will usually be not less than
one and one half inches, and ancient Italian grounds have been
as heavy as four inches. The heavier the wall, the longer it keeps
its moisture, and the more time the painter has to do his work.
 FRESCO PAINTING | I
Q7
Contemporary recipes for grounds are much like those described

by the Roman architect Vitruvius (circa first century e.g.).

1. The first layer is called the rough cast, scratch coat, or

trullisatio. It is usually made with a coarse aggregate.

I part lime

3 parts filler (coarse sand, crushed brick, or tile)

2. The second coat is called the brown coat, or arriciato.

I part lime
2j4 parts filler (coarse sand or coarse marble meal)

3. The third coat is called the sand finish, or arenato.

I part lime
2 parts filler (finer sand or marble dust)

4. The final coat, called the intonaco, is the coat on which

the fresco painting is executed.

I part lime
I part filler (fine sand or marble dust)

Thus, the mortar goes from coarse to fine and from lean to
fat, producing a wall of maximum strength in which the layers
cohere most effectively. As the moisture begins to evaporate each
layer sets initially. After a longer period, usually about eight
hours, the lime crust of calcium carbonate forms on its surface.
A new application of mortar cannot hold well to a smooth layer
of mortar on which a lime crust has formed. For this reason, the
layers of mortar will adhere to each other best if each coat of
mortar is laid "wet-in-wet" on the previous layer before the lime
crust forms on the wall. If this is impossible, the lower layer of
mortar ought to be laid with a very rough surface so that it will
afford a good mechanical grip to the new layer of mortar. In all
cases, the wall must be thoroughly moistened before a new layer of

mortar is appHed. One must wait until the wall, though moist, has
no water standing on its surface, before troweling on the mortar.
I 9 8 I
FRESCO PAINTING

The Rough Cast .{Trullis alio)

On a brick or hollow-tile wall that has been well soaked by

repeated hosing with water, the rough cast is thrown, about
j4"-%" thick, depending on the roughness and absorbency of the
wall. The mortar is made of i part lime to 3 parts dry sand or
filler.

1. The mortar should be fairly stiff, clinging to a tilted

trowel.

2. The mortar
thrown from a throwing trowel held
is

about a foot and a half from the wall. It is thrown with a

sidewise motion; that is, diagonally from the mason's left to
his right, so as not to spatter back in his face and so that
bubbles will not be caught too easily in the application.

3. The mortar is leveled with a straight edge plank and

then scratched evenly and deeply in all directions with a
metal scratching comb to make a grooved rough surface to
which subsequent coats will cling well.

4. The wall is sprayed with water before it sets.

If unglazed pottery, red tile, or bricks are crushed to the size

of small peas and substituted for 30 per cent of the sand in this
coat, it will increase the water retention and toughness of the
ground as well as its roughness of surface. In this case, the
scratch-combing of the surface may be omitted.
When lath supports are used, goat's hair or fibers are some-
times added in small amounts to keep the mortar that has been
squeezed through the lath from dropping off while it is still wet.
Such fibers should be soaked in the lime putty for a day or longer
to rid them of oils and impurities.

The Brown Coat [Arriciato)

The brown coat is laid over the rough cast. The total thick-
ness of the two coats combined is usually around one inch. The
 FRESCO PAINTING | I
9Q

mortar is made of i part lime to 2^ parts of coarse sand. Coarse

marble meal may replace some of the sand.

1. The rough cast must be thoroughly wet before the

brown coat is applied.

2. The brown coat may be put on in two installments. First,

a layer called a skim coat, prepared by diluting the brown

coat mortar slightly with water, is applied evenly and thinly.
This insures better adhesion and more convenient application
of the brown coat to the rough cast.

3. When the skim coat has set slightly, a more substantial

amount of the brown coat mortar is applied over it.

4. Finally, the surface is scratched with the comb in all

directions to provide a good tooth for the layers to follow.

The Sand Finish

This coat is applied over the brov^Ti coat and is usually about

J4" thick. The mortar is made of i part lime to 2 parts finer

sand. Marble dust may be substituted for part of the sand.

1. The sand finish is applied over the brown coat as soon

as the brown coat has and is both hard enough
set initially

to be worked over and enough to be slightly dented by

soft
the pressure of a finger. If for some reason the brown coat
should be allowed to dry completely, it must be thoroughly
soaked with water before the sand-finish coat is applied.

2. The sand-finish coat, like the brown coat, may be put

on in two operations: first, a thin skim coat, and then over
the damp skim coat a heavier application of the mortar.

3. Finally, the sand-finish coat is given its characteristic

surface by means of a float.

The float is a smooth wooden shingle about 4^X1 2" with a

handle mounted to one of the flat faces. After the sand-finish
coat has been leveled and smoothed with the trowel and set
enough to stand pressure, the surface is spattered with water by
2 I
FRESCO PAINTING
means of a wide plasterer's brush. The float is dipped in a bucket
of water, so that it will not stick to the wall, and is rubbed
over the wall in a 'scouring circular motion until the surface is

polished smooth. Only wooden floats may be used, never those

surfaced with felt or carpet for the greater absorbency of these
materials will pull out the lime and deposit it unevenly on the
wall.

The Intonaco
The final layer of mortar, the intonaco, which is to receive the
fresco painting, is applied about Yq' thick. The mortar is made of
I part lime to i part fine sand or marble dust.
Fresco colors will hold only if they are applied to the intonaco
while it is fresh. Once the lime crust forms on the intonaco all

painting must cease. Therefore, the size of the area over which the
artist lays his intonaco must be limited by the amount of painting
he can finish before the plaster begins to dry solidly. It is usual to
work in sections, starting at the top of the wall, to avoid spattering
finished work.
The sand finish on the section of the wall to be painted is wet
thoroughly several times. After a brief wait for the water to be
absorbed into the plaster, the wall is ready to receive the intonaco.
As in the preceding coats, the intonaco mortar may be applied in
two or even three very thin layers, their total not to exceed J^".

1. The very thin skim coat is laid on and scoured with

the float to cut into the lime crust of the sand-finish coat. The
upper coat of intonaco must be laid on before the skim coat
has hardened completely.

2.The mortar is surfaced like the sand finish with a float.

It may be smoothed still more by means of a metal smoothing
trowel if the artist desires a highly polished surface. After the
area has been surfaced, it is ready for the painting.

SKETCHES, CARTOONS, AND TRANSFER TRACINGS

Color sketches of the mural are made to scale proportion of the
wall. The sketches are best executed in a water medium, such
 FRESCO PAINTING | 2 1

as distemper or gouache, using only those pigments that are

permanent in fresco (pages 202-3). Next, studies are made and
enlarged to the full size of the mural. Detail paper, or heavy brown
wrapping paper, is used for these drawings, called cartoons, and
in the case of large murals, a nimibered grid system serves to
relate the sections of the cartoon to corresponding grid sections of
the wall. Tracings from the cartoon are made on heavy tracing
paper, and the traced lines perforated at intervals with a metal
point or a perforating wheel. Then, the tracing is hung plumb
and level over the damp, firm intonaco. A cloth bag of powdered
charcoal is carefully dusted or "pounced" over the perforated lines,
thus transferring the drawing to the plaster. An alternative method
is to leave the tracing unperforated and to go over the lines with

a wooden point, so that an incised line will be left on the fresh

plaster.

Before applying the intonaco some artists trace or "pounce"

the entire cartoon lightly on the sand-finish coat (the last coat
before the intonaco). Then, with the design of the entire wall
indicated on the sand-finish coat, it is easier for the artist, as he
paints on each section of intonaco, to keep the smaller areas
related to his total pictorial plan. Excess charcoal should be
dusted off the surface of the sand-finish coat before the intonaco
is laid over it. By limiting his drawing to a light trace, the
painter lessens the risk of interfering with the adhesion of the
intonaco to the sand finish.

Until the middle of the fifteenth century, Italian fresco painters

main forms in their compo-
frequently painted the outlines of the
on the sand finish before applying their intonaco sections.
sitions

The pigment often employed for these compositional guides was

a red-earth color called sinopia. Some of these preliminary brush
drawings on the sand finish have become visible when the in-
tonaco over them flaked off as a result of faulty adhesion. Other
sinopia drawings have been revealed as conservators have skillfully
removed from hazardous locations by peeling the
early frescoes
paintings with their intonacos from their sand-finish surfaces.
Practice panels are very useful to help an artist familiarize
himself with the right methods for handling the mortar and with
the behavior of the colors on the intonaco. Experienced painters
sometimes make use of these panels to work out important de-
tail sections of a large mural. Such a panel can be made by
202 FRESCO PAINTING
building a strong wooden frame out of 2^X1 54" stock and
nailing metal lath across the back of it. If the panel is large, it

may be braced behind the lath with wooden cross pieces. It then
should be plastered as described in the preceding sections, with
the intonaco brought flush with the front edge of the wooden
frame. Occasionally, when it is not practical or convenient to
paint the fresco in the room for which it is intended, similar
panels are made and painted in the artist's studio and later
installed in a wall.

PIGMENTS AND EQUIPMENT FOR FRESCO PAINTING

Pigments for fresco painting should be resistant to the strong
alkali action of lime and must also set well in the plaster lest
they powder off like pastel.
The following pigments can be used:

BLACK Ivory black

Mars black

YELLOW Cadmium yellow, deep —sometimes suggested

but it should be checked for fading.
Mars yellow
Raw sienna
Yellow ocher

RED Cadmium red —recommended by some artists,

questioned by others. I have seen examples

used in indoor frescoes that have remained
in good condition over ten years.
Earth reds (English, Indian, light red,
Venetian)
Mars red
Pozzuoli red —when genuine it is like a cement.
Other colors may not set well over it.

Therefore, it should be used only in top

layers of a fresco painting.

BLUE Cerulean blue

Cobalt blue
Ultramarine blue — if of good quality it should
not react to lime, but may bleach out
 FRESCO PAINTING | 2 O 3

because of the action of polluted air

containing dilute acids. It is not
recommended for fresco, though it has stood
up in interiors in clean country air
unpolluted by corrosive city smoke.

GREEN Chrome oxide opaque

Cobalt green
Terre verte
Viridian

VIOLET Cobalt violet —should be tested before use

for its setting action in lime. The poisonous
cobalt violet (cobalt arsenate) should be
avoided.
Mars violet
Ultramarine red and violet —under same
limitations as ultramarine blue.

BROWN Burnt sienna

Burnt umber —sometimes sets badly and
powders off wall.

Raw umber
WHriE Lime putty
Titanium dioxide
Bianco sangiovanni —the preparation of this
white is described by Cennini. It is still

considered most appropriate white for fresco

technique by many painters.

A note on the making of bianco sangiovanni:

1. Little cakes of well-aged lime putty are put out in the

air to dry solid.

2. When thoroughly hardened they are crushed, ground

to a smooth paste with a little water, and made again into
cakes which are set out to dry again. The whole process is
repeated two or three times. At this point, the lime should
have thoroughly combined with carbon dioxide, like a dry
mortar wall, and should have no more binding power.

3. The cakes should be ground v^dth water to a creamy

2 4 I
FRESCO PAINTING
consistency by means of a muller and grinding slab. The
mixture should be strained several times through a brass
screen and will then be ready to use.

On a glass slab all colors are ground with distilled water to

paste consistency, using a muller or a spatula. Then, like pastes
for egg tempera painting, they can be stored in clean screw-top
jars. A little water should be gently poured over the top of the
paste to keep it from drying out. The jar covers should be made
of plastic, rather than metal, so that they will not rust.

Toob and Brushes

The bristle brushes used by the fresco painter are longer and
softer than the usual oil painting brushes. Sable brushes are also
used. Sponges, wide- wetting brushes, a hand sprayer, and trowel-
shaped palette knives are necessary equipment. Enameled light
metal palettes, with indentations for colors, can be purchased, but
for mixing colors, many painters prefer cheap china plates, which
they discard after use. Similarly, cheap mugs and glasses can
serve as expendable paint pots. A muller and ground-glass slab,

plus the usual spatulas, are employed to grind colors that are too
rough for use.

PAINTING PROCEDURE
The actual development of a painting procedure is of course a
matter of experiment and selection for each individual artist.

As is the case with other unfamiliar media, such as encaustic

wax painting or synthetic resin painting, the painter must anticipate
a period of apprenticeship until he finds those qualities in the
material that he wishes to exploit and emphasize. Some painters
work very spontaneously, improvising and changing plans as they
progress. Others will not put a brush to the wall until every
detail of drawing, pattern, and color has been tested in cartoon
and color study. Technically, however, the same process goes on as
the wall dries, affecting all modes of fresco painting. Individual
painters utilize and emphasize different aspects of the process.
 FRESCO PAINTING | 2 O5

The main points in the painting procedure can be summarized

as follows:

1. The section of plaster intonaco must be given a little

time to set (about twenty minutes to one half hour) before

it can be painted upon.

2. The cartoon drawing is transferred to the intonaco by

"pouncing" or incising.

3. The first washes of color, ground only in distilled water,

can be set in, as in water color. They can be thinned with
water to the lightest wash, letting the white intonaco show
through to make the color luminous and transparent.

4. If several thin washes of the same color are laid one

over the other, the color effect becomes darker, more opaque,
and intense. The moisture of the color wash must be allowed
to sink into the plaster before the area is repainted.

5. Painters who wish to obtain light colors through mix-

tures with opaque white, rather than through transparent
washes, can mix the colors with lime putty or bianco sangio-
vanni. Both of these whites tend to be transparent when
wet and become intensely white when they dry. Thus, as in
gouache and distemper painting, the artist must allow for
a lightening of tone when he mixes his colors with these
whites. Some painters make up such mixtures in advance and
test each of them on an absorbent scrap of white wood, or

a test brick painted with lime putty, to see what color it

will have when dry. Then they keep in a jar enough of the
color mixture to cover the area for which it is intended.
Other painters simply mix the colors on the palette as they
progress, much in the same way as they do in gouache or
distemper. Titanium dioxide mixed with lime putty registers
its final more quickly than lime putty alone and is
value
preferred by some artists.
By adding lime putty to the colors, one adds not only a
white but also an increased amount of lime binder, making,
in effect, a colored mortar. Such colors may be applied to
the intonaco as impasto strokes and will hold their relief
2 O 6 I
FRESCO PAINTING
well. Heavy impasto application of pigments, ground only in
water, will powder off.

6. It is possible to glaze over layers of color containing

lime white by going quickly and lightly over them with trans-
parent washes of colors ground only in water. Care must be
taken to apply such glazes before the underpainting sets hard
—
and forms a lime crust othen\ise, they may not hold. Con-
versely, whenever possible it is a safer pracdce to set accents
of opaque colors. mLxed with lime putty, over transparent
washes. These remarks also hold true for painting over mix-
tures containing Pozzuoli red.

7. Colors such as umber, cobalt violet, and black, which

set badly in lime, should be put in while the plaster is still

fairly fresh to give them as much time as possible to settie well

into the wall.

8. Lime water may be substituted for ordinary' water as a

thinner for the fresco colors. It is prepared by mixing four
parts water with one part of lime putty. The mixture is

allowed to stand until the water separates from the lime.

It is then poured off and once more allowed to stand until
it is completely clear. Such lime water forms a lime crust
and acts as a binder as well as a thinner. Colors mixed with
it will dry whiter since the lime water, like the lime putty,
acts to some extent as a white pigment.

9. In general, color application should be vigorous and

decisive. More quickly in fresco than in other techniques,
areas that are worked too long, with no clear purpose in
mind, become toiTnented and muddy in appearance. It is

especially important not to stir up the intonaco by aimless

reworking with the brush, for the lime will mix with the color
and cause streaks.

10. Before it sets, the surface of the picture may be polished

by means of a trowel, a metal roller, or a smooth cylindric
glass bottle. This gives a greater depth to some of the dark
colors. Care must be taken not to do this while the intonaco
is so wet as to allow the lime to move and cause streaks.
 FRESCO PAINTING | 2 O 7

11. As the intonaco ground becomes drier, the wall begins

to suck the color from the brush. This is a sign that carbona-
tion of the plaster is beginning. The intonaco dries, combines
with carbon dioxide, and begins to form the lime crust
that locks the pigments into the wall surface. Pigment applied
over this crust will powder off, and so at that point all
painting must cease on the particular section of the intonaco.
The dr\'ing can be delayed by moistening the wall with a
water sprayer. One must take care that the water is absorbed
as it goes on, and that it does not make the colors run.
Damp cloths hung close to the wall are also used to retard
the setting of a section while the painter rests.

12. Before the section of intonaco sets absolutely hard, its

outer edges must be trimmed back neatly so that the next

section may be joined to it cleanly and firmly. The edge is

scored with a sharp tool and the excess plaster is cut away.
The next section is troweled on according to the procedures
followed in the section on applying mortar (page 200). The
surfaces of the cut-away where the new intonaco
joints,

comes in contact with the old section, must be well brushed

with water to insure a good bond. Naturally, such joints
or seams must be planned so that they fall as inconspicuously
as possible. It is also an advantage if these joints do not cut
across a large area of uniform color, since it may be very
difficult to match the color exactly on the next section of

intonaco.

13. As the lime plaster dries, it becomes whiter and the

colors on it become lighter. This process goes on for a month
or more.

14. Some corrections may be made when the wall is

thoroughly dry by using egg tempera, casein paint, or dis-

temper color. Since the wall \\ill continue to change color
for more than a month, the longer such retouches are put
off, the more closely they may be matched to the final color

of the wall. However, all such painting should be restricted to

small retouches; the fewer the better. Any extensive corrections
should be made by cutting out the intonaco in the faulty
area and then replastering and repainting. This should be
2 O8 I
FRESCO PAINTING
done while the intonaco can still be cut precisely; that is,

within twenty-four hours.

SEGGO PAINTING
The term secco painting is used to indicate any one of a number
of methods by which color is applied to a wall after the plaster
is dry. In all cases, the wall must be structurally firm, dry, and
clean.
In one method, the wall, prepared as for fresco painting with
a rough cast, brown coat, and sand finish, is given several coats
of lime wash. This is made by diluting with water good quality
lime putty, like that used in fresco painting, until it has the
consistency of house paint. Three or four coats of lime wash are
applied over the floated sand-finish coat, which has been sprayed
thoroughly with water. The coats are laid one over the other, as
soon as the preceding coat is damp
somewhat the manner
dry, in
that gesso coats are laid on. Then, work proceeds as in fresco,
using colors prepared with lime water and bianco sangiovanni.
The final eflfect is rather like fresco.
Gasein, egg tempera, glue distemper, wax-casein emulsions, and
synthetic vinyl and acrylic materials have been used in secco
paintings on dry plaster walls. In all the color should be
cases,
kept reasonably thin. In the case of glue painting and egg tempera,
areas of heavy impasto are sure to powder off or crack. As
already indicated, secco retouches are used over fresco to correct
small errors and to hide the joints between sections of intonaco.
 11

Synthetic Resin Paints

Since the turn of the century, there has been an increasing interest
in the synthetic resins as possible replacements for some of the
traditional binders, adhesives, and protective coatings. The methods
by which these synthetic materials are prepared are much more
complicated and, in a sense, more violent than the simple mechani-
cal processing used to prepare the older materials. Dammar resin
is simply cleaned and sorted before being dissolved; linseed oil

is squeezed from seed, tanked until its impurities settle, and filtered
for use; egg yolk is merely thinned with a little water in order
to serve as a binder. The synthetic products have been made by
extracting from natural materials, such as coal or petroleum,
basic constituents that are then reassembled in the laboratory or
industrial plant to yield new components with characteristics very
different from those of the parent material. The groundwork for
the industrial production of many of these so-called modem
materials was laid in Europe a little more than a century ago.
Among the reasons for this interest in newly developed ma-
terials is the mixed character of many of the older binders and
varnishes. Although beeswax, linseed oil, egg yolk, and rabbitskin
glue perform their functions efficiently, if not perfectly, when
used by knowledgeable artists, each of these materials has its

limitations,which at times seriously restrict the creative possibilities.

It should be remembered that very often the merits of a material

are inextricably bound up with its deficiencies. Attempts to elimi-

nate its faults sometimes result in a diminishing of these very
2 10 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
qualities for which it has been chosen. For example, films of
gum arabic remain water soluble and will wash off when mois-
tened, even after' they have been dry for many years. However,
this very quality makes possible the convenient use of cakes of
water color paint and allows a painter to lighten areas in a
water color by washing over them with clear water. Again, it is

true that oil colors dry very slowly, but it is this attribute that
allows the blending and fusing of wet-in-wet painting that has
made the oil technique the vehicle of the naturalistic tradition.
Also, from the point of view of the durability of the picture as
distinct from convenience of handling a medium, the good char-
acteristics are frequently caused by the same ingredient that causes
the faults. For example, the yellowing of linseed oil films is largely
caused by the same element (linolenic acid) that contributes
to the final toughness and flexibility of the film. Those w^ho ex-
periment with new synthetic materials, as substitutes for the tra-
ditional binders, hope that a material may be created that will
eliminate the undesirable characteristics of the older media and,
at the same time, retain all of the important advantages.
There are several large groups of synthetic resins that contain
materials of interest to paint manufacturers and artists.

Cellulose Nitrate

Celluloid, made and camphor, and produced

of cellulose nitrate
in 1870, was the first synthetic plastic material on the American
market. The cellulose is usually derived from cotton, and camphor
is added as a plasticizer. The resin is not soluble in turpentine
or mineral spirits and is made liquid by very strong solvents, such
as acetone, or esters, like ethyl acetate. Once it is liquid, it can
be thinned with toluene. The material becomes very yellow and
brittle with age. If it is employed as an ingredient in picture
varnish, its acetone content will dissolve dried oil paint films.

Used in early versions of spray lacquers, it offers rapid drying

and brilliant gloss which made it especially attractive as a sub-
stitute for older and varnishes in the mass-production
paints
finishes for automobiles or furniture. Both solvents and the resin
are highly flammable.
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS 2 11

Cellulose Acetate

Cellulose acetate materials have been available on the market in

the United States since 1927. The material is made by treating
cotton with acetic acid, using sulfuric acid as a catalyst. Plasticizers
such as dimethyl phthalate, are added. The material is nonflam-
mable and yellows less than cellulose nitrate, but has not been suc-
cessfully used in artistic painting.

Vinyl Resins

Vinyl resins had been developed in the laboratory by 1840, but

until 1928 they were not in general use in America. The most
commonly used vinyl acetate compounds are derived from coal,
limestone, and water, which are processed to yield acetylene.
Then, this is treated with acetic acid, using acetyl sulfuric acid
as a catalyst, to yield vinyl acetate. By processing at higher
temperatures in the presence of other catalysts, the vinyl acetate
is polymerized and becomes polyvinyl acetate, its characteristics
depending on the temperatures and catalysts used in its produc-
tion.

Vinylite^ AYAF and Vinylite^ AYAT are vinyl acetate in

crystal forms. They can be dissolved in toluene and in acetone,
but not in turpentine or mineral spirits, to form a clear syruplike
varnish. Denatured alcohol is used to thin the varnish to a more
dilute consistency. Polyvinyl acetate resin already dissolved in ace-
tone to a syrup consistency is sold under the name of Vinylseal^
and has the same properties as the solution produced from the
solid resin. The polyvinyl acetate films are transparent, flexible,
and adhesive. Solutions of polyvinyl acetate in toluene have been
employed as picture varnishes.
Another vinyl resin that has been occasionally employed as a
medium for outdoor mural painting is polyvinyl chloride acetate.
Methyl isobutyl ketone is used as the solvent for the resin. The
painter should take precautions against inhaling the vapors of

1 Union Carbide Corp.

2 Union Carbide Corp.
2 12 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
methyl isobutyl ketone, since it is a poisonous material. The chief
advantage of the polyvinyl chloride acetate resin solution is said
to be its resistance 'to the effects of weather.
Water emulsions of polyvinyl acetate are prepared by dissolving
the resin in one of the solvents mentioned above and combining it
with water, using as an emulsifying agent such materials as sodium
lauryl sulfate or ammonium oleate. The emulsion is milky white
but becomes transparent as it dries. The dried films can absorb
some moisture but are much more water resistant than a material
like casein.It is used as an adhesive for wood and paper and

attempts have been made to use it as a binder for artists' tempera.

Acrylic Resins

The were introduced on the American market by

acrylic resins
Rohm and Haas Company in 1931, initial development being
credited to Otto Rohm in 1901. Methyl methacrylate resin is
prepared from acetone, which can be obtained from fermented
grain or from propylene, a product derived from either petroleum
or natural gas. The acetone, processed successively by hydrocyanic
acid, sulfuric acid, and an alcohol, yields the methacrylate mo-
nomer, which is then polymerized by the action of heat, light, and
catalysts. The resin is soluble in acetone and toluene. It has been
emulsified by means of special agents, such as ammonium oleate,
and is supplied in water emulsions. Butyl methacrylate resin is

soluble in V. M. and P. Naphtha and turpentine as well as in

toluene and xylene. Since the late 1930s acrylic resins have been
commercially available under the names Lucite, Elvacite, and
Plexiglas. In the form of solutions, they have served as fixatives,
picture varnishes, and paint binders, and in the form of water
emulsions, as binders for prepared gesso and artists' tempera.

Alkyd Resins

Alkyd coatings were developed as long ago as 1926. The resin

can be produced from a coal derivative such as phthalic anhydride
condensed with glycerine or ethylene glycol. In the manufacturing
process, the resin is usually modified by the addition of various
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 I
3

Other oils or resins. The resulting modified alkyds vary considerably

according to the additions. Each modified alkyd resin should be
tested for its compatibility with such pigments as lead white and
whiting. The resin is soluble in turpentine or mineral spirits and
also is available as a water emulsion. Its chief use is in automobile
finishes, and interior house paints.

Synthetics in Artists' Materials

While a great variety of synthetic materials are employed by in-

dustrial manufacturers, a smaller number of the synthetic resins
have been selected for use by artists and the makers of art ma-
terials. Those new products, utilizing synthetic resins that have
gained acceptance during the last two decades, have established
themselves as worthwhile alternatives to traditional materials such
as linseed oils, lime fresco, gouache, or tempera. Initial efforts to
incorporate modem industrial synthetics in art techniques were
made David Siqueiros
before 1950 by experimenting painters like
and Jose Gutierrez in Mexico, and by United States artists like
Karl Zerbe and Alfred Duca. Progressive manufacturers made
possible the production on a wide scale of artists' paints and
mediums using synthetic resins. For most painters, it is more
productive to experiment with the synthetic materials as ready-
made artists' mediums, rather than to undertake the
paints or
selection of a product from the vast array of industrial plastics or
resins. The nature of the raw materials is such that it is extremely

difficult for the artist himself to attempt any sort of systematic

investigation of them. Most synthetic-resin products are available

only in large bulk lots. Within each large group of synthetic
resins (acrylic, alkyd, polyvinyl, styrene, etc.) there exist literally
dozens of specific resin products, each produced in many grades,
each manufactured to have different viscosity, adhesive properties,
color stability, toxicity,and acidity, among other variable charac-
teristics. Then, for each resin, there is a vast array of solvents,
plasticizers, retarders, and other modifying agents, each of which
is likely to effect the binder, the pigments, and the brushing and

storaging quality of the paint. In many cases, because the in-

gredients are poisonous or highly flammable, they require safety
2 14 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
measures which are well known to industrial users but not to
artists. Research in this field is often easier for the manufacturer

of artists' materials and his staff of chemists and technicians.

He can select and develop new products and can test them to see
if they have great advantages over existing materials, either be-
cause paints made with them are more easily manipulated or be-
cause the ultimate painting will be more durable. By confining his
experimentation to synthetic-resin paints developed especially for
artists' use, the painter can be sure he is evaluating the new
binder as it behaves with pigments that meet artists' standards and
as it is compounded by a manufacturer who is aware of the

special requirements of the artist. Other newly developed paints

and adhesives, no matter how useful to the house painter or home
handyman, are best kept for those purposes for which they were
designed.
Some artists' materials containing synthetic resins are listed be-
low. A few points are worth keeping in mind concerning their
application. First of all, although they may resemble older ma-
terials some ways, these new products exhibit substantial
in
differences from the traditional media. The painter should under-
stand that he is working with a medium that is not essentially an
imitation oil paint or imitation egg tempera, but has its own
character. Especially at the beginning, he will do well not to re-
strict the handling possibilities of the new material by thinking of
it in terms of another technique.
In respect to the durability of the final picture, the artist is

cautioned against putting too great a faith in some miraculous

ability of the new materials to stand careless use. The limits of
safe practice, so well marked out in the older techniques by
centuries of traditional craft, must be defined for the new media
by the experimenting artists. Because these new materials usually

have some characteristic conspicuously different from the older

materials, it is sometimes assumed that none of the customary
considerations of technique apply to the new "miracle" paints.
However, it will be found that even for the improved product
definite limits do exist (though they may be more liberal than
those inherent to the conventional materials) in regard to com-
patibility with other products, storaging properties, resistance to
conventional solvents and to the other forces that act on paintings.
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 I
5

The artist should not forget the normal precautions concerning

cleanliness and ventilation, which are observed when even such
conventional materials as turpentine or lime are used. Skin irrita-

tions and sensitivities, which sometimes result from the use of

some of the older products, are not necessarily ruled out in the
case of recently discovered synthetic materials.
Finally, in evaluating substitutes for the conventional binders,
adhesives, and protective coatings, the artist must examine them
carefully to make sure that their improved characteristics are not
obtained at the sacrifice of some other desirable quality. For
example, a paint binder that produced films free of the after-
yellowing associated with the conventional linseed oils might seem
a welcome substitute for them. However, if the films made with
the new non-yellowing material were less flexible or less adhesive
to their grounds than those made with linseed oil, the painter
might lose more than he would gain.

Prepared Artists' Materials

The following products are listed by their manufacturers as con-

taining synthetic resins. The descriptions of procedures and re-

sults are based on the manufacturer's information and on paint-

ings observed over the last twenty years. Obviously, all of these
materials must be regarded as experimental and should be closely
compared with the older media for ultimate durability.

ACRYLIC EMULSION PAINTS

(ACRYLIC POLYMER TEMPERA)
colors utilizing an acrylic polymer emulsion as a binder
Artists'

have been on the market since the early 1950s. Some of the well-
known trade names for these colors are Liquitex,^ Aquatec,^ and
Politec.^ The manufacturers sell their paints packaged in metsil
roll-up tubes, polyethylene squeeze bottles, and glass or plastic
jars ranging in capacity from two ounces to one gallon. The artist

sPermanent Pigments, Inc.

4Bocour Artist Colors, Inc.
ePolitec Co.
2 I 6 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
thins these paints either with water or with one of the mediums
suppHed for this purpose by the manufacturer. The binders and
the polymer paintirfg mediums are based on an acrylic emulsion
such as the one produced under the brand name Rhoplex^ AC34.
This material is milky white when liquid, but when it is painted
out in a thin layer the water in the emulsion evaporates, and a
clear film is formed. The drying process does not involve oxida-
tion. Like most water-thinned paints, the acrylic polymer emul-
sions dry quickly, but unlike other water paints they harden to a
film that is highly resistant to water. Used straight from the tube
or jar, the paints usually dry with a slight gloss, but the degree
of gloss or dullness can be controlled by use of one of the acrylic
polymer painting mediums. Though some samples of paint hard-
ened in the containers during the years when the products first

appeared on the market, most of the colors sold today keep

reasonably well for water-thinned paints, and they are not harmed
by cold temperatures. Because the binder and
in their containers
painting mediums dry to clear colorless films, and the color of the
pigments are not changed by this binder as they are by such
media as the linseed oils, the paints yield tones of great clarity
and intensity. Tests over the past two decades indicate that the
acrylic films do not darken progressively with age, while films
using linseed oil as a binder must, to some extent, suffer some
discoloration. Oil paint films become more brittle with age, often
cracking or powdering as they continue to oxidize, but dried
films of acrylic polymer paint appear to remain very flexible.

Color Lists

The selection of colors offered by most manufacturers include,

with a few exceptions, the pigments considered permanent for oil
and water techniques. Alizarin and viridian are excluded from
some lists and quinacridone red and phthalocyanine green are
offered as substitutes. Titanium white is the standard white pig-
ment, both in the paints and the acrylic "gesso" primings. The
following list of colors is available in most brands of acrylic
polymer tempera paints.

® Rohm and Haas Co.

im
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 I
7
WHITE Titanium white

YELLOW Cadmium yellow, light, medium or deep

Hansa yellow
Mars yellow
Ochers and siennas

ORANGE Cadmium orange

RED Alizarin crimson

Cadmium red, light or medium
Earth reds (red oxide, Indian red, Venetian
red, etc.)
Quinacridone red

BLUE Cerulean blue

Cobalt blue
Phthalocyanine blue
Ultramarine blue

GREEN Chrome oxide opaque

Phthalocyanine green

VIOLET Quinacridone violet

BROWN Sienna, burnt

Umber, burnt and raw

BLACK Mars black

Tools and Equipment

The Palette
Since the acrylic tempera paints dry very rapidly, forming films
that adhere strongly to any absorbent surface on which they
harden, and since, unlike other water paints, their dried films do
not dissolve in warm water, the traditional wooden palette as-
sociated v^th oil technique is not commonly employed for mixing
the acrylic colors. Instead, a glass slab, such as the one described
on page 92, is used. Because the acrylic paints do not adhere to
the glass, they can be easilyremoved even after they have dried
by soaking them v^th a little warm water and then scraping
them with a palette knife or a window scraper. As is the case in
2 I 8 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
conventional water-paint techniques, it is helpful to clean the
palette frequently to insure clear mixtures of colors and to obtain
paint films free of unwanted remnants of dried color.

Brushes
The brushes described in the section on oil technique and water
color painting (pages 93-94, 154) can be used for acrylic paints.
Since the color hardens rapidly to become a film insoluble in
water, it is essential that no paint dry out in the brush. Therefore,
it is recommended that during a painting session the brushes be
kept wet in a container of water immediately after they have
been used. At the end of the session, brushes should be well
washed in soap and warm water and shaped up to dry. Oc-
casionally, a natural-bristle brush or nylon-bristle brush may dry,
after it has been washed, with its bristles splayed out from the
center of the brush. The shape can be restored by wetting the
brush and wrapping it in heavy brown paper so that the bristles
are shaped back to their correct position.
Inexpensive brushes made of nylon bristles work very well with
the acrylic tempera paints, often retaining more of the spring of
the bristle while natural bristles may become soggy in the water
medium.

Knives, Palette Cups

The usual metal painting knives are useful in handling acn'lic
polymer paints. Palette knives, house painters' flexible putty
knives, and wall scrapers are also helpful in cleaning the glass
palette and often these tools are used as well in developing pic-
torial passages.

Instead of the metal palette cup usually employed for oil tech-
nique, a glass jar with a plastic screw top is a convenient sub-
stitute which can hold mixtures of water and acrylic medium
with no danger of rusting. A few larger jars filled with water are
useful for quick rinsing of brushes during the working session to
allow the application of paint free of traces of unwanted color.

Thinners, Painting Mediums, and Additives

The acrylic polymer tempera can be thinned with plain water,

 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 I
9
but like any paint, if it is spread over too great an area by means
of a thinner that evaporates into the air, it may form a defective
or chalky film. If the paint is to be thinned considerably, it is

preferable to use one of the acrylic polymer painting mediums

sold for this purposeby the manufacturer. The medium is based
on the same material as the binder and is produced as a milky
white liquid that dries clear. Most companies sell two liquid
mediums. One produces films of regular gloss, and another, la-
beled "matte medium," causes the paint to dry with a flat, non-
glossy appearance. The matte medium and the regular polymer
medium may be mixed with each other to provide intermediate
degrees of gloss. A third type of acrylic medium is sold in paste
form and is usually labeled "gel medium." It can be added to the
acrylic polymer tempera colors to alter their brushing quality. The
gel imparts a greater body or viscosity to the colors, allows heavier
impasto effects, and retains more prominently the texture of the
artist's brush marks. Furthermore, the colors with gel medium
added dry more slowly and can be blended and worked over a
longer period of time. The gel dries to a transparent glossy film
that is adhesive and flexible.
Another material that can be added to acrylic tempera paints
is called acrylic modeling paste. It is a puttylike compound made

of marble dust and acrylic resin and can assist the painter in
building up high relief areas of color. It can be used by itself or
as an additive to the acrylic tempera paints, but it is somewhat
inflexible and should be used on a rigid support such as a Ma-
sonite panel. If it is to be used on a stretched canvas, at least one
part by volume of gel medium should be mixed with two parts
by volume of modeling paste to increase the flexibility of the
impasto sufficiently to prevent cracking.

Supports and Grounds

The acrylic polymer tempera paints can be used on both rigid

and flexible supports. The strong adhesive quality of these paints
and the pliability of the dried films they form, make it possible
to use them on paper, linen and cotton textiles, Masonite Presd-
wood, wood panels, cardboards, and indoor masonry and plaster
surfaces.
22 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
The support material should be prepared with an acrylic emul-
sion priming by the method described on page 133. This acrylic
priming, sold as 'acrylic gesso, serves to reduce the absorbency of
the support material and provides an even surface on which the
colors can be easily manipulated. If the acryUc priming is used,
no preliminary sizing is needed on textiles, paper, wood, or
Masonite panels. On rigid supports such as Masonite or wood
panels, the traditional glue gesso described on page 139 can be
used as a ground for acrylic painting. However, the acrylic prim-
ing would seem a sounder practice since all layers in the picture
would then contain the same binder.
Although the acrylic polymer paints will adhere to surfaces
that have been painted with oil colors or oil primings, there is
always the risk that an oilier section of the surface may be suffi-
ciently slick to prevent the acrylic color from forming a good
bond with it. Therefore, it is safest to avoid using acrylic tempera
over oil paint surfaces. If such an oil primed surface must be
used, the surface should be as matte as possible and should be
thoroughly roughened with sandpaper to provide as much ''tooth"
and absorbency as possible.
Linen and cotton canvas, prepared with an acrylic emulsion
priming, is now sold in art supply shops. Such commercially pre-
primed canvas offers an appropriate surface for acrylic painting
to the artist who does not wish to be involved in the preparation
of the support material.

Studio Manufacture of Acrylic Emulsion Paints

In order to save money or to produce paints with special char-

some artists combine the acrylic emulsion medium with
acteristics,

artist-grade dry pigments to produce paints and primings. When

one of the prepared acrylic polymer tempera mediums is used as
a binder, the dry pigment is combined directly with the medium
by simply mixing them with a palette knife on the glass palette. It
is important to use sufficient binder to insure a film that is not
overpigmented.
If the acrylic emulsion Rhoplex AC34 is employed as the
principal ingredient in the binder, various materials are added to
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 2 1

the emulsion to produce paints that behave desirably. One such

additive sodium polyacrylate called AcrysoF GS; another is
is

called Acrysol ASE-60. These are thickening agents which give

the paint a more buttery quality. The amounts used must be
carefully regulated to prevent the paints from becoming too stiff.
Another polymer that can be combined v^ith Rhoplex AG34 is
the acrylic emulsion polymer Rhoplex B85. This material, in small
amounts (up to 20 per cent), is used to produce harder films and
to eliminate the slight tackiness that is characteristic of the dried
films of Rhoplex AC34. Small amounts of wetting agents and
pigment dispersants are also used, especially if the dry pigment
selected does not combine readily with the Rhoplex emulsion.
Tamol^ 731 (25 per cent) is a product designed to keep the
pigment well dispersed in the paint. No more dispersant should
be used than is necessary to obtain a smooth paint, free of lumps.
Triton^ CF-io can be employed as a wetting agent to make it
easier to mix different pigments with the binder.
Artists should be aware that the preparation of high-quality
paints and mediums employing the synthetic resin materials is
not a simple procedure. Very few of the ingredients are available
on a retail basis from conventional art supply stores, but rather
they require special ordering. Each of the additives (thickeners,
wetting agents, and dispersants) acts in a specific way, and their
selection and use requires careful formulation by a skillful techni-
cian. Whenever possible, the painter should use the prepared

artist's acrylic tempera paints and mediums sold by reliable man-

ufacturers. These products can be purchased in quantities up to
one gallon when economy is a requisite, and their quality will
usually be far superior to paints made by the artist.

Painting Methods

If the artist uses acrylic polymer tempera paints thinned mod-

erately with water, the effects of aquarelle, gouache, or tempera
techniques can be approximated. Sketchy effects, as well as precise

''Rohm and Haas Co.

8Rohm and Haas Co.
®Rohm and Haas Co,
2 2 2 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
calligraphic definition, can be developed according to the artist's
wishes. One prominent difference from the traditional water-
thinned paints is that layers of acrylic tempera paint are not
dissolved or picked up when additional strokes or washes are
painted over them. Many artists regard this as an improvement,
but some, who are accustomed to taking advantage of the resolu-
water color, gouache, or tempera to alter paint passages
bility of

or blend them, find that the waterproof quality of the acrylic

tempera colors requires adjustments of painting procedures. Ex-
cessive thinning of the acrylic polymer tempera paint with plain
water is likely to disperse the paint over too much surface, and
it weakens the structure of the paint film as well as its bond to

the ground. It is preferable to add some polymer medium to the

water if the paint is to be thinned to a very dilute wash. This is a
similar consideration to that in the oil technique (page 98)
where the artist is warned against excessive thinning of oil paint
with turpentine. Painters who find the natural low sheen of the
acrylic temperas objectionable can alter the surface gloss by means
of the matte medium.
If heavier strokes and higher textures of paint are wanted, the
artist is advised to use the acrylic polymer tempera colon as they
are sold in tubes, rather than jars. The tube colors have more
body and are intended to allow effects closer to those associated
with oil paints. Addition of the gel medium permits increased
impasto As the paints are applied more heavily they dry
effects.

more slowly and can be reworked and blended for longer periods
of time. However, even heavy passages of acrylic tempera paint
dry much faster than strokes of oil paint of comparable thickness,
and a layer of acrylic tempera paint may be safely applied over
an acrylic tempera underpainting in much more rapid sequence
than is possible in oil technique. As the acrylic paint layers adhere
well to each other and dry in a short time, without becoming in-
volved in the oxidation process and the consequent changes in
bulk that occur as linseed oil dries, consideration of the "fat over
lean" sequence of paint films (see page 106) does not seem
necessary.
The acrylic polymer tempera medium permits glazes and other
translucent effects to be rapidly developed over heavier under-
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 2 3

paintings. The gel medium can be used to produce impasto glazes

or thick transparent passages if the proportion of gel to the acrylic
tempera paint is increased.
Inert such as sand, silicate aggregates, or marble
additives,
dust, can be combined with acrylic tempera to produce textural
effects that are different from those of ordinary paints. If such
materials are added to the paint, they are best mixed thoroughly
on the glass slab with additional acrylic tempera medium, in
order that the particles may be securely bound in the paint mass
and so that they may remain well attached to the support.

Collage

Because the acrylic polymer mediums remain adhesive, flexible,

and clear after they dry, they are often used to attach paper,
cardboard, fabrics, and many other materials to the support sur-
face by artists who use collage or assemblage techniques. The
polymer medium, matte medimn, or gel medium should be applied
both to the paper and to the surface to which it is fastened. The
paper is then pressed to the surface while the adhesive is still

wet, and wrinkles and air bubbles can still be pressed out. The
acrylic adhesive retains its flexibility and does not darken light
materials as do many glues. A final layer of matte acrylic varnish
or acrylic polymer medium can serve to protect even impermanent
materials such as newsprint.

Care and Display

The acrylic emulsions used in the acrylic polymer paints, varnishes,

and primings dry as films that remain pliable and adherent. How-
ever, it may often be noted that the surfaces of such films, even
after they have dried thoroughly, tend to show a very slight
tackiness. If a dried acrylic polymer tempera painting or primed
surface is kept in contact with another surface, especially under
weight or pressure,it is liable to adhere strongly to that surface.

For example, acrylic primed panels stored face-to-face in stacks

may sometimes stick to each other, and when the panels are pried
apart small chips of the acrylic gesso may be pulled off the edge
2 2 4 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
of the panel. Because of its tendency to adhere to surfaces with
which it is in contact, an acrylic polymer tempera painting that
is to be framed under glass in the manner of a gouache or water
color should be separated from the glass by a mat or by an insert
of molding to eliminate the possibility that it may stick to the
glass surface.
Acrylic tempera paintings can be cleaned with water and mild
soap. Organic solvents such as benzine or tiupentine should not
be used to clean acrylic pictures since these solvents may injure
the paint surface. A final varnish over an acrylic polymer tempera
painting serves to protect the picture against accidental abrasion
or scratching. It may also be used to bring the surface to the
degree of gloss or matte quality that the artist may desire. How-
ever, varnishes such as dammar or mastic dissolved in turpentine
should not be used as final varnishes on acrylic tempera pictures
since their eventual removal in cleaning processes would involve
solvents that might be dangerous to the painting. The acrylic
polymer medium makes an effective final varnish which dries with
a glossy surface.
If a matte surface is desired, it is best to use one of the acrylic
matte varnishes made by the manufacturers who sell the acry'lic
tempera paints. The matte medium and the matte varnish are not
identical, and the matte medium is not recommended as a final

varnish since it may appear frosty when it is applied over deep

tones. The varnish can be thinned with a little water, if necessary,
and it is applied with a wide soft hair brush. Though it may
seem a little milky as when it dries the matte
it is applied, varnish
or acrylic polymer tempera medium will be clear.
Since acrylic tempera paintings can resemble in their optical
qualities the effects of oil paints, egg tempera, or various other
techniques, it is wise to indicate on the back of the picture that
the painting was done in acrylic emulsion tempera, that it ought
not to be cleaned with organic solvents such as turpentine, and
that it can be cleaned with mild soap and water.

ACRYLIC SOLUTION PAINTS

Some of the methacrylate resins can be dissolved in turpentine,
mineral thinners, or toluene to yield a clear acrylic solution. These
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 2 5

solutions dry rapidly with the evaporation of the solvent and

form clear flexible films. Some acrylic solutions have been used as
protective coatings and binders for paint, differing most obviously
from the acrylic emulsion paint binders in that they cannot be
mixed or thinned with water but require a solvent such as tur-
pentine or mineral spirits. Many varieties of acrylic resin are pro-
duced, each with its own range of solvents and characteristics.
Though chemically related, they are by no means casually inter-
changeable, since some are harder, others more adhesive, and
still others soluble in a different group of thinners. One acrylic
resin, n-butyl methacrylate, has been used by experimental painters
since the early 1950s and is sold under trade names such as
Elvacite^^ 2044 (formerly Lucite 44). The resin, furnished as a
granular white solid resembling lump sugar or dry snow, can be
dissolved in turpentine or a mineral solvent in the proportion of

5 pounds of resin to a gallon of solvent to make a heavy crystal-

clear syrup. This should be thinned with turpentine or mineral
spirits for a consistency appropriate to its use either as a protective
varnish, an addition to the painting medium, or as a binder for
dry pigments. The acrylic solution dries out rapidly and forms a
clear, moderately glossy film, which can be rather easily redis-
solved in turpentine while it is fresh.
Other forms of acrylic resin are sold already dissolved in various
organic solvents such as methyl ethyl ketone, acetone, and toluene.
One acrylic solution, Acryloid^^ F-io, is dissolved in mineral thin-
ner. This rather heavy solution can be further thinned with tur-
pentine or mineral spirits for studio use.
One manufacturer Bocour Artists Colors,
of artists' materials,
Inc., began in 1946 to produce paints ground in an acrylic resin
solution. The paints, labeled Magna Colors, are sold in the con-
ventional metal tubes, are available in a complete range of artists'

pigments, and can be thinned with turpentine or with the medium

furnished by the manufacturer.
Conventional oil grounds, glue gesso grounds, or acrylic prim-
ings can be used as a base for painting in acrylic solution colors,
and the adhesion of the paints to an oil priming is more like that
of oilmedia than of tempera.
10 E. I. Du Pont, Inc.
11 Rohm and Haas Go.
22 6 I
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
In respect to painting procedures, acrylic solution colors re-
semble oil paints rather than water-thinned acrylic polymer tem-

pera paints. However, even very heavy layers of these colors will
dry under normal conditions within forty-eight hours, a more
rapid rate than that of unmodified linseed oil paint. As is the case
with other synthetic resin paints, there is a tendency for acrylic
and to have a flow and brushing
solution paints to be less buttery
from that of oil paint. The colors can
quality well differentiated
be thinned with turpentine or with the acrylic solution somewhat
diluted with mineral spirits. Turpentine will dissolve recently
dried films of acrylic solution colors, and
and washes ofso glazes
color, thinned extensively with turpentine, may soften or pick up
the underpainting unless brushwork is light, rapid, and purpose-
ful. Superimposed color layers containing substantial amounts of

thinner tend to fuse and form homogeneous film structures. A

rapid-drying varnish made of synthetic resin with a solvent that
does not disturb the acrylic film is sold as Magna Varnish, and
it can be used as an intermediate varnish to isolate and protect
layers of underpainting so they are not disturbed by solvents in the
overpainting. Like other materials made with acrylic resins, the
acrylic solution colors appear more brilliant and higher in key
than oil colors. The yellowing commonly associated with linseed
oil colors does not seem to be a problem in the case of acrylic
resin paints.

ALKYD RESIN MEDIUM

Some products^^ containing oil-modified alkyd resins compounded
for artists* use as oil-paint mediums have appeared on the market.
These are either in the form of liquid mediums or gels which are
added to oil colors to impart their brushing quality to the paint.
These media tend to allow fluid handling when they are mixed
or brushed out, but when left undisturbed they thicken and gel
quickly. This quality, called a thixotropic effect, allows some
handling and brushing qualities not easily obtainable in other
media. These alkyd additions also accelerate the drying of oil
colors.

1'-^
Win-Gel, Oleopasto impasto medium, and Liquin oil-painting medium,
made by Winsor and Newton, Ltd., London, New York, Sydney.
 SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS | 2 2 7

POLYVINYL ACETATE EMULSION

VINYL POLYMER TEMPERA)
(P.V.A.,

Artists have experimented with water-thinned vinyl paints at least

since 1946. The principal ingredient in the binder of these paints
has been polyvinyl acetate emulsion, a material more widely known
in the form of "white glue," such as "Elmer's Glue-All." The
artist should be aware that these "white glue" products, satis-

factory as they are as adhesives in the home and industrial work-

shops, are not the most appropriate grades of polyvinyl acetate
emulsion for use in paint binders for artists' colors. Special grades
of the emulsion were recommended by experimenting painters
as being more permanent than the common grades of glue. Plas-
ticizers were added to insure that the paint films would not be
too brittle. More recently, since the middle 1950s, co-polymerized
polyvinyl acetate emulsions have been developed that are said to
be more flexible than the older systems of polyvinyl acetate. Com-
binations of co-polymerized vinyl and acrylic resins have also
been employed.
Relatively few manufacturers of artists' materials make paints
that incorporate vinyl emulsions in their binders. Those vinyl
polymer paints that are available have characteristics similar to
the acrylic emulsion tempera paints mentioned in the preceding
section. They dry within a half hour to a
are water-thinned,
water-resistant and can be applied in impastolike
tough film,
layers. Tools and painting methods recommended for the acrylic

tempera paints can be employed for the vinyl polymer colors. The
artistshould be cautious in attempting to intermix paints made
by different manufacturers, since not all brands are compatible
with each other.
 12

Pastels

Pastels are dry chalks made of pigment and a weak, non-waxy

binder that serves to hold the pigment particles together in the
form of a chalk stick. During the making of a pastel picture the
pigments are attached to the ground only because they are forced
into the tooth, or roughness, of its surface and are there em-
bedded. No liquid binders, such as drying oils or glue adhesives,
are used during the application of the colors. Usually, a very
dilute liquid adhesive, called a fixative, is sprayed over the finished
pastel to prevent the pigment from powdering away from the
surface of the picture.
In prehistoric periods images were made on walls of caves with
natural chalks and clays. Pastel technique as it is known today
was practiced in the middle of the seventeenth century by portrait
artists like Robert Nanteuil (1625-78), and in the eighteenth
century by Maurice Quentin de La Tour (1704-88). Its use was
continued through the nineteenth century by Manet, Degas, and
Renoir, and in the twentieth century by Picasso, Redon, and
Chagall. (Illustration, plate 32.)
Since pastels are applied in the form of dry chalk, colors
remain very much the same as in tlie pigments from which they
were made. In other techniques, the clear velvety intensity of dry
pigment is always somewhat lowered when the pigment is mixed
and applied with a liquid painting medium, just as dry wood
 PASTELS I
229
becomes darker when it is wet. Pastels keep the range and clear
intensity of the original pigments much more than does either oil

or encaustic technique. Furthermore, they have an advantage over

gouache or aquarelle in that they produce their final effect
There is none of the annoying change of tone
instantaneously.
that accompanies the initial drying out of most opaque and
transparent water colors. If pastels are made of permanent pig-
ments, they will not change at all with age, while media con-
taining oils will darken more and more with the passage of time.
On the other hand, the absence of a strong binder causes some
difficulties. The pastel remains comparatively fragile and certainly
unsuited to large decorative works, such as murals. No actual
impasto or high relief of pigment is possible. Though optical
mixtures of colors are possible in pastel, direct physical mixtures
of colors, which are so easily obtained on the palette in oil

technique, are difficult. Finally, one color may not be laid

over another in a transparent film or glaze.

The Pastel Chalks

Excellent pastel sticks may be bought in art supply stores. Most
manufacturers produce many shades of colors, some permanent,
others fugitive. The chalks are sold in several degrees of hardness,
from very soft to medium hard. At the beginning, it is wise to
avoid the huge prepared assortments, which may include as many
as several hundred sticks in a box. About one dozen pastels,
made of pigments of known permanence, is sufficient for a be-
ginning. Since some dust of the chalks is almost inevitably
inhaled, no poisonous colors should be used.
Pastels can be made easily and inexpensively by the artist in
his studio and can be produced in whatever grade of hardness
the artist prefers, with a strength of color that is as great, or
greater, than many commercial chalks. In addition, they can be
made in larger sticks if the artist wishes to work more broadly
with heavy lumps of pastel, and finally, the chalks can be made
up in combinations of pigments to yield any pre-mixed tones
the artist feels he may employ frequently. The recipes given below
will require a little adjustment and experimentation, since ma-
terials, particularly pigments, vary considerably.
230 I
PASTELS

Equipment
GLASS GRINDING SLAB

MORTAR and PESTLE

SPATULA

Materials

PIGMENTS All poisonous pigments (lead whites, Naples

yellow, chrome yellows and greens, cobalt
violet, emerald green) are excluded in pastel.
With these exceptions, the pigments that are
permanent in oils and water techniques are
used, with the addition of whiting, precipitated
chalk, and China clay,

BINDER gum tragacanth

alcohol
water

PRESERVATIVE /? naphthol or Dowicide A (sodium

orthophenyl phenate).

Procedure

Binders
1. Put Ys ounce (av.) of powdered giun tragacanth in a
bottle. Add a little grain alcohol to wet it thoroughly. Add
one pint of water and allow the mixture to soak overnight.
Warm the mixture slightly and squeeze any undissolved
particles through a fine-mesh cloth to complete the solution.
Stir in a little p naphthol (about !4 of a teaspoonful) to keep
the solution from spoiling. Label it Binder A.

2. The next binder solution is made as follows:

4 fluid ounces Binder A

8 fluid ounces water

label this mixture Binder B.

 7-

PASTELS I
231
3. Make a still more dilute solution as follows:

4 fluid ounces Binder B

8 fluid ounces water

Label this Binder G.

4. Make Binder D as follows:

4 fluid ounces Binder G

8 fluid ounces water

5. Make Binder E as follows:

4 fluid ounces Binder D

8 fluid ounces water.

The Ghalks
1. To make a batch of white chalks, use whiting (Paris
white) pigment mixed with an equal volume of precipitated
chalk, the total to weigh about 9 ounces. Add about 2^4
fluid ounces of Binder B. Mix these ingredients well, either
by using the mortar and pestle or the spatula and grinding
slab. The consistency should be that of a stiff, slightly sticky

dough or clay.

2. Take a small amount of this dough, and roll it into a

rough cylinder. Place this on wrapping paper and roll it back

and forth lightly with the flat wooden block to make the
cylinder smooth. Be sure that the ends of the cylinder do
not become hollow or deeply concave.

3. Set the finished crayon on a porcelain tray or a glass

slab to dry at room temperature for a day or two. If a hard
crust forms on the outside of the chalk when it is dry, scrape
it off to expose the drawing surface.

4. Before making up the whole batch of crayons, make a

sample and dry it thoroughly over a radiator or stove. Test it

when it is dry to see that it is not too hard or too soft. The
pigments may need an adjustment of the amount of binder
used, some needing the strong Binder A and others the dilute
232 I
PASTELS
B or G. Still other pigments will need only water for they
seem to have some naturally cementitious quality. Pigments of
the same name sold by different firms may vary considerably,
and so the table which follows, indicating the pigments and
their binders, should be used only as a starting point.

5. Mixtures of colors can be made by mixing the dry pig-

ments before adding binder. However, to insure the proper
mixture of binders in proportion to the mixture of pigments,
it is easier to mix each of the pigments with the binder that

is proper to it. Then, the pigment-binder pastes can be com-

bined. For example, to make a set of burnt sienna chalks,

mixed with white to produce graded shades, the following
procedure is used:

a. Prepare a good-sized batch of white pigment with

Binder B as in step i.

b. Make a batch of pure burnt sienna and Binder G.

Form one half of the batch into chalks, which will be
labeled ^i Full Strength Burnt Sienna.

c. Mix the other half of the pure burnt sienna paste

with an equal volume of the white pigment paste. Gom-
bine them thoroughly so there are no streaks in the mix-
ture. Form one half of the mixed paste into chalks, which
will be labeled ^2 Half Strength Burnt Sienna.

d. Mix the other half of the ^2 mixture with an equal

volume of white pigment paste. Form one half of this

paste into chalks, which will be labeled ^^3 One Quarter
Strength Burnt Sienna. Set the other half aside to be
mixed with an equal volume of white pigment paste to
make a still lighter chalk. Repeat the process as long as
lighter shades are desired. The same method may be used
in making any color combinations.

Notes

A. Keep a record of the weights of pigments and the

 PASTELS I
233
volumes of binders in each mixture and note the quality and
hardness of the resulting chalks. Such records are helpful in
making chalks from the same materials at a later date.

B. Other adhesives used as pastel binders include oatmeal

water or gruel, honey-water mixtures, skim milk, starch, and
methyl cellulose solutions.

G. Chalks of good consistency have been made using the

combinations of pigments and binders in the list that follows.
Materials such as kaolin (China clay), whiting, and the white
variety of bentonite (a colloidal clay) can be added to produce
chalks of more desirable texture. In general, when kaolin is

added, the pastel becomes smoother and requires a slightly

weaker binder; when whiting is added, a stronger binder is

required than for the pigment alone; and when bentonite

is added, again a weaker binder is usually employed.

White I volume whiting, i volume precipitated

chalk, and Binder B

Cadmium yellow I volume pigment, Ys volume bentonite, and

Binder C
Yellow ocher Binder E
Raw sienna Binder E
Cadmium red, light 1 volume pigment, ^ volume whiting, and
Binder B
Pozzuoli red Water only

Indian red Water only

Alizarin 2 volumes pigment, J4 volume whiting, and

Binder B
Ultramarine blue 2 volumes pigment, i volume whiting, and
Binder B
Phthalocyanine blue 3 volumes pigment, i volume kaolin, and
Binder D
Cerulean blue Binder G
 4

2 34 I
PASTELS
Viridian i volume water, 2 volumes alcohol

Viridian plus Binder D

cadmium yeltow,
light

Phthalocyanine green 3 volumes pigment, i volume koalin, and

Binder D
Burnt sienna i volume pigment, i volume kaolin, and
Binder D
Burnt umber i volume pigment, i volume whiting, and
Binder B
Raw umber Binder E
Ivory black Binder D

Supports and Grounds for Pastel

The support for pastels may be paper, cardboard, Presdwood, or
mounted canvas. Papers and cardboard should be made of rag
fiber. They may be used without a ground priming if their surface

is sufficiently rough or toothy to accept and hold the pastel

particles.
Special pastel papers exist which are usually made by coating
their surface with an adhesive over which pumice or some other
material is sprinkled to provide additional tooth. Such grounds
may be made by painting a mounted paper or cardboard with
casein solution (made according to recipe A on pages 176-77 —
ounces by weight of casein to i quart water) While still wet the .

surface is sprinkled evenly with fine pumice powder. When the

casein has dried well, the excess pumice is dusted off.
Starch solution is sometimes recommended for this sort of n
ground in place of the casein. In this case, 2^ ounces (av.) of
pure rice starch are dissolved in i pint of hot water. This is
stirred till cool, making a smooth paste which is brushed thinly and
evenly over the support and then sprinkled with pumice powder.
However, a casein ground is less vulnerable to mold, being less

hygroscopic.
When tinted papers or cardboards are used, with the inten-
tion of allowing their tone to play a part in the final color

ii
 PASTELS I
235
scheme of the picture, it is important that the color of the paper
be lightfast and not some cheap commercial ink that will fade in
a short time.

Fixative
The fixative solution that is sprayed over the pastel binds the
pigment rather weakly to the ground and makes it possible to
move the picture without causing the pigment to powder away
from the surface. It does not bind the colors so strongly that they
may be rubbed or roughly handled. If an excessive
carelessly
amount of fixative is used, it makes the color darken inomediately
and lose its brilliance. The commercial products on the market
are usually very thin solutions of resins in a fast-drying solvent,
such as alcohol or benzine. Mastic varnish, diluted to a 2-per cent
concentration in alcohol,is often recommended, as is 2-per cent

danamar in benzine. Pure white shellac has been used, thinned in

alcohol to a 2-per cent solution. More recently synthetic resins,
principally acrylics or vinyls, diluted in petroleum solvents or al-
cohols have been sold as pastel fixatives by manufacturers of art-
ists' materials. Casein solution (4 ounces casein in i quart water),
thinned with alcohol, can be used as a fixative and is made in the
studio by thoroughly mixing the following ingredients:

1 part by volimae casein solution (recipe A, page 177)

2 parts by volume grain alcohol

5 parts by volume water

If any residue is deposited at the bottom of the bottle, gently

pour the rest of the liquid into another bottle and throw away
the residue. If the liquid is very cloudy, it may be filtered.

Acrylic resin solution (5 ounces by weight of Elvacite 2044 dis-

solved in 8 fluid ounces of turpentine or V. M. and P. Naphtha)
can be used to make a fixative if it is thinned with more solvent
in the following proportions:

I fluid ounce of acrylic stock solution (page 113)

^ fluid ounce of toluene
10 fluid ounces of V. M. and P. Naphtha or benzine.
236 I
PASTELS
The toluene may be omittedj but its inclusion produces a fixative
that dries somewhat more rapidly. The artist should observe the
usual precautions in regard to fire hazards since these solvents are
flammable.
In general, those fixatives are best whose solvents evaporate most
rapidly. Fixatives made with water as a principal solvent, evaporate
relatively slowly, soaking the pastel and causing the color particles
to become dull and dark.
The solution is sprayed evenly over the surface of the picture,
usually by means of a fixative atomizer or a mouth-tube blower.
The pastel should be laid face up on a horizontal surface, such as a
table. The spray is directed from a distance of several feet away
from the picture, so that it falls in a light arc and lands on the
pastel in even bands. The less fixative used the better, for even
small amounts change the colors slightly.
is to be sprayed over a large area, a spray gun, such
If fixative
as the one described on page 112, is a convenience. This type of
inexpensive sprayer has a small removable reservoir jar into which
the artist can put his fixative. A fine mist is produced, which, if

carefully applied in very thin sprays, can cover a large area evenly
without too much gloss.

Whenever any sprays are used in the studio, the artist should be
aware that inhaling the solvents or resins used in many commercial
products is dangerous to his health. Manufacturers' warnings
printed on containers should be taken seriously. Adequate ventila-
tion should always be maintained. If the artist uses sprays for
a prolonged period, he should protect himself with a respiratory
mask.

Painting Procedure
The chalks may be rubbed thinly over the surface, or generous
strokes may be built up on the ground. When the tooth of the
ground has been filled with pigment, further applications of chalk
willpowder off. Corrections may be easily made on a rough ground
by scrubbing out a passage with a dry stiff bristle brush, like that
used in oil technique. The area will then accept fresh applications
of color. A kneaded rubber eraser can be used to clean off thin
soft,

strokes of color, and stumps made of soft paper or chamois leather

are sometimes employed to rub and blend tones.
 PASTELS I
237
If the color is to be rather heavily applied in several layers, it

is wise to block in the first layer of color and, then to spray the
picture lightly with fixative. Over this layer of fixed color,

further applications of pastel may be developed easily and in-

cisively without too much trouble with blurred and streaky color.
The pastel may be then sprayed again and reworked as long as the
grain or tooth of the ground will accept more pigment.
Because it is used in the form of crayons, or sticks, pastel is

capable of many of the stylistic qualities associated with drawing

techniques. Colors are deposited as lines or rubbed tones, rather
than as the coatings, films, or washes characteristic of oil or water
paints. The granular line, obtained so easily and naturally with
pastels, allows a most direct conversion of drawing strength into
chromatic painting, as Degas demonstrated. (Illustration, plate
32.) Redon's pastels show how rubbed and graded tones may be
handled to obtain rich luminous effects over which linear elements
are distributed so as to emphasize or clarify a form. The ease with
which pastels may be smudged or blended has often led to
their abuse. Beginners sometimes allow the structure of the picture
to disappear in an aimless softening of every edge between two
colors. The is that salient divisions of form are slurred over
result
and planes are carelessly shaped, while the student is bedazzled by
the finished appearance of a blended passage. Also, the ease with
which a dark color may be smoothly graded out to a light by use
of the white pastel has resulted in a multitude of pastel paintings
that are chalky and anaemic in color. The so-called saccharine
pastel color eflfectcomes about when the student is so impressed
with slick finish that he is content to substitute smooth blending
of each color to the same white, for a sonorous color progression
between dark and light. As a result, the picture takes on a pale
overwhitened look and light areas, which might have contrasted
chromatically with dark sections, are simply whitened versions of
the local color of the form. However, these abuses are not in-
herent in the material, as shown in the works of such painters as
is

Picasso, Beckmann, Chagall, and many others.

Pastels are often combined with the water media, such as
gouache, casein, and aquarelle. There is no difficulty from a
technical point of view in such combinations, and these paintings
are as durable as their component techniques. There remains
238 I
PASTELS

only a question as to the balance of the optical effects of the

several media. One solution is to use the pastel only for a series

of accenting strokes on a rather complete painting in aquarelle

or gouache. At the other extreme, the water color can serve as a
sketchy underpainting for a fully developed and dominant pastel
picture. In any case, the pastel should not give the effect of being
a patchy correction or a haphazard caprice, but rather should seem
an appropriate and deliberate pictorial development. Such suc-
cessful mixtures of pastel with gouache and aquarelle can be seen
in works by Rouault and Picasso.

Care and Display

The principal technical limitation of pastel is the weakness of its

bond to the support. Because it is held only by the physical

roughness of the surface, the color tends to powder off, and the pic-
ture may be easily damaged by light rubbing. Since the pigments
are not encased in a protective film of binding medium, they are
vulnerable to air-borne chemical impurities, to moisture, and espe-
cially to the growth of mold. Therefore, pastels should be sprayed
with fixative and carefully framed and glassed. The pastel should not
touch the glass, but should be separated from it by a rag card-
board mat and hinged to a rag cardboard backing board (see
page 156). The glass should be carefully fitted to the frame to
exclude moisture and dust. Pastels made on unmounted paper can
be mounted on a rigid backing after they have been sprayed with
fixative, but this is a job best left to an expert.
 13

Gilding

Gk)ld or silver, beaten to make very thin leaves, can be attached

to the surface of a picture or a frame. Since Biblical times furniture
and precious objects have been decorated with beaten gold, and
from the twelfth to fourteenth centuries Italian artists made ex-
tensive use of gold leaf in egg tempera paintings. The metal has a
highly reflecting surface which may be burnished to a brilliant
luster or left as a frosty matte finish. Furthermore, it can be pat-
terned by stamping it with metal tooling punches to develop vary-
ing degrees of textural vibration. Thus, it adds another element
to the range of permanent effects available to the painter.
Gold leaf can be fastened to a panel by either a water glue
(water gilding) or a sticky oil (mordant gilding). In the water-

gilding process, the panel is carefully coated with glue gesso.

Then bole, a fat clay, mixed with glue water, and several smooth
is

coats are applied to the panel and allowed to dry. Water is brushed
over the dry bole, causing the glue in the bole to be partially dis-
solved. The gold leaf is placed on the wet surface by means of a
brush, called a gilder's tip, and is pressed down with a cotton wad.
As the glue dries again, it attaches the gold firmly to the bole so
that it may be burnished with a hard agate burnisher, considerable
pressure being used. The bole yields slightly to the pressure, and
when all the irregularities are smoothed out, the surface develops
a brilliant metallic shine.
240 GILDING

Equipment
DOUBLE BOILER

BRUSH flat sable.

gilder's tip

BURNISHER agate or haematite.

Materials

GLUE 2 J/2-2% ounces (av.) rabbi tskin glue to i

quart water.

BOLE "Hastings XX Burnish Gold Size" in

water paste, or any equivalent brand.

ALCOHOL grain, isopropyl, or shellac thinner.

GOLD LEAF books of loose gold, obtainable in shades

labeled "deep" or "lemon," in sheets
3H"X3H". So-called "metal leaf" is a
cheaper alloy, cannot be burnished, and
should be used only on inexpensive
decorative work.

COTTON WAD absorbent surgical cotton.

Procedure

1. Apply gesso to panel in the usual way. Smooth to high

finish. Dust panel and keep it clean of finger marks. With
charcoal, mark out the area that is to receive gold leaf and,
wdth a metal point, incise the outline deeply enough in the
gesso so that if any bole should be brushed over the bound-
aries of the area, the incised line would still be visible.

2. Soak and dissolve the glue. In a clean container, mix

some bole with the warm glue water to the consistency of

heavy house paint, using the following proportions, which
can be varied slightly according to the brand of bole used:

I part by volume bole

4 parts by volume glue solution

 GILDING I
241
Stir this gently to eliminate lumps. A small amount of alcohol
can be added to avoid pinholes.

3. With a sable brush, apply an even coat of this bole

solution to the panel and allow it to dry well.

4. Discard the remainder of the first bole-glue solution and

make a new solution, slightly weaker than the first.

I part by volume bole

3 parts by volume glue water

5. Apply second coat of warm bole mixture and allow it to

dry well. Rub it down with very fine sandpaper, or better,
with coarse linen cloth. Apply successive coats of the same
bole mixture until an opaque smooth red surface is built up.
A total of four coats is generally enough, and two coats often
suffice to gild objects like frames. (Illustration, plate 33.)

6. Smooth the final coat to a tilelike surface by polishing

carefully with a slightly damp cloth (see page 143, note K,
in gesso grounds) or by rubbing with a coarse linen cloth.

7. Give the bole a size of dilute glue water (i part glue

water to 3 parts warm water). Allow this to dry overnight.

8. Wet a section of the bole-covered panel with a solution

made up of i part alcohol and 3 parts water. The wetting
solution should be applied liberally with the sable brush,
and should cover an area slightly larger than the piece of
gold leaf to be applied.

9. it becomes
Stroke the gilder's tip over your hair so that
slightly oily,and then press it firmly down on the sheet of
gold leaf. Allow a little of the leaf to project beyond the
end of the gilder's tip. Carry the leaf to the panel by means
of the gilder's tip and deposit the gold on the wet surface
before the water sinks into the bole. Wait for a few seconds,
and then firmly press down on the gold leaf with a cotton
wad to insure good contact and adhesion to the bole. (Il-
lustration, plate 34.)
10. Wet the adjoining area with the water-alcohol solu-
242 I
GILDING

tion, lay another piece of gold leaf on the bole, and continue
the process until the panel is covered.

11. Test the surface to be sure that it is completely dry by

tapping it with the burnisher. A dry area will sound with
a high click, while a damp one will have a duller lower
sound. As soon as you are certain that the gold is dry, burnish
it with an agate burnisher. Rub the surface with the burnisher,
lightly at first and gradually increasing the pressure, until
a deep brilliance is developed.

12. To repair any breaks in the gold ("faults") before or

after wet the uncovered area again with the
burnishing,
water-alcohol solution and lay a small piece of gold leaf on
the spot. Be sure to cover all of the wet spot for, otherwise,
the water mark will dry as a blemish. When the gold leaf
covering the faults is dry, it too should be burnished.

13. If a matte-gilt effect on the panel

is desired, lay leaf
according to the procedures in steps Then, wet the 1-12.
burnished gold with the water-alcohol solution and put an-
other layer of gold leaf on the surface. Tamp it with the
cotton wad and allow it to dry well. Finally, rub it lightly
with a clean cotton wad, but do not burnish.

Lines may be incised in the gold with a stylus, or pat-

14.
terns may be stamped with small metal punches, which are
tapped lightly with a hammer on the gold surface. Such
patterns may be combined to produce surfaces with a high
sparkle.

Notes

A. The glue concentration in the layers of gesso and bole

must never increase in strength as one coat follows the other.
The strongest layers must be at the bottom; otherwise, cracks
will probably appear.

B. Any surface defects in the gesso or bole, such as pinholes,

brush marks, or scratches, will become extremely prominent
when the gold is placed over them. Such blemishes must be
eliminated before the gold leaf is applied.
 GILDING I
243
C. The glue-size over the bole (step 7) is often omitted
since its only function is to provide extra adhesive to hold the
gold to the bole.

D. A few drops of glue water are sometimes added to the

wetting solution of water and alcohol. This, too. is optional,
simply giving insurance that the gold leaf will stick well to
the bole.

E. At all and lint must be avoided

stages of the work, dust
lest they show up as blemishes under the gold. The con-
tainer of bole and gesso must be kept covered; brushes should
be rinsed in warm water between coats; after sandpapering,
the panel should be carefully dusted with lintless cloth; and
between working sessions the dry panel should be kept
wTapped in soft cloths.

F. All glue solutions, bole or gesso, should be heated in a

double boiler, lest they be scorched or boiled over direct heat.

G. Avoid touching or handling any area (whether covered

with gesso, bole, or gold) on which gold is yet to be laid, since
oil deposited from the skin may prevent the wetting solution
from dissolving the glue that is intended to attach the gold
to the surface.

H. If the sheet of leaf must be trimmed, it should be cut

on a leather-covered padded board with a gilder's knife. The
leafis laid flat on the leather with the gilder's tip wrinkles are ;

smoothed out by blowing down on the center of the leaf; and

the knife is used with a short sawing motion.

I. Gold leaf, mounted on sheets of thin paper, is sold as

"patent leaf." It can be cut with ordinary scissors, picked up
between the fingers, and simply placed, paper side up, on
the panel without the aid of a gilder's tip. As soon as the
wetting solution dries into the bole, the paper may be peeled
off. When the bole is completely dr)', the area is burnished
in the usual way.

J. In mordant gilding process, the gold is held to the surface

by means of a sticky oil. The mordant oil size is bought ready
to use and is applied thinly to any smooth dry surface. After
2 44 I
GILDING

a drying period specified by the manufacturer (from i hour

to 36 hours), the gold leaf is pressed onto the surface. It is

not possible to burnish such gilding, but the process is useful for
decorating frames or other objects that will be finished with
"antiquing" varnishes or scumbles.

K. Silver leaf will tarnish if it is not protected from the air

by lacquer or varnish. Otherwise, the same methods are used
in applying it to a picture surface.
 6

14

Appendix

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

Measurements in the text are stated in United States units. The
artist may use the following tables to convert these quantities to
British Imperial units or to units of the metric system.

FLUID MEASURE
United States Units

1 fluid ounces (fl. oz.) I pint (pt.)

32 fluid ounces I quart (qt.)
128 fluid ounces I gallon (gal.)
2 pints I quart
8 pints I gallon

4 quarts I gallon
1 United States gallon .833 British Imperial gallon
ounce .96 U.S. fluid ounces

British Imperial Units

20 fluid ounces :i pint

2 pints :i quart
4 quarts :i gallon
160 fluid ounces :i gallon

I British Imperial gallon :i.2 U.S. gallons

I British Imperial quart :i.2 U.S. quarts
I British Imperial fluid
246 I
APPENDIX
FLUID MEASURE {continued)

Metric Units

1000 milliliters (ml.) =zi liter

1000 cubic centimeters

(cm^ or cc) = 1 liter

Conversion Factors

to convert from to multiply

by
fluid ounces (U.S.) pints (U.S.) .625
// //
quarts (U.S.) .03125
// //
gallons (U.S.) .0078
// //
fluid ounces (Brit. Imp.) 1.04
// //
milliliters 2957
ff //
liters .03

ints (U.S.) fluid ounces (U.S.) 16

ff
quarts (U.S.) •5
//
gallons (U.S.) .125
//
pints (Brit. Imp.) .83
milliliters 473-16
liters .47

quarts (U.S.) fluid ounces (U.S.) 38

pints (U.S.) 2
n gallons (U.S.) .25
//
quarts (Brit. Imp.) .83
n milliliters 946.3
//
liters •946

gallons (U.S.) fluid ounces (U.S.) 128

pints (U.S.) 8
//
quarts (U.S.) 4
//
gallons (Brit. Imp.) •833
//
milliliters 3785.3
//
liters 3-785

I
 APPENDIX I
247
FLUID MEASURE {continued)

to convert from to multiply

by
fluid ounces (Brit. Imp.) pints (Brit. Imp.) .05
// //
quarts (Brit. Imp.) .025
/f V gallons (Brit. Imp.) .00625
// //
fluid ounces (U.S.) .96
// //
milliliters 28.41
// //
liters .028

quarts (Brit. Imp.) fluid ounces (Brit. Imp.) 40

//
pints (Brit. Imp.) 2
//
gallons (Brit. Imp.) •25
//
quarts (U.S.) 1.2
//
gallons (U.S.) •3
/r
milliliters II36
/r
liters 1. 136

gallons (Brit . Imp.) fluid ounces (Brit. Imp.) 160

//
pints (Brit. Imp.) 8
//
quarts (Brit. Imp.) 4
//
fluid ounces (U.S.) 153-7
//
gallons (U.S.) 1.2
//
milliliters 4546
//
liters 4-546

milliliters liters .001

ff
fluid ounces (U.S.) .0338
/r
pints (U.S.) .0021
//
quarts (U.S.) .001
//
fluid ounces (Brit. Imp.) •035
//
pints (Brit. Imp.) .00176

liters milliliters 1000

//
fluid ounces (U.S.) 33-81
r/
pints (U.S.) 2. II
//
quarts (U.S.) 1.06
//
gallons (U.S.) .264
248 I
APPENDIX
FLUID MEASURE (continued)

liter fluid ounces (Brit Imp.) 35-2

//
pints (Brit. Imp.) 1.76
//
quarts (Brit. Imp.) .88
//
gallons (Brit. Imp.) .22

WEIGHT
Avoirdupois (av.) Units

16 ounces (oz. av.) = 1 pound (lb.)

Metric Units

1000 grams (gm.) = 1 kilogram (kg.)

Conversion Factors

to convert from to multiply by

grams ounces (av.) .0353
r/
pounds .0022

kilograms ounces (av.) 3527

//
pounds 2.2

ounces (av.) pounds .0625

//
grams 28.35

pounds ounces (av.) 16

//
grams 435-6
//
kilograms 45

LINEAR MEASURE
United States Units

12 inches I foot
3 feet :i yard

Metric Units

1000 millimeters I meter (m)

100 centimeters I meter (m)
 APPENDIX 1
249
LINEAR MEASURE {continued)

Conversion Factors

to convert from to multiply by

inches millimeters 254
//
centimeters 2.54
//
meters .0254

feet inches 12
//
yard •333
//
centimeters 30.48
//
meters .3048

yards inches 36
//
feet 3
//
centimeters 9144
//
meters .9144

centimeters inches •394

//
feet .0328
//
yards .0109
//
meters .01

meters inches 39-37

//
feet 3.28
//
yards 1.09
//
centimeters 100

WEIGHT PER GALLON (U.S.)

OF SOME STUDIO MATERIALS
I gallon of water weighs 8.33 pounds
I gallon of turpentine weighs approximately 7.2 pounds
I gallon of ethyl alcohol weighs approximately 6.6 pounds
I gallon of toluene weighs approximately 7.24 pounds
I gallon of V. M. and P. Naphtha weighs approximately 6.3
pounds
I gallon of linseed oil weighs approximately 7.76 pounds
250 APPENDIX

'
TEMPERATURE SCALES
On the Fahrenheit thermometer scale, used to measure room tem-
perature and weather temperatures in the United States, the freez-
ing point of water is marked at 32 degrees and the boiling point
of water is stated at 212 degrees. The Centigrade thermometer,
used often in laboratory or industrial operations, indicates the
freezing point of water at zero degrees and the boiling point of
water at 100 degrees.
To convert a Fahrenheit temperature to the equivalent Centi-
grade temperature, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit reading, mul-
tiply the result by 5, and then divide by 9.

To convert a Centigrade temperature to the equivalent Fahren-

heit temperature, multiply the Centigrade reading by 9, divide
the result by 5, and then add 32.

SOURCES OF SUPPLIES
Materials mentioned in the text can, in most instances, be found
in artists' supply stores but, if unavailable locally, can be obtained
from the sources listed below. Catalogues, price lists, and shipping
charges are usually available on request.

Pigments, Oils, and Collapsible Tubes

Bocour Artist Colors
I Bridge Street
Garnerville, New York 10923

Fezandie and Sperrle, Inc.

103 Lafayettte Street
New York, New York 100 13

Varnishes, Resins, and Gums

H. Behlen and Brothers, Inc.
10 Christopher Street
New York, New York 100 14
 APPENDIX I
251
Beeswax, Bleached or Natural
Drug Stores

Turpentine, Pure Gum Spirits

A.T.F.A. (American Turpentine Farmers Association), approved.
Hardware Stores

Untempered Masonite Presdwood

Builders' supply yards

Linen for Artist's Canvas

Utrecht Linens, Inc.
33 Thirty-fifth Street
Brooklyn, New York 11232

Balance Scales
Hamilton Scale ^50, made by:
Hamilton Specialties, Inc.
35 Pacella Park Drive
Randolph, Massachusetts 02368

Encaustic Equipment
Joseph Torch
29 West Fifteenth Street
New York, New York 100 11

Acrylic Resin Materials

Elvacite 2044, 2045, 2046-Butyl methacrylate resins made by:
E. I. Du Pont de Nemours & Company, Inc.
Electrochemical Dept.
Wilmington, Delaware 19898

smaller amounts sold by:

Almac Plastics, Inc.

47-42 Thirty-seventh Street

Long Island City, New York iiioi

Acryloid F-io — Acrylic resin solution in mineral spirits

and
Rhoplex AC34, AC33, B-85 —Acrylic resin emulsions made by:
Rohm and Haas Company
Independence Mall West
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19 105
2 52 I
APPENDIX
Vinyl Resin Materials
Vinylite —Vinyl acetate resins
Vinylseal —Vinyl resin solution in acetone
Union Carbide Corporation
270 Park Avenue
New York, New York 100 17

Polyco 953 —
Polyvinyl acetate emulsion made by:
Borden Chemical Company
Polyco Department
5 1 1 Lancaster Street
Leominster, Massachusetts 01453

smaller amounts sold by:

Brooks Glue Company
875 Washington Street
Canton, Massachusetts

Everflex CA—Polyvinyl acetate emulsion

W. R. Grace & Co.
Polymer Chemicals Division
Whittemore Avenue
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140

Artists' Synthetic Resin Paints and Mediums

Aquatec, Magna
Bocour Artist Colors, Inc.
I Bridge Street
Garnerville, New York 10923

Hyplar
M. Grumbacher, Inc.
460 West 34th Street
New York, New York loooi

Liquitex
Permanent Pigments, Inc.
2700 Highland Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45212

New Temp
Utrecht Linens, Inc.
33 Thirty-fifth Street
Brooklyn, New York 11232

i
 APPENDIX I
253
Politec
Politec Company
290 Valencia Street
San Francisco, California 94103

Polyart Vinyl Acr>'lic

Polyart Products Company
1199 East Twelfth Street
Oakland, California 94606

Shiva
Shiva Artists' Colors
loth and Munroe Street
Paducah, Kentucky 42001

Weber Artists' Polymer (Vinyl and Acrylic)

F.Weber Company
Wayne and Windrin Avenue
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19 144

Win-Gel, Oleopasto, Liquin, Aquapasto

Winsor and Newton, Inc.
555 Winsor Drive
Secaucus, New Jersey 07094
 15

Bibliography

The following texts contain detailed information concerning the

subjects covered in this book. The author acknowledges his in-
debtedness to these writers and believes that the listed books
can be directly helpful to the practicing artist.

GENERAL TEXTS
Church, Arthur The Chemistry of Paints and Painting.
H. London: Seely, Service and Company, 19 15.

DoERNER, Max The Materials and Their Use in

of the Artist
Painting. Translated by Eugen Neuhaus.
New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1934.

Gettens, Painting Materials: A Short Encyclopaedia.

Rutherford J. and New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

Stout, George L. 1942.

New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1966.

Laurie, A. P. The Methods and Materials.

Painter's
Philadelphia: Lippincott Company, 1926.
J. B.
New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1967.

Mayer, Ralph W. The Artistes Handbook of Materials and Tech-

niques [revised).
New York: Viking Press, 1970
 BIBLICX>RAPHY 255

Watson, Dori The Techniques of Painting,

New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold Company,
1970.

Chaet, Bernard Artists at Work.

Cambridge: Webb Books, Inc., i960.

PROTECTION OF PICTURES
DoLLOFF, Francis How to Care for Works of Art on Paper,
W. and Perionson, Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, 1971.
Roy L.

Feller, Robert L. On Picture Varnishes and Their Solvents,

Stolow, Nathan Cleveland and London: The Press of Case
Jones, Elizabeth IL Western Reserve University, 197 1.

Keck, Caroline K. How to Take Care of Your Pictures,

New York: Museum of Modem Art and the
Brooklyn Museum, 1954.

Keck, Caroline K, A Handbook on the Care of Paintings.

New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1965.

Pomerantz, Louis 75 Your Contemporary Painting More Temporary

Than You Think?
Chicago: Artists Equity Association, Inc., 1962.

Ruhemann, Helmut The Cleaning of Paintings: Problems and Poten-

tialities.

London: Faber and Faber

New York: Frederick A. Praeger, Publishers,
1968.

Stout, George L. The Care of Pictures,

New York: Columbia University Press, 1948.

Toch, Maximiuan How to Paint Permanent Pictures,

New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

IQ22.
256 BIBLIOGRAPHY

PIGMENTS '

Weber, F. W. Artists' Pigments: Their Chemical and Physical

Properties.
New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,

1923.

OIL TECHNIQUE
Taubes, Frederic The Technique of Oil Painting.
New York: Dodd, Mead & Company, 1942.

WATER COLOR
koschatzky, Watercolor: History and Technique,
Walter Translated by Mary Whittall.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1970.

0*Hara, Eliot Making Water Color Behave.

New York: Minton Balch, 1932.

TEMPERA
Thompson, Daniel The Practice of Tempera Painting.
v., Jr, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936.
New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1962.

WAX TECHNIQUES
Jackson, F. Mural Painting.
Hamilton New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1905.

Pratt, Frances and Encaustic, Materials and Methods.

Fizell, Becga New York: Lear, 1949.

FRESCO
CrOWNIN SHIELD, Mural Painting.
Frederic Boston: Ticknor and Company, 1887.

NORDMARK, OlLE Fresco Painting.

New York: American Artists Group, Inc., i947'
 BIBLIOGRAPHY | 2 5 7

SYNTHETIC RESINS
GUTC&RREZ, Jos6 L. From Fresco to Plastics,
Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada, 1956.

GUTE&RREZ, Jos6 Fainting with Acrylics,

and RouKEs, New York: Watson- Guptill Publications, 1965.
Nicholas

Newman, Thelma Plastics as an Art Form.

R. Philadelphia: Chilton Company, 1964.

SiMONDs, Herbert Handbook of Plastics.

Weith, Archie and New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.,
BiGELOW, M. H. 1955-

Woody, Russell Painting with Synthetic Media,

New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
1965.

PASTEL
Sears, Elinor L. Pastel Painting Step by Step,
New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1968.

Watrous, James The Craft of Old Master Drawings,

Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957.

EARLY WORKS ON TECHNIQUE

Cennini, Cennino The Craftsman's Handbook; "II Libro dell Arte,"
Translated by Daniel V. Thompson, Jr.
New Haven: Yale University Press, 1933.
New York: Dover Publications (no date).

Eastlake, Sir Materials for a History of Oil Painting,

Charles London: Longmans, Brown, Green and Longman,
1847.
reprinted as:
Methods and Materials of Painting of the Great
Schools and Masters,
2 volumes.
New York: Dover. Publications, Inc., i960.
258 BIBLIOGRAPHY
Merrifield, Mary Original Treatises Dating from the Twelfth to
P. Eighteenth Centuries on the Arts of Painting,
London: John Murray, 1849.
New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1967.

Vasari, Giorgio On Technique. Translated by L. S. Maclehose.

London: J. M. Dent, 1907.
New York: Dover Publications, Inc., i960.

Acetone, 68, 70, 211, 212
Acrylic resin emulsion, 61, 212, 215-16
added to casein, 179
added to gouache, 158
alkalinity of, 19
for collage, 223
polymer tempera, 61, 215-24
brushes and tools for, 217-18
excessive thinning of, 222
films, tackiness of, 223
gel medium, 219
"gesso" priming, 133-35, 146, 220
grounds for, 219-20
modeling paste, 219
painting mediums, 218-19
painting methods, 221-23
paintings, cleaning of, 224
paint made in the studio, 220-21
pigments for, 19, 216-17
supports for, 219-20
varnish for, 224
AcryUc resin solution, 75, 76, 212
films, softness of, 113
in fixative, 235
paints, 224-26
commercially prepared, 225
isolating varnish for, 226
varnish, 113
varnish, cross-linking of, 113
Acryloid, 61, 75, 225
Acrysol, thickening agent, 221
Adhesives, water-thinned, 59-61
Aggregates, fresco, 195-96
Aging paint films, opacity loss,
Albumen, 163
Alcohol, 67, 70
denatured, 67, 211
ethyl, 67, 70
grain, 67, 235, 240, 241
methyl, 67, 70
wood, 67
Aliphatic hydrocarbons, 64, 65, 70
Alizarin crimson, 27, 42, 49
Alizarin violet, 33
Alkali resistant pigments, 19, 202
Alkyd resin, 212, 226
Alia prima painting, 25, 98
Aluminimi hydrate, 22, 36
Aluminum stearate, 36, 79, 86
Aluminum supports, 138
Ammonia water, 155
for casein, 177
for wax emulsion, 189
Ammonium carbonate, for casein, 175
for wax emulsion, 189
Aquarelle, 151. See also Water color
Arenato, 197. See also Sand finish
Aromatic solvents, 64, 66, 70
Arriclato, 197, 198-99
Asphalt waterproofing, 193
Asphaltum, 18, 34, 47
Aureolin, 25, 40
Avoirdupois ounces, 127-28, 248
Index
Back of picture, protection of, 116
Balsams, 76, 179
Barium yellow, 25, 40
Beaver board, 138
Beeswax, 58-59, 79
emulsions, 188-89
in encaustic, 181-87
paste, 190
stabilizer, 82-83, 86
Bentonite, 36, 233
Benzene, 66, 67, 70
poisonous hazards of, 66, 70
Benzine, 65, 70, 235
Benzol, 66, 70
Bianco sangiovanni, 203
Bibliography, 254-58
Binders, 54-€l, 72-76
standards for, 54
Bistre, 34, 47
Bitumen, 18, 34, 47
Black pigments, 35, 48
Bloom on varnish, 73, 111
Blue pigments, 29, 30, 43-44
Boiled oil, 57
Bole, 36, 239^3
Bone black, 48
Boxes for painting materials, 96
Braces for canvas, 124-25
Braces for panels, 138
Brick walls for fresco, 193
Brown coat for fresco, 197, 198-99
Brown pigments, 34-35, 47
Brush washer, 64, 95
129 Brushes, care and cleaning of, 94-95, 185,
218
Brushes, for oil technique, 93-95
Brushes, for water color, 154
Burlap, 120
Buming-in lamp for encaustic, 186
Burnishing gold leaf, 242
Burnt green earth, 34, 47
Burnt sienna, 28, 34, 47
Burnt umber, 34, 47
Butyl methacrylate, 113, 225
Cadmium-barimn colors, 26, 41, 42
Cadmimn green, 32, 44
Cadmium hthopones, 26, 28, 41-42, 87
Cadmiimi orange, 26, 41
Cadmium reds, 28, 42
Cadmium yellows, 26, 32, 41
Calcium carbonate, 25, 40, 194-95, 197
Calciimi oxide, 63, 194
Calfskin glue, 60
Canvas, 119^35
acrylic priming for, 133-35
commercially primed, 134-35
oil grounds for, 129-33
prepared canvas boards, 135
protection for back of, 116
removing dents in, 132
re-using, 147-48
sizing for, 125-28
2 6o INDEX
stretcher keys, 123 Cremnitz white. See Flake white
stretching instructions, 119-25 Cross-linking of acrylic varnish, 113
'
textiles for, 119-20, 135
Caput mortuum, 28 Dammar varnish, 72-73
Carbon dioxide, 194, 203, 207 aging of, 73
Carborundum, 81 in egg-oil emulsion, 167
Cardboard, 138, 156, 158, 178, 238 in encaustic binder, 183
Carnauba wax, 59 in imprimatura, 148
Cartoons for fresco, 20O-1 instructions for making, 72-73
Casein, 60, 175-80 in painting medium, 73, 97, 103, 104
artists' colors, ready made, 180 for picture varnish, 73, 109-10
binder for gesso, 142, 145, 177 for retouch varnish, 73, 1 14
binder for paints, 177 Dents in canvas, removal of, 132
colors mixed with oil paint, 179 Dextrin, 60
emulsions, 179 Diatomaceous earth, 36
fixative, 235 Diluents, 54, 61-68
house paints, 180 table of, 70-71, 249
in imprimatura, 149 Direct painting, 98-100
for pastel grounds, 234 Distemper painting, 159-60
solutions, 175-78 binder for, 159
Casein painting, supports and grounds for, display and care of, 160
178 supports and grounds for, 160
Cassel earth brown, 35, 47 Distilled water. See Water, distilled
Castor oil, 57 Dowicide A, 157, 176, 178, 230
Caustic lime, 194 Driers, 77, 103
CeUte, 36 Drying oils, 55-58
Celluloid, 210 Drying process, 55
Cellulose acetate, 211 Dyes, 21
C-^llulose nitrate, 210 bleeding of, 22
Cennini, Cennino, 163, 203
Centigrade thermometer scale, 250 Earth colors, 20
Cerulean blue, 29, 43 Efflorescence, 193, 194
Chalk, natural. See Whiting Egg-on emulsion, 167-70
Chalk, precipitated, 25 binder and paints, 167-69
in gesso, 142 supports and grounds for, 169-70
in gouache paints, 157 Egg yolk tempera, 163-67
in pastels, 230, 231, 233 display and care of, 166-67
Cherry gum, 59 pigments for, 19, 163
China clay, 37, 230, 233. See also Kaolin preparation of the paints, 163-65
Chinese white, 25, 40. See also Zinc white supports and grounds for, 165
Chip board, 138, 156 Elvacite, 61, 75, 113, 212, 225
Chrome green, 30, 45 Emerald green, 31, 32, 45
Chrome oxide, opaque, 31, 45 Emulsion, 162
Chrome oxide, transparent, 31, 46 acrylic, 61, 133, 212, 215-16, 220; see also
Chrome yellow, 21, 26, 30, 41, 153 Rhoplex
Cinnabar, 29 casein, 179-80
Cinnabar green, 45 egg-oil,167-70
Coal tar products, 22, 66, 67, 70 egg yolk, 163
Cobalt blue, 29, 43 grounds, 144-45
Cobalt green, 31, 45 gum arabic, 171
Cobalt linoleate drier, 77, 103 polyvinyl acetate, 61, 212, 227
Cobalt violet, 33, 46 wax, 188-90
Cobalt yeUow, 25, 40 Encaustic, 181-87
Cold-pressed linseed oil, 55, 82 binder for, 183
CoUage. 223 burning-in, 185-86
Cologne earth, 35, 47 care and display of, 187
Cologne glue, 60 electric palette for, 182
Colors, simple palette of, 91 supports and grounds for, 184
Commcercial standard (CS98-62), 38, 89 English red, 28, 43
Contact cement, 138 Extenders, 36
Copaiva balsam, 76
Copal resin, 74, 109 Fahrenheit thermometer scale, 250
Copper supports, 138 Fat-over-lean, 106-7
Cotton fabric, 120 in acrylic painting, 222
C.P. cadmium colors, 26, 28 in mixed techniques, 174
Cradle for panel, 136 Fire hazards, 62, 186, 236
 INDEX I
26l
Fish glue, 60 Grinding oil pahits, 79-86
Fixative, 228, 235-36 Grinding slab for paints, 81
sprayer for, 112, 236 Grounds, 117-49
FlaJce white, 23, 40, 130-32, 153 glue gesso, 139, 146
in cans, 131 half-chalk, 145
Flash points, 62 importance of, 129
table of, 70-71 oil emulsion, 144-45
Flexibility of paint films, 52 oil priming, 129-33
Float for fresco, 199 synthetic resin, 133-34
Fluid measure, tables of, 245-48 used for canvas, 129-35
Formaldehyde used for casein painting, 178
for distemper, 160 used for encaustic, 184
for sized canvas, 127 used for oU painting, 129-36, 139-49
Fresco, 191-208 used for pastel, 234
cartoons for, 200-1 used for rigid supports, 139-46
hme, 19, 194 used for synthetic resia painting, 133-34,
mortar and aggregates, 194-200 220, 225
painting methods, 204-8 used for tempera painting, 165, 169-70
pigments for, 19, 192, 202r-3 Guignet's green, 31, 46
polishing surface of, 206 Gum arable, 59
practice panels, 201-2 tempera, 171-72
retouching, 207 in water color, 152
sinopia, 201 Gum Kordofan, 59
tools and brushes, 204 Gum Senegal, 59
wall for, 193 Gum Tragacanth, 59, 230
Fuller's earth, 37 Gypsum, 193, 194

Gamboge, 32, 40, 45 Hansa yellow, 26, 32, 41

Gasoline, 65, 70 Heat lamp, 182, 185-86
Gelatin, 60, 127, 142, 149 Hooker's green, 32, 45
Gesso, 139-44 House paints, 23
advantages of, 139 containing casein, 180
materials for, 139, 142, 143 for gesso, 146
pinholes in, 142 Hydrogen sulfide, 24, 192
pre-mlxed by manufacturer, 145 Hygroscopicity, 68, 171, 234
storage of, 144
Gesso panels, 139-44 Imprimatura, 148-49, 173
for casein, 178 necessity for, 148
for encaustic, 184 recipes for, 148
for gouache, 158 for toning the ground, 149
for oil painting, 148
Indian red, 28, 43
pre-primed, 146 Indian yellow, 27, 41
for tempera, 165
Indirect painting, 100-7, 172-74
warping, 138, 141
Intonaco, 197, 200, 205-8
Gilder's clay, 36
joints or seams, 207
Gilder's tip, 239-41
Ivory black, 35, 48
GUding, 239-44
Ivory for water color, 155
Glazing, 101-7
in fresco technique, 206
Jute, 120
Glazing medium, 102-3
Glue, 60-61. See also Rabbitskin glue
Glycerine, 68, 135
Kaolin, 37
in gum tempera, 171 in distemper paint, 159
in water color, 152 in pastel chalks, 233

Gold leaf, 239-44

Kerosene, 65, 70
trimming of, 243 Ketones, 68, 70
Gold ocher, 27, 42 Keys to tighten canvas, 123
Gouache, 157-59
binder, 157 Labeling of artists' colors, 37-38, 88-89
display of, 158 Lakes, 22
groimds and supports for, 158 Lamp black, 35, 48
pigments for, 19, 157 Lapis lazuli, 30, 44
varnishing of, 158 Lead drier, 77
Green earth, 32, 45 Lead pigments
Green gold, 26, 41 in oil technique, 23, 26, 27, 129, 132
Green pigments, 30-32, 44-46 in pastel, 230
 »

262 INDEX
in tempera, 163 Monastral green, 31, 45
in water color, 153 Monastral reds, 28, 43
Lead poisoning, 24, 53 Monastral violet, 33, 46
Lead white. See Flake white Mordant gilding, 243-44
Lecithin, 163 Mortar for fresco, 194-200
Lemon yellow, 25, 42 Mummy, 34, 47
Light, 19, 24, 26, 35, 40, 50, 51, 131, 153, Museum board for mats, 156
166
Light red, 28, 43 Naphtha, 67, 70
Lime crust, 195, 197 Naples yellow, 27, 41, 153
Lime for fresco, 19, 194 Newsprint paper, 118
Lime putty, 194-95, 203, 208 Nordmark, OUe, 192
storage pit, 195 Nurnberg violet, 46
Lime wash, 208
Oil of cloves, 78
Lime water, 206
Linear measure, tables of, 248-49 Oil sequence of, 106
films,
Oil grounds, 129-33
Linen, 119-20, 135
mounted on panel, 144 Oil painting technique, 79-116
Linolenic acid, 210 brushes and equipment for, 93-96
Linseed oil, 55-57, 71 direct painting method, 98-100
boUed, 57 indirect painting methods, 100-7
cold-pressed, 55, 82 painting mediums, 96-98, 103
raw, 56 pigments used in, 18, 89-91
refined, 56 protection of the picture, 107-16
stand oil, 56 supports and grounds for, 117-49
sim-thickened, 56-57 varnishing of oil paintings, 107-15
Lithopone, 24, 40 Oil paints, 79-89
Lucite, 61, 75, 212, 225. See also Acrylic artist grade, 86-87

resin factory made, 86

labeling of, 37-38, 88-89
Madder lake, 28, 43 made by the artist, 80-86
Manganese blue, 29, 43 oil for grinding, 83
Manganese drier, 77 pigments for, 18, 89-91
Manganese violet, 33, 46 student grade, 87
Marble dust, 194, 196, 197, 199, 219 tubing of, 84
Marble meal, 194, 196, 197, 199 Oil of spike, 78
Mars black, 35, 48 Oils, drying process of, 55
Mars brown, 34, 47 Oils, storage of, 86
Mars pigments, 21, 27, 28, 33, 34, 35 Oleoresins, 76, 179
Mars red, 28, 43 Orr's white, 24, 40
Mars violet, 33, 46 Ounces (av.) avoirdupois, 127, 248
Mars yellow, 27, 41 Ounces, fluid, 245
Mask, respkator, 113, 148, 236 Ox-gall, 142, 152
Masonite Presdwood, 137, 144, 146, 160, Oxidation of linseed oil, 55, 107
165, 170, 178, 184, 219
panel bracing, 138 Paine's gray, 35
Mastic resin, 73, 74 Paint removers, 66, 68, 148
Mat for pastel or water color, 156-57, 238 Painting knives, 95
Matte gUding, 242 Painting mediums, 96-98, 102-3
Mauve, 33, 47 Palette, electric, for encaustic, 182
Mediums, painting, 96-98, 102-3 Palette cups, 95
Megilp, 74 Palette knives, 95
Metal lath, 193, 194, 202 Palette for water colors, 154
Metal leaf, 240 Palettes for oil technique, 91-92
Metals as supports, 138 Paper, 118-19
Methacrylate resin, 61, 75, 113, 212. See for casein, 178
also Acrylic for egg tempera, 165
Methanol, 67, 70 for gouache, 158
Methyl ethyl ketone, 71 mounted on panel, 144
Methyl isobutyl ketone, 68, 71, 211 newsprint, 118
Milorl blue. See Prussian blue primed for oil painting, 136
Mineral splits, 63, 65, 70, 82, 84, 94, 95, stretching, 156
182, 183, 185, 190, 225 for water color, 155-56
Mixed technique, 167, 172-74 wood pulp, 118
Mold, 116, 234, 238 Paratoluidine toner, 29
Monastral blue, 29, 44 Parchment, 155
 INDEX 263
Paris green, 31, 45 Preservative, 158, 165, 168, 176, 177, 178,
Paris white, 25, 139, 231 230
Pastel, 228-38 Primed canvas, 134-35, 220
binder for making chalks, 230-31 Protection of picture, 107-16, 156-57, 238
combined with other media, 237 Prussian blue, 30, 32, 35, 44, 49
display and protection of, 238 Pumice, 234
fixatives for, 228, 235-36 Purpurin, 28, 33
method for making chalks, 229-34 Purree, 41
pigments for, 230 P.V.A., 61. See Polyvinyl acetate
supports and grounds for, 234
Patent gold leaf, 243 Quarter-sawed wood, 136
Petroleum aromatic solvents, 64, 66, 67, 70 Quick Ume, 63, 194
Petroleum hydrocarbons, 64, 70 Quinacridone reds, 28, 43
Petroleum paint thinner, 65. See also Min- Quinacridone violet, 33, 46
eral spirits
Petroleimi paraffins, 64 Rabbitskin glue, 60
Petroleum products, 64-67, 70 binder for distemper paints, 159-60
Phthalocyanine green, 31, 32, 45 binder for gesso, 139-45
Picture varnish, 71-73, 107-15 cracking and sequence of layers, 143-44,
Pigments, 17-53 160, 242
artificial mineral, 21 for gilding, 240-43
bleeding of, 18, 50 for imprimatura, 148
drying rate in oils, 38-48 for mounting textiles or paper, 144
fading, 50, 51 recipes, measured without scales, 128,
film-forming properties of, 38-48, 52 143
natural earth colors, 20 for sizing supports, 125-28
natural mineral colors, 20 for tempera, 171
organic, 21, 35 Raw sienna, 27, 42
poisonous; see Poisonous pigments Raw umber, 34, 47
quality of, 49 Recipes
sources of, 20 for acrylic fixative, 235-36
standards and requfrements for, 18-20 for casein colors, 177
table of, 39-48 for casein fixative, 235
tests, 49-53 for casein gesso, 177
toxicity of; see Poisonous pigments for casein sohition, 175-78
used in acryUc tempera, 19, 216-17 for distemper paint, 159-60
used in distemper, 159 for egg-oil emulsion, 167-68
used in fresco, 19, 192, 202-3 for encaustic binders, 183
used In gouache, 19, 157 for fresco mortar, 197
used in oil technique, 18, 8^91 for gilding bole, 240, 241
used in pastel, 20, 230 for glazing medium, 103
used in tempera, 19, 163 for glue gesso, 139-40, 142, 143
used in water color, 19, 152-54 for glue size, 126, 128
Pinholes in gesso, 142 for gouache, 157
Pipe clay, 37 for grinding oil, 83
Plasticizer, 68, 135
for gum arable tempera, 171
Plexiglas, 61, 75, 212
for imprimatura, 148
Plywood, 137 for lime water, 206
Poisonous pigments, 18, 20, 24, 26, 27, 30, for linseed oil emulsion ground, 145
31, 33, 37, 53, 148, 163, 203, 230 for oU painting medium, 97
Poisonous solvents, 62, 63, 66, 67, 70, 213, for oil priming for canvas, 130
236 for pastel chalk binders, 230-31
Polymerization, 55, 56, 211, 212 for pastel chalks, 233-34
Polyvinyl acetate, 61, 76, 211, 227 for pastel fixative, 235-36
Polyvinyl acetate emulsion, 61, 212 for picture varnish, 72-73, 109-10, 113,
added to casein, 179 114
added to gouache, 158 for retouch varnish, 114
tempera paints, 227 for water color binder, 152
Polyvinyl chloride-acetate, 76, 211 for wax emulsion, 189
Poppyseed ofl, 26, 57, 78, 85 for wax paste, 190
in white paint, 57, 88, 132 for wax stabilizer for oil paints, 82-83
Poimcing fresco tracing, 201 for wax tempera, 189
PozzuoU red, 202, 206 Red pigments, 27-29, 42-43
Precipitated chalk. See Chalk, precipitated Resins, acrylic, 212. See also Acrylic resin
Presdwood, See Masonite emulsion and Acrylic resin solution
264 I
INDEX
Resins, alkyd. See Alkyd resin for pastel, 234
Resins, natural, 71-74 requirements of, 118
Resins, synthetic. See Synthetic resins rigid, 136-39
Retarders, 77 for synthetic resin painting, 219-20
Retouch varnish, 73, 114 for water color, 155-56
Rhodamine toner, 29, 43 Synthetic resin, 75-76, 209-15. See also
Rhoplex, 61, 216, 220, 221 Acrylic resin and Vinyl resin
Rosin, 62 Synthetic resin fixative, 235-36
Rough cast, 197-98 Synthetic resin grounds, 133-35, 146, 219-
20
Safflower 57-58, 132
oil, Synthetic resin solution paints, 225-26
Sand finish, 197, 199 Synthetic resin tempera paints, 172, 215-
Sand for fresco, 195-200 24, 227
Scale for weighing glue, 128 Synthetic resin varnish, 75, 113, 211, 223-
Schweinfurt green, 31, 45 24, 226
Scratch coat, 197-98 Synthetic resin water-thinned adhesives,
Scumbling, 102 60, 61
Secco painting, 208
Sepia, 34, 47 Table of pigments, 39-^8
SheUac, 74 Table of solvents and thinners, 70-71
in fixative, 235 Tables of weights and measures, 245-49
in imprimatura, 148 fluid measure, 245-48
SheUac thinner, 67, 240 linear measure, 248-49
Siccatives, 77 weight, 248
de Courtrai, 77 weight per gallon, 249
de Haarlem, 77 Tacks for stretching canvas, 122
Silver leaf, 239, 244 Tamol, dispersant, 221
Slnking-in of colors, 114 Tempera, 161-74
Sinopia drawing for fresco, 201 acryUc, 172, 215-24
Size painting, 15^-60 egg-oil emulsion, 167-70
Sizing for canvas, 125-28 egg yolk, 163-67
Skim coat, 199 gum arable, 171
Slaked Ume, 194, 195 polyvinyl acetate, 172, 227
Sodium orthophenyl phenate, 157, 176. See synthetic resin, 172, 215-24, 227
also Dowicide A as underpainting for oils, 172-74
Solvents, 61-71, 249 vinyl, 227
Solvents, poisonous. See Poisonous solvents Temperature scales, conversion of, 250
Solvents and thinners, table of, 70-71, 249 Terre verte, 32, 45
Sources of supplies, 250-53 Terre verte brCl^e, 34
Spanish red, 28, 43 Textile supports, 119-20, 170, 184
Spirits of wine, 67. See also Alcohol Th^nard's blue, 43
Spray can, varnish in, 115 Thinners, 61-71, 249
Spray equipment, 112 Thinners and solvents, weight per gallon,
Spraying fixative, 236 249
Spraying varnish, 112-13 Thixotropic effect, 226
Stabilizer for oU paint, 36, 79, 82-83 Thompson, Daniel V„ Jr., 163
Stand 56, 103, 110, 167
oil, Titanium white, 24, 40, 133, 139, 216
Staples, used in stretching canvas, 124 Toluene (toluol), 66, 67, 70, 211, 235, 236
Starch, 60, 234 Toluidine red, 43
Strasbourg turpentine, 76 Toned ground, 132, 149
Stretcher bars and frames, 121-22 for gouache, 158
Stretching canvas, 120-25 Toners, 22, 29
SUetching paper, 156 Toxicity of pigments. See Poisonous pig-
Strontium yellow, 25, 42 ments
Sulfur fumes, 19, 24, 27, 153 Toxicity of solvents. See Poisonous solvents
Sun-thickened oil, 56-57, 167, 183 Tracings for fresco, 201
SuppUes, sources of, 250-53 Triton, wetting agent, 221
Supports, 117-44 Trullisatio. 197-98
for casein, 178 Tubing of oil colors, 84
for distemper, 160 Tung oil, 58
for egg-oil emulsion, 170 Turpentine, 62-64, 70
for egg tempera, 165 excessive thinning with. 97-98
for encaustic, 184 in painting medium. 97-98, 103
flexible, 118-20 skin irritations caused by, 63
for gouache, 158 storage of, 63, 86
for oU technique, 117-25, 136-38 wood, 63, 70
 INDEX 265
Ultramarine blue, artificial, 30, 44, 85, 86 Water, distiUed, 62, 152, 155, 163, 204, 205
Ultramarine blue, natural, 30, 44 Water color, 151-57
Ultramarine red, 33, 46 binder recipe, 152
Ultramarine violet, 33, 46 brushes, 154
Umber, burnt, 34, 47 display of paintings, 156-57
Umber, raw, 34, 47 equ^ment for, 154
Underpalntlng, 100-7 paper for, 155-56
tempera for oils, 172-74 pigments for, 19, 152-54
white paint for, 88, 105 supports and grounds for, 155-56
Upson board, 138 Water gilding, 239-43
Water paints, 150-60
Van Dyke brown, 35, 47 Wax, 58-59, 179. See also Beeswax
Varnish, 71-76. See also Acrylic resin and Wax emulsion, 188-90
Dammar Wax paste, 190
aging of, 73, 113 Wax, saponified, 167. See also Wax emul-
cooked 72, 74
oil, 71, sion
in pahiting medium, 73, 97-98, 103-4 Wax soap. See Wax emulsion
ready-made, 115 Wedges for canvas stretching, 123
recipes, 72-73, 109-10, 113 Weights, tables of, 248
retouch, 73, 114 Wet-in-wet painting, 78, 185
spirit, 71 White lead, 23-24, 40, 129, 130. See also
studio manufacture of, 72-73 Flake white
as a surface coating, 71, 107-15 White lead in oil, industrial, 130-32
for acrylic paintings, 224, 226 White pigments, 23-25, 40
application of, 109-15 Whites, imderpainting, 88, 105
for distemper, 160 WhitiDg, 25, 40, 85
for gouache, 158-59 in acrylic priming, 133
for oil painting, 107-15 in distemper paint, 159
spraying of, 112^13 in gesso, 139--42
for tempera, 166-67 in gouache, 157
lUmty brands, 115 in pastel chalks, 230, 231, 233, 234
Venetian red, 28, 43 Wood, plain sawed, 136
Venice turpentine, 76, 167, 179, 183 Wood, quarter-sawed, 136
Vermilion, 29, 43 Wood alcohol, 67
Verona brown, 34 Wood, cellular structure of, 136
Vert emeraude, 31, 46 Wood panels, 136-37
Vert Paul Veronese, 31, 32, 45
Vinyl polymer tempera, 227 Xylene (xylol), 66, 67, 70
Vinyl resin, 76, 211
VinyUte, 76, 211 Yellow ocher, 27, 41, 85
Vinylseal, 211 Yellow pigments, 25-27, 40-42
Violet pigments, 32-33, 46-47
Viridian, 31, 32, 46, 85 Zinc oxide. See Zinc white
V. M. and P. Naphtha, 65, 70, 113, 235 Zinc white, 23, 25, 40, 85, 132, 139
in gouache, 157
Wahiut oil, 58 as a ground for casein, 178
Washing brushes, 94-95, 185, 218 Zinc yellow, 25, 42
Reed Kay ,v>rn and trained in

Boston, where he has been teaching

art since 1948. A painter himself, he
studied under Karl Zerbe at the Boston
Museum School and has given courses
in techniques and materials at the
Skowhegan School of Painting and
Sculpture and at the Boston Museum
School. Since 1956, he has been asso-
ciated with the Division of Art, Boston
University, and was named Professor
of Art in 1968. The earlier edition of
this book. The Painters Companion,
has been used in many art schools and
universities.

JACKET BY ROLF BRUDERER

Printed in the U.S.A.

This completely up-to-date handbook of painter's materials
and techniques includes convenient, concise discussions of

PIGMENTS
Standards and Requirements; Types of Pigments; Color
Groups; Catalogue of Pigments; Tests
BINDERS AND DILUENTS
Drying Oils; Water-Thinned Adhesives; Thinners and
Solvents; Varnishes
OIL TECHNIQUE
Manufacture of Colors; Factory-Made Colors; Materials
and Equipment for Painting; Painting Methods;
Protection of the Picture
I
SUPPORTS AND GROUNDS
Flexible Supports; Grounds for Flexible Supports; Rigid

Supports; Grounds for Rigid Supports; Imprimatura

WATER PAINTS
Transparent Water Color; Gouache; Distemper or
Size Painting
TEMPERA
Pure Egg Yolk Tempera; Emulsions of Egg and Oil;

Tempera Underpainting for Oils

CASEIN
ENCAUSTIC
COLD WAX TECHNIQUES
FRESCO PAINTING
The Wall; Sketches and Cartoons; Pigments and
Equipment; Painting Procedure; Secco Painting
SYNTHETIC RESIN PAINTS
ACRYLICS
PASTELS
GILDING
APPENDIX
Sources of Supply; Bibliography; Index