Research Methodology in Social Sciences

(A Short Manual)
Harish K. Thakur, New Delhi: Corvette, 2021.

Research Design

Once the problem is selected and the relevant literature searched the broader research
format and plan haunts the researcher’s mind which is called ‘research plan’ or ‘research
design’. The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will
effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data. Note that the research problem determines the type of
design you should use, not the other way around! (De Vaus,2001). According to Jahoda,
Deutch & Cook “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for the collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy and procedure”. Research design is the plan, structure and strategy and
investigation concaved so as to obtain search question and control variance” (Borwankar,
1995). Henry Manheim says that research design not only anticipates and specifies the
seemingly countless decisions connected with carrying out data collection, processing and
analysis but it presents a logical basis for these decisions (Selltiz, 1962).
It refers to the overall strategy utilized to carry out research that defines a succinct and
logical plan to tackle established research question(s) through the collection, interpretation,
analysis, and discussion of data. The methodologies and methods incorporated in the design
of a research study will depend on the standpoint of the researcher over their beliefs in the
nature of knowledge (see epistemology) and reality (see ontology), often shaped by the
disciplinary areas the researcher belongs to (Sarah Wright et al. 2016, 97-98). The design of a
study defines the study type (descriptive, correlational, semi-experimental, experimental,
review, meta-analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research
problem, hypotheses, independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if
applicable, data collection methods and a statistical analysis plan (Creswell, 2014).
A researcher needs to organise his/her ideas in a logical sequence and write or draw a
flowchart, ‘which is called as a ‘Research Plan/Design’. Claire Sellitz defines that “a research
design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. In fact, a
research design is the conceptual framework/structure within which the research shall be
conducted. It is a kind of ‘blue of print’ to proceed in a clear direction smoothly.
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem logically and as unambiguously as possible. In
social sciences research, obtaining information relevant to the research problem generally
entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to
accurately describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon (De Vaus).
The research design is primary to a research endeavour and works as a harbour light to
guide the research exercises. It serves as a series of guideposts to keep the progression of
research headed in the right direction. The research design is essential because it ensures a
better, systematic and organised plan of the research undertaken. It enhances the efficiency of
the researcher in his implementation. A comprehensive review of the proposed study will be
set before the research begins. Thus it can be said that a research design is needed because it
facilitates in making research as efficient as possible.
A research design not only includes the objectives of the study but also the scope,
coverage, timeline, limitations, methods of data collection, tools of analysis and the data
analysis and presentation. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitutes a research design. The purpose of a
research design is to answer:(1) What is the study and why it is being undertaken?
(2) What are the prime objectives of the study?
(3) What is the significance of the study?
(4) What kind of data is needed and what are the sources of the data?
(5) What are the methods/means of the data collection?
(6) What are the methods/tools of data analysis?
(7) How the final report will be prepared and submitted?
(8) Implications of the study and its policy repercussions and implementation.

Keeping in view the above decision one may split the overall research design into
following parts:
(a) Sampling design - method of selecting items.
(b) Observational design - strategy of data selection.
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(c) Statistical design- strategy of data analysis.

(d) Operational design - procedures specified in the above three to be carried out within
the design’s given constraints.

The Features of a Research Design (RD)

(1) It is a plan that specifies the sources and type of information relevant to the research
problem.
(2) It is a strategy specifying which approach should be used gathering and analysing data.
(3) It also includes the time and cost budgets since most studies are done under these two
constraints (Khanzode, 1995).

RD also helps in suggesting the efficient and economical paths of pursuit and eliminate
irrelevant data, efforts and procedures, avoid errors and ensures reliability.
In brief research design must at least contain-
(1) A clear statement of research problem.
(2) Procedures and technique to be used for gathering data or information.
(3) The population to be studied.
(4) Methods to be used in processing & analysis data (Kothari, 2010).

Components of RD
I. Akhtar discusses four major types of research design.
Exploratory or Formulative Research Design
Descriptive Research or Statistical Research Design
Explanatory Research Design
Experimental Research or Analytical Research Design

Nemanja Jovancic (2020) discusses five most commontypes of Research Design:

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1. Descriptive Research Design

This is a theory-based design, where the researcher is primarily interested in describing
the topic that is the subject of the research. It is applied to case studies, naturalistic
observations, surveys, and so on.
This method includes data collection, analysis, and presentation. It lets the researcher
clearly present the problem statement in order to allow others to better understand the need
for this kind of research. Without a clear problem statement, you’re not doing descriptive but
exploratory research.
2. Correlational Research Design
Just as its name suggests, correlational design allows the researcher to establish some
kind of a relation between two closely related topics or variables. It’s a non-experimental
research design type that requires at least two groups of data.
It can be applied to case-control studies and observational studies, for example.
3. Experimental Research Design
Whether it is a field experiment, a controlled experiment, or a quasi-experiment, this is
one of the research design types that establishes a relation between the cause and effect of a
particular happening.

Here, the researcher observes the influence of an independent variable on the dependent
one. For instance, you can observe the impact of the price (an independent variable) on
customer satisfaction (a dependent variable).
Usually, this type of research design contributes to solving a particular problem by
manipulating the independent variables to observe the change they have on the dependent
one. For example, you can experiment with changing the price and observe the effect it has
on customer satisfaction.
4. Diagnostic Research Design
Diagnostic research is one of the research design types that aims to examine the
underlying cause of a certain situation or phenomenon. It can help you find out more about
the factors that lead to specific issues or challenges your customers might be facing.
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This design usually consists of three research phases – (1) problem inception, (2) problem
diagnosis, and (3) problem solution.
5. Explanatory Research Design

Again, the name is self-explanatory. Explanatory research design is used to further expand,
explore, and explain the researcher’s ideas and theories. This type of research design is used
to elaborate on the unexplored aspects of a particular topic and try to explain the missing
pieces.

QUANTITATIVE VS. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

Quantitative Research Design

Quantitative research aims to give answers to questions like who, what, when, where, and
how many?
Due to the fact that they use close-ended questions, the results of quantitative surveys can
easily be transformed into numbers, stats, graphs, and charts. This is why businesses often
use quantitative surveys to learn about their customers and drive their decisions using the data
obtained. For example, you can use a quantitative survey such as NPS survey to easily
measure your customer satisfaction on a scale of 1-10.

Qualitative Research Design

Qualitative research, on the other hand, aims to give answers to why and how something
is happening.
Qualitative research most commonly revolves around open-ended survey questions and
highly descriptive answers that are hard to quantify and express through numbers. It’s a great
way to collect more complex information and explore people’s thoughts and behaviour.
It’s often used to find ideas, formulate predictions, and explain the numbers. If you’re
looking to learn more about these two types of design, we have prepared a guide to help
decide whether you should collect quantitative or qualitative data for your business research.
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Fixed Vs. Flexible Research Design

Another distinction can be made between fixed and flexible research design. Often, these
two research design types coincide with quantitative (fixed design) and qualitative (flexible
design) data collection.
With a fixed research design, the design of the research is pre-determined and known
even before you start collecting data. Flexible designs, on the other hand, allow for more
freedom when collecting data – for example, you don’t offer predetermined answer options,
so the respondents have to type in their own answers.

Research Design Types by Grouping

Yet another classification of research design types can be made based on the way
participants are grouped. In most cases, grouping depends on the research hypothesis and the
way participants are being sampled. For example, in a typical study based on experimental
research design, there’s usually at least one experimental and one control group. In medical
studies, let’s say, one group could be receiving treatment, while the other would be given no
treatment. You get the idea.
Based on participant grouping, we can distinguish among 4 types of research design:

Cohort Study

A cohort study is a type of longitudinal research that samples a cohort (a group of people
with a shared characteristic) while doing a cross-section at specific time intervals. It is a type
of panel study where the individuals in the panel share a common characteristic.

Cross-Sectional Study

A cross-sectional study is common in social science, medical research, and biology. This
type of research design analyzes data either from a population, or from a representative
sample, at a specified point in time.
Longitudinal Study
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A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of the same
variables over short or long periods of time. It is often a type of observational study, although
they can also be structured as longitudinal randomized experiments.

Cross-sequential Study

Cross-sequential research design combines longitudinal and cross-sectional research

design, aiming to compensate for some of the issues inherently present in the two

aforementioned designs.1

NOTES

1. For a detailed and interesting discussion on the qualitative and quantitative research see
also by Patricia Leavy (2017). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods,
arts-based, and community-based participatory research approaches. New York, NY: The
Guilford Press; Kothari, C R and Gaurav Garg. (2014). Research methodology, methods and
techniques. Third edition, New Age International: New Delhi and Quantitative vs qualitative
research – what’s the difference? July 26, 2017.
https://www.askattest.com/blog/insight/quantitative-vs-qualitative-research-and-how-to-use-
each

REFERENCES

Ackoff, R. L. (1953). The Design of Social Research. Univ. of Chicago Press

Akhtar, I. (n.d.). Research design.
Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308915548_Research_Design
[accessed Apr 15 2021.
Borwankar P.V. (1995), Research methodology. New Delhi: Seth Publisher
Coldwel D. and Herbst F.J. (2004), Business Research, Cape Town: Juta and Company Ltd
Creswell, John W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods
approaches (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications.
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De Vaus, D. A. Research design in social research. London: SAGE, 2001

Jovancic, Nemanja (May 21, 2020). Research design types + key elements and
characteristics. https://www.leadquizzes.com/blog/research-design-types/
Khanzode V.V. (1995). Research methodology: Technique &trends. New Delhi: APH
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McCombes, Shona (April15, 2021). Scribber.
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McCombes, Shona (February 22, 2019). How to write a literature review?
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Selltiz , Claire and others (1962).Research methods in social sciences. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston: Published for the Society for the Psychological Study of Social
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Shuttleworth, Martyn. “Defining a Research Problem”. https://explorable.com/defining-a-
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Smith, Vincent H. (1998). Measuring the benefits of social science research. Washington
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Universal teacher, (n.d.). https://universalteacher.com/1/elements-of-a-research-problem/
Wright, Sarah; Bridget C. O’Brien, Laura Nimmon, Marcus Law, Maria, Mylopoulos (2016).
“Research design considerations”. Journal of Graduate Medical Education. 8 (1).