AL-FARABI KAZAKH NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

К. А. Zhaksybekova
М. А. Zhusupov
R. S. Kabatayeva

FUNDAMENTALS OF VECTOR
AND TENSOR ANALYSIS

Educational manual

Second edition, supplemented

Almaty
«Qazaq university»
2017

1
UDC 539.1 (075.8)
LBC 22.383
Zh 99

Recommended for publication by the decision

of the Academic Council of the Faculty of Physics and
Technology and Editorial and Publishing Council of
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University
(Protocol №4 dated 26.05.2017)

Reviewers:
doctor of Physics and Mathematics, Professor Yu.V. Arkhipov
candidate of Technical Sciences, Associate Professor G.А. Abdraimova

Zhaksybekova К.А.
Zh 99 Fundamentals of Vector and Tensor Analysis: educational
manual / К.А. Zhaksybekova, М.А. Zhusupov, R.S. Kabatayeva.
– 2nd ed., suppl. – Almaty: Qazaq university, 2017. – 148 p.
ISBN 978-601-04- 2672-6
The tutorial contains the lectures being given at the Department of
Theoretical and Nuclear Physics of al-Farabi Kazakh National University.
The tutorial is intended for students in physics and mathematics and can
be used for the active mastering of different physical problems solution
methods.

Publishing in authorial release.

UDC 539.1 (075.8)

LBC 22.383

ISBN 978-601-04-2672-6 © Zhaksybekova К.А., Zhusupov М.А.,

Kabatayeva R.S., 2017
© al-Farabi KazNU, 2017

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 Mathematical methods are used in physics when describing
properties, laws of motion and interaction of different physical
objects.
The use of scalar quantities allows describing the simplest
physical properties ob bodies. However, for example, for the
quantitative description of bodies’ interaction the scalar quantities
are not enough. In this case it is necessary to use the more
complicated mathematical quantities − directed segment or vectors.
The tensors which have more complicated mathematical nature
are used for characterization of deformations, inertia at rotational
motion and etc. Since the scalars, vectors and tensors are chosen for
the quantitative description of the characteristics of objects of
environment, then, from the physical point, they should have the
common nature. When considering the physical problems it is
convenient to determine the specific vectors and tensors relatively to
coordinates systems. At this the coordinates systems themselves can
be chosen in arbitrary way since they carry the secondary character.
That is, all systems of coordinates should be equivalent. In the
mathematical apparatus of tensor calculus, as in its particular case –
vector algebra and calculus, the coordinates systems equality are
included since the physical characteristics and physical regulations
formulation should not be dependent on the choice of coordinates
systems. This allowed to express the mathematical formulations of
physical laws in opportune and obvious forms and gave the
opportunity of its active use in the modern physics.
The present tutorial is devoted to statement of the fundamentals
of vector and tensor calculus for physicists in a volume necessary for
solution of problems of classical mechanics, electrodynamics,
quantum mechanics and etc. The treatment of the theory is illustrated
with examples. The tutorial contains the problems for self-solution as
well.

3
 In the first part of the present tutorial there is a consideration of
questions connected to the operations over vectors, integral theorems
of vector calculus. The other two chapters contain the information
about curvilinear orthogonal systems of coordinates and tensor
calculus.

4
 1.1. Fundamental concepts

In the science and technique there are often the quantities which
are totally determined by only number, the so called absolute value,
for example, mass, time, temperature and etc. These quantities are
called scalar ones. However many physical quantities are determined
by not only the number but by the direction as well, for example,
displacement, velocity, force, momentum and angular momentum.
These quantities are called vector ones.
It is interesting to notice, that the all mentioned vector quantities
are taken from mechanics, however at the development of mechanics
the vector calculus was not used; moreover it was not created so far.
The need in the vector calculus appeared after that Maxwell
developed the electromagnetic theory and the vector nature of the
electric and magnet fields became clear.
Graphically it is opportune any vector quantity (further we
will call it as vector) to represent by an arrow, length of
which is proportional to the quantity of vector, and the direction
determines the vector’s direction. The direction of the arrow stands
for the opposite direction. At such a determination the sum of
vectors
  
C  A B (1.1)

means the convergency of the origin of vector B with the end of the
vector A . An arrow, joining the origin of the vector A with the end
of the vector B , defines the vector C . This procedure of vectors
addition by the triangle rule (1.1) is illustrated in the figure 1.

5
 Fig. 1. Triangle rule for vectors addition

Supplementing the triangle obtained to a parallelogram, one can

see (fig. 2), that
    
C  A B  B  A. (1.2)

Fig. 2. Parallelogram rule for vectors addition

Let’s note that vectors are the geometrical objects not dependent
on coordinates systems. For example, the vector A (fig. 3), directed
from the origin of reference system, end in the point (х1,у1,z1).

Fig. 3. Components of vector in the Cartesian coordinate system

6
 Any vector quantity (momentum, electric field strength and etc.)
can be denoted by a symbol A , however some vector quantities, for
example, a distance from the origin of coordinates to a point

(х1,у1,z1) is denoted by a special symbol r (radius-vector)

r  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) . (1.3)

Let’s denote the absolute value of the radius-vector with a

symbol r  r . It is easy to understand (fig. 4), that the coordinates
of the end of the vector is connected with the absolute value of the
vector by the relations

x1  r  cos , y1  r  cos , z1  r  cos . (1.4)

Fig. 4. Directing cosines

Here cos , cos  and cos  are directing cosines, and

 ,  and   respectively the angles between the vector and the
positive direction of axis x, y and z . The quantities x1 , y 1 and z 1

are called the components (Cartesian) of the radius-vector r or its
projections.
7
 Any vector A can be decomposed on components (or projected on
the coordinate axes):

Ax  A  cos , Ay  A  cos , Az  A  cos . (1.5)

Let’s introduce the unite vectors in the direction of each of the

  
coordinate axes. Let i , j , k  respectively the vector of unit length
directed along the positive semiaxes x, y , z . Then according to the
operation of vector addition,

A  i x  j  y  k z . (1.6)
If A  0 , then  x   y   z  0 . In accordance with the
Pythagorean theorem the absolute value of the vector A equals

   2x   2y   2z .

An addition and a subtraction of vectors can be done using the

component representation. For vector A

  i x  j  y  k z
and vector 
  i x  j  y  k z
it is true

    i   x   x   j   y   y   k   z   z  . (1.7)

Problems

1. Two vectors are given: C1  A  B and C2  A  B . Construct the vectors

A and B .

8
 2. Two points are given M1 ( x1 ; y1 ; z1 ) and M 2 ( x2 ; y2 ; z2 ) . Define the
vector M1M 2 in a coordinate form.
3. Find the unit vector collinear (parallel) to a vector directed by the bisectrix of
the angle ВАС of the triangle АВС, if its vertexes are given: А(1; 1; 1), В(3; 0; 1),
С(0; 3; 1).
4. What is the condition for three vectors a , b and c , that a triangle can be
constructed of them?
5. Let   5i  3 j  2k ,   2i  2 j  2k . Define the vectors    and
.
6. A plane flies sequentially along the sides АВ, ВС and СА of the triangle
АВС for the given time intervals t1 , t 2 and t3 respectively. At this the plane is
always shifted from the direction by wind with the constant velocity u . Define the
intrinsic velocity v of the plane and the velocity u, with which the plane are
shifted by wind.
7. A vector A, length of which equals 10, does the equal angles with the
coordinate axes. Find Ax , Ay and Az .
8. Define the components of the unit vector which lies in the plane XY and does
the equal angles with the positive directions of the axes x and y.
9. Find the sum of three vectors which have the length а and are built:
а) from the vertex of a cube by its three edges;
b) from the vertex of a regular pyramid by its three edges.

1.2. Rotation of coordinates system

A definition of a vector by an assignment of its absolute value

and a direction is not quite strict. There exist quantities, such as, for
example, coefficient of elasticity, refraction index in anisothropic
crystals, which are characterized by both the absolute value and the
direction, but though are not the vectors. Moreover this obvious
definition of a vector is inconvenient and cannot be generalized for
more complicated quantities.

Using the radius-vector r let’s give the new definition of a
vector. For an introduction of the new definition there exist
important physical reasons. We describe the environmental world by
the instrumentality of mathematics, but any physical description

9
should be independent of mathematical apparatus. Further we will
suppose that the space is isotropic. In this case the physical system
under consideration or the physical law formulated should not be
dependent on the choice or the orientation of the coordinates
system.

Fig. 5. Rotation of Cartesian coordinate system

 
Now we refer again to the radius-vector r . Let’s consider r in
two different systems, one of which is rotated relatively to the other
one. For the simplicity let’s limit to two-dimensional case (fig. 5). If
the coordinate axes x and y are rotated anticlockwise for angle  and

at this the position of the radius-vector r is fixed, one can write the
following relations connecting the components of the radius-vector
in the stationary system with the components of the same vector in
the rotated one:
x  x cos   y sin  , y   x sin   y cos  . (1.8)
A vector can be represented with coordinates of its end point
(part 1.1), in other words, the coordinates of the point are
proportional to the components of the vector. Hence, the components
of the vector should be transformed when rotating of the coordinate
axes as well as the coordinates of the point (or as the radius-vector

r ). Moreover, if any pair of quantities ( x , Ay ) , given in the

10
Cartesian coordinate system x, y , is transformed into ( x , Ay ) by a
rotation of the coordinate system so that

x  x cos    y sin  , y   x sin    y cos  , (1.9)

then one can refer  x and  y as the components of vector A . The

vector A is defined now by the law of transformation of its
component when rotating of the coordinate system. If  x and  y
are transformed as the components of two-dimensional radius-vector,
they are the components of the vector A . If  x and  y behave
themselves other way when rotating of the coordinate system than no
vector can be constructed of them.
In order to do the definition of a vector more completed, it is
necessary to clear out the meaning of the quantities  x and  y in
the equations (1.9). Let’s suppose, that the components of the vector
A – are the functions of coordinates and moreover of some constant
vector C :

 x   x ( x, y, C x , C y ) ,  y   y ( x, y, Cx , C y ) . (1.10)

In the rotated coordinate system the vector А has the

components  x and  y :
x  x ( x , y , C x , C y ) ,

y  y ( x, y, Cx , Cy ) . (1.11)

Using the equation (1.8), the coordinates x, y, Cx , Cy can be
expressed through the coordinates of the stationary system and
rotation angle  . In general there exists some dependence on the
rotation angle. However such a dependence on the orientation is not

11
desirable. That is why we limit to functions not dependent on the
orientation. Obviously, in a particular case, when  =0,
 x  x ,  y  y .

Examples:
1. A pair of quantities (-у, х) are given. Show, that these
quantities form the two-dimensional vector.
Let’s consider how these quantities are transformed when
rotating of the system for angle  . We have

V x   y cos   x sin  , V y  y sin   x cos  ,

where Vx   y, Vy  x . Using (1.8), one obtains V x   y  ,

V y  x  , i.е. the pair of quantities satisfies to the equations (1.9),
determining two-dimensional vector. Thus, the pair
(-у,х) corresponds the components of the vector.
  
2. Let’s consider V  i x  j y  ( x, y) .
According to (1.9),

Vx  x cos   y sin   x, Vy  x sin   y cos    y .

Substituting Vx  x and V y   y , one obtains

Vx  Vx cos  Vy sin , Vy  Vx sin   Vy cos .

These relations do not satisfy to the definition of a vector. Hence,

the pair  x,  y  cannot be referred as a vector.
For transition to three- and n-dimensional space it is convenient
to use more compact notation. Let

x  x1 , a11  cos  , a12  sin  ,

(1.12)
y  x2 , a21   sin  , a22  cos  .

12
 Then the equations (1.9) can be rewritten:

x1  a11 x1  a12 x2 , x2  a21 x1  a22 x2 . (1.13)

Coefficients a ij can be identified with the directing cosines (as

the cosine of the angle between xi and x j ), i.e.
a12  cos( x1 , x2 )  sin  ,


a21  cos( x2 , x1 )  cos(  )   sin  .
2

Then the equations (1.13) can be written in a form:

2
x i   a ij x j , i  1,2. (1.14)
j 1

Now it is easy to do a generalization for the case of three, four

and more dimensions. A set of N quantities V j ( j  1,..., N ) defines

the components of the N-dimensional vector V then and only then
when the values of these quantities in the rotated coordinate system
are given with the formulas:

N
Vi   aijV j , i  1, 2,..., N , (1.15)
j 1

Here aij  is the cosine of the angle between xi and x j .

Issuing from the definition of aij , one can write in the Cartesian
coordinates
xi x j
aij   . (1.16)
x j xi
These are partial derivatives. Substituting (1.16) into (1.15), one
obtains

13
 N x
N
xi
Vi   Vj   Vj . (1.17)
j

j 1 x j j 1 xi

The directing cosines aij satisfy the orthogonality condition

a a
i
ij ik   jk , (1.18)

or

a
i
a   jk .
ji ki (1.19)

Here  jk  is a delta-symbol, determined as

1, if j  k,
 jk   (1.20)
0, if j  k.

Substituting aij from (1.12) it is easy to convince, that the

equations (1.18) and (1.19) are true as well for the two-dimensional
case. In the result for the case when j  k one has:

sin2  cos 2  1.

In order to convince in the truth of the equation (1.18) in the

general case, one can use the expression (1.16):

x j xk x j xi x j
 x  x   x  x
i i

xk
. (1.21)
i i i k

Conclusions. In a new definition of a vector through the law of

transformation of its components it is worth to notice the two
moments:
1) it is convenient for a description of the different physical
phenomena;

14
 2) it serves as the base for the transition to a new part of
mathematics – tensor calculus.

Problems

1. A constant vector V (Vx  1, Vy  0) is given. Show, that the components of
the vector in the rotated coordinate system have the form:
Vx  cos , Vy   sin  , what corresponds to the law of transformations of
vectors (introducing the constant vector we chose the specific direction in the space).
2. Define, if the following quantities satisfy the law of vector transformation
(1.15):
а) (х-у, х+у, 0) when rotating around the axis z;
б) (0, 2z+у, z-2у) when rotating around the axis х;
в) ( y 2  z 2 ,  xy,  xz) when rotating around each of coordinate axes.
3. Show, that ( xyCx  y 2C y , x2Cx  xyCy ) forms a vector. The quantities
Cx

and C y are the components of the constant vector C . Do the same for

( xyCx  x 2C y , y 2C x  xyCy ) .
4. Considering the rotation around any of coordinate axes answer the question if
2 2 2 2 2 2
three functions Vx  a1 ( x  y  z ), Vy  a2 ( x  y  z )

and Vz  a3 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) are the components of the vector ( ai  constant).


5. A two-dimensional vector V is given in a form (ах+ b у, сх+dу), where а,

b , с, d – constant. Show, that the vector V is a linear combination of the radial
  
vector r  i x  j y and the tangential vector t  iy  jx :

V  ar  bt .

Note. The law of vector transformation should be obeyed for any angles and
any points (х,у).

1.3. Scalar product

The laws of vectors product should be mathematically consistent.

From all the possible definitions of vectors products let’s choose two
which are of interest both mathematically and physically.

15
 A product in a form A  B  cos (in which А, В – absolute
values of two vectors,   angle between them) is met in physics
very often. For example, the expression

Work = Force  Displacement  cos .

 
Let’s define the scalar product of the vectors A and  by the
following way:
 
     x  x  Ay B y  Az B z   Ai Bi . (1.22)
i
   
From (1.22)         . The unit vectors i , j , k satisfy
the relations
     
i  i  j  j  k  k  1, (1.22a)
i  j  i k  j i  j k  k i  k  j  0 . (1.22b)

If one re-orientates the axes and directs the new axis х along the

vector A (fig. 6), then  x  A, Ay  Az  0 and Bx  B  cos .
From (1.22) 
   B  cos (1.23)

Fig. 6. Scalar product    B  cos

16
    
If     0 and it is known, that A  0, B  0 , then from
 
(1.23)    90 0 , 270 0 and etc. In this case the vectors A and 
should be reciprocally perpendicular, in other words, orthogonal.
  
The unit vectors i , j and k are the orthogonal vectors.

Fig. 7.

For the further development of the concept of orthogonality let’s

   
suppose, that n  is a unit vector, and r  i x  j y – is a non-zero
  
vector in the plane XY. If n  r  0 at any r , then n is
perpendicular (orthogonal) to the plane XY.
Now let’s convince of the truth of the word scalar. For this one
 
should consider the behavior of the product    when rotating of
the coordinate system. With (1.15) let’s present the scalar product in
a form:

x  x  y  y  z  z 

(1.24)
  axi Ai  axj B j   a yi Ai  a yj B j   azi Ai  azj B j
i j i j i j

Using the indices k, l, one gets:

17
  A B   a A a B
k
k k
l i j
li i lj j  (1.25)

  (ali alj ) Ai B j    ij Ai B j   Ai Bi (1.26)

i j l i j i

The equation (1.26) gives the equality

 A B   A B ,
k
k k
i
i i (1.27)

corresponding to the definition of the scalar product which is

invariant relatively to rotation of the coordinate system.
  
Similarly let’s consider the product of the vector C  A  B by
itself using the invariance of the scalar product:

C  C  ( A  B)  ( A  B)  A      2 A  , (1.28)
C C  C2 , (1.29)
1
    (C 2  A2  B 2 ) . (1.30)
2
 
   is invariant under the rotation of the coordinate system
since the right part of the equation (1.30) is invariant.
The equation (1.28) can be written in other form:

C 2  A2  B2  2 A  B  cos , (1.31)

which is called as the law of cosines (fig. 8). Comparing the

equations (1.28) and (1.31), one can be convinced of the vector
nature of cosines law one more time.

Fig. 8. Law of cosines

18
 Problems

1. Expanding the scalar product show that if two vectors have the directing
cosines 1 , 1 ,  1 and  2 ,  2 ,  2 respectively, then cos  1 2  12   1 2 ,
where  – angle between two vectors.
   
2. Find the cosine of the angle between vectors A  3i  4 j  k and
    
B  i  j  k ( solution: cos  0,   ).
2
 
3. Two unit vectors ai and aj are either parallel or perpendicular. Show that
the condition of orthogonality of the directing cosines (1.18) follows from the scalar
product of these vectors.
4. Find the angle subtended by the vectors a  im cos  jm sin  and
b  in cos  jn sin  .
5. Two vectors are given: l1  3a  2b  c and l2  3b  2c  a . Find the
third vector which does a triangle with these two vectors.
6. The vector is given: a  i  cos   j sin  . Find a and the unit
vector a0 .
7. In the triangle АВС the following vectors are given: a  AB and b  BC .
Find vectors coinciding with the medians Am1 , Bm2 and Cm3 of the triangle
( m1 , m2 , m3 – middles of the sides of the triangle).

8. Find the sum (a  F )  (b  F )  (c  F ) if vectors a , b and c subtend a

triangle.
9. The vertexes of the triangle are given: А(-1; 1), В(-5; 4), С(7; 2). Find the
scalar product AB  AC and the square of the triangle.
10. The vectors are given: a (6; -8; 5 2 ) and b (2; -4; 2 ). Find the angle
subtended by the vector a  b with the axis Оz.
11. The unit vectors e1 , e2 , e3 satisfy the condition:

e1 + e2 + e3 =0.
Find ( e1  e2 + e2  e3 + e3  e1 ).

19
 1.4. Vector product

This form of vectors product is connected with the use of the sine
of the angle between two vectors
  
C   , (1.32)
where C  A  sin , but in difference from the scalar product in

this case the vector C – is a vector and we suppose by the definition
 
that this vector is perpendicular to the plane of vectors A and  ,
  
and its direction is that the set of the vectors A ,  and С do the
right-handed coordinate system. At the given choice of the direction
one has:
   
       (anticommutation). (1.32a)
i i  j  j  k k  0 , (1.32b)
i  j  k, j  k  i , k i  j,
(1.32c)
j  i   k , k  j  i , i  k   j .
The vector product has an important geometric interpretation
(fig. 9).
   A  B  sin – is a square of parallelogram. So, the
  
vector C     is perpendicular to the plane of the parallelogram
and by magnitude is equal to its square.

Fig. 9. Representation of vector product in a form of parallelogram

20
   
The another definition of the vector product C     is

connected with the notation of the component of the vector C :

Cx  Ay Bz  Az By , C y   Ax Bz  Az Bx ,
(1.33)
Cz  Ax By  Ay Bx ,
or
Ci  Aj Bk  Ak B j , i, j, k  different, (1.34)

with the cyclic permutation of the indices і, j, k.

It is convenient to write the vector product in a form of the
determinant:

  
i j k

C  x y z . (1.35)
x y z

Let’s show the equivalence of the definitions of vector product

 
(1.32) and (1.33). For this let’s consider the scalar products A  C
 
and B  C :

  C  A  ( A  B)  Ax ( Ay Bz  Az By ) 
(1.36)
 Ay ( Az Bx  Ax Bz )  Az ( Ax By  Ay Bx )  0,

B  C  B  ( A  B)  0 , (1.37)


 , the equations (1.36) and (1.37) show that the vector C is
 
perpendicular both to the vector A and to the vector B , and, hence,
is perpendicular to the vectors plane.

21
 Let’s further consider the product

( A  )  ( A  )  A2 B 2  ( A  ) 2 
(1.38)
 A B  A B cos   A B sin  ,
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

 C  A  B  sin . (1.39)

 
In the equation (1.38) we expanded the vector product A   on
components in a form (1.33) and then used the formulas of the scalar
product (1.22). From the equations (1.36), (1.37) and (1.39) it
follows that two definitions of the vector product (1.32) and (1.33)
are equivalent.
  
Now let’s prove that C     is a vector actually, i.e. obeys
the law of vectors transformation (1.15). In the rotated coordinate
system

Ci  Aj Bk  Ak Bj 

  a jl Al   akm Bm   akl Al  a jm Bm 
l m l m

 ( a jl akm  akl a jm )Al Bm , (1.40)

l ,m

where і, j, k are taken in the cyclic order. The expression in the

brackets disappears when m= l . That is why the indices j, k take the
definite values in dependence on the choice of і and 6 combinations
of m and l . If і=3, then j=1, k=2 (cyclic order), and we get the set of
the directing cosines:
a11a22  a21a12  a33 , a13a21  a13a11  a32 ,
(1.41)
a12 a23  a22 a13  a31.

Substituting (1.41) into the equation (1.40) one gets:

22
 C3  a33 A1 B2  a32 A3 B1  a31 A2 B3 
a33 A2 B1  a32 A1 B3  a31 A3 B2  (1.42)
 a31C1  a32C2  a33C3   a3nCn .
n

Permuting the indices one gets C1 and C 2 , and after this it is easy

to show that the condition (1.15) is true, and C – is actually a vector.

Problems

1. The vectors are given

       
A  2i  4 j  6k and B  3i  3 j  5k .
   
Define the scalar and vector products A  B and A  B .
2. Show that
( A  B)  ( A  B)  A2  B2 , ( A  B)  ( A  B)  2 A  B,
A  ( B  C )  A  B  A  C, A  ( B  C )  A  B  A  C.
3. Find the scalar and vector products of two vectors a and b , if the angle
between them   150 0
, and their lengths equal m and 2m respectively.
4. Find the scalar and vector products of the vectors a   b and a   b , if
a  b and b  2 a   .

5. Show that the vectors a, b and c are coplanar if a  (b  c ) .

6. Find the vector product of the vectors l1  i   k  and l2  i   k  .
7. The vertex coordinates of a triangle are given by points (2, 1, 5), (5, 2, 8) and
(4, 8, 2). Find the triangle square using vector calculus.
       
8. Three vectors are given   3i  2 j  k , Q  6i  4 j  2k and
   
R  i  2 j  k . Define which two of them are reciprocally perpendicular and
which two are antiparallel to each other.
9. Using the vectors   icos  jsin , Q  icos  jsin ,
R  icos  jsin , prove the known trigonometric formulas:

23
 sin(   )  sin cos  cos sin ,
cos(   )  cos cos  sin sin .
    
10. Define the vector  perpendicular to the vectors U  2i  j  k and
    
V  i  j  k . What the vector  should be if its magnitude equals unit?

11. Four vectors a, b , с and d are in one plane. Show that

(a  b )  (с  d )  0 .
12. Find the sides and angles of the spherical triangle АВС (fig. 10) subtended by
the vectors A =(1,0,0), B  ( 1 , 0, 1 ), C  (0, 1 , 1 ). The origin of each
2 2 2 2
vector coincide with the coordinate origin.

Fig. 10. Spherical triangle


13. The magnetic induction
B is defined by Lorentz equation
   
F  q(V  B), where V – is a velocity of the electric charge q and F – is a
force acting on the charge.
When conducting three experiments it is true that:

  F  
1) V i,  2k  4 j ;
q
F
2) V  j,  4i  k ;
q

24
 F
V  k,  j  2i .
q
Using the results of these experiments find the magnetic induction.
   
Solution: B  i  2 j  4k .
14. Prove the equality:

[ab ]  [bc]  [ca]  [(a  b )(b  c )] .

15. Prove:

[ac[ac
] []db[db
] ] and [bc ] [da ] ,

if (a(
ab d )d ) and (a  b ) (c  d ) .
)b ) (c(c 

16. Prove:
(ia )i  ( ja ) j  (ka )k  a .
17. Calculate:

a  [i ( j )][(i )k ] ; s  [( j )(i ))][k (i )] .

18. Prove:

[a[bc ]  [b[ca ]]  [c[ab ]]  0 .

1.5. Scalar triple and vector triple products

     
Let one has three vectors combinations A  ( B  C ) and A  ( B  C ) ,
  
which are met very often. The combination of vectors A  ( B  C ) is
known as scalar triple product.
 
The product B  C gives a vector which is then multiplied by

the vector A , in the result one has a scalar. Let’s note, that
  
( A  B)  C is a product of a scalar and a vector, but such an
operation is not defined yet. That is why let’s agree in advance not to
consider this operation.

25
 Using formulas (1.33), (1.22) one gets:

A  B  C  Ax ( By C z  Bz C y )  Ay ( Bz C x  BxC z ) 

 Az ( Bx C y  By Cx )  Bx ( Az C y  Ay Cz ) 

 By ( Ax Cz  Az Cx )  Bz ( Ay C x  AxC y )  (1.43)

 B C  A  C  A B   AC  B 

 C  B  A   B  A  C ,

or
     
A B  C  A B  C . (1.44)

Ax Ay Az
  
A  B  C  Bx By Bz . (1.45)
Cx Cy Cz

From the rules of interchanging of rows and columns in the

determinant the permutation relations (1.43) follow at once, whereas
  
the symmetry of the vectors A, B , C in such a notation provides the
truth of the condition (1.44).
The scalar triple product has the obvious geometric
  
interpretation: if three vectors A, B and C subtend a
  
parallelepiped (fig. 11), then A  ( B  C ) equals the volume of this
parallelepiped.

26
 Fig. 11.
  
Now let’s consider the vector triple product A  ( B  C ) . In this
case the brackets are necessary, what is obvious if one considers the
special case
        
i  (i  j )  i  k   j , ((i  i )  k  0) . (1.48)

The given product of three vectors is itself a vector. In


addition, the resultant vector j is perpendicular to the vector
  
A and ( B  C ) . The plane defined by the vectors B and
  
C is perpendicular to ( B  C ) , and, hence, the vector
  
A  ( B  C ) is in the this plane. This means that the vector
  
A  ( B  C ) should be a linear combination of vectors B and

C .
        
A  ( B  C )  B( A  C )  C ( A  B) . (1.49)

Using the scalar triple and vector triple products one can simplify
the other vector products.

27
 Example:
The scalar triple product finds an interesting application when
  
constructing the reciprocal crystal lattice. Let a , b and c (it is not
necessary that they are reciprocally perpendicular) – vectors defining
the crystal lattice. The distance between two points of the lattice
   
r  na a  nb b  nc c ,
where na , nb and n c – some integer numbers. Using the given
vectors let’s write the relations
     
 b c  ca  a b
a    ; b     ; c      (1.50)
a b c a b c a b c

From (1.50)  a  is perpendicular to the plane of vectors b

and c and by magnitude is proportional to a 1 . It is easy to show
that
a '  a  b '  b  c '  c  1,
a'  b  a'  c  b '  a  b '  c  c '  a  c '  b  0 .

The last equations define the so-called reciprocal lattice. The

reciprocal lattice is connected with the problems on scattering of
waves on different planes of the crystal.

Problems

     
1. Prove the formula   a  b  b  a  a  b .
 
 
     
2. Show that a  (b  c )  b  (c  a )  c  (a  b )  0 .
   
3. The vector A is expanded on the radial Ar and tangential vectors At , r0
   
– unit vector in the radial direction. Show that Ar  r0 ( A  r0 ) and
   
At  r0  (r0  A) .
4. Prove that the necessary and sufficient condition of complanarity of three
  
(non-zero) vectors A, B and C is the equality of the scalar triple product to zero.
5. The vectors are given

28
 A  i  2 j  3k ,
B  4i  5 j  6k ,
C  3i  2 j  k ,

D  6i  5 j  4k .
Find:
a) sum and difference of the vectors:

A  B  C  D;
A  B  C  D;
A  B  C  D;
 A  B  C  D;

b) angles which are subtended by the vectors A, B, C , D and the coordinate axes;
c) magnitudes of vectors A, B, C , D ;
d) scalar and vector products of sum of first two vectors and the sum of last two
vectors;
e) angles which are subtended by the vector A and the vectors B , C , D;
f) projection of the vector A on the direction of vectors B, C , D;
g) vector products A  B, A  C , B  C and angles which are subtended by

the products and the vector D;

h) square of the parallelograms subtended by the vectors A and B, C ad
D; find the length of diagonals of these parallelograms;

j) show that all vectors A, B, C and D are in one plane;

k) find products:
  
A B C D  B  C; A  D  C and D  B  A;
and
  
A  ( B  C ), C  ( A  B) and B  (C  A) ;
D  ( B  C ), C  ( D  B) and B  (C  D) ;

29
 A  ( D  C ), C  ( A  D) and D  (C  A);
A  ( B  D), D  ( A  B) and B  ( D  A) .

6. Three given A  3i  2 j  2k , B  6i  4 j  2k ,
vectors are
  
C  3i  2 j  4k . Find A  B  C and A  ( B  C ), C  ( A  B) and
  
B  (C  A) .
7. The vectors are given
A  i  2 j  3k ,
B  4i  5 j ,
C  3i  2 j  k .

Which system (right- or left-handed) do these vectors form?

Define:
a) volume of the parallelepiped subtended by these vectors;
b) vectors figuring two (issuing from the end of the vector A ) diagonals of the
parallelepiped subtended by these two vectors and find the length of these diagonals;
c) square of the diagonal section of the parallelepiped subtended through the
  
vector A and A  ( B  C ), C  ( A  B) and B  (C  A) .

8. The force F acts on a body, placed in point r . Show that the resultant
momentum relatively to any of axes issued through the coordinate origin equals

L  r  F  a , where a – unit vector in the direction of the axis.
9. Given:
     
 b c  ca  a b
a     b      c     
a b c a b c a b c
  
and a  b  c  0

Show that

x  y   xy ( x, y  a, b , c );

' ' 1b' c'

a  b  c  (a  b  c ) ; a  .
a b c'

30
 10. Using the Euler formula V   r, define the linear velocity of the
center of a rectangular rotating around one of the vertexes and having sides a  2
cm and b  4 cm at the moments when the instantaneous angular velocity has the

magnitude 5
1 and is directed:
sec
a) by little, b) by large side of the rectangular.
11. Define the moment of force with a magnitude of 5 N, directed by one of the
edge of a cube, relatively to all its vertexes and axes subtending through the edges
(the length of the cube edges equals а cm).
12. The kinetic moment relatively to the center О (angular momentum) of a
system of n material points is called the vector sum
n
L0   ri  mi vi ,
i 1

where ri – radius-vector of i point with mass mi and velocity vi . Define:

a) kinetic moment of two particles with masses m1  1 g and m2  2 g which
1
rotate with angular velocity  5 around the axis (z) and describing
sec
circumferences with radii of 3 and 6 cm;
b) kinetic moments of particles with masses 1 g and 2 g, moving in opposite
sides with speed of 3 cm/sec by two opposite edges of the cube relatively to all its
vertexes (the length of the cube edges equals а cm).
13. Let a and b – two vectors, defining the sides of the parallelogram with
diagonals a  b and a  b ; show that:
a) the sum of diagonals squared equals the sum of its sides squared;
b) parallelogram’s diagonals are perpendicular then and only then if this
parallelogram is a rhomb;
c) the square of a parallelogram (А), subtended by the diagonals of another
parallelogram (В), is two times larger than the square of this parallelogram (В).

Vector calculus (differentiation of vectors)

1.6. Gradient

Suppose that  ( x, y, z ) – is a scalar function of a point in a

space, i.e. such a function that the magnitude of it depends on the

31
coordinates values (x,y,z). As a scalar it should have the same value
for the fixed point in the space not depending on the rotation of the
coordinate system, i.e.
 ( x1, x2 , x3 )   ( x1 , x2 , x3 ). (1.51)
Differentiating with respect to x i and using the equation (1.16), one
gets:
 ( x1, x2 , x3 )  ( x1 , x2 , x3 )
 
xi xi
(1.52)
 x j x j 
  ' '
 aij   aij  .
j x j xi xi j x j

A comparison of the expression (1.52) with the vector

transformation law (1.17) shows at once that we constructed a vector

with components . We call this vector as a gradient of  . It is
x j
convenient to move to a symbolic notation

      
  i j k (1.53)
x y z
or
  
i  j k . (1.54)
x y z

Here  (nabla) – is a vector differential operator. This operator
possesses the properties of vectors and obeys the law of partial
differentiation.
Example:
Calculate the gradient of the function

f (r )  f ( x 2  y 2  z 2 )

32
 f f f
f (r )  i j k ,
x y z
f (r ) f (r ) r df x
   .
x r x dr r

The other components are found similarly. Then:

1 df r df df
f (r )  (ix  jy  kz )     r0 ,
r dr r dr dr
r
where r0  – is a unit vector in the positive direction of the radius-
r
vector.

One of the direct application of  is connected with the length
increment calculation
   
dr  i dx  j dy  k dz (1.55)
Considering the previous notation one gets:
  
( )dr  dx  dy  dz  d , (1.56)
x y z
a change of the scalar function  , corresponding to the change of

the position dr .
Consider two particles P and Q on the surface  ( x, y, z )  C .
The distance between these two particles is dr. Then when displacing
from P to Q the change of the function on the surface
 ( x, y, z)  C equals
 
d  ( )dr  0 , (1.57)

since the displacement occurs along the surface  ( x, y, z )  C . It


follows that ( )  dr . Since dr can be drawn in any direction

from point P to Q on the surface, and it means that dr is always on

33
the surface,  should be perpendicular to the surface   сonst
in its any point.

If one supposes now that the dr is directed from one surface
  c1 to the neighboring one   c2 (fig. 12), then
d  c2  c1  c  ( )  dr . (1.58)

For the given d the absolute value of dr is minimal, if
  
dr  (cos=1), or, vice versa, at the given dr the change of
 
the scalar function  is maximal for dr  .

Fig. 12. Gradient


This defines the  as a vector pointing the direction of the
maximal velocity of a function change.
The gradient of a scalar quantity plays an important role in
physics when determining the relation between the forces field and
the potential field:

Force = -  (Potential) (1.59)

This is true both for the gravitational and electric fields.

34
 Problems
  
1. Show that (uv)  vu  uv , where u  u( x, y, z) and
v  v( x, y, z ) – differentiable scalar functions.
2. Find the gradient of scalar field
u  x  2 y  3z.
3. Find the greatest slope (velocity) of the surface rise u  x y in the point
М(2,2,4).
4. Find the unit vector of the normal to the surface of the level of scalar field
u  x 2  y2  z2.
5. Find the gradient of the field u  (a, b , r ), where a and b – constant
vectors, r – radius-vector of a particle.
6. Find the gradient of the distance

r  ( x  x0 )2  ( y  y0 )2  ( z  z0 )2 ,

where P( x, y, z ) – is the field point under consideration, and the point

P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) – is some fixed point.
7. Find the angle  between the gradients of the functions

u  x2  y 2
and v  x  y  2 xy
in point М0 (1, 1).
8. Find the derivative in the direction of the radius-vector r for the function
u  sin r , where r  r .
9. Find in the point М0 (1,1,1) the direction of the greatest change of the scalar
field u  xy  yz  xz and the value of this greatest change in this point.
10. The function is given

S ( x, y, z )  ( x 2  y 2  z 2 ) 3 / 2 .

Define in the point (1,2,3) the S , its absolute value and the directing cosines

of the S .
11. The vector is given

   
r12  i ( x1  x2 )  j ( y1  y 2 )  k ( z1  z 2 ) .

35
 
Show that 1r12 (the gradient of the absolute value of the vector r12 with

respect to variables x1 , y1 , z1 ) is a unit vector directed along the vector r12 .
2 2 2
12. Find the grad r , where r  x  y  z .
13. Find the grad (rc ), where c  const. .
 
14. Prove that the condition (u)  (v)  0 is necessary and sufficient one
for two functions u ( x, y, z ) and v( x, y, z ) to be related in a form f (u, v)  0 .
Show that in a case of u  u( x, y) and v  v( x, y) the condition
 
(u)  (v)  0 gives the two-dimensional Jacobian:

u u
 u , v  x y
I    0 .
 x, y  v v
x y

The functions u and v are supposed to be differentiable.

  
15. Prove that the condition (u)  (v)  ( )  0 – is necessary and
sufficient one for three functions u( x, y, z ) , v( x, y, z ) and  ( x, y, z ) to be
related through some function F (u, v, )  0 . Show also that the scalar triple
product of the gradients is equivalent to three-dimensional Jacobian

u u u
x y z
 u , v,   v v v
I   0.
 x, y, z  x y z
  
x y z

It is supposed the existence of the derivatives.

 
16. Prove that if the vector function F  F ( x, y, z, t ) depends on the spatial
coordinates and time, then

36
 
    F
dF  (dr  ) F  dt .
t

17. Find the gradient of the scalar field

u  ln( x2  y 2  z 2 )
in point М0 (1,1,-1).
18. Let
v  v( x, y, z ), u  ln( x2  y 2  z 2 )
– are differentiable functions in point М0 (x,y,z). Show that

a) grad u   grad u,   const;

b) grad (u  v)  grad u  grad v ;

c) grad (uv)  v grad u  u grad v ,   const ;

u v grad u  u grad v
d) grad  , v  0.
v v2
19. Calculate
grad ( x m y n ).

1.7. Divergence
The differentiation of the vector function is a generalization of

the differentiation of the scalar quantities. Let’s suppose that r (t )
describes the position of some body in a space at the moment t
(fig. 13).
Then the differentiation with respect to time gives

  
dr (t ) r (t  t )  r (t ) 
 lim  v,
dt t 0 t


where v – is a linear velocity, and the operator  was defined in the
paragraph 1.6 as a vector operator.

37
 Now, keeping in mind its vector and differential properties, let’s
consider the action of the  on a vector.

Fig. 13. Differentiation of a vector

The scalar product of this vector on a vector gives the expression

  V V y Vz
 V  x   , (1.60)
x y z

which is called a divergence of the vector V . The divergence is a
scalar in a sense how it was defined in the part 1.3. For example:

   x y z
  r  (i  j  k )(ix  jy  kz )     3;
x y z x y z

     f
  r f (r )  ( xf (r ))  ( yf (r ))  ( zf (r ))  3 f (r )  r .
x y z r

In particular, if f (r )  r n1 , then

   
  r r n1    r0 r n  3r n1  (n  1)r n1

38
 The divergence of this quantity equals zero when n=-2.
For more clear representation of the physical essence of the
  
divergence let’s consider   (   v ) , where v ( x, y, z ) – is a velocity
of flow of compressible fluid;  ( x, y, z ) – is a density of this fluid
in the point (x,y,z). If one considers some element of volume dxdydz
(fig. 14), then the quantity of liquid coming into this volume in a unit
time through the surface EFGH, will be expressed in a form: (inflow)
EFGH =  vxdydz. The quantity of liquid escaped from the volume

through the surface ABCD equals: (outflow) ABCD =

  
=   vx  (   v x )dx  dydz ; the derivative takes into account the
 x 
possibility of dependence of nonuniform density or velocity, or at
once both these quantities on the variable х. The total fluid flow
through these two surfaces equals the difference of two flows or to a

flow in the direction of axis х: (   v x )dxdydz .
x
The additional fluid flow occurs through the other four surfaces
of this element of volume, the total flow (in a unit of time) equals

   
 x (   vx )  y (   v y )  z (   vz )  dxdydz 
 
(1.61)
   (   v )dxdydz.

Hence, the total quantity of the compressible fluid passed

 
through the volume unit in a unit of time equals   ( v ) . Hence the
denomination divergence follows.
One of the examples of divergence use is an continuity equation.

  
   (  v)  0 (1.62)
t

39
 Fig. 14. Differential rectangular parallelepiped

Hence

  
  ( fv )  ( fvx )  ( fv y )  ( fvz ) 
x y z

f f f v v v
 vx   v y   vz  f x  f y  f z  (1.63)
x y z x y z

 
 f  v  f   v ,


where f – scalar, and v – vector function.
  
In a particular case when   B  0 the vector B is called
solenoidal.

Problems

      
1. Prove the formula   a  b  b  a  a  b . Note. Consider the left
part of the formula as a scalar triple product.
   
2. Rotating the coordinate system, show that   v     v , and hence, by
definition, the divergence of the vector – is a scalar (it is sufficient to consider two-
dimensional case).

40
 3. Calculate the div r .
4. Calculate the div ( a ), where  – scalar function, a – vector function
of the field.
5. Calculate the div (rc ), div(r 2c ) where c – constant vector.
6. Calculate div ( r ), where  – constant scalar.
r
7. Calculate the div .
r
8. Calculate the div b (r  a ), div r (r  a ), where a and b – constant
vectors.
9. Find the div (r 4 r ).
10. Find the div (r  (  r )), where  – constant vector.

11. Find the div (a  (r  b )), where a and b – constant vectors.


12. A solid body rotates with a constant angular velocity  . Show that the

linear velocity v is solenoidal.
 
q r0
13. The electrostatic field of the point charge q equals E   .
4 0 r 2
 
Calculate the   E .
14. Show that:
a) div (r n c )  nr n2 (rc ), (n  2);
b) div (c  r )  0;

c). div r n r  (n  3)r n .

15. Find the flux of the radius-vector r through the surface of sphere.
 (r )
16. Find the divergence of the vector a r , where r  r – is a
r
distance from the coordinate origin to the variable point M ( x, y, z ) .
17. Find thediv [ grad  (r )].
x yz
18. Find the div  r.
xyz

41
 1.8. Rotor

The operation of vector product of the vector  and a vector one

can define by the formula:

      
  v  i  vz  v y   j  vx  vz  
 y z   z x 
(1.64)
i j k
      
 k  v y  vx   .
 x y  x y z
vx vy vz


The expression obtained is called the rotor on the vector v .
When opening the determinant or at any other operations with  it is
necessary to consider its differential nature. Let’s specify that the
 
product v   is defined as a new vector differential operator. In a
   
general case v      v . If one multiplies the vector  in a
vector way by the product of a scalar and a vector then one has:

  
  fv  x  i  ( fvz )  ( fv y )  
 y z 

 v f v y f 
 i  f z  vz  f  vy   (1.65)
 y y z z 

 
 f  v x  f  v .
x

Doing the cyclic permutation of the coordinates it is easy to

obtain the у- and z-components. One can convince of

42
  
  fv   f  v  f  v . (1.66)

The expression obtained is an analogue of the expression (1.63).

Example:
 rf (r )  f (r ) r  (f (r ))  r .
1)
i j k
  
r   0.
x y z
x y z
  df
2) Using the equality f (r )  r0   ,
dr
  df  
  r f (r )   r0  r  0 ,
dr
   
since r  r0  r , r0  r0  0 . The nomination rotor appeared in
 
connection with that the product   v describes a rotation of the

vector field v in a point where the rotor is calculated.
Let one considers a solid body in the plane ху, rotating around

the axis z with the angular velocity  . The linear velocity V in the
point defined by the radius-vector r equals

V  r . (1.67)

 
In order to define the product   r let’s consider

V   (  r ) , (1.68)

 (  r )  ( r )  r  ( )   r       r . (1.69)

43
 Here the vector  is multiplied in a scalar way by the first vector
but as a differential operator it works on both the vectors:

 (  r )   r  r   r    r. (1.70)

When   const then the second and the third terms in the
equation (1.70) are equal to zero.
As it is known
  r  3, (1.71)
that is why

 
 r  x (ix  jy  kz )   y (ix  jy  kz ) 
x y
(1.72)

z (ix  jy  kz )  i x  j y  k  z  .
z
Substituting (1.71) and (1.72) into (1.70) one gets

V   (  r )  2 , (1.73)

i.e. the rotor of the linear velocity of the solid body equals the
angular velocity doubled.
If
 
  v  0, (1.74)

then the vector V is called irrotational.
The most important physical examples of the irrotational vectors
are presented by the gravitational and electrostatic forces

r0 r
V C 2
C 3 , (1.75)
r r

where С – constant, r0  unit vector directed in the radius-vector.

44
 Problems
  
1. Show that the vector U  V is solenoidal if U , V – irrotational vectors.
2. Show that the vector A r is solenoidal if – irrotational vector.
3. Find the rotor of the vector a  ( x  z )i  ( y  z ) j  ( x 2  z )k .
2 2 2
4. Find the rotor of the field F  y zi  z xj  x yk .
5. Rotating the coordinate system show that the components of rotor obey the
law of vector transformation.
Note. Use the directing cosines from the equation (1.41).
 
6. Show that the rotor  V is perpendicular to the vector V if
    
V  i V x ( x, y)  j V y ( x, y) and   V  0 .
7. In quantum mechanics the operators of angular momentum are defined by the
relations:
 
L x  i( y  z ),
z y
   
L y  i( z  x ), Lz  i ( x  y ).
x z y x
Show that [ Lx, Ly ]  i Lz , and hence, L  L  i L .
8. Prove the vector equalities:
              
  ( A  B)  ( B  ) A  ( A  ) B  B  (  A)  A  (  B),
 ( A  B)  ( B ) A  ( A ) B  B( A)  A( B).
9. Show that:
a) rot r  0;
b) rot (c  r )  2c ;
c) rot c (ar )  a  c. .

10. Find:
a) rot[(c  r )  a ],
b) rot[(c  r )  r ],
where a, c – constant vectors.

11. Find the divergence and the rotor of field of velocities V and field of
accelerations W of the solid body rotating around the stationary point knowing that

45
 V    r ; W    r    (  r ),

where the field of accelerations  ,  – constant vectors.

12. Find the rotor of the following vectors:
a) a  ( x2  y 2 ) i  ( y 2  z 2 ) j  ( z 2  x2 ) k ;
b) a  z 3 i  y 3 j  x3 k ;
1 2 2
c) a  ( y i  x j ).
2
13. Represent the vector a  grad  , where a – constant vector, in a form
of a rotor of a certain vector.
14. The vector r (  r ) , where  – constant vector, is a solenoidal one.
Represent it in a form of a rotor of a certain vector.

1.9. Sequential application of the operator 

Using the introduced notations of gradient, divergence and rotor

one can get a vector, scalar and combinations of vectors. Working on
each of the introduced quantities by the operator  , one gets
  ,  , V , V ,  (V ) .
These expressions are often used in the second order differential
equations in mathematical physics.
First of them,   , divergence of the gradient, is called the
Laplacian of  :

     
   (i  j  k )(i j k )
x y z x y z
2 2 2
(   )     2 .
x 2 y 2 z 2

The second operation can be written in a form

46
 i j k
  
    , (1.76)
x y z
  
x y z

 2  2
    i (  )
yz zy
(1.77)
 2  2  2  2
 j(  ) k(  )  0.
zx xz xy yx

It is supposed here that one can change the order of

differentiation. One can do it only if the first partial derivatives are
continuous.
Further from the equation (1.77) it follows that the rotor of the
gradient equals identically zero:
rot grad  0 .
Hence, the gradient – is irrotational vector.
The fourth expression is a scalar triple product:

  
x y z
  
   V  
x y z
Vx Vy Vz

2 2
 2Vz  2Vx  Vy  2Vx  Vy  2Vz
       0, (1.78)
xy yz zx zy xz yx

47
 That is
V  0. (1.79)

Thus, the divergence of the rotor equals zero div (rot )  0 , i.e. the
rotor – is always solenoidal vector.
Let’s consider the last expression:

 (V )  V  V . (1.80)

If the vector V is expanded on components in the Cartesian

coordinate system then the vector  V – vector Laplacian  is
reduced to a vector sum of usual scalar Laplacians:

  V  i   Vx  j   Vy  k   Vz .

The important use of the equality (1.80) is connected with the

wave equation in the electromagnetic theory. In the vacuum
Maxwell’s equations take the form:


a)   B  0, c)   B   0 0 ,
t
(1.81)

b)     0, d)    .
t
 
Here  – electric field; В – magnetic induction;  0 ,  0 

electric and magnetic permeabilities. Suppose that  is defined from
the equations (1.81c) and (1.81d). This can be done taking the rotor
from both the parts of the equation (1.81d):

 
 ( )       . (1.82)
t t

48
 Further let’s take the derivative with respect to time of both the
parts of the equation (1.81c):

  2
(  )   0 0 2    (  ),
t t
 2
 ( )   0 0 , (1.83)
t 2
 2
  (  )       0 0 ,
t 2
 2
    0 0 . (1.84)
t 2
The expression (1.84) is a vector wave equation of the
electromagnetic field.

If one expands the vector E in the Cartesian coordinate system
then the expression (1.84) disintegrates on three scalar wave
equations containing the scalar Laplacian.

Problems
 
1. Prove that   ( )  0 .
 
2. Prove that the vector (U )  (V ) is solenoidal if the quantities U and V
are differentiable scalar functions.
3. The scalar  satisfy the Laplace equation  2  0 . Show that the vector

 is solenoidal and irrotational.
4. Prove that the expressions C1   , C2   a and

C3   ( a ) – are solutions of the vector wave equation:

2C  k 2C   C   C  k 2C  0 .

Here  satisfies the scalar wave equation 2  k 2  0 and

 
a constant vector. Prove also that the quantities С1 and С2 are orthogonal,

49
   
the vector С1 is irrotational, and the vectors С2 and С3 – are solenoidal
vectors.
5. Prove that the equality  (V )   V   V comes from the

rule BAC  CAB for vector triple product. Explain the arbitrary position of the
multipliers in the terms BAC and CAB .
   
6. Show that any solution of the equation    k 2  0
  
automatically satisfies the Helmholtz vector equation  2   k 2   0 and the
 
condition of solenoidity     0 .
7. Prove if the following scalar fields are harmonic:
a) u  x 2  2 xy  y 2 ;
b) u  x2 y  y 2 z  z 2 x;
c) u  x2  y 2 .
1
8. Show that the scalar field u  ln , where r  x2  y 2 (r  0) is a
r
harmonic one.
9. The scalar potential U LM  j L (ka)YLM ( ,  ) satisfies the Helmholtz
2 2
scalar equation  U LM  k U LM  0 . Using the operator of angular
  
momentum L  i (r  ) one can construct the vector potentials:
1
E
ALM    LU LM , M
ALM  lLU LM .
k
Show that both the potentials satisfy the equation

   k 2   0.
10. Time-dependent Schrodinger equation has a form:
 2  
  2m    V (r )   (r , t )  i t .
 
  
Suppose that (r , t )  A(r , t )  e iS ( r ,t ) /  . Show that such a
representation of  gives the following two equations (separately for the real and
imaginary parts):

50
 S (S ) 2 2
2 A
 V   ,
t 2m 2m A

A A
m  (A)(  S )   2 S  0.
t 2
In quantum mechanics the density of the probability of discovering a particle in
the given point of a space  is defined by the quantity  2 , and the density of the
current – by the quantity
 A2 
J  S  . Show that the second equation is
m 
equivalent to the equation of continuity:

 J   0.
t
11. Let the function  – is a scalar one, show that it satisfies the equation:

2
    2
2 2   
( r  )  ( r  )   r    r  2r .
t 2
r

1.10. Integration of vectors

Following the vectors’ differentiation let’s consider the vectors’

integration. Let’s start from the linear integration, and then move
to surface and volume integrals. In each of these cases the integral
of vector will be reduced to an integral of scalar functions.
Using the increment of the length dr , one can define the linear
integrals:
   
a)   dr ,
C
b)   dr ,
C
V c)   dr .
C
V (1.85)

Here the integration is by a certain cicuit С, open or closed ones.

a)   dr  i   ( x, y, z)dx 
C C

51
  j   ( x, y, z )dy  k   ( x, y, z )dz. (1.86)
C C

Such a disintegration of the primary integral is possible due to

the equation
 i  dx  i   dx , (1.87)

which is written down with account of the property of the unit


vectors i , j , and k , remaining in the rectangular coordinate system
to be constant by the magnitude and the direction.
Three integrals in the right part of the equation (1.86) correspond
the usual scalar integrals and are the Riemann integrals. However the
integral with respect to variable х cannot be calculated without the
knowledge of dependence of у and z on variable х (the same should
be noted also to integrals of another variables). This means the
necessity of exact determination of the integration circuit C. If only
the integrand does not possess the special properties (in the result of
which the integral will depend on only the position of the final points
of the circuit), the value of the integral is defined by the peculiarities
of the choice of the circuit C. For example, for the particular case
  1 the integral (1.85а) will be the exact vector distance from the
origin of circuit C to its final point. In this case the value of the
integral does not depend on the choice of integration way between
   
the fixed ends. When dr  i dx  j dy  k dz than the second and the
third integrals considered above are also reduced to the integrals of
scalar quantities. The integral (1.85b) is exactly equal to the integral
which defines the work done by the force on a given segment of
way:
W   F  dr . (1.88)

Example:
Let’s integrate the scalar function r 2  x 2  y 2 from the origin
of coordinates until the point (1,1), using the increment of the length
dr (fig. 15).
52
(1,1)
   (1,1)  (1,1)

( 0, 0 )
( x 2  y 2 )(i dx  j dy )  i  ( x 2  y 2 )dx  j  ( x 2  y 2 )dy 
( 0, 0 ) ( 0, 0 )

(the integration is done by the circuit imaged in fig. 15)

x 1 y 1
1 4
 i 
(0, y  0)
( x 2  y 2 )dx  j 
( x 1,0)
( x 2  y 2 )dy  i  j ,
3 3

at the circuit of integration 0,0  0,1  1,1 :

1 1
4 1 
 x 
 

2
i  y 2 dx  j ( x 2  y 2 )dy  i  j,
( x  0, 0 ) ( 0, y 1)
3 3

the integration by the circuit x=y gives the value:

(1,1)
4 4
i 
(0,0)
( x 2  y 2 )dx  j  ( x 2  y 2 )dy  i  j .
3 3

Fig. 15. Integration circuit

Thus, the value of the integral depends on the choice of the

circuit С, along which the integration is done.
The surface integrals are written down in the same way as the

linear ones, but the dr is changed for the vector d . It is often that

53
 
this element of surface is written down in a form ndA , where

n – unit (normal) vector of positive direction (fig. 16).
There are two ways of positive direction choice. If the surface
is closed, then let’s agree to call the direction from the volume
subtended by the surface to be the positive one. For the open
surfaces let’s agree that the positive direction depends on the
direction of bypass of the surface perimeter. If one places the
fingers of the right hand in the direction of bypass by the edge of
the surface then the direction of thumb coincides with the positive
direction.

Fig. 16. Right hand rule when choosing the positive direction
 
The surface integral  V  d can be interpreted as a flux
through the given surface.
The volume integrals are rather simpler since the volume element
d – is a scalar.

 Vd  i  V
V V
X
d  j  Vy d  k  Vz d .
V V
(1.89)

Using the surface and volume integrals one can define the
differential relations in a different way:

54
   lim
  d
, (1.90)
 d 0  d

 V  lim
 V  d
, (1.91)
 d 0  d

  V  lim
 d  V
. (1.92)
 d 0  d

In this equations the  d  is a certain small volume of a space,
d  is a vector element of a surface of the volume. Let’s show now
that the expression (1.90) corresponds indeed to the quantity 
earlier introduced by the equation (1.53). For the simplicity let’s
change the  d by the differential volume dxdydz and place the
coordinate origin into the geometric center of this element of the
volume (fig. 17).

Fig. 17. Differential rectangular parallelepiped

55
 The surface integral is reduced to six integrals by each of the six

edges of the parallelepiped. The vector d is directed outside, 

then one has d  i   d for the surface EFGH and d for the
surface ABCD, that is why
 dx  dx
   i  EFGH
(   )dydz  i  ( 
x 2 ABCD
 )dydz 
x 2

 dy  dy
j 
AEHD
(   )dxdz  j  ( 
y 2 BFGC
 )dxdz 
y 2
(1.93)

 z  dz
k 
AEFB
( 
z 2
)dxdy  k  ( 
DCGH
z 2
)dxdy 

  
 (i j k )dxdydz.
x y z
Dividing the expression obtained by the  d  dxdydz , ove
can prove the truth of the expression (1.90).
When proving one neglected the correction terms containing the
derivatives of higher orders. The additional terms in connection with
the consideration of the Taylor series disappear in the limit

 d  0 (dx  0, dy  0, dz  0) .

For more strict verification of the equations (1.90), (1.91) and

(1.92) it is necessary to do the limiting process mentioned.

Problems

1. Find the indefinite integral of the vector-function

a (t )  i cos t  jet  k .

56
 2. Find the integrals of the following vector-functions:
1
а) a (t )  tet i  sin 2 t j  k;
1 t2
t 2
b) a (t )  2
i  t et j  cos t k ;
1 t
sin t
c) a (t )  cos t e i  t cos t 2 j  k ;
1 2
d) a (t )  t i  t sin t j  2 k .
t

2
3. Calculate the following integrals:


 a (t ) dt , где a  sin
2
а) t cos t i  cos2 t sin t j  k ;
0
1
ei / 2 ei / 2
b)
 a (t ) dt ,
0
где a
2
i
2
j  et k ;
1
1
c)
 a (t ) dt , где a  3 cos  t i  1  t j  2t k ;
0
1
d)
 a (t ) dt , где a  (2t   ) i  t sin t
0
j   k.

4. The field of forces acting on two-dimensional linear oscillator can be written

  
down in a form F  i kx  j ky . Compare the work, which is done when
moving from the point (1,1) until the point (4,4) in the field of these forces in the
case of three different ways of displacement:

а) (1,1)  (4,1)  (4,4);

b) (1,1)  (1,4)  (4,4);
c) x=y.
(4,4)

For this estimate the integral  

(1,1)
F  dr .

5. The field of forces is given

iy jx
F  2 2
 2 .
x y x  y2

57
 Define the work done when moving around the circumference of unit radius:
а) counterclockwise from 0 to  ;
б) clockwise from 0 to  .

1
3 S
6. Calculate the integral r  d taken by the surface of unit cube which is

defined by the point (0,0) and the unit segments in the positive directions of axes х, у
and z. For three faces r  d  0 , and each of the remained faces contributes into
the integral equally.

 d  V
7. Prove that lim S   V .
 d  0  d
S

Note. When proving use the elementary volume dxdydz.

8. Find the work which is done when displacing from the point (1,1) to the
  
point (3,3). The force applied equals F  i ( x  y)  j ( x  y) . Define exactly
the way of displacement. Note that this force is non-conservative.

1.11. Gauss’s theorem

  
Let the quantities V and   V are given, continuous in all area
interesting for us. The Gauss’s theorem says that

 V  d    Vd .
S V
(1.94)
 
The   V is a quantity of liquid escaped from the unit volume.
Hence, the right part of the equation (1.94) equals the total amount
of liquid escaped from the volume V, by which the integration
is done. Proving that the left part of the equation describes the flow
of the liquid through the surface S, which subtends the given
volume, one thereby proves the Gauss’s theorem. The more
detailed and mathematically strict prove of the Gauss’s theorem can
be found in the literature recommended in the end of the present
tutorial.

58
 From the Gauss’s theorem the useful consequence known as the
Green’s theorem follows. If u and v – two scalar functions then one
has:

 (uv)  uv  (u)  (v), (1.95)

 (vu)  vu  (v)  (u). (1.96)

Subtracting (1.96) from (1.95), integrating by the volume (u, v

and their derivatives are supposed to be continuous) and applying the
formula (1.94) (the Gauss’s theorem), one gets the Green’s theorem:


V

( (u v  v u )d  (uv  vu )  d .
S
(1.97)

The equation (1.95) admits the different notation:

 uv  d   u vd   u vd .

S V V
(1.98)

Despite the expression (1.94), containing the divergence, is an

important form of the Gauss’s theorem notation, one can also meet
such a form of the theorem when the volume integrals contains the
gradient and the rotor. Suppose that

V ( x, y, z )  V ( x, y, z )  a, (1.99)
where a – vector constant by magnitude and direction (the direction
is chosen arbitrary, but the direction chosen then always remains to
be fixed).
Using the relation (1.62а) the equation (1.94) in this case is
rewritten in a form:

a  Vd     aVd  a  Vd , (1.100)

V V V

 
a    Vd   Vd   0. (1.101)
S V 
59
 a  0,   Vd    Vd .
S V
(1.102)

Similarly, taking that V  a  P ( a – constant vector) it is easy

to prove that

 d  P    Pd .
S V
(1.103)

1.12. Stoke’s theorem

The Gauss’s theorem connects the volume integral of the

divergence of a certain function with the integral of the same
function over closed surface subtending the volume.
Now let’s consider the similar relation between the surface integral
of the divergence of a certain function and the linear integral of the same
function and the linear integration is done by the perimeter of the
surface given. With this purpose let’s transform the surface integral of
the rotor, and for this let’s apply the formula of scalar triple product
to the integrand:

Vx Vx Vy

  Vd   ( z d
S S
y 
y
d z 
x
d z 

(1.104)
Vy Vz V
 d x  d x  z d y ).
z y x

The surface integral given is taken by a certain surface S given.

Let’s orientate the axes of the Cartesian coordinate system so that the
surface crosses the plane x=c along the line АВ (fig. 18). The positive
direction on this line corresponds to the direction from А to В, the

direction of the d is pointed in the fig. 18. In particular, as it is
shown in the fig. 19,

d y  dxdy, d z  dxdy. (1.105)

60
 Fig. 18.

The increment dx corresponds to the surface subtended between

the planes x=c and x=c+dx. Integrating the derivatives of Vx by the
pointed increment of the surface one gets:

dVx dVx V V
 ( z
S
d y 
y
d z )   ( x dy  x dz )dx . (1.106)
S
y z

Since х remains to be constant when integrating from А to В,

then
Vx V
dy  x dz  dVx (1.107)
y z
or
B

 dx  dV   V ( x, y
A
x x B , zB )dx   Vx ( x, y A , z A )dx . (1.107а)

The specified choice of the direction when bypassing the edges

of the area means that dx  d x – in the direction to the point В and
dx   d x – in the direction to the point А, where d  – is a
vector of length increment along the perimeter.
Vx Vx
 ( z
S
d y 
y
d z )   Vx  d x . (1.108)

61
 Fig. 19.

The symbol  denotes the integration by the closed way, in this

case by the perimeter of the surface given. For another coordinates
one gets the same expressions, that is why finally

 V  d   (V d x x  Vy d y  Vz d z )   V  d  . (1.109)

This is the Stoke’s theorem.

Using the Stoke’s theorem one can find the additional relations
between the surface and linear integrals:

 d     d  ,
S
(1.110)

 (d )     d   .
S
(1.111)

In truth of the expression (1.110) one can easy be sure by

 
substituting of the expression V  a   into the formula (1.109),

where a  is a vector constant by magnitude and direction:

62
  ( a )  d   (a  )d  a    d .
S S S
(1.112)

For the linear integral

 a  d   a    d  (1.113)
so
a (    d    d  )  0. (1.114)
S
Since the direction of the vector a is taken arbitrarily, the
expression in round brackets equals zero. Similarly one can prove the
relation (1.111), where one should take the V  a   .
Let’s again consider the equation (1.109), where the term
 
  d can be considered as a flow of the fluid circulating by the
V
closed circuit. If in the capacity of the surface one chooses the circle
  
of square k d , then the   V d  equals the circulation of the

vector along the closed circuit of square of d in the plane ху. This

allows measuring the rotor of the vector V by rotating of the small
screw. If the screw does not rotate, the circulation equals zero and

hence on the base of the Stokes theorem the vector V – irrotational.

Problems

1. Calculate the flux of the vector field F (M )  x3 i  y3 j  z 3k through

the sphere surface x2  y 2  z 2  R2 .
2. Calculate the flux of the intensity field E 
qr of the point charge q
r3
through the closed surface S , not containing the charge q inside itself .
2 2
3. Calculate the flux of the vector field F ( M )  xy i  x y j  zk
through the closed surface subtended by the coordinate planes
x  0, y  0, z  0 and the part of the surface of paraboloid
4  z  x2  y 2 , which lies in the first octant .

63
 4. The points are given: A(1;0;0), B(0;2;0), C (0;0;3) and the field

F  ( x  y 2 ) i  ( y  z 2 ) j  ( z  x 2 )k . Find the flux of the field F

through the squares of triangles ОВС, ОАС and ОАВ. Find the flux of the field F
through the total surface of the pyramid ОАВС.
5. Prove the Stokes theorem in a form (1.111).
  
6. Let t  i y  j x . Use the Stokes theorem to prove that the integral along
the continuous closed curve in the plane ху equals

1   1
 t  d   ( xdy  ydx)  A ,
2 2
where А – is a square of the surface subtended by this curve.
7. Integrating by the perimeter of the surface situated in the plane ху show that
the absolute value of the integral  r  dr is tow times larger than the surface
itself.
  
8. Show that    V  d  0 , if S – is a closed surface.
S
9. Prove the relations

 U V  d     V U  d  ,
 U V  d    (U )  (V )  d .
S

Test questions to chapter 1

1. Find the center of gravity of a system of three material points M1 (r1 ) ,

M 2 (r2 ) , M3 (r3 ) where masses m1 , m2 , m3 are focused knowing that the

center of gravity of two masses is on the line connecting these masses and divides it
in a relation inversely proportional to the masses.
2. Prove that the vector x = b(a  c) - a(b  c) is perpendicular to the vector c.
3. What is the angle between the vector a and b , if the vector a + 3b is
perpendicular to the vector 7a - 5b , and the vector a - 4b is perpendicular to the
vector 7a - 2b ?
4. A solid body rotates with the constant angular velocity  . Show that the
linear velocity v is solenoidal.

64
5. Find the (c ) r , where r is a radius-vector.
6. Calculate the rot (b(r  a)), where a and b – constant vectors.
 
7. Prove the Gauss’s theorem in a form V d  V d .
S V

8. Prove the Gauss’s theorem in a form

 d  P     Pd .
S V

9. Prove the Stoke’s theorem in a form  d      d .

S

65
 In the chapter 1 we entirely limited to the Cartesian coordinate
system in which it is supposed that the unit vectors are constant. We
introduced the radius-vector. However not all the physical problems
are successfully solved in the Cartesian coordinate system. For
example, for the central forces (such as the gravitational or
electrostatic) the Cartesian coordinates can occur to be very
inconvenient that is why one uses such a system in which one of the
coordinates is the distance in the radial direction.
The coordinate system should be chosen on the condition of the best
correspondence to the problem stated, using the different conditions and
symmetry typical for the problem under consideration. The correct
choice of the coordinate system allows getting the solution sooner, i.e.
the partial derivative differential equations in the new system can be
reduced to the first order differential equations by variables separation
method.
Let’s first consider coordinates in which the equation

2   k 2   0 (2.1)

admits the variables separation.

The equation (2.1) has rather more general meaning than it can
seem from the first view:
1) when k 2  0 it represents the Laplace equation;
2) when k 2     const – Helmholtz equation;
3) when k 2    const – equation of diffusion (spatial part);
4) when k 2  const  kinetic energy – Schrodinger wave
equation.

66
 2.1. Curvilinear coordinates

The Cartesian coordinates are formed by three classes of

reciprocally perpendicular planes: х=const, y=const, and z=const.
Let’s imagine that we put on this system the three other classes of
surfaces. The surfaces of any of these classes are not parallel to each
other and in addition they should not be the planes. All three new
classes of surfaces should not be reciprocally perpendicular however
for the simplicity we omit this condition. The position of any point
can be given by the crossing of three planes in the Cartesian system
or by the crossing of three surfaces which form the new system of
curvilinear coordinates. Admitting the surfaces of the curvilinear
coordinates to be
q1  const , q2  const , q3  const ,
we thereby fix the position of the given point by the coordinates
 q1 , q2 , q3  as well as the coordinates (х1,х2,х3). This means thst in
principle one can write:

x  x  q1 , q2 , q3  , y  y  q1 , q2 q3  , z  z  q1 , q2 , q3  . (2.2)

The opposite dependence is possible:

q1  q1  x, y.z  , q2  q2  x, y, z  , q3  q3  x, y, z  . (2.3)

To each of the surfaces class qi  const one can corresponds the


unit vector ai , normal to the surface qi  const and directed to
increase of the qi .
The square of the distance between two points is calculated by
the formula:

ds 2  dx 2  dy 2  dz 2   hij 2 dqi dq j . (2.4)

ij
The coefficients hij are called Lame coefficients; They can be
considered as certain parameters characterizing the given coordinate

67
system q1 , q2 , q3 . The set of Lame coefficients defines the metrics of
the coordinate system.
In order to determine the hij2 , let’s differentiate the equations (2.2):
x x x
dx  dq1  dq2  dq3 ,
q1 q2 q3

y y y
dy  dq1  dq2  dq3 , (2.5)
q1 q2 q3

z z z
dz  dq1  dq2  dq3 ;
q1 q2 q3

x x
dx 2    dqi dq j ,
ij qi q j

y y
dy 2    dqi dq j ,
ij qi q j

z z
dz 2    dqi dq j .
qi q j

Substituting the obtained expressions into the (2.4), one gets:

 x x y y z z 
ds 2      dqi dq j ,

ij  qi q j qi q j qi q j 
(2.6)
x x y y z z
hij2    .
qi q j qi q j qi q j

68
 Let’s limit to the orthogonal coordinate system (reciprocally
perpendicular surfaces). Mathematically it means that

hij  0, i  j . (2.7)

In order to simplify the denotations let’s put hii  hi , then

ds 2   h1dq1    h2 dq2    h3dq3  .

2 2 2
(2.8)

In the subsequent parts each coordinate system will be defined by

the Lame coefficients assignment. And vice versa for any given dqi ,
admitting the other q to be constant, it is convenient to determine
these quantities using the relation
dsi  hi dqi . (2.9)
The curvilinear coordinates q1 , q2 , q3 are dimensionless. The
Lame coefficients can depend on q and can have the dimension. The
product hi dqi can have the dimension of length.
From the relation (2.9) the elements of surface and volume
follow immediately

d ij  dsi ds j  h i h j dqi dq j , (2.10)

d  ds1ds2 ds3  h1h2 h3dq1dq2 dq3 . (2.11)

The expressions (2.10), (2.11) are entirely consistent with the law
of transformation (2.2).

Problems

1. Show that the condition (2.7) satisfies the requirement of coordinate system’s
orthogonality.
 x, y , z 
2. Show that the Jacobian J   h1h2 h3 and hence the volume
 q1 , q2 , q3 
element

69
  x, y , z 
J  dq1dq2 dq3  h1h2 h3dq1dq2 dq3
 q1 , q2 , q3 

are in agreement with the (2.11).

2.2. Differential vector operators

In the base of consideration of operators of gradient, divergence

and rotor in the curvilinear coordinates we put the definition of the
gradient of specified function as a vector with magnitude and the
direction of the maximal velocity of change of this function in a
space (see part 1.6).

Fig. 20. Curvilinear volume element

Then the component of the (q1 , q2 , q3 ) in the direction

normal to the class of surfaces (figс. 20) is given in a form:

 
 1   (2.12)
S1 h1dq1

( q2 and q3 are fixed). The quantity dS1 – is an increment of the

length in the direction of increase of the q1 . In the part 2.1 the unit

70
 
vector a1 was introduced for pointing of this direction. Obtaining
the expression (2.12) for other components and summing them in a
vector way let’s represent the gradient in a form:

  
 (q1 , q2 , q3 )  a1  a2  a3 
S1 S2 S3
(2.13)
  
 a1  a2  a3 .
h1q1 h2 q2 h3q3

The operator of divergence can be obtained using the equation

(1.91) (the Gauss’s theorem):

  V (q1 , q2 , q3 )  lim
 Vd ,
(2.14)
 d 0  d
where the product h1h2 h3dq1dq2 dq3 is taken in capacity of the
volume element. The positive directions are chosen so that q1q2 q3 or
a1 , a2 , a3 form the fight-handed system.
As in the parts 1.7 and 1.10, the integration over two surfaces
q1  const1 and (q1  dq1 )  const2 gives:

  
V1h2 h3  V1h2 h3  dq1  dq2 dq3  V1h2 h3dq2 dq3 
 q1 
(2.15)

 V1h2 h3  dq1dq2 dq3 .
q1

Here we limit to the differential of the first order since if one

considers the limit when dq1dq2 dq3  0 , then

71
   2 
 1 2 3
V h h  V h h
1 2 3  dq1  2  1 2 3
V h h dq12  ... dq2 dq3 
 q1 q1 

  2 
V1h2 h3dq2 dq3   V1h2 h3   2 V1h2 h3  dq1  ... dq1dq2 dq3 .
 q1 q1 

Dividing this expression by the volume element and moving to

the limit one can see that the coefficients at the differentials of the
second and higher orders  dq1 
n 1
reduce to zero.
Adding the similar results for other two pairs of surfaces one
gets:

 V  q , q , q d 
1 2 3

(2.16)
    
 V1h2 h3   V2 h1h3   V3h1h2  dq1dq2dq3 .
 q1 q2 q3 

After dividing by the elementary volume one has:

  V  q1 , q2 , q3  
1      (2.17)
  V h h
1 2 3   V h h
2 1 3   V h h 
3 1 2 ,
h1h2 h3  q1 q2 q3 
 
where Vi – projection of the V on the direction of the аi , i.e.
Vi  ai V . Combining the equations (2.13) and (2.17), one gets the
Laplacian:

72
    h2 h3   
    
 q1  h1 q1  
 
1    h3h1   
   q1 , q2 , q3      
 . (2.18a)
h1h2 h3  q2  h2 q2  
 
   h1h2   
  q  h  q  
 3  3 3  

Using the Stoke’s theorem let’s write in an explicit form the

 V and move to the limit approaching the surface square to zero.
Let’s consider the differential surface element on the curvilinear
surface q1  const .
From the expression

 Vd  V
S
1 h2 h3dq2 dq3 (2.18b)

according to the Stoke’s theorem

V 1 h2 h3dq2 dq3   V  d  . (2.19)

Here the linear integral is taken over the circuit on the surface
q1  const .

 V (q , q , q )  d   V h dq
1 2 3 2 2 2 
  
 V3 h3  V3h3  dq2  dq3 
 q2 
  
 V2 h2  V2 h2  dq3  dq2  V3h3dq3 
 q3 
(2.20)
   
  h3V3    h2V2  dq2 dq3 .
 q2 q3 

73
 On the parts of way 1 and 2 the plus sign is taken while on the
parts 3 and 4 the minus sign is taken (fig. 21), since in the second
case the bypass is done in the negative direction.

Fig. 21.

From the formula (2.19) one gets:

1    
 V 1    h3V3    h2V2  . (2.21)
h2 h3  q2 q3 
The other two components can be obtained by the cyclic
permutation of the indices:

 a1h1 a2 h2 a3h3 
 
1     
 V  . (2.22)
h1h2 h3  q1 q2 q3 
 
 hV
1 1 h2V2 h3V3 

Problems

1. Let a1 – is a unit vector in the direction of an increase of the q1 . Show that

1   h2 h3  1 h1 h1  .
  a1   ,  a1   a2  a3 
h1h2 h3 q1 h1  h3q 3 h2q2 

74
 2. Show that the orthogonal unit vectors ai can be determined on a form
1 r . In particular prove that the condition
ai   ai  ai  1 leads to an
hi qi
expression for the hi , which is consistent with the equation (2.6).
3. Substantiate the statement that the simple scalar and vector products (not
containing the operator  ) in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinates are expanded
in the same way as in the Cartesian coordinates and do not contain the Lame
coefficients.
4. Using the vector equality

 V   V   (V ) ,

find in the curvilinear coordinates the vector Laplacian  V .

2.3. Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates

In the Cartesian coordinate system

h1  hx  1, h2  hy  1, h3  hz  1 .

The Cartesian system – is the only in which all Lame coefficients

are constant.
This circumstance will be especially important when considering
the tensor in the chapter 3.
Starting from the equations (2.13), (2.17), (2.18) and (2.22), one
can get the results considered in the chapter 1:

  
  i j k , (2.24)
x y z
V V V
 V  x  y  z , (2.25)
x y z
 2  2  2
     , (2.26)
x 2 y 2 z 2

75
 i j k 
 
  
 V   . (2.27)
 x y z 
 
 Vx Vy Vz 

2.4. Spherical coordinates

Fundamental classes of the surfaces of the spherical coordinate

system:
1. Concentric spheres with common center in the coordinate
origin:

r  x 2  y 2  z 2  const.

2. Concentric surfaces of right round cones with the polar axis z

and the vertexes in the coordinate origin:
z
  arc cos  const.
x2  y 2  z 2

3. Semiplanes through the axis z:

y
  arctg  const .
x
Due to the arbitrary choice of the polar angle  and the azimuth
angle  all the affixments are done relatively to axis z.
The connection with the Cartesian coordinate system:

x  r sin  cos  , y  r sin  sin  , z  r cos . (2.28)

0  r,0    2 ,0     .

From the equation (2.6)

76
 2 2 2
 x   y   z 
h12  h112          
 r   r   r 
 sin  cos 2   sin 2  sin 2   cos 2   1
2

2 2 2
 x   y   z 
h22  h222        
        
 r 2 cos 2  cos 2   r 2 cos 2  sin 2   r 2 sin 2   r 2
(2.29)
h32  h332  r 2 sin 2  sin 2   r 2 sin 2  cos 2   r 2 sin 2 

 h1  hr  1, h2  h  r , h3  h  r sin  .

The unit vectors r0 ,0 , 0 change the direction which is defined

by the angles  and  (fig. 22).

Fig. 22. Spherical coordinates

77
 These unit vectors are expressed through the fixed unit vectors in
the Cartesian coordinate system i , j , k :

r0  i sin  cos   j sin  sin   k cos  ,

 0  i cos  cos   k cos  sin   k sin  ,

0  i sin   j cos  .

Putting in the part 2.2

a1  r0 , a2  0 , a3  0 ,

one gets the basic relations

 1  1 
 2.13    r0  0   0 , (2.30)
r r  r sin  
  
 sin   r 2Vr   
1 r
 2.17    V  2  ,
V 
(2.31)
r sin   
  r   sin V   r  
 

   2   
sin   r  
  r  r  
   (2.32)
1   
 2.18a      2    sin  ,
r sin       
 1 2 
  2 
 sin   

78
  r0 r 0 r sin    0 
 
1   
 2.22    V  2  . (2.33)

r sin  r   
 
 Vr rV r sin  V 

Sometimes it is required to write the vector Laplacian  2V in

the spherical coordinates. This can be done using the vector equality
(1.80):
       

  V   V     V :
 2 2  2 cos   
 2   2 2 
 r r r r r sin   
 2V   Vr 
 1 2 1 2 
r

  r 2  2  r 2 sin 2   2 
 

 2  2 cos    2  
 2  2   V    2    V 
 r  r sin    r sin   
(2.34)
2 2 V 2 cos  2 V
  2Vr  V    V   ,
r2 r 2  r 2 sin  r 2 sin  
r

1 2 V 2 cos V
2V    2V  V  2 r  2 , (2.35)
r sin 
2 2
r  r sin  

1 2 V
 2V    2V  V  2  r
r sin 
2 2
r sin  
(2.36)
2 cos  V
 2 2  .
r sin  
79
 Problems

1. Express the unit vectors of the spherical coordinate system trough the
Cartesian ones.
2. Get the formulas of inverse transformation:

i  r0 sin  cos    0 cos  cos   0 sin  ,

j  r0 sin  sin    0 cos  sin   0 cos  ,

k  r0 cos    0 sin  .

3. A particle moves in a space. Find the components of its velocity and

acceleration in the spherical coordinate system:

r  r  r0  0  r   0 r sin  ,
dr
v  r0  r   0 r   0 r sin    ,
dt

vr  r , v  r , v  r sin    ,
ar  r  r 2  r sin    2 ,

a  r  2r  r sin  cos    2 ,

a  r sin     2r sin     2r cos    .

4. A motion of a particle with mass m under the action of the central forces is
defined by the second Newton’s law mr  r0 f  r  . Show that
r  r  c  const and the geometric interpretation of this fact leads to the
second Kepler’s law.
   in the spherical coordinates
5. Express the , ,
x y z

80
    r    
 x  r x   x   x 



  sin  cos    cos  cos  1   sin   ,
 r r  r sin  


  1  cos  
  sin  sin   cos  sin   ,
 y r r  r sin  


   1 
  cos   sin  .
z r r 







4. Using the results of the task 5 get the formula:

    
i  x  y   i
 y x  

That is the quantum operator corresponding to the z-component of the angular

momentum.
7. Prove the equivalence of three forms of the 2  r  (in the spherical
coordinates):

1 d  r d  r   1 d 2
2
d 2 (r ) 2 d (r )
  ;  r  r   ,  .
r 2 dr  dr  r dr 2   dr 2 r dr

The second form is especially convenient for verification of the

correspondence between the statement of the problem in the spherical and the
Cartesian coordinates.
8. Let 
2  0 . Show that 22 r 2  0 . 

81
 2.5. Separation of variables

In the Cartesian coordinates the Helmholtz equation (2.1) takes

the form:

 2  2  2
2
 2  2  k 2  0. (2.42)
x y z

Let’s limit to the case k 2  const . The simplest way to solve the
partial derivative differential equation in a form (2.42) consists in the
reducing of the equation to a system of ordinary differential
equations. For this let’s put

  x, y, z   X  x   Y  y   Z  z  , (2.43)

and substitute into the (2.42). We in general do not know if the

representation of the required solution if a form (2.43) is true or not.
But if our attempt is successful then the representation in the form
(2.43) will be proved. In the opposite case the equation (2.42) should
be solved using the Green’s functions, integral transformations or
numerical methods.
Let’s put that the representation (2.43) is true, then substitute it
into the (2.42):

d2X d 2Y d 2Z
YZ 2
 XZ 2  XY 2  k 2 XYZ  0. (2.44)
dx dy dz

Dividing by the   XYZ and rearranging the terms one gets:

1 d2X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z
  k 2
  . (2.45)
X dx 2 Y dy 2 Z dz 2

Thus, the variables are separated: the left part of the equation
depends on only х, while the right one – only on у and z. Since х, у
and z – independent variables, the behavior of the х can not be
determined by the one of the у and z. Hence, it leaves to set each part
of the equation equal to a certain constant, separation constant.
82
 1 d2X
 l 2 , (2.46)
x dx 2

21 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z
k  2
 2
 l 2 , (2.47)
Y dy Z dz

1 d 2Y 2 2 1 d 2Z
  k  l  . (2.48)
Y dy 2 Z dz 2

Let’s set each part of the equation (2.48) equal to the constant:

1 d 2Y (2.49)
2
 m2 ,
Y dy
1 d 2Z
2
 k 2  l 2  m2  n 2 . (2.50)
Z dz
The constant n 2 introduced allows getting the symmetric set of
three ordinary equations (2.46), (2.49) and (2.50). In the result, the
original assumption (2.43) turned out to be justified.
Thus, let’s write the solution in a form:

 lmn  x, y, z   X l  x   Ym  y   Z n  z  , (2.50а)

where l , m, n – arbitrary numbers, satisfying the condition

k 2  l 2  m2  n2 . The function (2.50а) should be the solution of the
equation (2.1), if X l  x  – solution of the equation (2.46), Ym  y  –
solution of the equation (2.49), Z n  z  – solution of the (2.50). The
general form of the solution of the equation (2.1) can be presented as
a linear combination of the solutions  lmn :

   almn lmn . (2.50b)

lmn

83
 The constant coefficients a lmn are chosen so that the boundary
conditions of the problem are true.
A representation of the solution in a form (2.50b) is based on that

the  2  k 2  – linear differential operator. By the definition the
linear operator L possess two properties:

L  a   aL, L  1  2   L 1  L 2 ,

where a – constant.
The variables separation method considered works also in the
case when
k 2  f  x   g  y   h  z   k 2 , (2.50c)
where k  – new constant.
2

The equation (2.46) now takes the form:

1 d2X
2
 f  x   l 2 . (2.50d)
X dx

The solutions X,Y,Z will be different yet however the

transformation of the differential equation and construction of the
linear combination of the solutions remain to be the earlier ones.
The method of variables separation of the partial derivative
differential equation is shown here to illustrate the use of the
different coordinate systems.
Now let’s consider the equation (2.1) in the spherical coordinate
system and try to separate the variables. Using the formula (2.32),
one gets:

   2       
sin  r  r r   sin   
1        
 k 2 . (2.51)
r sin   1  2
2

 
 sin  
2


84
 Now put
  r , ,    R  r        . (2.52)

Substitute  2.52    2.51 :

   2 R      
sin      r  r r   R   sin     
1      

r sin   R  
2 2
 (2.53)
  2 
 sin   
 k 2 R.

Divide the equation (2.53) by the R :

1 d  2 dR  1 d  d 
r  2  sin  
R  r dr  dr  r sin  d 
2
d 
(2.53а)
1 d 2
   k 2.
r sin  d
2 2 2

Note that instead of the partial derivatives in the equation there

appeared the simple ones.  2.53a   r 2 sin 2  

 2 1 d  2 dR  
2  k  R  r 2 dr  r dr   
1 d    
  r 2 sin 2   . (2.54)
 d 2
 1 d  d  
 2  sin  
 r sin  d  d  

The equation (2.54) connects the function Ф, dependent on only

the , with the function which is dependent on r and θ. Since the
variables r , θ and  are independent then one can set both parts of

85
this equation equal to a certain constant. It is worth to note that
almost in all the physical problems the  plays a role of the azimuth
angle that is why it is more probable that the solution Ф will have the
periodic character, but not the exponential one. Accounting this let’s
put the constant of separation to be equal to m2 , then

1 d 2
  m2 , (2.55)
 d 2

1 d  2 dR  1 d  d 
r  2  sin  
r R dr  dr  r sin  d 
2
d 
(2.56)
m2
 2 2  k 2 .
r sin 

Multiplying the (2.56) by the r 2 and rearranging the terms one

gets:
1 d  2 dR  2 2 1 d  d 
r k r    sin  
R dr  dr   sin  d  d 
(2.57)
m2
 2 .
sin 

The variables are again separated. Setting each part of the

equation equal to  2 , then one finally gets:

1 d  d  m2
 sin       2  0, (2.58)
sin  d  d  sin  2

1 d  2 dR  2 2R
 r   k R   0. (2.59)
r 2 dr  dr  r2

We could again reduce the partial derivative differential equation

to a system of three ordinary differential equations. The total solution
has a form:

86
  lm  r , ,     Rl  r   lm     m   . (2.60а)
l ,m

The quantity k 2 can also be a variable. The variables separation

is possible if the k 2 is expressed by the formula:
1 1
k2  f r   g    2 2 h    k 2 . (2.60b)
r 2
r sin 
Problems


1. Act by the operator  2  k 2  on the sum
a1 1  x, y, z   a2 2  x, y, z  and prove the linearity of this operator, i.e.

 2

 k 2  a1 1  x, y, z   a2 2  x, y, z   

   
 a1  2  k 2  1  a2  2  k 2  2  x, y, z 

2. Prove that the equation

 2 1 
 k  f  r   2 g    
 2  r , ,        r , ,    0
r
 1 
h  
 r 2 sin 2  

admits the variables separation (in the spherical coordinates). k 2  const.

2.6. Cylindrical coordinates

The relations which define the connection between the Cartesian

and the round cylindrical coordinates (fig. 23) has the form:

x   cos  , y   sin  , z  z. (2.61)

87
 Fig. 23. Cylindrical coordinates

The Lame coefficients:

h1  h  1, h2  h   , h3  hz  1, (2.62)

Thus coordinate system is formed by the following classes of

coordinate surfaces:
1) regular round cylinders with axis z as the common axis:
  x 2  y 2  const.
2) semiplanes going through the axis z:
y
  arctg  Const.
x
3) planes parallel to the plane ху: z = сonst.

0    , 0    2 ,    z  .
 1  
(2.13)  (  ,  , z )  0  0 k , (2.63)
   z
1  1 V Vz
(2.17)   V   ( V )   , (2.64)
    z
 1  1  2  2
2
(2.18)       ( ) 2  , (2.65)
     2 z 2

88
 0  0 k
1   
(2.22)    V  . (2.66)
   z
V V Vz
The vector Laplacian

1 2 V
 2V    2V  V  ,
 2
 2 

   1 2 V
 2V    2V  2 V  2 , (2.67)
  
  
 2V z   2Vz .

The form of the z- component of the Laplacian is defined that the

axes z in the Cartesian and cylindrical systems coincide, i.e. z Cart
 z cyl:
 2 ( 0V  0V  kVz )   2 ( 0V  0V )  k  2Vz 

 0 f (V ,V )  0 g (V ,V )  k  2Vz .

Problems

1. Expand the unit vectors of the cylindrical system on the components in the
Cartesian coordinate system:

0  icos  jsin , 0  isin  jcos , k0  k .

2. Expand the unit vectors of the Cartesian coordinate system on the
components in the cylindrical coordinate system:

i  0cos  0 sin , j  0 sin  0cos , k  k0 .

89
 3. A particle moves in a space. Find the components of its velocity and
acceleration in the cylindrical coordinate system:

V   , V   , Vz  z; a      2 ,
a     2 , az  z.

4. A conductor by which the current І flows, is situated along the axis z. The
vector magnetic potential equals

  I 1
Ak ln( ).
2 
  I
Show that the magnetic induction equals B   0 .
2
2
5. Solve the Laplace equation    0 in the cylindrical coordinates for the
case:

  
  (  ) .    k ln( ) .
 0 

 6. In  the cylindrical

coordinates the vector
function

V (  ,  )   0V (  ,  )   0V (  ,  ) is given. Show that the (  V )
has only the z-component.

Test questions to chapter 2

1. Give the definition of the Lame coefficients.

2. Operators of gradient, divergence and rotor in the curvilinear coordinates.
3. The Helmholtz equation in the Cartesian coordinates.
4. The Lame coefficients for the parabolic coordinates.

90
 3.1. Introduction. Fundamental concepts

Tensors play an important role in many fields of physics in

particular in the general relativity and magnetic theory, are widely
used when studying the anisotropic properties of the solid body.
Let’s consider as an example the Ohm’s law :

j    , (3.1)

where j – density of current; E  electric field;   conductance.
If the medium under consideration is isotropic, then the   scalar
and for example, for the х-component of the current the equality is
true:

j1   1. (3.2)

However, if the medium is anisotropic, as for example, in many

crystals, then the density of the current in the х-direction can be
dependent on the electric fields in the у- and z-directions. Supposing
the linear dependence, one can rewrite the equation (3.2) in a form:

j1  111  122  133 (3.3)

or in the general form:

ji    ik k . (3.4)
k

91
 The scalar conductivity is given by the set of 9 elements  ik :

  11  12  13 
 
    21  22  23  . (3.5)
 
 31  32  33 

The quantities which do not change when rotating the coordinate

system, i.e. invariant, are called scalar. The quantities, components
of which are transformed by the same law that the components of the
radius-vector do, are called vectors:

i   aij Aj , (3.6)

j

where aij – is a set of cosines of angles between the axes xi and x j .
But such a definition of the vector contains some uncertainty.

Let’s take the radius-vector r , then
xi
xi    xj. (3.7)
j x j
If one defines the derivatives as

xi
aij  , (3.8)
x j
then the equations (3.6) and (3.7) turned out to be identical. An
arbitrary set of quantities A j , transforming by the law

xi
Ai   Aj (3.9)
j x j
defines the contravariant vector.
Let’s consider the gradient of the scalar
  
  i j k , (3.10)
x1 x2 x3

92
which is transformed by the law
    x j  x j
    ,. (3.11)
xi j x j xi j x j xi

where    ( x, y, z)   ( x , y , z )     scalar. The equation

(3.11) differs from the (3.9). The equation (3.11) defines the
covariant vector.
In the Cartesian coordinates
x j xi
  aij (3.12)
xi x j

and hence, the contravariant and the covariant transformations

coincide. In other coordinate systems the relation (3.12), in general,
does not exist. We will note the components of the contravariant
vector with the sup-index A i , and the components of the covariant
vector with the sub-index Ai .
The scalar is called the zero-order tensor, and the vector – first-
order tensor.
Now let’s define the contravariant, mixed and covariant tensors
of second order using the relations:

xi xj kl 
  
   xk xl
ij

kl


xi xl k 
  l 
ji   xk xj . (3.13)
kl 

xk xl 
Cij    ' Ckl 
kl xi x j



93
 It is seen that the A kl is contravariant with respect to both the
indices, Cij is covariant with respect to both indices, and the lk is
transformed contravariantly with respect to the first index k , but
covariantly with respect to the second index l . In the Cartesian
coordinates all three types of second-order tensors – the
contravariant, mixed and covariant  coincide.
The second-order tensor A (with components  kl ) is
convenient to represent writing its components in a form of the
square table (3  3 in the case of three-dimensional space):

 11 12 13 

 
    21  22  23  . (3.14)
 31 32 33 
 

This does not mean however that any square table of numbers or
functions forms the tensor. The significant condition imposed on the
tensor components is that they are transformed by the law (3.13).
For example, let’s consider the two-dimensional tensor:

  xy  y 2 
   2  .
 x xy 

In the rotated coordinate system the component 11 should be

equal to  x y  . Let’s verify if the 11 is transformed by the law
(3.13):

x1 x1 kl
11   x y        a1k a1l  kl ,
kl x k x l kl

where i, j  1. Substituting instead of the a1k , a1l and  kl their real

values one gets:

94
 cos sin
( xcos  ysin )( xsin  ycos )  =
 sin cos
cos 2 11  cos sin  12  sin cos  21  sin 2 22 

  xy  cos 2  y 2cos sin  x 2 sin cos  xysin 2 .

The equality appeared which shows that the condition (3.13) is


true for the 11 (and other components). Thus, the Т – is a really
second-order tensor.
The adding of the tensors is defined similarly to the one for the
vectors:

А+В=С, (3.15)

if  ij   ij  C ij . At that the tensors А and В should have the same

order and both should be given in a space of equal dimension.
The equation (3.13) can be written in a more compact form. If
two identical indices meet in one part of an expression while one
index is sup and the other one is sub then the summation is with
respect to these indices. That is why the second expression from the
(3.13) can be rewritten in a form:

xi ' xl k

 j 'i   l , (3.16)
xk x j '

where the summation with respect to k and l is implied. This defines

the rule of summation.
For illustration of this rule let’s show that the  – symbol
corresponds to a mixed second-order tensor  lk . Firstly, it is
necessary to know if the  lk is transformed in accordance with the
(3.13), i.e. if it is a tensor. With account of the summation rule one
has:

95
 xi xl xi xk
 lk    , (3.17)
xk xj xk xj
while,

xi xk xi

  . (3.18)
xk xj xj

But x j and x i – independent coordinates, 

xi
   j ik , (3.19)

x j

so

x i x l
 lk    j ,
i

x k x j

i.e.  lk – is really the second-order mixed tensor. The Kronecker

symbol possesses one more interesting property: it has the identical
components in all rotating coordinate systems and that is why it can
be called isotropic.
In general, the  mn does not depend on the  nm , so the order in
which the tensor indices are represented is important. However there
are several interesting special case; so if

mn  nm , (3.20)

Then the tensor is called symmetric.

If

mn  nm , (3.21)

96
then the tensor is called antisymmetric. It is obvious, that any tensor
(of second order) can be expended on the symmetric and
antisymmetric parts:

1 mn 1
mn 
2
   nm    mn  nm  .
2
(3.22)
symmetric antisymmetric
tensor tensor

Problems

1. Prove that
 y 2  xy    xy x2 
 ,  ,
  xy x 2    y2  xy 
  
are tensors, and
 y2 xy   xy y2 
C   , D   2 
 xy x 2  x  xy 
are not tensors.
2. In the general relativity the four-dimensional tensor of curvature is a fourth-
order one (Riemann-Christofel) and satisfies the symmetry conditions
Riklm   Rikml   Rkilm :
a) show that the number of components at the condition Riklm   Rikml   Rkilm
decreases from 256 until 36;
b) show that the condition Riklm  Rlmik additionally decreases the number of
independent components until 21;
c) show that if the equality Riklm  Rilmk  Rimkl  0 is true, that the number of
independent components equal 20.
Note. The last relation can be considered as the additional condition only in a
case when all four indices are different.
  xy x2 
3. Expand the tensor   on the symmetric and antisymmetric parts.
  y2 xy 

4. Prove that if an arbitrary order tensor components equal zero in the given
coordinate system then they equal zero also in other coordinate systems.
5. The components of the tensor А equal the corresponding components of the
tensor В in a certain coordinate system, i.e. A0ji  Bij0 .

97
 Show that the tensor А equal the tensor В in all coordinate systems, i.e.
Aij  Bij .

3.2. Direct product

We defined the scalar product (part 1.3) in a form of a sum of the

corresponding components products:

   i i  . (3.23)
A generalization of this expression in the tensor calculus is the
operation of contraction. Two indices, one of them is covariant
and the other one is contravariant, are supposed to be equal to
each other and then (in accordance with the summation rule) a
summation is done by this circulating index. For example,
xi xl k xl k
ji  i i   l  l . (3.24)
xk xi xk
With account of the equations (3.18) and (3.19)
xl k
i i  Bl   kl lk  kk . (3.25)
xk
Thus, the contracted mixed second-order tensor is invariant and
hence is a scalar. This exactly corresponds to what we obtained in
the part 1.3 for the scalar product of two vectors and in the part 1.7
for the divergence of a vector. In general, the operation of
contraction decreases the order of a tensor by two.
The components of the covariant and contravariant vectors (firs
order tensors) can be multiplied by each other, in the result one gets
the term ai b j . According to the (3.13), the obtained product is the
second-order tensor:

xk x j l xk xj

'
'j
aib  ak b   ak bl . (3.26)
xi xl xi xl

98
 Contracting one gets the simple scalar product:

xk xi ' x

aib'i   ak bl  k ak bl   lk ak bl  ak b k . (3.27)
xi xl xl
The operation shown is called the direct product. In the case of
two vectors the direct product corresponds to the second-order

tensor. Just in this sense one can understand the quantity  , which
was not defined in the framework of the vector calculus.
The direct product of two tensors is a tensor of the order which
equals the sum of orders of two primary tensors, i.e.

ij kl  C ikl

j , (3.28)

j  is a fourth-order tensor.
where C ikl
Up till now we kept the difference between the covariant and
contravariant transformations since it exists in the non-euclidean
space and plays an important role in the general relativity. Further we
will not differ the covariant and contravariant tensor that is why let’s
take the system of sub-indices. In addition, we will use the
summation rule and the contraction operation.
Summation rule. If an index (a letter, but not a number) is met two
times on the same side of the equation then the summation is implied by
this index.
Contraction. Contraction consists in a setting of two different
indices to be equal to each other and henceforth in an application of
the summation rule.

Problems

1. The n -order tensor T...i is given. Prove that ...i / x j – is an (n  1) -

order tensor (in the Cartesian coordinates).
2. The n -order ijk ... tensor is given, prove that   ijk ... / x j  is an
(n  1) -order tensor (in the Cartesian coordinates).

99
 3. A quantity L – is a scalar function of non-cartesian variables qi , their time-

derivatives q i and in addition it depends on time t explicitly, i.e.

L(qi, qi, t )  L(qi , qi , t ) . Show that the d  L   L corresponds the

dt  qi  qi
vector components.
Note. It is counted that the qi and q i are independent variables.

But q j / q j  0.

3.3. Quotient rule

If Ai and B j – are vectors, then it is easy to prove that  i  j – is

a second-order tensor. Let’s consider the series of inverse dependencies.

Ki Ai  B , (3.29a)

Kij Aj  Bi , (3.29b)

Kij Ajk  Bik , (3.29c)

Kijkl Aij  Bkl , (3.29d)

Kij Ak  Bijk . (3.29e)

In each of these equations the А and В – are known tensors, order
of which is determined by the number of indices and in addition the
А is arbitrary. In each case the К – is unknown quantity. It is
necessary to find out the behavior of the quantity К when it is
transformed. According to the quotient rule if the equation of interest
is true in any rotating (rotated) Cartesian coordinate system, then the
К – is a tensor of the pointed order. As an illustration let’s consider
the equation (3.29b). Accounting the vector properties of
transformation of the В, one can write down that in the stationary
coordinate system
100
 Kij Aj  Bi  aik Bk . (3.30)

The equation (3.29b) is true in any rotating Cartesian coordinate

system, so

aik Bk  aik ( Kkl Al ) . (3.31)

In the last equation let’s again write the А in the rotating

coordinate system:

x l
l    j   a jl Aj
j x j j

ij j  aik  kl a jl j (3.32)

    a
ij ik a jl  kl  j  0 . (3.33)

The last equality is true at any і and in any rotating system. Since
the j is arbitrary then

 ij  aik a jl  kl , (3.34)

what coincides with the definition of a second-order tensor.

Similarly one can consider the other equations (3.29). In the
conclusion it is worth to aware of incorrect application of the
quotient rule. It cannot be true if В=0. In this case the properties of
transformation are not determined.

3.4. Pseudotensors

Up till now all coordinate system transformations were limited to

a pure rotation. Let’s now consider the operation of portrayal or
inversion. If the coefficients of transformation aij   ij are given,
then

101
 xi   xi . (3.35)
It is essentially that this transformation replaces the primary
right-handed coordinate system by the left-handed one. The radius-

vector r  x1 , x 2 , x3    x1 ,  x 2 ,  x3 . This new vector has
the negative components relatively to the new axis transformed. The
simultaneous change of the signs both of the axes and the
components does not change the vector (the direction in a space,
fig. 24).
The radius-vector r and all other vectors, which behave in the
similar way when inversion of the coordinate system, are called the
polar vectors.
Absolutely in other way the vector which is equal to the vector
   
product of two polar vectors behaves. Let the C    , , where 

and  – are polar vectors. The equation (1.33) defines the
components of the vector C :

С1=А2В3-А3В2. (3.36)

Fig. 24. Inversion of Cartesian coordinates. Polar vector

The vector C when inversion behaves not as the polar one. In

order to differ them let’s call the vector C as pseudovector or axial
vector (fig. 25).

102
 Fig. 25. Axial vector
  
For example, the angular velocity   r  , angular
 
momentum L  r  , rotation moment L  r  f , magnetic field

   
 , for which     . In the right-handed coordinate system
t
the vector C characterizes a rotation which is connected to the right
hand rule. In the left-handed, inverted system the rotation is changed
for the left one.
In general, the pseudovectors and pseudotensors are transformed
by the formulas:

Ci  a aij C j , 'ij  a aik a jl kl , (3.37)

where a  is a determinant consisting of the elements of tables for

the coefficients amn .
In the case of inversion the determinant has a form:

1 0 0
a  0  1 0  1 . (3.38)
0 0 1

103
 When inversion of only axis х

1 0 0
a  0 1 0  1 . (3.39)
0 0 1
For any pure rotation it is always true that a  1 . The
quantities, which are transformed in accordance with the (3.37), are
often called the tensor densities.
  
The mixed product S      C behaves similarly to a scalar
(when rotating). But when inversion of coordinates (3.35) S  S , i.e.
S – is a pseudoscalar. This property of the mixed product disappears
due to its geometric interpretation as the volume of a parallelepiped.
Indeed, if all three parameters – length, width and height – are changed
for the negative ones, then the product of these three quantities will be
negative. The electric charge is also a pseudoscalar.
Let’s introduce for convenience the three-dimensional symbol of
Levi-Civita  ijk :
123   231   312  1, 

, (3.40)
132   213   321  1, 
all other  ijk  0.
Let the third-order pseudotensor  ijk in a certain coordinate
system equals the  ijk . Then, by the definition of the pseudotensor,

 'ijk  a aip a jq akr  pqr . (3.41)

 a11a22 a33 1  a12 a23a31 1  
 
123  a  a1 p a2 q a3r  a    a13a21a32 1  a11a23a32   
 a a a  a a a 
 12 21 33 13 22 31 

2
 a  1  a1 p a2 q a3r  pqr  a . (3.42)

104
 For other components one gets similarly:
 ijk   ijk . (3.43)

It follows hence, that  ijk – is an isotropic pseudotensor with

identical components in any rotating coordinate system.
To any antisymmetric second-order tensor C ij (in the three-
dimensional space) one can corresponds the dual pseudovector C i ,
defined as
1
Ci   ijk  C jk , (3.44)
2
0 C12  C31 
 
С jk   C12 0 C23  . (3.45)
C 
 31  C23 0 
The double contraction (pseudo-) of fifth-order tensor  ijk C jk
shows that when rotating of the coordinate system the quantity C i
should behave as a vector but the existence of the pseudotensor  ijk
leads to that the C i is an pseudovector. The components of the

pseudovector C are given as

 C1, C2 , C3    C23 , C31 , C12  . (3.46)

Note, that the cyclic order of indices appeared because of the

circularity of the components of  ijk . This duality means that the
three-dimensional vector product can be written in a form of
pseudovector or in a form of the antisymmetric second-order tensor.
  
If the (polar) vectors , , C are given, then one can determine:
i i Ci
Vijk   j  j C j  i  j Ck  i k C j  . . . (3.47)
k k Ck

105
 Each term  p  q C r should be a third-order tensor. Since the
determinant (3.47) is entirely antisymmetric, then when permuting of
any two indices the change of sign occurs. The dual quantity

1
V  ijkVijk (3.48)
3!

is a pseudoscalar. Opening the determinant in an explicit form

1 1 C1
V  2 2 C2 , (3.49)
3 3 C3

it is easy to show that this is a mixed product.

In order to prove the covariance of Maxwell’s equations it is
necessary to develop this result for the four-dimensional space and in
particular show that the four-dimensional volume element
dx1 dx 2 dx3 dx 4  is a pseudoscalar.
Let’s introduce the four-dimensional Levi-Civita symbol  ijkl ,
the analogue of the three-dimensional one  ijk . By the definition,
 ijkl is entirely antisymmetric with respect to all four indices.
 ijkl  1, if the even number of indices permutation,
 ijkl  1, if the odd number of indices permutation.
Introducing the fourth-order tensor Н

i i Ci Di
j  j C j Dj
 ijkl  , (3.50)
k k Ck Dk
l l Cl Dl

106
elements of which are the components f the polar vectors
, , C, D , one can define the dual quantity:

1
H  ijkl H ijkl . (3.51)
4!
Since the  ijkl is a pseudotensor, then the H ijkl is also a
pseudotensor. Suppose now, that the , , C, D have infinitely
small extension along the four coordinate axes (Minkowski space):
   dx1 , 0, 0, 0  ,    0, dx2 , 0, 0  , ... (3.52)
and the four-dimensional volume element

H  dx1dx2 dx3dx4 (3.53)

is a pseudoscalar.
We moved to the four-dimensional space by simple mathematical
generalization of the three-dimensional space. One can similarly
consider also the N-dimensional spaces.

Problems

1. The antisymmetric table is given, the element of the table

(C1 , C 2 , C3 ) form a pseudovector

 0 C3  C2   0 C12 C13 
   
 C3 0 C1    C12 0 C23  .
   0 
 C2  C1 0   C13  C23
Supposing that the relation

1
Ci   ijk C jk
2!

is true in all coordinate systems prove that C jk  is a tensor (here the quotient rule
is formulated in other form).

107
 1 2 4 2
2. The operator 2  can be written in a form of sum  2 , in
c 2  2 i 1 xi

which x 4  ic  t . This four-dimensional Laplacian, usually called the

D’Alembertian, is denoted by the symbol 2. Show that the 2 – is a scalar operator.
3. Show that

 ii  3,  ij ijk  0,  ipq jpq  2 ij ,  ijk  ijk  6 .

4. Show that
 ijk   pqk   ip jq   iq jp .
5. Prove that every of the following fourth-order tensor:

ij kl ,  ik jl   il jk ,  ik jl   il jk

is isotropic, i.e. the form of every one does not depend on the coordinate system
rotation.
6. Applying the inversion, prove, that the isotropic tensor really has the
pseudotensor nature.

3.5. Affinors

The affinor is introduced with the purpose of development of the

rule of simple vector calculus for the second-order tensors. Let’s take
 
two vectors i and j and form a combination i j . This
combination is called the affinor. A multiplication from the left
consists in multiplication of the left multiplier by the first multiplier
from the pair written from the right:

   
 ij   i  x  j  y  k  z  i  j   x  j . (3.60)

A multiplication form the right supposes the inverse order, i.e.

   
ij    i  j i  x  j  y  k  z   i  y . (3.61)

108
 It is seen from here that the operation of multiplication is not
 
commutative. It is necessary to represent exactly that the i and j ,
forming the affinor i j , do not interact with each other. If they have
scalar coefficients, then these coefficients are multiplied, but the unit
vectors themselves do not form either scalar or vector product.
i j  ji .
 
Now let’s form a combination of two vectors А and В :


    i  x  j  y  k  z  i  x 
 j y  k z 

 ii  x  x  ij  x  y  ik  x  z  ji  y  x  jj  y  y  (3.62)

 jk  y  z  ki  z  x  kj  z  y  kk  z  z .
The quantity    corresponds to the affinor formed of
affinors’ combinations. It was found out that the product of two
vectors  – is a second-order tensor. Hence, the affinors are also
the second-order tensors, written in a form which emphasizes their
vector origin.
It was yet noted, that the operation of multiplication of a vector
and an affinor is not commutative. However there exists one
important particular case when this operation possesses the
properties of commutativity :

a     a , (3.63)
 
where   affinor, a  arbitrary vector.
   
If a  i , then  x     x , i.e.
i xx  j  x y  k  xz 
(3.64)
 i xx  j  yx  k  z x .

109
 Setting the separate components to be equal to each other one gets:

x x  x x ,  x  y   y x ,  x z   z x , (3.65)
i.e.   c , where c  const . Otherwise, if the multiplication
by an arbitrary vector is commutative then the affinor should be
symmetric.
One of the most important properties of the symmetric affinor is
in that by the special choice of the coordinate axes it can always be
represented in a normal or diagonal form:

  ii xx  jj  yy  kk zz . (3.66)

It is interesting and useful to give the geometric interpretation of

the symmetric affinor. For the simplicity let’s suppose that the

symmetric affinor  is given in a diagonal form. Then using the

radius-vector r let’s write the equation:

r  r  1 , (3.67)

which imposes a limitation to the magnitude of the r in dependence
on its orientation.

 ix  jy  kz  ii  xx  jj  yy  kk  zz  ix  jy  kz   1

 . (3.68)
x 2  xx  y 2  yy  z 2 zz  1 


The last equality defines the ellipsoid with the semiaxes

1 1 1
a  xx 2
, b   yy 2
, c  zz 2
. (3.69)

Hence, a diagonalization of the affinor corresponds to an

orientation of the affinor ellipsoid in such a way that its axes
coincide with the coordinate axes.
110
 
If the symmetric affinor U is given, i.e.
Uii  0, Uij  U ji (i  j, i, j  x, y, z ) , then for any

vector a
   
a  U  U  a .

Otherwise, a multiplication of a vector by the antisymmetric

affinor obeys the rule of anticommutation.

Problems
 
1. An antisymmetric affinor U and a vector V are given. Prove that
V U  U V , V U V  0 .

2. Let U – is an antisymmetric affinor, a – is a unit vector in the direction of
the radius-vector r . Show that the end of the radius-vector slides along the
  
ellipsoid surface when r  U  a .
3. The two-dimensional vectors r  ix  jy, t  iy  jx can be

connected by the equation rU  t . Define a tensor U , using for this purpose the

simple tensor representation. Find the U and give its definition from the point of
view of affinors.
4. Show that I i i  j j k k is a unit affinor in the sense that for any

vector V
  
I V  V .
Test questions for chapter 3

1. Contravariant and covariant vectors. Give the definitions.

2. Contravariant, mixed and covariant second-order tensors.

111
 1. Find the derivative of the scalar field u ( x, y, z ) in the point
М in the direction of the normal passing through this point to the
surface S , subtending the acute angle with positive direction of the
axis Oz .

Solution:
u  ln(1  x 2  y 2 )  x 2  z 2 ,

S : x 2  6 x  9 y 2  z 2  4 z  23,

M (3, 0, 4).
N  grad F ( x, y, z ).

F  x 2  6 x  9 y 2  z 2  4 z  23,

F F F
grad F  i j k  (2 x  6)i  18 yj  (2 z  4)k .
x y z

N |M  0i  0 j  12k ,

N  02  02  (12) 2  12.

cos   0;cos   0, cos   1.

112
 U U U U
 cos   cos   cos  .
N x y z

U 2x U 2y U
 2 2
;  2 2
;  0.
x 1  x  y y 1  x  y z

U U U
|M  0, 6; |M  0; |M  0;
x y z

U
 0,6  0  0  0  0  (1)  0.
N

2. Find the angle between the gradients of the scalar fields

u( x, y, z ) and v( x, y, z ) in the point М .

Solution:

x  1 1 1 
v  x 2  y 2  3z 2 , u  2
, M  , , .
yz  2 2 3

 – required angle.

( grad  gradU )
cos   ;
grad  gradU

grad  2 xi  2 yj  6 zk ,

grad |M  2i  2 j  2 3k ,

grad  ( 2 ) 2  ( 2 ) 2  (2 3 ) 2  4,

113
 1 x 2x
gradU  2
i  2 2 j  3 k,
yz y z yz

gradU |M  3 2i  3 2 j  6 3k ,

grad  (3 2 ) 2  (3 2 ) 2  (6 3 ) 2  12,

2 3 2  2 3 2  2 3 6 3
cos    1    .
4  12

3. Find the vector lines in the vector field a .

Solution:

a  3xi  6 zk .

The differential equations of the vector lines of the field a :

dy  0  y  C 0 ,
dx dy dz 
    2dx dz
3x 0 6 z  
 x z

2 ln x  ln z  ln C ,

x 2  Cz.

4. Find the flux of the vector field а through the surface S , cut
by the plane P (the normal is outward to the closed surface
subtended by the given surfaces).

114
 Solution:

a  xzi  yzj  ( z 2  1)k ,

S : x2  y 2  z 2 ( z  0), P : z  4.

Fig. 26.

F   a  n  dS   ax dydz  a y dxdz  az dxdy ,

S S

4 z

 ax dydz   xzdydz   z z  y dydz   zdz  z  y dy 

2 2 2 2

S S S 0 z

4
y 2 z2 y z
  z z  y 2  arcsin  | dz 
0 
2 2 z  z

4
1 1 1 4
   z 3dz    z 4 |  32 .
2 0 2 4 0

115
 4 z

 ay dxdz   yzdxdz   z z  x dxdz   zdz  z  x dx 

2 2 2 2

S S S 0 z

4 4
x 2 z2 x z 1 1 1 44
  z
2 0
z  x 2  arcsin  | dz  z 3
dz   z |  32 .
0 
2 2 z  z 2 4 0

2 z

 az dxdy   ( z  1)dxdz   ( x  y  1)dxdy   d   (   1)d  

2 2 2 2

S S S 0 z

2 4 2 2
 1 4 1 2 4 2

 d  (    )d   0  4   2   0|d  56 0 d  56   0|  112 ,
3

0 0

F  32  32  112  176 .

5. Find the flux of the vector field a through the part of the
plane Р, situated in the first octant (the normal does the acute angle
with the axis Oz ).

Solution:

Fig. 27.

116
 a  2 xi  3 yj  4 zk , P : 2 x  3 y  z  1.

F   a  n  d   (ax cos   a y cos   az cos  )d 

 S

  (2 x cos   3 y cos   4 z cos  ) d .



n  {3, 2,1}  n  4  9  1  14.

2 3 1
cos   , cos   , cos   ,
14 14 14

d  1  ( z x' )2  ( z 'y ) 2 dxdy  1  4  9dxdy  14dxdy,

 2  2x 3 3y 4z 
F  
Dxy 14

14
  14dxdy 
14 

1 2
 x
1/2 3 3
  dx 
0 0
(4 x  9 y  4(1  2 x  3 y ))dy 

1 2
 x
1/ 2 3 3 1/ 2
1 7 
 dx    2  10 x  6 x
2
 (4  4 x  3 y )dy   dx 
0 0
3 0 

17  1/ 2 1
  x  5 x 2  2 x3  |  .
3 2 0 4

117
 6. Find the flux of the vector field a through the part of the
plane Р, situated in the first octant (the normal does the acute angle
with the axis Oz).
Solution:

Fig. 28.

a  9 yj  (7 z  1)k , P : x  y  z  1.
F   a  n  d   (ax cos   a y cos   az cos  )d 
 S

  (2 x cos   3 y cos   4 z cos  ) d .



n  {1,1,1}  n  3.
1 1 1
cos   , cos   , cos   ,
3 3 3
d  1  ( z x' )2  ( z 'y )2 dxdy  1  1  1dxdy  3dxdy,

1 1ч
 1 1 1 
F   dx   0   9 y   7(1  x  y )  1)  3dy 
0 0  3 3 3

1 1 x 1
 7 9 2  1 x
  dx  (8  7 x  7 y  9 y )dy    8 y  7 xy  y 2  y  | dx 
0 0 0
2 2  0

118
  9  9 7  9 2 
   (8  9 ) x  x  dx 
 2 2 

 9  9 8  9 2 7  9 3  1 10  9
 x x  x |  .
 2 2 23 0 6

7. Find the flux of the vector field а through the closed surface
S (the normal is outward).

Solution:

a  (e z  x)i  ( xz  3 y ) j  ( z  x 2 )k ,

S : 2 x  y  z  2, x  0, y  0, z  0.
J  J1  J 2  J 3 ;
2 2 y
 1 1 
 (e  x)dydz   dy   e
z z
J1  1 y  z dz 
Dyoz 0 0
2 2 
2 2
 1 1  2 y  1 
   e  z  z  yz  z 2  | dy    e y  2  1  y  y 2  dy 
0
2 4  0 0
4 
 1 1 2 1
  e y  2  y  y 2  y 3  |   .
 2 12  0 3

Fig. 29.

119
 1 2 2 x
J2   ( xz  3 y)dzdx   dx
Dxoz 0
  xz  6  3z  6 x dz 
0

1
1 3  2 2 x
   xz 2  6 z  z 2  6 xz  | dx 
0
2 2  0

1
 2 1 1
   6  10 x  2 x 2  2 x3  dx   6 x  5 x 2  x3  x 4  | 
0  3 2 0
2 1 7 13
 6  5    1  .
3 2 6 6
1 2 2 x

 ( z  x )dxdy   dx   2  2 x  y  x dy 
2 2
J3 
Dyox 0 0

1
 1  2 2 x
   2 y  2 xy  y 2  x 2 y  | dx 
0
2  0

1
 4 1 1
   2  4 x  4 x 2  2 x3  dx   2 x  2 x 2  x 3  x 4  | 
0  3 2 0

4 1 5
 22   .
3 2 6

1 13 5 8
J  J1  J 2  J 3      .
3 6 6 3

8. Find the flux of the vector field а through the closed surface
S (the normal is outward).
120
 Solution:

a  3xi  zj ,
 2
z  6  x  y ,
2

S : 2
 2 2
 z  x  y ( z  0).
F   an d   div a dxdydz ,
 V

ax a y az
div a     3  0  3.
x y z
Let’s move to the cylindrical coordinates system:
 x  r cos 

 y  r sin 
z  z

 6 6r 2  6
F   3dxdydz  3  2 d  rdr  dz  6 d  r (6  r 2  r )dr 
V 0 0 0 0 0

 6  
 6 d  (6r  r 3  r 2 )dr  6 (9  2 6) d  6(9  2 6) |  6(9  2 6) .
0
0 0 0

Fig. 30.

121
 9. Find the flux of the vector field а through the closed surface
S (the normal is outward).

Solution:
2
a  ( zx  y)i  ( xy  z ) j  ( x  yz)k ,

 x 2  y 2  2,
S :
 z  0, z  1.

Let’s use the Ostrogradky-Gauss’s formula.

F  an dS   div a dxdydz,

S V

ax a y az
diva     z  y  z.
x y z

F   ( x  y  z )dxdydz.

Fig. 31.

122
  x  r cos  ,

The cylindrical coordinates system:  y  r sin  ,
 z  z.

Hence,
2 1 1 2 1
 2 1
0 d 0 rdv0 (r cos   r sin   z)dz  0 d 0  r cos   r sin   2 dv 
2

2 2
1 3 1 3 1 1 1 1 1
 0  3 r cos   3 r sin   2 v  0| d    3 cos   3 sin   2  d 
0

1 1 1  2 1 1
  sin   cos     |  0       .
3 3 2 0 3 3

10. Find the F force work when displacing along the lone
L from the point M to the point N .

Solution:

F  ( x2  2 y)i  ( y 2  2 x) j , L : segment
MN , M (4,0), N (0,2).

Fig. 32.

1) MO y  0, dy  0,4  x  0.
0
1 3 0 64
 ( x  2 y)dx  ( y  2 x)dy   x dx 
2 2 2
x |  .
L 4
3 4 3
123
 2) ON x  0, dx  0,0  y  2.
2
1 32 8
 ( x  2 y)dx  ( y  2 x)dy   y dy 
2 2 2
y | .
L 0
3 0 3
64 8 72
L ( x  2 y)dx  ( y  2 x)dy  3  3  3  24.
2 2

11. Find the circulation of the vector field а along the circuit
G (in the direction of increase of the parameter t ).
Solution:

a  xi  z 2 j  yk ,
 x  2cos t , y  3sin t ,

G:
 z  4cos t  3sin t  3.

dx  2sin tdt ,
dy  3cos tdt ,
dz  4sin t  3cos t.
C   ax dx  a y dy  az dz 
Г

2
  (2  2cos t sin t  3cos t (4cos t  3sin t  3) 
0
2

 (2sin 2t  12 cos
2
3sin t (4sin t  3cos t ))dt  t  9sin t cos t  9 cos t 
0

12sin 2 t  9sin t cos t )dt 

2 2
  (2sin 2t  12  9cos t )dt  (cos 2t  9sin t 12t ) |  24 .
0
0

12. Find the magnitude of the circulation of the vector field а

along the circuit G .

124
Solution:

a  2 yi  5zj  3xk ,

2 x 2  2 y 2  1,
G:
 x  y  z  3.

Let’s use the Stoke’s theorem:

C  a  n  dS   n  rota  d
Г

i j k
  
rot a   5i  3 j  2k .
x y z
2y 5z 3k

 n  rota  d   (5cos   3cos   2cos  )d .

1
n  {1,1,1}, n  3  cos   cos   cos   .
3

d  1  ( z x' ) 2  ( z 'y ) 2 dxdy 

 1  (1) 2  (1) 2 dxdy  3dxdy.

125
  5 3 2   x  r cos  
    dxdy  10  dxdy   y  r sin   
C  3   3 3 3 Dxy  
Dxy

2 1/ 2 2 1 1/ 2 1 1
 10  d  rdr  10 |  r 2 |  10  2    5 .
0 2 0 2 2
0 0

Projection on XOY

126
 1. Find the derivative of the scalar field u  u  x, y, z  in the
direction of the gradient of the scalar field     x, y, z  .
2. Find the gradient of the scalar field u  Cr , where C – is a
constant vector, and the r – radius-vector. Which are the surfaces of
the level of this field and how are they situated relatively to the
vector C ?
3. Prove that if the S – closed sectionally smooth surface and
the C – non-zero constant vector, then

 cos  n,C  dS  0 ,
S

where n – is a vector, normal to the surface S .

4. Prove the formula

  an dS    diva  agrad  dV ,

0

S V

where     x, y, z  ; S – surface, subtending the volume V ; n 0

– unit vector of the outward normal to the surface S . Find out the
conditions of the formula applicability.
5. Prove that if the function u  x, y, z  satisfies the Laplace
equation:

 2u  2u  2u u
 
x 2 y 2 z 2
 0 , then  n dS  0 ,
S

127
 u
where – is a derivative in the direction of the normal to the
n
sectionally smooth closed surface S .
6. Prove that if the function u  x, y, z  is a second-order
polynomial and the S – is a sectionally smooth closed surface then
the integral
u
 n dS
S

is proportional to a volume subtended by the surface S .

7. Let a  Pi  Qj  Rk , where P, Q, R – is linear functions of
the x, y, z and let the G – is a closed sectionally-smooth curve
situated in a certain plane. Prove that if the circulation  adr

differs

from zero, then it is proportional to the square of the figure

subtended by the circuit G .
8. A solid body rotates with the constant angular velocity around
the stationary axis passing through the coordinate origin. The vector
of angular velocity   x i   y j  z k . Find the rotor and the
divergence of the field of linear velocities v   r  of the points of
the bodyа (here r – radius-vector).
9. Find the derivative of the scalar field u  x, y, z  in the point
M in the direction of the normal to the surface S , subtending the
acute angle with the positive direction of the axis Oz .

 
9.1. u  4ln 3  x 2  8xyz, S : x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  1, M 1,1,1 .

9.2. u  x y  y z ; S : 4 z  2 x 2  y 2  8, M  2, 4, 4  .
 
9.3. u  2ln x 2  5  4 xyz, S : x 2  2 y 2  2 z 2  1, M 1,1,1 .
1 2  1 
9.4. u  x y  x 2  5 z 2 , S : z 2  x 2  4 y 2  4, M  2, ,1 .
4  2 

128
 9.5. u  xz 2  x 3 y , S : x 2  y 2  3 z  12  0, M  2, 2, 4  .

9.6. u  x y  yz 2 , S : x 2  y 2  4 z  9, M  2,1, 1 .

9.7. u  7 ln 1 13  x 2   4 xyz, S : 7 x 2  4 y 2  4 z 2  7, M 1,1,1 .

9.8. u  arctg  y x   xz , S : x 2  y 2  2 z  10, M  2, 2, 1 .

9.9. u  ln 1  x 2   xy z , S : 4 x 2  y 2  z 2  16, M 1, 2, 4  .

9.10. u  x 2  y 2  z , S : x 2  y 2  24 z  1, M  3, 4,1 .

10. Find the angle between the gradients of the scalar fields
u  x, y, z  and   x, y, z  in the point M .
x2 yz 2  1 1 
10.1.    6 y 3  3 6 z 3 , u  2 , M  2, , .
2 x  2 3
4 6 6 3  1 3
10.2.     , u  x 2 yz 3 , M  2, ,  .
x 9y z  3 2
y3 4z3 z3 1 3
10.3.   9 2 x 
3
 , u  2 , M  , 2, .
2 2 3 xy 3 2 
3 4 1 z  1 
10.4.     , u  3 2 , M 1, 2, .
x y 6z x y  6
x3 x2  1 1 
10.5.    6 y 3  3 6 z 3 , u  2 , M  2, , .
2 yz  2 3
y2 z2 1 2
10.6.   3 2 x 
2
 3 2 z , u  2 , M  , 2,
3
.
2 xy 3 3 

129
 xz 2  1 1 
10.7.   6 6 x3  6 6 y 3  2 z 3 , u 
, M , ,1 .
y  6 6 
6 6 2 yz 2  1 1 1 
10.8.     , u , M , , .
2 x 2 y 3z x  2 2 3
y2 xy 2 1 2
10.9.   3 2 x 2 2
 3 2 z , u  2 , M  , 2, .
2 z 3 3 
3 4 1 x3 y 2  1 
10.10.     , u , M 1, 2, .
x y 6z z  6

11. Find the vector lines in the vector field a .

11.1. a  4 yi  9 xj .

11.2. a  2 yi  3xj .

11.3. a  2 xi  4 yj .

11.4. a  2 yi  3xj .

11.5. a  xi  4 yj .

11.6. a  3xi  6 zk .

11.7. a  4 zi  9 xk .
11.8. a  2 zi  3xk .

11.9. a  4 yj  8 zk .

11.10. a  yj  3zk .

130
 12. Find the flux of the vector field a through the part of the
surface S , cut by the planes P1 , P2 (the normal is outward to the
closed surface subtended by the given surfaces).

a  xi  yj  zk
12.1. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  2.

a  xi  yj  zk
12.2. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  4.

a  xi  yj  2 zk
12.3. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  3.

a  xi  yj  z 3k
12.4. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  1.

a  xi  yj  xyzk
12.5. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  5.

a   x  y  i   x  y  j  z 2k
12.6. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  2.

131
 a   x  y  i   x  y  j  xyzk
12.7. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  4.
a   x3  xy 2  i   y 3  x 2 y  j  z 2 k
12.8. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  3.

a  xi  yj  sin zk
12.9. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  5.

a  xi  yj  k
12.10. S : x 2  y 2  1,
P1 : z  0, P2 : z  2.

13. Find the flux of the vector field a through the part of the
plane P , situated in the first octant (the normal does the acute angle
with the axis Oz ).

a  xi  yj  zk
13.1.
P : x  y  z  1.

a  yj  zk
13.2.
P : x  y  z  1.

a  2 xi  yj  zk
13.3.
P : x  y  z  1.

132
 a  xi  3 yj  2 zk
13.4.
P : x  y  z  1.

a  2 xi  3 yj
13.5.
P : x  y  z  1.

a  xi  yj  zk
13.6.
P : x 2  y  z  1.

a  xi  2 yj  zk
13.7.
P : x 2  y  z  1.

a  yj  3zk
13.8.
P : x 2  y  z  1.

a  xi  2 yj  zk
13.9.
P : x  y 2  z 3  1.

a  2 xi  yj  zk
13.10.
P : x  y 2  z 3  1.

14. Find the flux of the vector field a through the part of the
plane P , situated in the first octant (the normal does the acute angle
with the axis Oz ).

a  7 xi  (5 y  2) j  4 zk ,
14.1.
P : x  y 2  4 z  1.

a  2 xi   7 y  2  j  7 zk ,
14.2.
P : x  y 2  z 3  1.
133
 a  9 xi  j  3zk ,
14.3.
P : x 3  y  z  1.

a   2 x  1 i  yj  3 zk ,
14.4.
P : x 3  y  2 z  1.
a  7 xi  9 yj  k ,
14.5.
P : x  y 3  z  1.

a  i  5 yj  11 zk ,
14.6.
P : x  y  z 3  1.

a  xi   z  1 k ,
14.7.
P : 2 x  y 2  z 3  1.

a  5 xi   9 y  1 j  4 zk ,
14.8.
P : x 2  y 3  z 2  1.

14.9.
a  2i  yj  3  2 
zk ,
P : x 3  y  z 4  1.

a  9 xi   5 y  1 j  2 zk ,
14.10.
P : 3x  y  z 9  1.

15. Find the flux of the vector field a through the closed surface S
(the normal is outward).

a  ez  2x  i  ex j  e yk ,
15.1.
S : x  y  z  1, x  0, y  0, z  0.

134
 a   3z 2  x  i   e x  2 y  j   2 z  xy  k ,
15.2.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2 , z  1, z  4.

a   ln y  7 x  i   sin z  2 y  j   e y  2 z  k ,
15.3.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  2 y  2 z  2.

a   cos z  3x  i   x  2 y  j   3z  y 2  k ,
15.4.
S : z 2  36  x 2  y 2  , z  6.

15.5. a   e  x  i   xz  3 y  j   z  x  k ,
z 2

S : 2 x  y  z  2, x  0, y  0, z  0.

a   6 x  cos y  i   e x  z  j   2 y  3z  k ,
15.6.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2 , z  1, z  2.

a   4 x  2 y 2  i   ln z  4 y  j   x  3z 4  k ,
15.7.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2  2 x  3.

15.8.   
a  1  z i  4 y  x j  xyk , 
S : z 2  4  x 2  y 2  , z  3.

15.9. a   
z  x i   x  y  j   y2  z  k ,
S : 3x  2 y  z  6, x  0, y  0, z  0.

a   yz  x  i   x 2  y  j   xy 2  z  k ,
15.10.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2  2 z.

16. Find the flux of the vector field a through the close surface
S (the normal is outward).

135
 a   x  zi   z  yk ,
16.1.  x 2  y 2  9,
S :
 z  x, z  0  z  0  .

a  2 xi  zk ,
16.2.  z  3x  2 y  1,
2 2

S : 2 2
 x  y  4, z  0.

a  2 xi  2 yj  zk ,
16.3.  y  x 2 , y  4 x 2 , y  1  x  0 
S :
 z  y, z  0.

a  3xi  zj ,
16.4.  z  6  x 2  y 2 ,
S : 2
 z  x  y  z  0  .
2 2

a   z  y  i  yj  xk ,
16.5.  x 2  y 2  2 y,
S :
 y  2.

a  xi   x  2 y  j  yk ,
16.6.  x 2  y 2  1, z  0,
S :
 x  2 y  3z  6.

a  2 z  y j   x  z k ,
16.7.  z  x 2  3 y 2  1, z  0,
S : 2 2
 x  y  1.
136
 a  xi  zj  yk ,
16.8.  z  4  2  x2  y 2  ,

S :
 z  2  x  y  .
2 2

a  zi  4 yj  2 xk ,
16.9.  z  x2  y 2 ,
S :
 z  1.

a  4 xi  2 yj  zk ,
16.10. 3x  2 y  12, 3x  y  6, y  0,
S :
 x  y  z  6, z  0.

17. Find the flux of the vector field a through the closed surface
S (the normal is outward).

a   x2  y 2  i   y 2  x2  j   y 2  z 2  k ,
17.1.  x 2  y 2  1,
S :
 z  0, z  1.

a  x 2i  y 2 j  z 2 k ,
 x  y  z  4,
2 2 2
17.2.
S : 2
 x  y  z ,  z  0  .
2 2

a  x 2 i  yj  zk ,
17.3.  x 2  y 2  z 2  1,
S :
 z  0,  z  0  .

137
 a  xzi  zj  yk ,
17.4.  x 2  y 2  1  z,
S :
 z  0.

a  3xzi  2 xj  yk ,
17.5.  x  y  z  2, x  1,
S :
 x  0, y  0, z  0.

a  x 2i  y 2 j  z 2 k ,
17.6.  x 2  y 2  z 2  2,
S :
 z  0  z  0  .

a  x 3i  y 3 j  z 3 k ,
17.7.
S : x 2  y 2  z 2  1.

a   zx  y  i   zy  x  j   x 2  y 2  k ,
17.8.  x 2  y 2  z 2  1,
S :
 z  0,  z  0  .

a  y 2 xi  z 2 yj  x 2 zk ,
17.9.
S : x 2  y 2  z  1.

a  x 2i  xyj  3zk ,
17.10.  x2  y 2  z 2 ,
S :
 z  4.

138
 18. Find the F force work when displacing along the line L from
the point M to the point N .

F   x2  2 y  i   y 2  2x  j ,
18.1. L : 2- x 2 8  y,
M  4, 0  , N  0, 2  .

F   x  y  i  2 xj ,
18.2. L : x 2  y 2  4  y  0 ,
M  2, 0  , N  2, 0  .

F  x 3i  y 3 j ,
18.3. L : x 2  y 2  4,  x  0, y  0  .
M  2, 0  , N  0, 2  .

F   x  yi   x  y j,
18.4. L : y  x 2 ,
M  1,1 , N 1,1 .

F   2 xy  y  i   x 2  x  j ,
18.5. L : x 2  y 2  9,  y  0 ,
M  3, 0  , N  3, 0  .

F   x  yi   x  y j,
18.6. L : x 2  y 2 9  1  x  0, y  0  ,
M 1, 0  , N  0,3 .

139
 F  yi  xj ,
18.7. L : x 2  y 2  1  y  0  ,
M 1, 0  , N  2, 0  .

F   x2  y 2  i   x2  y 2  j ,
 x, 0  x  1;
18.8. L : 
2  x, 1  x  2;
M  2, 0  , N  0, 0  .

F  yi  xj ,
18.9. L : x 2  y 2  2,  y  0 ,
M   
2, 0 , N  2, 0 . 
F  xyi  2 yj ,
18.10. L : x 2  y 2  1,  x  0, y  0  ,
M 1, 0  , N  0,1 .

19. Find a circulation of the vector field a along the circuit G (in
the direction of increase of the parameter t ).
a  yi  xj  z 2 k ,
19.1.  
 x  2 2 cos t , y 
G:
 
2 2 cos t ,
 z  sin t.

a   x 2 y 3i  j  zk ,
19.2.  x  4 cos t , y  4 sin t ,
3 3

G:
 z  3.

140
 a   y  z i   z  x j   x  y k ,
19.3.  x  cos t , y  sin t ,
G:
 z  2 1  cos t  .

a  x 2 i  yj  zk ,

19.4. 
G:

 x  cos t , y  2 sin t  2,


 z  2 cos t 2.
 
a   y  z i   z  x j   x  y k ,
19.5.  x  4 cos t , y  4sin t ,
G:
 z  1  cos t.

a  2 yi  3xj  xk ,
19.6.  x  2 cos t , y  2sin t ,
G:
 z  2  2 cos t  2sin t.

a  2 zi  xj  yk ,
19.7.  x  2 cos t , y  2sin t ,
G:
 z  1.

a  yi  xj  zk ,
19.8.  x  cos t , y  sin t ,
G:
 z  3.

a  xi  z 2 j  yk ,
19.9.  x  cos t , y  2sin t ,
G:
 z  2 cos t  2sin t  1.
141
 a  3 yi  3xj  xk ,
19.10.  x  3cos t , y  3sin t ,
G:
 z  3  3cos t  3sin t.

20. Find the magnitude of a circulation of the vector field a along

the circuit G .

a   x 2  y  i  xj  k ,
20.1.  x 2  y 2  1,
G:
 z  1.

a  xzi  j  yk ,
 z  5  x  y   1,
2 2
20.2.
G:
 z  4.

a  yzi  2 xzj  xyk ,

20.3.  x 2  y 2  z 2  25,
G: 2
 x  y  9  z  0  .
2

a  xi  yzj  xk ,
20.4.  x 2  y 2  1,
G:
 x  y  z  1.

a   x  y  i  xj  zk ,
20.5.  x 2  y 2  1,
G:
 z  1.

142
 a  yi  xj  z 2 k ,
20.6.  z  3  x 2  y 2   1,
G:
 z  4.

a  yzi  2 xzj  y 2 k ,
20.7.  x 2  y 2  z 2  25,
G: 2
 x  y  16  z  0  .
2

a  xyi  yzj  xzk ,

20.8.  x 2  y 2  9,
G:
 x  y  z  1.

a  yi  1  x  j  zk ,
20.9.  x 2  y 2  z 2  4,
G: 2
 x  y  1  z  0  .
2

a  yi  xj  z 2 k ,
20.10.  x 2  y 2  1,
G:
 z  4.

143
Абсолютная величина вектора Magnіtude of vector
Аксиальные векторы Axіal vector
Определитель Determіnant
Смешанное произведение Trіple scalar product
Аффинор Affіnor (dyadіcs)
Направляющие косинусы Dіrectіon cosіnes
Векторный элемент поверхности Vector area element
Единичный вектор Unіt vector
Единичный (нормальный) вектор Normal vector
Вектор Vector
Интегрирование векторов Іntegratіon of vectors
Векторное произведение Vector product;
vector (cross) product
Векторный Dіfferentіal vector operator
дифференциальный оператор
Векторный лапласиан Vector Laplacіan
Векторные величины Vector quantіtіes
Теорема Гаусса Gauss's theorem
Уравнение Гельмгольца Helmholtz equatіon
Градиент Gradіent
Теорема Грина Green's theorem
Декартовы координаты Cartesіan coordіnates
Дивергенция Dіvergence
Физическая сущность Physіcal sіgnіfіcance
дивергенции of dіvergence
Двойное векторное произведение Trіple vector product
Свертывание Convolutіon (faltung);
Операция свертывания Contractіon
Закон косинусов The law of cosіnes
Символ Кронекера Kronecker delta
Антисимметричные тензоры Antіsymmetrіc tensors
Правило суммирования Sum rules
Безвихревые векторы Іrrotatіonal vectors
Лапласиан Laplacіan
Коэффициенты Ламе Metrіc; Lamer's coeffіcіents
Уравнения Максвелла Maxwell's equatіons
Ортогональные векторы Orthogonal vectors
Полярные векторы Polar vectors

144
Псевдовекторы Pseudovectors; axіal vectors
Псевдотензоры Pseudotensors
Радиус-вектор Radіus-vector
Ротор Curl
Симметричные тензоры Symmetry tensors
Скаляр Scalar
Скалярное Scalar product;
произведение dot product of vectors
Скалярная функция Scalar functіon
Теорема Стокса Stoke's theorem
Правило частного Quotіent rule
Тензор Tensor
- двумерный - two-dіmensіonal
Тензорные плотности Tensor densіty
Приращение длины Dіfferentіal length

145
Basic

1. Arfken G. Mathematical methods in physics. – М.: Atomizdat, 1970.

– 712 p. (in russian).
2. Kochin N.Е. Vector calculus and tensor calculus fundamentals. – М.:
Science, 1965. – 426 p. (in russian).
3. Borisenko А.I., Taranov I.Е. Vector calculus and tensor calculus
fundamentals. – М.: Higher school, 1963. – 262 p. (in russian).
4. Grechko L.V., Sugakov V.I., Tomasevich О.F. et al. Collection of
problems on theoretical physics. – М.: Higher school, 1972. – 335 p. (in
russian).
5. Krasnov М.L., Kiselev А.I., Makarenko G.I. Vector calculus. – М.: Book
house «LIBROCOM», 2009. – 140 p. (in russian).

Additional

1. Zhaksybekova К.А. Guidance to solution of problems on electrodynamics.

Part 1. – Almaty: Kazakh University press, 2003 (in russian).
2. Arfken G.B., Weber H.J. Mathematical Methods for Physicists.
– Elsevier, 2005. – 1182 p.
3. Chow T. L. Mathematical Methods for Physicists: a concise introduction.
– Cambridge University Press, 2000. – 555 p.

146
INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 3

Chapter 1. VECTOR CALCULUS ..................................................................... 5

1.1. Fundamental concepts ................................................................................. 5
1.2. Rotation of coordinate system ..................................................................... 9
1.3. Scalar product ............................................................................................. 15
1.4. Vector product ............................................................................................. 20
1.5. Scalar triple and vector triple products ........................................................ 25
Vector calculus (differentiation of vectors) ........................................................ 31
1.6. Gradient ....................................................................................................... 31
1.7. Divergence................................................................................................... 37
1.8. Rotor ............................................................................................................ 42
1.9. Subsequent application of operator  ........................................................ 46
1.10. Integration of vectors ................................................................................. 51
1.11. Gauss’s theorem ........................................................................................ 58
1.12. Stokes theorem .......................................................................................... 60

Chapter 2. SYSTEMS OF COORDINATES ...................................................... 66

2.1. Curvilinear coordinates………………… .................................................... 67
2.2. Differential vector operators … ................................................................... 70
2.3. Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates ............................................................. 75
2.4. Spherical coordinates ................................................................................... 76
2.5. Separation of variables ................................................................................ 82
2.6. Cylindrical coordinates ................................................................................ 87

Chapter 3. TENSOR CALCULUS ..................................................................... 91

3.1. Introduction. Fundamental concepts ............................................................ 91
3.2. Direct product .............................................................................................. 98
3.3. Quotient rule ................................................................................................ 100
3.4. Pseudotensors .............................................................................................. 101
3.5. Affinors ....................................................................................................... 108

Examples of problems solution .......................................................................... 112

Problems for independent work .......................................................................... 127

GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................... 144

REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 146

147
 Educational edition

Zhaksybekova Kulyan Aitmagambetovna

Zhusupov Marat Abzhanovich
Kabatayeva Raushan Sarsembekovna

FUNDAMENTALS OF VECTOR
AND TENSOR ANALYSIS
Educational manual

Second edition, supplemented

Computer page makeup and

cover designer N. Bazarbaeva

The website used for front-page designing

http://hqtexture.com/

IS No.10990
Signed for publishing 09.06.17. Format 60x84 1/16. Offset paper.
Digital printing. Volume 9,25 printer’s sheet.
Edition 80. Order No.3496
Publishing house «Qazaq university»
Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, 71 Al-Farabi, 050040, Almaty

Printed in the printing office of the «Qazaq university» publishing house

148