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Dorothy Blair
To cite this article: Dorothy Blair (2009) The Child in the Garden: An Evaluative Review of
the Benefits of School Gardening, The Journal of Environmental Education, 40:2, 15-38, DOI:
10.3200/JOEE.40.2.15-38
ABSTRACT: Although educators widely use school gardens for experiential education, researchers
have not systematically examined the evaluative literature on school-gardening outcomes. The author
reviewed the U.S. literature on children’s gardening, taking into account potential effects, school-
gardening outcomes, teacher evaluations of gardens as learning tools, and methodological issues.
Quantitative studies showed positive outcomes of school-gardening initiatives in the areas of science
achievement and food behavior, but they did not demonstrate that children’s environmental attitude
or social behavior consistently improve with gardening. Validity and reliability issues reduced general
confidence in these results. Qualitative studies documented a wider scope of desirable outcomes,
including an array of positive social and environmental behaviors. Gardening enthusiasm varies
among teachers, depending on support and horticultural confidence.
KEYWORDS: environmental education, experiential learning, food behavior, school gardens, science
achievement, social behavior
O ver the last 20 years, school gardening has become a national movement. Texas and California
state departments of education and university extension programs have actively encouraged
school gardening by providing curricula and evaluative research (Dirks & Orvis, 2005; Ozer,
2007). Also, 57% of California school principals responding to a statewide questionnaire said that their
schools had instructional gardens or plantings (Graham, Beall, Lussier, McLaughlin, & Zidenberg-Cherr,
2005). Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina have had programs that promote school gardening (Culin,
2002; Emekauwa, 2004; Smith & Mostenbocker, 2005; University of Florida, 2006).
Northern states have been slower to become involved, but school gardens are no longer exceptional in
cooler climates. In the state of New York, more than 200 schools, 100 teachers, and 11,000 students garden
using a state curriculum (Faddegon, 2005). Vermont actively promotes school gardening in partnership
Dorothy Blair is an assistant professor at Penn State University, College of Health and Human Development.
She is also a member of the Department of Nutritional Sciences. Her teaching and research focus on the inter-
face among food, agriculture, ecology, culture, and social justice. Copyright © 2008 Heldref Publications
[G]ardening changes the status of food for all involved. When one gardens, food can no longer
be viewed as a mere commodity for consumption; we are brought into the ritual of communal
goodness that is found at the intersection of people and plants. Food that we grow with our own
hands becomes a portal for personal transformation. (p. 357)
Exposure to Nature and Gardening in Childhood Shapes Adult Attitudes and Environmental Values
Many authors and researchers believe that today’s children lack the exposure to the natural world
that shapes environmental values and puts science in context (Bundschu-Mooney, 2003; Finch,
2004; Kahn, 2002; Kellert, 2002; Orr, 2002). Chawla’s (1998) review of the qualitative and sur-
vey literature found that adults who had significant and positive exposure to nature as children—
experiences, often with significant adults, that socialize them to view nature in positive and meaningful
ways—were more likely to be environmentally sensitive, concerned, and active. In a sample of teenage
natural-resource workers, Vaske and Kobrin (2001) showed that a teenager’s identity with a place medi-
ated the relation between dependency on the place and environmentally responsible behaviors.
Active childhood involvement with plants may affect subsequent attitudes and behavior in adults. Blair,
Giesecke, and Sherman (1991) found that minority participants—African Americans from the South and
Asian immigrants—in community gardening projects in Philadelphia had gardened as children in rural
areas. Lohr and Person-Mims (2005) studied metropolitan adults’ attitudes toward trees and gardening in
relation to their memories of their home surroundings in childhood, their time spent in outdoor places,
and their time spent actually performing gardening activities (telephone survey of 112 most populated
U.S. cities; response rate = 52%; sample size = 2,004). Active gardening in childhood was the most impor-
tant predictor of whether trees had personal value in adulthood.
Our interviews suggest that garden meaning is a complex ecology of idea, place and action. We
found that when children become involved as gardeners or farmers rather than as passive observers
of gardens, a deeper significance and meaning is established. Gardens that operated on all levels
simultaneously—as idea, place and activity—can become sacred places. (p. 8)
1. All seven studies reported that students were delighted and highly motivated by the pleasures
of gardening and the opportunity to get dirty outside and were excited by exploratory learning
framed in a garden context (Alexander, North, & Hendren, 1995; Brunotts, 1998; Brynjegard,
2001; Canaris, 1995; Faddegon, 2005; Moore, 1995; Thorp & Townsend, 2001).
2. All seven studies reported that students showed improved school attitude and pride in the
garden and its produce. The students involved their parents, who became more involved with
school. (Alexander et al., 1995; Brunotts, 1998; Brynjegard, 2001; Canaris, 1995; Faddegon,
2005; Moore, 1995; Thorp & Townsend, 2001).
3. All seven studies reported that school gardens had a strong community-building component,
promoting teamwork, student bonding, a broader range of interaction with adults, and community
Authors, by date
published Objective Sample or design Tools Results
R. Mabie and Assess 2 types of activities Hispanic and African Instrument developed by No statistical analysis
M. Baker (1996) to improve student American 5th–6th-grade researchers and tested in a reported
knowledge of Ag students from 2 inner-city Los Angeles school; Kuder- Gardening groups showed
Los Angeles schools; Richardson 20 reliability = .74 the biggest increase in
control group (n = 31), Gardening group: gardened interest and knowledge of
gardening group (n = 56), 1 hr per week for 10 weeks Ag
Ag project group (n = 57) Project group: bread baking, Project group was
Pre- and posttest chick rearing, and seed intermediate in pre- and
germination for 3 days posttest change between
control and gardening
group
C. D. Klemmer, Develop cognitive test 3rd–5th-grade students from Test comprising 40 multiple- Cronbach’s α = .86 overall;
T. M. Waliczek, instrument to assess SA 7 central Texas schools choice questions based on .92 for 5th-grade students
and J. M. gains in conjunction with using state youth- Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Zajicek (2005a) gardening gardening curriculum Education Objectives
(N = 657)
C. D. Klemmer, Assess effectiveness of school Same sample as above (n = Texas state youth-gardening SA higher (p < .001) for
T. M. Waliczek, gardens in enhancing SA 453 in experimental classes; curriculum given to gardening students
and J. M. n =194 in control classes experimental groups Only 5th-grade students
Zajicek (2005b) mixed in schools) delayed for control had sig. dif. (p < .001)
Posttest only Klemmer SA test
Note. SA = science achievement; Ag = California food and fiber industry; K&A = knowledge and attitude; sig. dif. = significant difference.
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TABLE 2. Quantitative Assessment of School Garden Food and Nutrition Outcomes
Authors, by date
published Objective Sample or design Tools Results
S. E. Lineberger Test garden-activity guide 111 Texas 3rd–5th-grade Teachers guide with 34 Increased veg preference
and J. M. for teachers students from 5 schools gardening activities (p < .05)
Zajicek (2000) Measure attitude change (quasi-experimental) F&V preference Fruit preference had no
toward F&V No control group questionnaire change
Pre- and posttest 24-recall food journals Increased preference for
(pre and post) F&V as snack (p < .01)
No change in 24-hr recall
pre- and posttest
J. L. Morris, A. Assess feasibility of school- 1st-grade students from 2 Nutr knowledge score based Gardeners had a higher
Neustadter, gardening program with California schools matched on food-group recognition score on food-group
and S. Zidenberg- 1st-grade students for nutr for location and ethnicity, Willingness to taste 6 veg, identification (p < .02)
Cherr (2001) education and food- with (n = 48) and without preference, and ability to Gardeners more willing to
behavior change (n = 49) school gardens name taste veg (p < .005)
(quasi-experimental) No preference or naming
Pre- and posttest differences
J. L. Morris and Develop and evaluate 9-lesson 213 California 4th-grade Nutr knowledge questionnaire No difference in nutr
S. Zidenberg- garden-enhanced nutr- students (control school, Willingness to taste 6 veg: knowledge between NL
Cherr (2002) education curriculum NL school, NG school) carrots, broccoli, spinach, and NG sites
Note. Nutr = nutrition; F&V = fruit and vegetable; veg = vegetables; NL = nutrition lessons only; NG = nutrition lessons plus gardening.
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TABLE 3. Environmental Attitude Change in Conjunction With School Gardens
Authors by date
published Objective Sample or design Tools Results
S. M. Skelly and Develop an interdisciplinary Sample is 2nd- and 4th-grade Project GREEN: developed Sig. dif. in Environmental
J. M. Zajiek approach to environmental students by class from 4 33 activities for school Response Inventory (p <
(1998) education using gardens Texas elementary schools; gardens .001); dose response =
Test treatment difference in experimental group (n = 153), Children’s Environmental score increase with
EA control group (n = 84) Response Inventory number of outdoor
Posttest only activities
Negative age effect (p < .05)
T. M. Waliczek Measure changes in EA with 589 2nd–8th-grade students Project GREEN curriculum Pretest score was 31.45;
and J. M. Project GREEN gardening from 7 elementary schools Author-created EA scale posttest score was 31.71,
Zajicek (1999) activities in Texas and Kansas t = –1.712 (p < .10)
Pre- and posttest design Significant effect of gender
and ethnicity
Authors, by date
T. M. Waliczek, To determine if Project 598 2nd–8th-grade students Project GREEN activities No sig. dif. between
R. D. Bradley, GREEN curricula in 7 Texas and Kansas for school gardens was used gardening children and
and J. M. positively influenced schools; gardening for 6 months (not clear “norming” control
Zajicek (2001) students’ interpersonal children compared with how well teachers carried No significant effect of
relationships and attitudes “norming” population for out gardening activities) gardening on experimental
testing instrument The Self Report of Personality group’s attitudes or
Pre- and posttest design Scale for children and relationships
adolescents
C. W. Robinson Assess changes in life-skill 281 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-grade Texas Extension Service Small but significant
and J. M. development of elementary students from 7 Texas school-gardening increase (p < .05) in scores
Zajicek (2005) students participating in a elementary schools curriculum with teacher of gardening children
1-year gardening program Pre- and posttest with training No change in controls but
experimental classes (n = Youth Life Skills Inventory gains in areas of working
190) and control classes with 3-point Likert-type with groups and self-
(n = 91) scale understanding
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TABLE 5. Triangulated Studies of Grade-School Gardens Using Qualitative Methods and Analysis
Authors, by date
published Objectives or questions Sample or research design Observations or themes
J. Alexander, Pilot study identifying and evaluating Participating inner-city San Antonio Moral development related to valuable
M.-W. North, short-term effects of master gardener School 2nd- and 3rd-grade students; life lessons embedded in gardening
and D. K. classroom-gardening project 3 gardening classes, 2 nongardening Academic learning related to hands-on
Hendren (1995) controls nature experimentation
Observations and interviews with Gardens engendered parental support,
principal, 5 teachers, master gardener, enthusiasm, and involvement
52 students, and 3 parents Student pleasure, self-satisfaction,
teamwork
Master gardener critical element as role
model
Fear of vandalism, protective feelings
C. M. Brunotts Evaluation of Pittsburgh Civic Gardening Socioeconomically depressed school Gardening viewed as valuable and
(1998) Center’s 14-session school-gardening 150 Kindergarten and 2nd- and 4th- effective augmentation of science
outreach program grade students in groups curriculum, broadening student
Teachers (open-ended questions); 13% horizons, and increased parental
of parents (open- and closed-ended) involvement; gardening increases
Methodology was a post hoc adaptation student excitement about learning,
to various problems with pre- and pride, hope, fun, ability to work
postdesign cooperatively, and taking
responsibility; increased
observation skills and
environmental caretaking
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TABLE 6. Case Studies of School-Gardening Projects and Outcomes (Direct Involvement of Author)
I. Canaris (1995) Vermont 1st–4th-grade mixed class worked with organic Increase in nutrition, food literacy, gardening and math skills,
farmer to develop snack garden and learn where food observation and connection to nature
comes from (2-year teacher retrospective) Gardening connected the students to the community,
stimulating student creativity, recycling, fundraising, and
parental involvement
R. Moore (1995) Berkeley, CA, primary school environmental-schoolyard “Gardens provided the most direct source of children’s
design project retrospective, a biodesign developed from emotional involvement with living systems. They
blacktop over a 10-year period with collaboration from accommodated every stage of the learning cycle, stimulated
university faculty, students, and an outdoor resource teacher by a diversity of flowers and vegetables, constantly
Purposes were to develop an environmental pedagogy where changing, interacting with their surroundings, adapting to
all subjects would be taught through the outdoors and to new circumstances, as children counted, measured,
promote sustainable development values observed, described, interpreted and recorded.” (p. 75)
“Garden projects had the unique capacity to generate a
collective sense of purpose through the shared experience
of getting one’s hands in the soil. No other activity
duplicated such an intimate combination of freedom of
expression and discipline.” (p. 79)
S. Brynjegard (2001) Napa, CA, elementary-school garden established by author as Gardening fosters detailed nature observation leading to
AmeriCorps volunteer to promote environmental awareness mind and heart understanding of natural interactions,
Interviews with students, parents, and teachers at 3 gardening identification with and appreciation for living things
elementary schools in the San Francisco Bay area Gardens need coordinator, whole school support, and unity
Research question: Do children gain unique insights into Children’s responsibility and decision making promotes
environmental issues through gardening? attachment, empowerment, and ownership
Four of the seven qualitative studies of K–12 gardening were evaluations of gardening projects
that the authors had initiated or were directly involved in. Those studies opened themselves to the
danger of overly enthusiastic reporting and biased analysis. However, those authors were also in the
best position to unravel the garden–child interactions. Researchers should understand and evaluate
such studies as best-case scenarios.
Studies of gardening involving high school students as participants are rare. A review by Sullivan
(1999) briefly mentioned a project at a rural health center in Arizona where local high school stu-
dents and project staff tended a demonstration and community garden next to the health center to
provide technical support and encouragement for home gardening in the local area. Then the same
high school students provided technical expertise for these new home gardens. Horticultural therapy
has been successfully used to increase self-confidence, pride, and self-esteem among troubled youths
in Ohio (Hudkins, 1995). However, I found no quantitative and only two qualitative studies con-
necting gardening with high school students. Although they did not fit the pattern of in-school gar-
dening encountered by researchers in elementary schools, those studies showed innovative ways for
using gardening with older students. Lekies, Eames-Sheavly, Wong, and Ceccarini (2006) reported
on a New York State 4-H children’s garden consultant program in which 7 girls served as consultants
to adults in the design of children’s school gardens. Those researchers described the process of men-
toring those girls through activities and garden site visits to the point where they were competent
to assist the adults. The researchers concluded that the mentored girls gained empowerment and
self-esteem and provided valuable improvements to the children’s garden-design site and garden
programming. Krasny and Doyle (2002) conducted qualitative, triangulated research on Cornell
University’s six-city garden mosaics program, engaging inner-city youth attending summer pro-
grams in participatory research with adult gardeners in their communities. Their research included
interviews with 4 gardeners, 11 community educators, and 28 predominantly African American
and Hispanic 9–16-year-old participants. Youth enhanced their gardening, teamwork, and research
Discussion
Research Question and Methodological Issues
The question addressed by this review of the literature is whether a school garden, without educa-
tors’ either changing the schoolyard extensively or integrating broader environmental fieldwork into
the curriculum, would provide sufficient experiential education to cause measurable and observable
changes in student achievement and behavior. The results of the reviewed research were positive. In
all, 9 out of 12 quantitative studies reinforced the results of Lieberman and Hoody (1998), showing
increased science achievement and behavioral improvement in schools that use school gardening
as their integrating context for learning. Also, 9 qualitative studies unanimously reported positive
learning and behavior effects of school gardening or garden involvement. Mabie and Baker (1996),
Rahm (2002), and Waliczek et al. (2003) have shown a positive impact of outdoor gardening or
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