LIFE AND STRUGGLE OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II:

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

BY

MUHAMMED ANAS TK

Ad. No: 478

Reg. No: 190197

DARUL HIDAYA DA'WA COLLEGE,

DECEMBER 2021

i
 LIFE AND STRUGGLE OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II: AN
ANALYTICAL STUDY

DEGREE FINAL YEAR DISSERTATION TO DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY IN

FULFILLMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR PG ADMISSION.

BY

MUHAMMED ANAS TK

Ad. No: 478

Reg. No: 190197

Submitted to:

DARUL HUDA ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY

CHEMMAD, KERALA, INDIA

DECEMBER, 2020

ii
 DECLARATION

I do declare hereby that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except where
otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted as a
whole for any other degrees at DHIU or other institutions.

MUHAMMED ANAS TK

THYRAKKAL KONIKKAL HOUSE, KUMBIDI

KUMBIDI [PO]

THRITHALA [VIA]

PALAKKAD [DT]

KERALA

PIN: 679553

PH: 9746838913

Email ID: tkanas478@gmail.com

Date …………………………………. Signature …………………………………….

iii
 APPROVAL PAGE

I certify that I have supervised and read this study and that in my opinion it conforms to
acceptable standards of scholarly presentation and is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a
dissertation for the admission for PG.

………………………….
Supervisor

Usthad Hadi Shuhaib Hudawi

This dissertation was submitted to the principal of Darul Hidaya Da’wa College and is accepted
as a dissertation for PG admission.

………………………….

Principal

Shaikhuna M.V Ismaeel Musliyar

Received to be sent for evaluation on (………………………………...)

Office of Academic Affairs (signature and seal)

iv
 DARUL HIDAYA DA’WA COLLEGE

MANOOR, KALADI (PO), KERALA, INDIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF FAIR USE OF

UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2020 by MUHAMMED ANAS TK. All rights reserved.

LIFE AND STRUGGLE OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID:

AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or

transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or
otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may only be used by
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2. DHDC or its library will have the right to make transmit copies (print or electronic) for
institutional and academic purposes.

3. The DHDC library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval system and supply copies of
this unpublished research if requested by other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by MUHAMMED ANAS TK

Date …………………………………………. Signature……………………………………..

v
 This thesis is dedicated to my beloved mother who stood with me always with her sincere
prayers and gave me advice on my ways, my father who supported me always, and my brothers
who taught me
To become the best in every field, teachers who invite and guide me to the path of knowledge
and wisdom, and my dear
Readers who will be my power and guides.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I tried my best to get a good result for my research work of degree last year. I would like to

acknowledge several individuals who have been instrumental in this research. It is impossible to

name all of them here.

Especially, much thanks to Usthad Hadi Shuhaib Hudawi, my guide, whose conscientious
guidance and continuous interference have motivated me to complete my study, Usthad Hadi
Basith Hudawi Perumbalam, class teacher, who always supported me throughout my research,
Usthad Hadi Anas Hudawi who spent his time with me to complete this research sincerely. I am
grateful to all other teachers who gave me advice and necessary things and to my friends
especially Minnah TM, Yasir TM, Zainudheen, and Acknas who helped in the course of my
research, to my intimate classmates for their active participation in my work and to the Rumuz
publishing house who gifted me one of their best seller book about the study.

It is hoped that this present study will encourage students to evaluate LIFE AND STRUGGLE
OF SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II: AN ANALYTICAL STUDY

vii
 CONTENTS

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... iii

APPROVAL PAGE ....................................................................................................................... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ vii
CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................. viii
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... x
CHAPTER 1 .................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY .......................................................................................... 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .................................................................................................. 3
1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS................................................................................................................. 4
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ........................................................................................................ 5
1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY ................................................................................................................... 5
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................................. 5
1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................................... 6
1.8 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2: ............................................................................................................................................ 9
SULTAN AND HIS WORLD ................................................................................................................ 9
2.1 EARLY LIFE AND FAMILY BACKGROUND ............................................................................... 9
2.2 EDUCATION ................................................................................................................................... 10
2.3 FAMILY ........................................................................................................................................... 11
2.4 PRIVATE WORLD .......................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.1 CHARACTER AND MORALITY ............................................................................................ 11
2.4.2 RELIGION AND NATIONALISM .......................................................................................... 12
2.4.3 SULTAN'S INTERESTS ........................................................................................................... 13
2.5 YILDIZ PALACE ............................................................................................................................. 17
2.6 PRINCEDOM ................................................................................................................................... 18
2.7 EXILE AND AFTERLIFE ............................................................................................................... 19

viii
 2.8 END OF AN ERA ............................................................................................................................ 20

CHAPTER 3 ............................................................................................................................................ 22
SERVICES OF THE SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II ............................................................................. 22
3.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 22
3.2 RAILWAY PROJECTS.................................................................................................................... 23
3.3 EDUCATION SERVICES ............................................................................................................... 24
3.4 HEALTH SERVICES ....................................................................................................................... 25
3.5 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENTS .................................................................................................. 26
3.6 BRIDGES AND TUNNEL PROJECTS ........................................................................................... 27
3.7 OIL EXPLORATION ....................................................................................................................... 29

CHAPTER 4 ............................................................................................................................................ 30
STRUGGLES OF THE SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II ......................................................................... 30
4.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 30
4.2 YOUNG TURK REVOLUTION...................................................................................................... 31
4.3 ARMENIAN MASSACRE............................................................................................................... 32
4.4 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR (1877–1878) ........................................................................................... 34
4.5 GRECO-TURKISH WAR (1897) .................................................................................................... 36
4.6 ASSASSINATION ........................................................................................................................... 37
4.7 MASON LODGES ........................................................................................................................... 39
4.8 PALESTINE ISSUE ......................................................................................................................... 40

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………43

BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….44

ix
 ABSTRACT

The great caliph, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who ruled the great Ottoman Empire, was the most

misunderstood person throughout history. His continuous efforts to keep the Ottoman Empire

alive caused for the discontent of the west colonial powers which led to the big negative

propaganda against him. So this study will help to understand Sultan Abdul Hamid II’s life,

private world, and the challenges he faced during the reign of thirty-three years. Also, it will help

to understand how the west colonial powers intervened in the sovereignty of the Ottoman Empire

in his period.

x
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Sultan Abdul Hamid II, once the name itself was the terrifying one in the whole world

especially in the West. He was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the 99th Caliph of the

Muslim world. (27th caliph of Ottoman Empire) After the pathetic dethronement of his uncle

Sultan Abdul Aziz, the Ottoman sultanate became in crisis. His elder brother Murad V1 couldn't

continue in the rule and as the result of the crisis, the Ottoman Empire got its true ruler. Abdul

Hamid II ascended to the throne.

As expected, he punished those who were behind the dethronement and murder of his

uncle, Sultan Abdul Aziz2. His reign was full of chaos due to the unwanted interference of

western powers. But he stood firmly without bowing to the western colonial powers and ruled

the state for 33 years. As the result of the Young Turk revolution, he is also dethroned like his

uncle. It was the start of the falling of a great empire which ruled almost 3 continents for 600

years. The reason for the dethronement was his stance against the constitutional assembly which

was conducted once when he ascended to the throne as he promised and dismissed by him too

due to misusing of the power by the members of assembly which led to the loss of The Ottoman

Russian war of 1877-78.

1
He was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire who reigned from 30 May to 31 August 1876. The son of Abdulmejid I,
he supported the conversion of the government to a constitutional monarchy.
2
He was the 32nd Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and reigned from 25 June 1861 up until 30 May 1876, where he
was overthrown via a government coup.

1
 As a result of his good deeds for the people, he gained only negative responses.

Moreover, the ethnic conflicts that took place in the Ottoman Empire under his rule, particularly

the massacres of Armenian Christians in the 1890s, gave him the name "Red Sultan " 3. He

always stood with the oppressed people, especially with the whole Muslim world. He often sent

his regards to the Muslim brothers. The unwanted interference of outsiders, especially western

powers, which occurred due to many reasons like debt, made him a strong ruler.

"When there is 100 gram int100-gram in the world, 90 gram belongs to Abdul Hamid

khan, 5 gram belongs to me and 5 gram belongs to other politicians in the world '' German

chancellor Otto Von Bismarck4 marked his words in the history of the early twentieth century.

Yes, it was the great caliph Sultan Abdul Hamid khan who ruled his empire for the long Thirty

three years with his intelligence. When the west realized that they can't defeat Abdul Hamid khan

with intelligence power, they plotted many assassinations. It was also an utter failure. He came

up with lots of developmental activities through all these crises. He shaped the body of Republic

Turkey5 which we are seeing nowadays. Roads, bridges, schools, railways, and all other areas

were developed in his reign while there were many challenges from his major and minor

enemies. He coped with the outsiders and insiders at the same time with his extra intellectual

power. More pathetically, his mercy was the main reason for his dethronement.

Allegations against him, like he was against the freedom of expression in the form of

press, etc. was also completely west propaganda. When the well-being of the nation and the

empire was portrayed very badly by some of the press, so he interfered, it was true. But he never
3
He was called by this name after his regime carried out pogroms against Christian Armenians in the 1890s.
4
Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck, was a conservative German statesman, diplomat, and writer. From his base
in the upper-class of Junker landowners, Bismarck rose rapidly in Prussian politics. He masterminded the unification
of Germany in 1871 and served as its first chancellor until 1890,
5
The Republic of Turkey was created after the overthrow of Sultan Mehmet VI Vahdettin by the new Republican
Parliament in 1922. This new regime caused for the decline of the Ottoman state which had been practically wiped
away from the world stage following the First World War. On 29 October a republic was proclaimed, with Mustafa
Kemal as its first president after the signing of The Treaty of Lausanne, 24 July 1923

2
compelled them to act according to his wishes. Always encouraged the writers, intellectuals,

scholars, arts, and sports. When they understood that they can't destroy him directly they spread

false information and misunderstanding among the people in which they became successful later.

“Payiteht Abdul Hamid ''6 is a Turkish historical drama series starring Bülent inal and

Ozlem Conker that details the historical events that took place during the reign of the 34th

Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid. The series follows significant events in the last 13 years of Sultan

Abdul Hamid's reign, who ruled the Ottoman Empire from its capital city, Payitaht. His reign

includes the Greek War, which resulted in the Ottoman Empire's victory. It also depicts

Palestine's request for lands and the First Zionist Congress. The Sultan completed an important

project, the Hejaz railway, in addition to developing other railways, telegraph lines, and

industries. Throughout his reign, the Sultan has faced many opponents from all sides, including

Britain and Russia, as well as those who claim to be loyal to him like Germany. The series’ main

theme is struggle and fighting until the end.

Lots of events that occurred in the period of the Sultan have shown in the series. So this

series is watchable for both knowledge and entertainment. But as a series, there are lots of adding

from the side of the crew. Due to that, this study didn’t approach it as an authentic source.

Although it deserves attention. So, here in this paper, the research mainly focuses on the

struggles of Sultan Abdul Hamid II by explaining his life and contributions to the people.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

As I mentioned, Sultan Abdul Hamid II was a headache itself for the west. Different kinds

of plots were played against during his long 33 years of reign. But the studies which took place

6
Released in 24 February 2017 to 4 June 2021 as 154 episodes. Each episode includes two hours and some

3
after him about him and his rule were portrayed very negatively7. None of the researchers didn't

try to be subjective and to reveal what is the truth and what's the lie? Everyone became the

puppet of the west and the rest who tried to reveal it, couldn't complete it.

Many of the studies, which are conducted by the different kinds of writers, i.e. English

and non-English, didn't carry out neutral studies. As I said before it was written for the interests

of some people. While the interference of the western colonial powers was crystal clear they

blamed the sultan for no reason. When the west understood the Pan Islamic movement8 of the

Sultan, they interfered there also, and at last, they became victorious in their plans. For their self-

interests, they encouraged society to fight with others who were living in the Ottoman lands for

centuries in happiness and peace. As usual, the blame also came into the court of sultan Abdul

Hamid. Unfortunately, many small countries which were under the Ottomans like Bulgaria and

others became the prey for the Hunt of great powers. So the researcher tries to point out the parts

in which the Sultan is blamed very rudely.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Major questions answered by this work are:

 Who was Sultan Abdul Hamid II?

 What were the contributions of Sultan Abdul Hamid II?

 How the Sultan Abdul Hamid II protected his Empire from the colonial powers?

 What were the struggles faced by Sultan Abdul Hamid II during his reign?

7
Work of Edwin Pears. (life of Abdul Hamid )
8
Pan-Islam is an ideology calling for the unity of Muslim peoples worldwide on the basis of their shared Islamic
identity.

4
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

 To know the life of Sultan Abdul Hamid II

 To explain the contributions of Sultan Abdul Hamid II

 To describe how the Sultan Abdul Hamid II protected the state from the colonial powers

 To explicate the struggles faced by Sultan Abdul Hamid II

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Sultan Abdul Hamid II had a key role in the protection of the Ottoman Empire in all

areas like political, economic, commercial, social, educational, and others. Here the research

scholar mainly focuses on the struggles of Sultan Abdul Hamid II which he faced in his reign

and made him a strong ruler.

It's very essential for general awareness to know about the situation of the Ottoman

Empire in the late 19th and early 20th century because the Sultan Had lived in both centuries and

formed his strong stances from it. The researcher also intends to include some basic matters

about the situation of the empire and world politics at that time.

When the researcher describes the struggles of a great ruler, there is no problem in

detailing his life and family. So it's also part of the research of the scholar.

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM

The relevance of the study is that the serious attempt of the research scholar to study

the life and struggles of Sultan Abdul Hamid II in an era in which the world especially the

Muslim world was suffering from the lack of a great political leader. As I mentioned before,

Sultan's fame and credit were well known in the whole world especially among the west and they

labeled him as a cruel ruler. Due to this, the work also tries to reveal its truth too. As a work of

5
Keralite, in the absence of “appropriate studies," this work has importance at the academic level.

The one who is interested in the history of the early 20th century and the Middle East must know

about Sultan Abdul Hamid and his stances, vision, and views in which he was completely

different from other political leaders. So, this work has its significance and importance.

1.7 LITERATURE REVIEW

There are numerous works in books, journals, articles, and papers about Sultan Abdul

Hamid II. But most of them are still in the old Turkish language i.e. in Arabic writing style and

haven't been translated yet into other languages. Some works are specifying some areas like

press freedom in his reign and major problems he faced in his period and other works do not

deeply comment on the whole life of Sultan as it deserves. So this research will try to show

Sultan Abdul Hamid as he deserves with the help of available sources.

Books that detail Abdul Hamid are “Portrait of a political genius, sultan Abdul Hamid

II". By the Rumuz publishing house, “life of Abdul Hamid” by Edwin pears" this work mostly

comes up with the allegations. Book of Ayşe Sultan about her father “My father: Sultan Abdul

Hamid the second” and “The Sultan: The Life of Abdul Hamid II” by Joan Hassilip, Who wrote

it neutrally, and by F.A.K Yasmee, etc.

The book published by the Rumuz publishing house explains the whole life of Sultan

Abdul Hamid II, especially some facts that were removed or hidden from other books. But not all

events are explained in detail. Some events have just been described to get an overview of them.

The book has failed in bringing the bibliography which is considered the most important part of a

work and gives authenticity to it. Totally the work deserves more appreciation in the current

situation where the relevance of the Sultan is discussed relentlessly.

6
 The book of Ayşe Sultan9 about her father gives more minute details. In fact, this book

has become a vital source for many other studies because it describes her experience also. She

had explained how her father approached the problematic situations while he was on the throne.

For such a ruler cannot conduct a massacre or genocide. She also included how the new

government10 behaved to the Sultan Abdul Hamid while they were in exile. Totally this work is

very useful for the researches.

Edwin Pears does not follow an exact chronological order in narrating Hamidian Era in his

book. Rather he focuses on certain periods and explains them in detail most of the time his own

opinions mixed with verifiable facts. The longest part of the book –about a hundred pages-, however,

is allocated to Abdul Hamid’s dealing with subject races which amounts to in the author’s eyes to the

“massacres”. The main aspiration of the author can be summarized in two or three points and he

strives to prove these points. The first one is that Abdul Hamid was not a likable man, he lacked

intelligence, administrative skill, and mental capacity to become a ruler. Second, he was an absolutist

tyrant who committed many atrocities. And finally, he brought about the demise of his Empire

despite the effort of the French and the British and some able Ottoman bureaucrats to save it. An

underlying minor effort is to prove an Orientalist perspective of the Turkish people.

The book is an interesting combination of history writing, journalism, biography, and

narration of correspondences between important figures. It cannot be called a scholarly piece as

it lacks a coherent method of research and the author rarely cites valid sources. A recurrent

problem is that the author refers to certain rumors in Istanbul about the Sultan with explicit

reservations about the validity of the rumor; yet he goes on to say that the widespread prevalence

of these rumors could be regarded as proof of the fact that they have some truth in them.

9
She was an Ottoman princess, the daughter of Sultan Abdul Hamid II and Müşfika Kadın. (31 October 1887 – 10
August 1960)
10
Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) government under the Sultan Mehmed V.

7
1.8 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY

Throughout this paper, research analytically moots the life and struggle of Sultan

Abdul Hamid II. As a quantitative researcher, the research scholar has gone through abundant

reading of the related books, journals, and articles and papers. Some areas of the study may be

descriptive according to the situations.

8
 CHAPTER 2:

SULTAN AND HIS WORLD

2.1 EARLY LIFE AND FAMILY BACKGROUND

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was born on September 21, 1842, in Cirgan palace, Istanbul in the

Ottoman family. He was born as the second son of Sultan Abdul Majeed khan who commenced

his reign in 1839 and died in 1861. Sultan's mother was an Armenian who had become a Muslim

and was a professional dancer in the service of Esme sultana, sister of Abdul Majeed. It was an

allegation that his mother was an Armenian but she was Circassian according to the memory of

her granddaughter, daughter of Abdul Hamid, Ayşe Sultana. By the Ottoman law as applicable to

the imperial family, the son of any woman by the reigning sultan is considered as the

legitimately born and entitled to be in the succession of the throne.

There is a popular scandal among the Turks that Abdul Hamid's mother was an Armenian

in Abdul Majeed’s palace and other stories related to the Sultan's birth11. This happened because

of the Sultan's similarity to the Armenians. Although the Sultan always denied his mother's

Armenian connection. Her name is Tirimujgan. She died in 1849, and he was entrusted to an

elderly slave woman of the imperial harem. This slave woman also died after some periods and

then he grew under the care of the fourth wife of Abdul Majeed, Peresto hanim who hadn't any

child. She was an excellent mother for Abdul Hamid. After the death of his father, Peresto hanim

devoted herself to the education of Prince Abdul Hamid. Later she lived separately from Abdul

Hamid while he was sitting on the throne.

11
Pears, Edwin Pears, Life of Abdul Hamid, London constable and company Ltd, 1917, P.6

9
 He had three brothers who ruled the empire before him Murad V (ruled only some

weeks and was dethroned because of mental illness) and after him Mehmed V (ruled from 1909

to 1918) and Mehmed VI (ruled from 1918 to 21). He had two siblings also. One brother and one

sister. Both of them died at a small age. Sister Naime sultan died due to smallpox and Brother

Mehmed Abid. Later Abdul Hamid named his daughter and son these two names.

While he was in the 19th age, his father, ruling sultan, Abdul Majeed died and his

uncle Abdul Aziz came to rule. Hence Prince Abdul Hamid grew under the special care of his

uncle and he never knew the lack of a father as he Abdul Hamid said.

2.2 EDUCATION

His education was also conducted according to the Ottoman family culture. He was given

the education within the palace. He had good teachers in almost all fields. Primary education was

given by his mother. After the death of her two other children, she devoted herself to the care of

Abdul Hamid. As mentioned before he had various good teachers. Amongst whom probably

Kemal pasha was the most important one. His elder brother Murad was also a diligent student.

His teachers of French were Edhem pasha12, who became grand vizier later, and Namyk

pasha and M. Gardet. With the French, he also studied the Albanian language too. Music classes

were given inside of the palace. After the death of his father, Uncle Sultan Abdul Aziz gave him

an allowance for studying. But it's said that he was very lazy in studying the French language 13.

But his laziness never affected him in his education reforms when he became sultan. He always

loved the Arabic language and tried to study it with English.

12
He was an Ottoman field marshal and leading figure in the propagation of the Ottoman military doctrine.
13
Pears, Edwin pears, Life of Abdul Hamid, London constable and company, 1917, P.8

10
 According to his daughter's words in her book, some historians were saying that Abdul

Hamid was very intelligent14. It proves that he studied lots of things himself. Medical knowledge

was one of them. But he never underestimated doctors due to his knowledge of it.

2.3 FAMILY

The sultan had 13 wives including concubines. Some say he had only 4 wives while some

say 12 wives, etc. Some of them were his favorites like Nazikeda hanim, Bedrifelek hanim,

Bidar sultan, Saliha sultan, Musfika kadin and Fatima pasend hanim. From all these wives he had

almost 16 children. Daughter Ayse Sultan was the eldest among the children who wrote a book

about her father named " My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid".

His famous sons are Shahzade Mehmed Saleem and Shehzade Ahmed Nuri, both of whom

served the country under their father. Shehzade Abdul Kadir and Burhaneddin also served as the

captains of the Ottoman military. Nazikeda hanim became the most favorite one because she was

the mother of both Mehmed Saleem and Ahmed Nuri. Other sons are Shehzade Abdurahman

Hayri, Ahmed Nureddin and Bedrudheen, and Shehzade Abid.

Daughters are Zakiye sultan, Naime sultan, Naile sultan, Shadiye sultan, Rafia sultan,

Hadija sultan, Samiye sultan and Ulviye sultan. Other wives are Nurefsan kadin, Dilpasand

hanim, Mestan kadin, Esmalinur kadin, Sazkar kadin, Peyveste kadin and Bahije kadin.

2.4 PRIVATE WORLD

2.4.1 CHARACTER AND MORALITY

Sultan Abdul Hamid had a sallow complexion, aquiline nose, dark-black beard, and cloudy

black eyes. His gaze was sharp and his lashes were long. He was extremely curious about

14
Ayse Sultan, My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid The Second, Darul Bashar, 1991, P.11 ( Arabic translation by Dr
Swalih Sa’dawi )

11
everything. He was very cautious and careful. He had a deep voice, the speech was very simple

to understand because it was clear. He wasn't angry and harsh but was benign and compassionate

and forgave insults and assassinations against him.15

He was extremely generous, respected all of his subordinates, and was trustworthy and

brave. His bravery was seen during the earthquake of 1894 while he was in a meeting with his

dignitaries. He didn't move from his chair while others were preparing to go out. He always liked

calmness and cleanliness.

2.4.2 RELIGION AND NATIONALISM

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was a follower of traditional Islamic spirituality. He was influenced

by the Libyan Shadily Madani Shaikh, Muhammad Zater Al Madani. He listened to the Shaikh’s

lessons in disguise in “Unkapani “before he became sultan. Abdul Hamid requested Shaikh to

come to Istanbul when he ascended to the throne. Shaikh started shadily gatherings of

remembering (Dhikr) in the newly built Yildiz Hamidiye masjid16. On Thursday evenings, he

joined with Sufi masters in the Dhikr. Shaikh was also a political confidant of Abdul Hamid. He

excused taxes of all of the Caliphate's Madani Sufi lodges. In 1888 he built a lodge for Madani

orders of Shadily Sufism in Istanbul. This relationship lasted for 30 years until the sheik died in

1903.

Sultan was strict in obeying the orders of Islam and in avoiding its prohibitions. He was

very careful not to be in a state without ablution. He read Qur'an daily and also he used to Dhikr

as mentioned earlier. He took all types of precautions for not publishing the unlicensed Qur'an

and defended Ahlusunnah. He stood against the harmful publications and shows about the

15
kamal Ahmed Qwaja, Sultan Abdul Hamid:Memmory of Tahsin Pasha in Yildiz, Darul Fustat, 2005
16
It is an Ottoman imperial mosque located in Yıldız neighbourhood of Beşiktaş district in Istanbul, Turkey, on the
way to Yıldız Palace. The mosque was commissioned by the Ottoman sultan Abdul Hamid II, and constructed
between 1884 and 1886

12
prophet (S) both in and out of the country and inside of it. He allowed the Qadiri and Naqshbandi

orders of Sufism.

Sultan Abdul Hamid khan has importance for the policy of “Pan Turkism "17. He always

promoted these types of activities. In the early years of his reign, for contacting the central Asian

Turks, he sent Shaikh Sulaiman Effendi there - he is the author of “Lugat- E - chagtayi and

Turki-i- Osman ". He also became victorious in lifting and avoiding the ban on Turkish schools

in Azerbaijan when the Iran shah, Muzafferudheen Kajar18 visited Istanbul. It proves that he was

a promoter of” Pan Turkism ". Sultan formed a commission to investigate the founding years of

the Ottomans and to investigate the writing of the books and to preserve the old works.

2.4.3 SULTAN'S INTERESTS

Sultan Abdul Hamid II was interested in many things like Music, sports, carpentry, glazed

tile, and poetry.

A) He was a skilled carpenter and he crafted some highly qualified furniture like tables,

cupboards, coffee tables, screens, chairs, etc. which can be seen today in the Yildiz Palace,

Beylerbeyi Palace, and Sale kiosk. These all were crafted from the carpentry workshop in the

Yildiz Palace. His works such as desks, drawers, offices, etc. which he made in his carpentry

workshop are now used in various government offices and Hamidiye masjid.

B) He was interested in glazed tiles from China. He started the manufacturing of rare items

in the Yildiz tile factory which was established in 1891 in the Yildiz palace garden. Interests of

the sultan in many things like arts, visiting western countries and the wish to bring new

17
It is a political movement that emerged during the 1880s among Turkic intellectuals of the Russian region
of Baku Governorate (modern-day Azerbaijan) and the Ottoman Empire (modern-day Turkey), with its aim being
the cultural and political unification of all Turkic peoples.
18
He was the fifth shah of Qajar Iran, reigning from 1896 until his death in 1907. He is often credited with the
creation of the Persian Constitution of 1906, which he approved of as one of his final actions as Shah

13
technologies to his country, and revitalization of the art of glazed tiles and ceramics that have

been developed in Anatolia for centuries have been an effective reason in the construction of the

Yildiz tile factory.

The porcelain produced in the Yildiz tiles factory, an imperial factory similar to the

Hereke Carpet Factory, was primarily used in the decoration of palaces, pavilions, and mansions

built in the recent era and presented to foreign dynasties as gifts. Sultan gave very important to

these types of gifts as part of his cunning politics. This factory, which has a unique position

among similar factories as a museum, continues to produce porcelain goods.

C) The Sultan, who had his private library, was a voracious reader who preached about the

dangers of not reading and encouraged everyone to do so. He had used to read European

books translated and scrutinized by the translation office which he established in the palace. He

continued this habit until his last day of life. And his favorite genres were crime thrillers and

travel novels. Sultan’s milk sibling, Ismet bey used to read for him in the bed. He gave a silver

medal to Arthur Conan Doyle, the author of his favorite detective novel Sherlock Holmes.

D) The Sultan was fond of animals. He kept animals when he was prince, during his reign,

and after exile while he was in Thessaloniki. Mostly he liked the pigeons and white parrots. He

loved horses and had a special interest in them. He tested his white horse "Ferhan '' as a loyal

friend and loved riding and grooming on it.

A zoo with various breeds of animals and unusual birds was located in the Yildiz

Palace's garden. Many of the most attractive cat breeds, as well as various birds and parrots, were

on display at the zoo. These animals, which he adored, were tragically left behind in Yildiz's

looting in 1909 and died on the streets.

14
E) Sultan had written some poems also. He was very interested in poetry too. A sample of

his handwritten poetry in the Persian language and its scripts are available in the book of Ayşe

sultan which she wrote about her father "My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid the Second "19. He

wrote poetry following the footsteps of many other Ottoman Sultans who ruled before him. Its

translation is given below

“My lord, I know you are the dear one…

“And no one but you are the dear one ….

“You are the one and nothing else...

“My god take my hand in these hard times….

“My God be my helper in this critical hour….

He wrote the poem while he was in exile in Beylerbeyi Palace20.

F) He was also a big fan of opera classics, and he was the one who wrote the first

Turkish translations of several of them. He wrote several opera pieces for the Mizikya Yi

Humayun21, and he welcomed great European performers in Yildiz palace's opera theatre.

This demonstrates that he enjoyed music as well.

Also, he brought pianos from Europe and gave them to his governors. He invited

musicians from France and Italy to the palace. There was a French musician named

Alexander, who was appointed as the music teacher of Sultan's daughter, Ayşe sultan.

He brought musical instruments for his children and encouraged them to play them.

He was correcting the wrong parts of the music. So he knew some about music also. He

19
Ayse Sultan, My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid the Second, Darul Bashar, 1991, P.340 (Arabic translation by Dr
Swalih Sa’dawi).
20
Beylerbeyi Palace was commissioned by Sultan Abdülaziz (1830–1876) and built between 1861 and 1865 as a
summer residence and a place to entertain visiting heads of state.
21
Ottoman imperial band orchestra founded by his grandfather Mahmud 2

15
 preferred European music over Turkish. He was saying that "Turkish music is beautiful,

except it makes us sad but European music is different, it makes us happier and the

Turkish music will not work on piano, it needs Turkish instruments".

As mentioned above, he wrote some operas for a palace music band. The officer on

duty, Najeeb pasha named it “Music of Hameed ".

G) Photography was another field in which the Sultan was very interested and used it as a

political tactic. The foundation of contemporary Turkish photography was laid during the reign

of Abdul Hamid. The Sultan used to follow the photos to know about what's going on in his

nation. Photos of every corner were important to him. This way the Sultan acquired news from

America to Japan. Also, the sultan appointed many local and foreign photographers for this

special job. These photographers and their photographs helped the Sultan to see the institutions

in the country, opening ceremonies and developing activities. At last, he prepared a photograph

album including photographs of almost all the State buildings, navy ships, schools, military

institutions, masjids, police stations, watchtowers, historical venues, factories, domestic travel of

civil servants, tradesmen groups and foreign statesmen, etc…

Hence, the sultan used the photographs as a propaganda tool to show the power of his

state. In 1893 he sent 51 albums of photos taken by the Abdullah brothers22 to the queen of

England, king of France, and the president of the USA. In addition to the heads of the states, he

also sent several albums to the British Museum and the Library of Congress in Washington.

Almost seventeen from these albums were included with the historical and natural beauties of the

22
They were a group of three Ottoman brothers of Armenian descent, Viçen Abdullahyan (1820–1902), Hovsep
Abdullahyan (1830–1908), and Kevork Abdullahyan (1839–1918), who were photographers of international fame
during the late Ottoman Empire.They took pictures of scenic views and notable individuals, including sultans. Most
of their photography was of the Ottoman Empire.

16
Ottoman geography and seventeen of the photographs were the Ottoman lands and sea troops.

Fifteen of them were included with the works of students who had been educated by both

military and civil schools.

2.5 YILDIZ PALACE

Yildiz owl, name was very famous and familiar among western politicians. They used the

name to address Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Sultan was fond of Yildiz palace and he moved from the

Dolmabahce palace23 from where the nation was controlled before him. He moved from there

because he feared the seaside attack on the palace which is located on the shore of the Bosphorus

strait. It means Star palace which was built in the 19th and early 20th centuries. After the Eski

sarayi (Old palace) in Edrine and the Topkapı24 and Dolmabahçe palaces in Istanbul, Yildiz

became the Ottoman Empire’s fourth seat.

During Sultan Ahmed I's reign, the location of Yildiz was originally made up of natural

woodlands and eventually became an imperial domain. Various Sultans after Ahmed 1 spent

their vacations there (1603-1617). Later, Abdul Majeed, Abdul Hamid's father, and Abdul Aziz

constructed some villas there. Sultan Abdul Hamid extended the palace in 1880, commissioning

the famous Italian architect "Raimondo D'Aronco"25 to construct and add to the royal complex.

The Buyuk mabeyn, Yildiz theatre and opera house, Sale pavilion, Yildiz palace Museum,

Malta pavilion, Cadir pavilion, and the imperial porcelain factory, all are part of the royal

complex. The government officials' offices and residences were located in the pavilions of

23
It’s the largest palace in Turkey.located in the Beşiktaş district of Istanbul, Turkey, on the European coast of
the Bosporus strait, served as the main administrative center of the Ottoman Empipe from 1856 to 1887 and from
1909 to 1922 (Yıldız Palace was used in the interim period).
24
Cannon Gate Palace'), or the Seraglio, is a large museum in the east of the Fatih district of Istanbul in Turkey
(Now). In the 15th and 16th centuries it served as the main residence and administrative headquarters of
the Ottoman sultans.
25
Raimondo Tommaso D'Aronco (1857–1932) was an Italian architect renowned for his building designs in the
style of Art Nouveau.

17
kiosks. The factory was established in 1895 to suit the demand for European-style ceramics

among the higher classes. The Sultan's carpentry workshop was housed in the Palace Museum,

which opened in 1889.

Yildiz Palace was defended by the “Sogut Hall Company ", a well-trained group of 250

people. They were all hand-picked by the Sultan. These guards were all from the Sogut, Bilecik,

and Eskisehir regions, and they were all Old Turkish tribes. Mehmed Effendi, the company's

commander, and one of his companions used to sleep close to Sultan's bed.

The guards were renowned for their bravery and truthfulness. Being a member of the

Ertugrul Ghazi and Sogut families was the requirement. The company's specialties were riding

skills, praying five times, having good morals, orderliness, and a powerful physique. At the tomb

of Ertugrul Ghazi, they all sworn voluntarily that they would remain true and loyal to the Sultan

and obey him until the last breath. These soldiers were referred to by the Sultan as “My loyal

companions ".

2.6 PRINCEDOM

Like the west thought and feared, Abdul Hamid was a cautious and intelligent prince. The

education he got from the renowned teachers helped him a lot in the period of his princedom. He

learned to use weapons, riding, and similar military skills from the teachers firstly and then from

the military officers. He was very interested in history, science, and scientists. He followed the

local and foreign press in this period i.e. princedom.

He has been involved in the trade since he was a crown prince. He had a carpentry

workshop and farms and had a wealth of experience of operating mine. Later while he was

sultan, he used his assets for the state when it was needed. Sultan Abdul Aziz khan noticed

18
Abdul Hamid's extra intelligence and skills. Therefore, Abdul Aziz decided to take Abdul Hamid

with him to Egypt and European countries. It resulted in bringing the most powerful last

Ottoman Sultan. He traveled in 1863 and he was 21 years old. They visited England, France,

Belgium, Prussia, Austria, and Hungary and met Queen Victoria, Napoleon iii, King Leopard ii,

King Wilhelm I, Emperor of Austria, and King Francis joseph respectively. This helped him a lot

to understand the situations of the countries and their rulers.

In 1876, when Sultan Abdul Aziz was deposed by a coup attempt 26, the elder crown prince

Murad V came into rule but his mental weakness didn't allow him to continue on the throne. This

time Abdul Hamid is offered to be the Prince regent. It happened due to difficulty to change the

new Sultan suddenly. But he didn't accept it. Then in 1876 August, he became the 34th Sultan of

the collapsing Ottoman Empire.

2.7 EXILE AND AFTERLIFE

The March 31 incident of 190927, caused unrest throughout the empire. It was planned by

the Mason lodges of Britain and France. “Action Army”28 entered Istanbul and the Sultan agreed

to be dethroned to prevent the bloodshed. Hence on April 27, 1909, he was sent for exile into

Thessaloniki. He was taken into the Alatini pavilion. He spent three years, six months, and three

days of his exile there. He was moved there with his family and other thirty-eight people. Prince

Mehmed Abid and Abdurrahman, daughter Ayşe, Shadiye and Rafia were with him there. Major

Fethi Bey was the responsible officer. His life was very miserable. He was never allowed to go
26
On 30 May 1876, a government coup occurred in the Ottoman capital of Istanbul, which resulted in the
dethronement of the Ottoman Sultan Abdulaziz, and subsequently, the appointment of Murad V as the Sultan.
27
The 31 March Incident was a political crisis within the Ottoman Empire in 1909, during the Second
Constitutional Era. Occurring soon after the 1908 Young Turk Revolution, in which the Committee of Union and
Progress (CUP) had successfully restored the liberal 1876 constitution and ended the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul
Hamid II.
28
Army of Action, was a force formed by elements of the Ottoman Army sympathetic to the Committee of Union
and Progress (CUP) during the 31 March Incident, sometimes referred to as the 1909 countercoup. Mobilised in
Selanik (modern Thessaloniki) by Mahmud Shevket Pasha, it occupied Istanbul and successfully suppressed the
uprising in the 31 March Incident

19
out with either his family or his servants. He was even denied the newspapers and magazines.

Ayşe Sultan had reported the situation of their first day in Thessaloniki in her book about her

father29.

On the outbreak of the Balkan war, he was brought into Beylerbeyi Palace, Istanbul. It

was on November 1, 1912. He spent the last five years, three months, and nine days of his whole

life in the palace. Life in the Beylerbeyi was also the same as Alatini. But the only difference

was that he was allowed to read newspapers and magazines. Members of the union government

visited him to get advice for the preparations for the world war. He said that the decision to take

part in the world war was the first mistake and secondly the alliance with Germany. When they

asked him about his approach towards Germany during his reign, he said that it was for

balancing the power between the world colonial powers. Lastly, he said “No one can pass

Canakkale " and this word is marked by history. Abdul Hamid is informed about his transfer to

Bursa from Beylerbeyi. But he never agreed to it.

2.8 END OF AN ERA

In the last week of his life (February) Abdul Hamid's illness worsened. He often

experienced stomach problems and had a cold. On February 9, it increased again. The blood

accumulation in both lungs severely affected him. Especially in the right lobe. Then in 1918,

February 10 Monday night around 3o clock he went to the mercy of God. He was 76 years old.

He is the second oldest Sultan after Orhan Ghazi30 who passed away at the age of 78.

He was prepared and shrouded in Topkapi palace and buried in the Sultan Mahmud ii

Tomb. He was conscious until his last breath. According to his desire, a treaty was placed in his

29
Ayşe Sultan, My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid The Second, Darul Bashar, 1991, P.255-56 ( Arabic translation by
Dr Swalih Sa’dawi)
30
He was the second bey of the Ottoman Beylik from 1323/4 to 1362. He was born in Söğüt, as the son of Osman.
(1281 – March 1362)

20
chest. His face was covered with a piece from the Hirka-i- Saadet and his body was covered with

a shroud from Ka'ba.

He was farewelled with the ceremony given to Sultans who passed away while on the

throne. The streets were full of people. They cried and wept for him. It was the end of an era in

which the whole world kneeled before one person. May Allah forgive his sins and grant him

Jannah - Ameen.

21
 CHAPTER 3

SERVICES OF THE SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Rather than a one-way development of the state, Abdul Hamid Han II commissioned the

preparation of upgrades and projects in every field for the demands of the state administration

and the nation. The majority of them were realized, while others were left on paper to be

developed later. In each field, 72 million 780 thousand 129 gold coins were spent at the time in

about 1500 service firms. Many state service buildings, mosques, hospitals, schools, workplaces,

care and treatment facilities, roads, water, fountains, and stations are among them.

The following are the titles of the projects commissioned by Sultan Abdul Hamid Han:

Government Mansions, Municipal Offices, School Buildings, Hospital Buildings, Military

Barracks Buildings, Police Stations, Clock Towers, Transportation (Land-Sea-Port-Rail) Lines,

Communication (Telegraph Buildings), Immigrant Neighborhoods, Irrigation-Canals,

Swampland Improvement Works, Bridge Construction, Horse Farm Facilities, Agricultural

Facilities (GAP, Konya Plain), Petroleum Exploration facilities, mine exploration facilities,

governmental and natural works city plans and maps studies.

He ordered the construction of water channels throughout Ottoman territory, ensuring

that the people's water demands were met. The channel that brought water up to Yildiz Palace

was called Lake Terkos. The Dardanelles and Bosporus straits were fortified. He renovated and

created numerous military buildings. For the first time, steps were taken toward an undersea

project and construction. New better cruisers and battleships from Europe bolstered the navy. It

22
was not enough, he showed the power of the Ottoman Navy by exhibiting the new technology of

submarines.

The Sultan also tried to connect all the people throughout his state. For this purpose, he

established lots of telegraph lines. It also helped him to know about the movements of the world

powers and to defend them from invading the Ottoman regions. The Benghazi telegraph line was

extended up to Medina and cable was laid between Istanbul and Constanta. And there were many

other lines too which connected the nation with its territories.

3.2 RAILWAY PROJECTS

Railway lines were created and some lines were innovated. Hejaz railway and Rumelia

railway were the main lines that were built by the Sultan. Both of them faced many problems

while in the stage of building. But he overcame it all and completed both and submitted it for the

usage of his people. West tried a lot to prevent the Rumelia line because it was a strategic line.

Baghdad line was another line that was operated in the time of the Sultan.

The Hejaz Railway project, which spanned thousands of kilometers and was intended to

connect Ottoman geography in terms of military, political, economic, religious, and social

dimensions, was largely finished. Its fund was collected from Muslims all over the world,

especially from India. The line had completed almost all the work. But his dethroning caused the

incompleteness of the work. This project was the dream project of the Sultan. Work started in

1900 and was completed in 1908. The outbreak of World War 1 destroyed the line a little31. It

connects Istanbul and Mecca.

The railway's major goal was to connect Istanbul, the Ottoman Empire's capital and seat

of the Islamic Caliphate, with Hejaz in Arabia, which is home to Islam's holiest cities, and

31
The Hejaz line was repeatedly attacked and damaged, particularly during the Arab Revolt, when Ottoman trains
were ambushed by the guerrilla force led by T. E. Lawrence.

23
Mecca, the holy city where the Hajj yearly pilgrimage takes place. Another key motivation was

to strengthen the economic and political integration of the Ottoman state's distant Arabian

provinces, as well as to make military transit easier. It goes through Syria and Jordan and reaches

Saudi Arabia. Its length is 2241 kilometers. It's opened again in 2020 As Hejaz - Istanbul

railway.

The building of the Rumelia Railways was finished between 1870 and 1890, and the

Istanbul road was connected to Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. It's built by Chemins de Fer Orientaux

(CO)32 and it hosted the world-famous Orient Express. According to statistics from 1896, the

railways were 1983 kilometers long on the European side and 1947 kilometers long on the

Anatolian side under Sultan Abdul Hamid Han's reign.

3.3 EDUCATION SERVICES

Education modernization programs were developed with other modernization efforts.

During the reign of Abdul Hamid II, the actions that began during the Reform period accelerated.

In particular, educational institutions in provincial cities grew ubiquitous and effective. Officers

were sent to Germany and other nations to receive training for modernizing the educational field.

During this time, trade and vocational schools were established with a focus on vocational and

technical education.

Foreign language education was prioritized in high schools in port and trade cities to

create future traders. It was ordered during Sultan Abdul Hamid’s reign that religious studies and

sciences could be taught simultaneously in modern schools. And significant progress has been

made in the field of national education. When he took the throne in 1876, there were only 250

32
It was an Ottoman railway company operating in Rumelia (the European part of the Ottoman Empire,
corresponding to the Balkan Peninsula) and later European Turkey, from 1870 to 1937The CO was one of the five
pioneer railways in the Ottoman Empire and built the main trunk line in the Balkans.

24
junior high schools; by 1909, when he was dethroned, there were 900, and most of them taught

in their buildings, which had been built specifically for this purpose.

The number of junior high schools grew, and their quality improved, but they eventually

equated to primary and secondary schools. High schools were established at this period to

provide the necessary education. The number of high schools increased from six to 109, with a

total of 20,000 students. In 1877, Istanbul had only 200 modern elementary schools, but by 1905,

the number had risen to 9,000. Every year, an average of 400 elementary schools were opened33.

The law school (Mekteb-i Hukuk-1 Sahane), science, literature, medicine (Mekteb-i

Tıbbiye-i Mülkiye-i Sahane) faculties Technical University (Mekteb-i Sahane-i Hendese-i

Milkiye) Marine Engineering School (basis of current Naval War Academy) Mekteb-i Harbiyeler

(basis of current War Academies) Military Veterinary School, Halkah High Agronomy and

Veterinary School, Sanayi-i Nefise Mektebi (basis of the current Fine Arts Faculty) Hamidiye

Ticaret Mektebi (Foundation of Academy of Economics and Commercial Sciences ) Tribal

School (giving the idea of Ottomanism to the children of Arab and Kurdish tribes ) Viticulture

and Cooking School, Faculty of Forestry and Mining, Police and Application School, Shepherd

School, Higher Teacher School, Higher School of Commerce (Current Academy of Economic

and Commercial Sciences), Language Schools, etc. are some of the institutions which were built

by the Sultan.

3.4 HEALTH SERVICES

Sultan Abdul Hamid khan was very careful in modernizing and institutionalizing the

Ottoman Empire's health services. He made sure that health staff particularly doctors and

33
Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.221

25
pharmacists, were properly trained. He continuously tracked foreign discoveries and

technologies and tried to get them into the country as soon as possible.

In addition to Istanbul hospital, the Sultan built a lot of other health centers too.

Anatolian hospitals, Rumelia hospitals, Middle Eastern hospitals, Saudi Arabia and North Africa

hospitals, military hospitals, Gureba hospitals, Hilal-i Amer hospitals, Syphilis hospitals, and

veterinary hospitals are from those centers. He commissioned the establishment of Haseki Nia

Hospital for women, Hamidiye Etfal Hospital (for children). Haydarpasha Medical School was

established for the establishment of the hospitals on three continents to deliver medical services

for all the subjects of the Ottoman State. He paid for the construction of the işli Etfal Hospital

and the Darülaceze nursing home. In Istanbul, both institutions are still active34.

To advance medicine in the country, he sent physicians to international medical and

health congresses held in Vienna, Paris, Lyon Copenhagen, Dresden, London, Brussels Rome

Moscow, Venice, and Naples and followed the measures and scientific decisions taken there and

he brought the necessary facilities throughout the empire which will be beneficial for the people.

3.5 INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENTS

Sultan Abdul Hamid khan had made significant achievements in the manufacturing field

as he did in every other field. For the development of industry and trade, large, medium, and

small-scale firms were established. The growth of industry and trade was given high priority, and

the sultan awarded silver and gold medals to those who contributed. On the one hand, factories

and work were built to enhance domestic output, while industrial and agricultural colleges were

opened and skilled and interested people were taught for production. New shipyards and

34
Anadoglu Agency, Daily Sabah, February 11, 2021

26
shipbuilders were established. Carpet, fabric, and yarn factories were the most well-known

among these industries.

Bandirma Carpet Factory, East Carpet Company, Hereke Fabri,c and Carpet Factory,

Karacabey Carpet Production House, Bakirkoy Cloth Factory Bursa Silk, and Weaving Factories

Izmit (Kocaeli) Cotton Fabric and Cotton Yarn (Culhane Factory Edirne-Cotton Fabric and

Cotton Yarn Factory Iraq-Mosul Weaving Industry and Fabric and Cotton Yarn Factory are

some of the factories.

There were lots of other factories too for both civilian and military usages. Main

Workshops re: Various Weaving Looms, Clock shop, Iron Machine Workshop, Photography

Workshop, Paint Workshops, Soap Works, Sesame Oil Mill, Ginning Works, Lumber Works,

Horseshoe Manufacturing, etc. Railway lines brought a great revolution in this field. The Sultan

used railways to reach every corner of the country to extend production.

3.6 BRIDGES AND TUNNEL PROJECTS

Sultan Abdul Hamid’s construction initiatives included the construction of bridges and a

tube tunnel to connect the Anatolian and Rumelia sides. Both sides i.e. Anatolian and Rumelia,

were the most important and strategic ones. So he was very careful in considering these areas.

With the dethronement of the Sultan, these projects were left unfinished like several other

projects.

F Arnodin35, a French civil engineer, designed the project in 1900. The project's goal was

to use cable cars to move wagons from the bottom of the transfer bridge between Sarayburnu and

Uskudar. "Cisr-i Hamidi'' (Hamidiye Bridge) was the name of the projected bridge between

Rumelia Fortress and Kandilli (Hamidiye Bridge). The plan was to pass the railway from outside

35
Ferdinand Joseph Anodin (9 October 1845 – 24 April 1924) was a French engineer and industrialist
Specializing in cableway transporters

27
the city, with stations in Bakirkoy and Bostanci. The bridge would be linked to the Baghdad

railway line, and passengers would be able to disembark in Vienna when boarding the Medina-I

Munevvera train. The Hamidiye Bridge was to be decorated with minaret and domes on two

pillars. The bridge would also be useful for military defense with cannon and rotating towers on

the bridge keeping the strait passage under control: The Bridge included dedicated roads for

trains, cars, and pedestrians. Unfortunately, Sultan was dethroned and the projects were left

unfinished.

Submerged tubular tunnel project work was also carried out to provide transportation

from the sea in Ottoman Istanbul. Numerous projects were drawn for the construction of a tube

passage. The first submerged tube project was prepared by Eùqène Henri Gavand and presented

to the Ottoman government in 1876 with a tube passage project between Boğaziçi, Sarayburnu,

and Üsküdar.

The other project that connects Sarayburnu - Üsküdar (Şemsipaşa - Salacak) with the

tube passage was prepared by the French S. Preault Railway Company.

In 1891, the 'Submarine Steel Tunnel' was presented by French Railway Engineer S. Preault36.

This underwater tube passage was going to be for railway transport. Another tube passage

project was planned on the Bosporus (Üsküdar-Salacak) and Rumelia (Yenikapı-Sarayburnu)

side. A new project was designed by Americans Frederic E. Strom, Frank T. Lindman, and John

A. Hilliker. The project was designed in 1902 and the bridges were designed with steel

technology.

This tube passage called “Tünel-i Bahrî” was passed over 16 large columns fixed to the

sea bottom. The tube passageway would operate two passengers and one freight-carrying train.

The Harem section between Yenikapı and Harem would be connected to Haydarpaşa with a
36
Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.225

28
railway and continuous rail transportation between Europe and Asia would be ensured. The tube

passage projects, which were a continuation of the reconstruction activities carried out by Abdul

Hamid Han, were interrupted by his dethronement.

3.7 OIL EXPLORATION

In the Ottoman period, when the world industry and trade were dominated by the

colonialists, one of the rivals of the British on Ottoman territory was the Germans. First, the

British and then the Germans asked for permission from the Sultan to carry out the

archaeological excavations on the Ottoman territory. In fact, they were looking for oil. Britain,

France, and Germany had mobilized their political, military, and economic powers in Mosul,

Baghdad, Kirkuk, and other Oil regions, to take these regions from the Ottoman Empire or to

acquire oil concessions.

When the Sultan understood the interests and the interference of the powers, he

conducted various surveys on the land and the oil-gas-mining exploration concession on the land

was included in the treasury of the sultan, “Hazine-i Hassa ". Thus, these lands were protected

from being bought by foreigners and from being lost in the event of any occupation.

Jakraz, a French engineer who joined the Hazine-i Hassa Nezreti in 1895 as a chief

engineer, initially revealed his findings on the oil reservoirs around Baghdad and Mosul and

submitted them to the Sultan with maps. Graskofp, a German mining engineer, also conducted

some works in the area and created a detailed oil map of the area.

However, the Union and Progress administration transferred the Sultan's private property,

including from Hazine-i Hassa’e to the Treasury. Thus, the land with these precious metals and

oil was invaded during world wartime.

29
 CHAPTER 4

STRUGGLES OF THE SULTAN ABDUL HAMID II

4.1 INTRODUCTION

During the reign of thirty-three years, Sultan Abdul Hamid II had faced many struggles

and problems. When he stood up against the world colonial powers, he never thought about his

future but he cared about the empire. He wasn't ready to surrender to the great powers, that's why

he was dethroned in 1909. Lots of revolutions, protests, riots, etc. took place from 1876 to 1909.

Armenian massacre, the rebellion of Bulgaria, the Young Turk revolution, etc. were some of

them. Other significant political challenges included the French occupation of Tunisia (1881),

the Greek annexation of Thessaly (1881), the British invasion of Egypt (1882), and the Bulgarian

annexation of Eastern Rumelia (1885), all of which were either nominal or directly part of the

Ottoman Empire, as well as the Greek aspirations on Crete that led to the Greco - Ottoman War

of 1897, Created chaos but still, it cannot scare The Sultan.

When the world powers understood that he would not surrender to them, they tried many

times to assassinate him. It was also failure. But these assassination attempts made him more

cautious in every matter. When Russia hurried to capture Istanbul in the time of Ottoman -

Russian war of 1876-77, he had to accept some conditions to avoid this capturing, but people

couldn't understand it and they blamed him. Even the Young Turks who were educated from the

institutions, which were built by the Sultan, couldn't understand this.

In the time of all these difficulties, his only concern was the empire. He often personally

took the charges of many duties to avoid the consequences of sudden incidents. The more

pathetic thing was that the ones around him couldn't understand him and act to prevent the fall of

30
the empire. Most of the pashas in the last time of his reign were working for other countries and

external powers. Mason lodges were very active in this period and they were supported from the

side of Britain and Russia. Even the so-called ally Germany tried to stab the empire from behind.

Their only interest was the Ottoman lands. At last, they used the tool “Nationalism" and they

became victorious in it. The Reval meeting of 1908, June 9 by Edward the seventh of England

and Tsar Nicholas 2 of Russia was the first step to destroy the empire.

4.2 YOUNG TURK REVOLUTION

The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908) was a revolution demanding the constitutional

assembly. Abdul Hamid II was forced to restore the Ottoman Constitution and recall the

parliament by the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)37, an organization of the Young

Turks movement, ushering in multi-party politics inside the Empire. The Ottoman Empire's

Second Constitutional Era runs from the Young Turk Revolution through the Empire's collapse.

The constitutional monarchy had been created more than three decades before, in 1876, under

Abdul Hamid during the First Constitutional Era, which lasted only two years. Later Abdul

Hamid suspended it.

The revolution began with the Young Turk movement, which sought to destabilize Abdul

Hamid's rule and reinstall the Constitution. The majority of Young Turk intellectuals were

banished, while much military personnel sympathized with the Young Turks. The Macedonian

Conflict, a low-intensity ethnic conflict in Macedonia, highlighted to many army officers

stationed there that the country required significant reform. While the Young Turks believed that

37
It was a secret revolutionary organization and political party active between 1889 and 1926 in the Ottoman
Empire and the Republic of Turkey. The foremost faction within the Young Turk movement, it instigated the
1908 Young Turk Revolution which ended absolute monarchy for constitutional democracy, and from 1913 to 1918
it ruled the empire as a one-party state.

31
democratization was necessary for Ottomanism, the concept of national unity among the

Ottoman Empire's ethnic groups, they disagreed on how to proceed with the change.

The revolution began with Ahmed Niyazi38, a member of the CUP, fleeing to Albania's

highlands. Ismail Enver and Eyub Sabri soon joined him. They collaborated with local Albanians

and used their connections within the Salonica-based Third Army to organize a massive uprising.

Abdul Hamid's role was further aided by a series of organized assassinations by Unionist Fedai

(Members). With the CUP's instigation of a Constitutionalist insurrection in the Rumelia

provinces, Abdul Hamid capitulated and announced the restoration of the Constitution, the recall

of parliament, and the calling of elections. The next year, after an attempted monarchist

counterrevolution in favor of Abdul Hamid known as the 31 March Incident, he was ousted and

his brother Mehmed V ascended the throne.

4.3 ARMENIAN MASSACRE

It was the crucial and most discussed event by the international press and politicians. It

also known as the Hamidian massacres, occurred in the Ottoman Empire in the mid-1890s. An

estimated 100,000 to 300,000 people died, leaving 50,000 children orphaned. The atrocities are

named after Sultan Abdul Hamid II, who reasserted Pan-Islamism as a state doctrine in his

efforts to preserve the Ottoman Empire's imperial dominion. Although the killings were mostly

targeted against Armenians, they occasionally devolved into indiscriminate anti-Christian

pogroms, such as the Diyarbekir massacres, which killed up to 25,000 Assyrians.

In 1894, the atrocities began in the Ottoman interior, before spreading throughout the

country in the following years. Between 1894 and 1896, the majority of the murders took place.

Following the international censure of Abdul Hamid, the atrocities began to decrease in 1897. As
38
He was an Ottoman revolutionary, who was the bey of the Resne (now Resen, North Macedonia) area in the late
19th and early 20th centuries. Niyazi was one of the heroes of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution and of suppressing
the 1909 countercoup as he played leading roles in both events.

32
appeals for civil reform and better treatment from the government were rejected, the toughest

measures were directed on the long-persecuted Armenian community. The Ottomans made no

distinction between the victims' age and gender and slaughtered them all with ruthless brutality.

The beginnings of anti-Armenian sentiment can be traced back to the Ottoman Empire's

increasingly insecure condition in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. An era of European

nationalism and insistence on self-determination by numerous countries long under Ottoman

authority ushered in the end of Ottoman dominance over the Balkans. The empire's Armenians,

who had long been treated as second-class citizens, began to demand civil reforms and better

treatment from the government in the mid-1860s and early 1870s. They demanded an end to land

grabbing, looting and murder in Armenian settlements by Kurds and Circassians during tax

collection, criminal behavior by government officials, and the unwillingness to admit Christians

as witnesses in court. The federal government did not respond to these inquiries.

In October 1895, the Great Powers (Britain, France, and Russia) persuaded Hamid to sign

a new reform package aimed at limiting Hamidiye's powers, which, like the Berlin Treaty39, was

never implemented. On October 1, 1895, 2,000 Armenians gathered in Constantinople (now

Istanbul) to demand that the changes be implemented, but Ottoman police forces charged on the

demonstration and forcefully dispersed it. “This business will end in blood," the sultan is

believed to have stated after receiving the reform plan.

Soon after, massacres of Armenians erupted in Constantinople, spreading to Bitlis,

Diyarbekir, Erzurum, Mamouret-ul-Aziz, Sivas, Trebizond, and Van, as well as the rest of the

Armenian-populated vilayets of these places. Thousands were killed by Muslim neighbors and

government soldiers, while tens of thousands more died during the harsh winter of 1895–96.

39
Also known as West Africa Conference (Westafrika-Konferenz), regulated European colonization and trade
in Africa during the New Imperialism period and coincided with Germany's sudden emergence as an imperial
power. The conference was organized by Otto von Bismarck, the first chancellor of Germany.

33
 The telegraph sent word of the atrocities around the world, resulting in extensive

coverage in Western Europe and North America's media. When we look for the details of this

event we can see other narration also. It's very difficult to believe that a ruler like Sultan Abdul

Hamid committed such a crime who included in all sectors of the government the people from

the different religions and sections.

By accepting the fact that he was an autocrat, this study couldn't agree with these foolish

accusations and allegations. The main reason for this unacceptance is the mob attack of western

colonial powers both directly and indirectly. Also, we can see another narration on this event.

The roles of Armenian patriarch “Izmirlian”40 and the fact that The Hinchak (sound of chimes)

committee41 based in Switzerland and subsequently the Dashnak (union) committee, which

separated from them, aimed to establish an independent Armenia in the Ottoman geography and

they rebelled for this etc. are never mentioned anywhere in the above narrations42. So it makes

some sense not to believe in the West's propaganda. And also the Sultan had lots of Armenian

officers and he doesn’t have any grudge for them.

4.4 RUSSO-TURKISH WAR (1877–1878)

It was a war between the Ottoman Empire and Russia. The empire was at odds with a

coalition of Eastern Orthodox Christians commanded by the Russian Empire and consisting of

Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro. It began in the emerging 19th century Balkan

nationalism and was fought in the Balkans and the Caucasus. The Russian ambitions of regaining

40
In 1896 Patriarch Madteos III (Izmirlian) was deposed and exiled to Jerusalem by Sultan Abdülhamid II for boldly
denouncing the 1896 massacre.
41
The Hinchak (Ring of Bell) Committee was established in 1886 in Switzerland by Avedis Nazarbelg, a Caucasian
Armenian and a citizen of Russia, his wife Maro and other Caucasian students. Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of
the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.75
42
Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.75

34
territorial losses suffered during the Crimean War of 1853–5643, re-establishing itself in the

Black Sea, and supporting the political movement aiming to free Balkan republics from the

Ottoman Empire were all important reasons.

As a result, the Russian-led alliance won the war, pushing the Ottomans back to

Constantinople's gates, prompting Western European great powers to intervene. Russia was able

to claim the Caucasus provinces of Kars and Batum, as well as the Budjak region. The

principalities of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro formally declared their independence from

the Ottoman Empire after years of de facto44 sovereignty. With the help and military intervention

of Russia, an autonomous Bulgarian state emerged between the Danube River and the Balkan

Mountains (except Northern Dobrudja, which was given to Romania), as well as the region of

Sofia, which became the new state's capital, after nearly five centuries of Ottoman dominance

(1396–1878). In 1878, the Congress of Berlin gave Austria-Hungary permission to conquer

Bosnia and Herzegovina and Great Britain to take over Cyprus.

The war which started on 24 April 1877, almost lasted for 10 months and 1 week and

ended on 3 March 1878 by the San Stefano45 and Berlin treaties46. As mentioned above, the

Ottoman Empire faced many losses due to the war. This war was the reason for suspending the

first constitutional assembly. Some of the assembly members helped Russia secretly which led to

the failure of the Ottoman Empire. Calamities were almost the same on both sides.

43
The Crimean War was a military conflict fought from October 1853 to February 1856 in which Russia lost to an
alliance of France, the Ottoman Empire, the United Kingdom and Sardinia.
44
It describes situations that exist in reality, even if not legally recognized.
45
Was a treaty between the Russian and Ottoman empires at the conclusion of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-
1878. It was signed at San Stefano, then a village west of Constantinople (present-day İstanbul), on 3 Marcc 1878 by
Count Nicholas Pavlovich Ignatiev and Aleksandr Nelidov on behalf of the Russian Empire and by Foreign
Minister Saffet Pasha and Ambassador to Germany Sadullah Bey on behalf of the Ottoman Empire.
46
Treaty between Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain and Ireland, Italy, Russia, and the Ottoman
Empire for the Settlement of Affairs in the East) was signed on 13 July 1878. In the aftermath of the Russian victory
against the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the major powers restructured the map of
the Balkan region.

35
Unfortunately, the treaties weren't implemented and the provinces became under the

administration of Russia.

4.5 GRECO-TURKISH WAR (1897)

The Greek-Ottoman War was fought between the Greek Kingdom and the Ottoman

Empire. Its direct cause was the Ottoman province of Crete's situation, whose Greek-majority

people had long wished for unification with Greece. Despite the Ottoman triumph on the

battlefield, the next year (as a result of the Great Powers' intervention after the war), an

autonomous Cretan State under Ottoman suzerainty was founded, with Prince George of Greece

and Denmark as its first High Commissioner.

For the first time since the Greek War of Independence in 1821, the war put Greece's

military and governmental personnel to the test in an official open war. This was also the

Ottoman Empire's first war effort to put a reorganized military organization to the test. The

Ottoman army was led by a German military mission directed by Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz

(1883–1895), who had restructured the Ottoman military following its defeat in the Russo-

Turkish War of 1877–1878. Greece was completely unprepared for war as a result of the

struggle. Plans, fortifications, and weapons were non-existent, the officer corps was

overburdened, and training was insufficient.

As a result, the Ottoman forces, which were numerically stronger, better organized,

equipped, and commanded, pushed the Greek forces south out of Thessaly and threatened

Athens. When the situation became more serious, the great powers persuaded the sultan to stop

the war. Then On 20 May 1897, a ceasefire went into effect by the will of the Sultan. On

September 20, a peace treaty was signed and according to Greece this treaty was a complete

36
humiliation. When Halil Rifat pasha47 asked permission from the Sultan to enter Athens, capital

of Greece, the Sultan ordered him not to enter and said to come back. Hence the war ended.

Like every war, this caused losses for the Empire. Even though it was a military success

of the Ottoman Empire which was defeated in the Russo Turkish war. Economically Greece

became more pathetic and their economy became under the supervision of an international

committee. According to the Sultan it was also a struggle. Because he never liked to shed blood

and to waste his empire's money for a war.

4.6 ASSASSINATION

During the reign of 33 years, the Sultan faced some assassination attempts against him.

Fortunately, all of those attempts went in vain. One of the greatest and most sensational political

conspiracies of modern times was the Yildiz assassination attempt which took place in 21 July

1905 by Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF) in the yard of Yildiz masjid, Ottoman

capital, Istanbul. 26 people, who were in the service of the Sultan were killed and 58 were

injured including civilians.

The events of the Armenian massacre, as well as Sultan Abdul Hamid II's anti-Armenian

attitudes, prompted the assassination. The Armenian national liberation movement planned

Armenian resistance within the Ottoman Empire, notably the First Sassoun Resistance in 1894,

the First Zeitun Resistance in 1895, and the Defense of Van in June 1896. The 1896 Ottoman

Bank Takeover was the seizure of the Ottoman Bank on August 26 by members of the ARF 48 in

an attempt to raise further awareness with twenty-eight armed men and women led primarily by

47
He was an Ottoman parliamentarian and statesman during the First Constitutional Era. He furthermore served as
the Grand Vizier for six years between 1895 until his death in 1901, during the late Abdul Hamid II era.
48
It also known as Dashnaktsutyun (collectively referred to as Dashnaks for short), is an Armenian
nationalist and socialist political party founded in 1890 in Tifls, Russian Empire (now Tbilisi, Georgia)
by Christapor Mikaelian, Stepan Zorian, and Simon Zavarian.

37
Papken Siuni and Armen Garo who took over an enterprise largely employing European

personnel from Great Britain and France.

For taking revenge, Dashnak members began surreptitiously making explosives and

plotting the operation in Sofia, Bulgaria, led by ARF founder Christapor Mikaelian. The

explosives were built at an improvised bomb factory in the village of Sablyar, near the Bulgarian

town of Kyustendil. During the planning phase, Mikaelian perished in an explosion, along with

his companion Vramshabouh Kendirian. Despite the fact that the operation's instigators were

killed, it went on as planned.

Every Friday, Sultan Abdul Hamid Khan would go to the Yildiz mosque to pray and

would leave about the same time each time, developing a pattern in his movements. Taking

advantage of this, the ARF detected a time bomb in a carriage parked outside the masjid, which

would detonate when Sultan Abdul Hamid left the masjid. Zareh, a Fedayeen who took part in

the Ottoman Bank takeover, was chosen to drive the carriage. He drove the vehicle in front of the

masjid on July 21, 1905 and pre-set the timer for 42 seconds. Sultan Abdul Hamid was late

because he was engaged in a talk with Sheikh Ul-Islam. So the Sultan arrived a few minutes after

the explosion. Hence the Sultan survived it. Zareh was among those killed when the device

exploded. Edward Joris49 was the mastermind of the assassination50. After the event he was

caught and judged to be executed. But the Sultan forgave him and made him his spy.

49
Edward Joris (1876–1957) was a Belgian anarchist who was involved in the 1905 bombing in Istanbul known as
the Yıldız assassination attempt.
50
Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.110

38
4.7 MASON LODGES

Secret societies and organizations proliferated in the late nineteenth century, most of

which were created by Ottoman citizens, the majority of whom were members of the Jewish and

Christian minorities, as well as Muslims. The Union and Progress Society's most visible member

was Freemasonry, which was hostile to Sultan Abdul Hamid II and tried to isolate him. The

fundamental reason for this was Sultan Abdul Hamid's rejection of Herzl's 51 desire for the

establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, despite the Jews' attractive offerings to the

Ottoman state.

The Jewish-backed Society of Union and Progress, Masonic lodges, and Western

countries were all targets for Sultan Abdul Hamid II. Sultan Abdul Hamid's intelligence was able

to track down and obtain information on this movement. This movement, however, was strong,

and Abdul Hamid’s surveillance of its members came late, as they pushed the populace to

raucous protests in Thessaloniki, Manastir, Askop, and Sawsan, demanding the reinstatement of

the constitution, as well as threatening to march on Constantinople. As a result, the Sultan agreed

to the demonstrators' demands and On July 24, 1908 AD, he announced the constitution and

recalled the Parliament. Still there were various reasons for the Union and Progress Society to

keep Sultan Abdul Hamid II on the throne at the time52.

The first lodge in Turkey was most likely founded by Levantines in Istanbul about 1721.

Although Turkish Freemasonry dates back to the 18th century, it was limited to lodges under the

jurisdiction of foreign grand lodges for much of that time, and there was no autonomous Turkish

Grand Lodge. The first Turkish Grand Lodge was created in 1856, and this changed everything.
51
He was an Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist, playwright, political activist, and writer who was the father
of modern political Zionism. Herzl formed the Zionist Organization and promoted Jewish
immigration to Palestine in an effort to form a Jewish state.
52
www.sunnafiles.com , June 9, 2021

39
Sultan Murad V, the first and only Ottoman sultan, was a member of the lodge. Murad's

successor, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, banned the first Grand Lodge in 1876 when he ascended the

throne. Later this lodge caused to lose his throne.

The March 31 incident was planned by the Mason members of CUP. Like that Mason

lodges created lots of problems throughout the empire. The Sultan had allowed the working of

freemason lodges but when they started to work behind the state matters it provoked Abdul

Hamid and he restricted their activities. This limitation led to his dethronement. The members,

who were included in the committee of CUP like Talat bey53, were the freemasons based in the

lodge of Thessaloniki. And this Thessaloniki lodge was the center of the planning of

dethronement of the Sultan. Young Turks worked with them and helped to destroy the empire

although their target was the Sultan. But the ones behind the lodge, their aim was to destroy the

empire. And they succeeded in it.

4.8 PALESTINE ISSUE

The most controversial issue of today, Palestine autonomy related problem, started in the

time of the Sultan. Zionists was the name given to the organization that met in Basel,

Switzerland, in 1897, after Mt. Zion, where Prophet Solomon's Beth ha-Mikdas (Masjid Al-

Aqsa) was built. Zionists sought the British Empire, which was the most powerful state at the

time, for assistance in gaining promised territory, but their demands were ignored. The empire

eventually noticed that the Jewish cause was gaining traction and offered them regions such as

Uganda, Siberia, and Cyprus, but they refused. They desired Palestine, which was the promised

country referenced in the Torah and was home to hundreds of thousands of Arabs.

53
Talat Pasha(Bey) was a Turkish Ottoman politician and convicted war criminal of the late Ottoman Empire who
served as its de facto leader from 1913 to 1918

40
 The Ottoman administration took various measures to prevent this movement from

jeopardizing the country's geographical integrity. Long before the Zionists, the Ottomans

declared 80 percent of Palestine to be state property in 1871. Sultan Abdul Hamid II enhanced

preventive efforts against Jewish settlement in Palestine after his reign. In 188354, he put a stop

to the acquisition of Palestinian lands and chose to seize control of the strategically important

territory himself. Sultan Abdul Hamid II limited the residence of Jews in Palestinian land to 30

days in 1900. He also forbade foreign Jews from acquiring territory in the Ottoman Empire,

including Palestine. The Ottoman Empire was designated to be a no-go zone for persons who had

been exiled from Europe.

The Zionist movement's55 leader, Budapest native Theodor Herzl, requested an audience

with Sultan Abdul Hamid II related to this matter. When his request was turned down, he made

his offer to the Sultan through a personal friend, Polish Phillip Newlinsky, in May of 1901.

Throughout exchange for opening Palestinian regions to Jewish settlement and transferring

control to the Jewish people, they pledged to pay the Ottomans' foreign debts and provide

propaganda for the Ottoman Sultan in Europe. The sultan turned down the offer again, famously

saying: "I will not sell anything, not even an inch of this land, because this country belongs to all

Ottomans, not just me. These territories were gained with the blood of my people. We give what

we have in the same way we received it."56 The following year, Herzl renewed his offer, but

received the same response. The notable thing here is that the Sultan wasn't against Jews. We can

understand this when we look into the Jewish population of the Ottoman Empire. The Empire

54
Ekrem Burga Ekinci, Daily sabah, March 10, 2017
55
Zionism is an ideology and nationalist movement that espouses the establishment of, and support for a Jewish
state centered in the area roughly corresponding to Canaan, the Holy and, the region of Palestine or Eretz Israel on
the basis of a long Jewish connection.
56
Rumuz publishing house, Portrait of the Political Genius: Sultan Abdul Hamid II, Istanbul Nisan, 2019, P.155

41
housed the world's largest Jewish population, who were allowed to live freely. Thessaloniki,

which was part of the Ottoman Empire at the time, was the world's largest Jewish city. So he

preserved it due to the rights of others.

But after the dethronement of the Sultan, the Young Turk government allowed the

settlement and they paid the debt. Emmanuel carasso57 was the head of all these actions and also

he was one of the delegations that informed the Sultan about his dethronement. Still, the blame

goes to the Sultan. But as always, the Truth is a little bit hard to accept.

57
He was an Ottoman lawyer and a member of the prominent Sephardic Jewish Carasso
family of Ottoman Salonica (now Thessaloniki, Greece). He was also a prominent member of the Young Turks and
was a member (some sources say founder) and later president of the Macedonian Risorta Masonic lodge
in Thessaloniki and pioneered the masonic movement within the Ottoman Empire.

42
 CONCLUSION

The ones who dethroned the Sultan Abdul Hamid II never knew that they were destroying a great

Empire and culture. Sultan’s continuous efforts of long thirty-three years went in vain in a coup

attempt by his own children. The more pathetic thing was that he died by seeing the decline of

the empire for which he sacrificed his thirty-three years. They didn’t know the fact that there will

be no state without Sultan Abdul Hamid II and he was the state in that crucial period.

43
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Ayse Sultan, My father: Sultan Abdul Hamid the Second, Darul Bashar, 1991,

(Arabic translation by Dr. Swalih Sa’dawi).

2. Dogan, Nejla, Politics of Muslim Education during Sultan Abdul Hamid II in

Salonica.

3. F.A.K Yasmee, Ottoman Diplomacy: Abdul Hamid II and the Great powers

1878-1888, ISIS Press, Istanbul

4. Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts

on File (Imprint of Infobase Publishing ), ISBN 10: 0-8160-6259-5

5. https://sunnafiles.com/2021/06/09/45885/

6. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abdulhamid-II

7. https://www.dailysabah.com/arts/portrait/sultan-abdulhamid-ii-a-life-that-

influenced-a-century

8. Qwaja, kamal Ahmed, Sultan Abdul Hamid: Memmory of Tahsin Pasha in

Yildiz, Darul Fustat, 2005

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Istanbul, Nisan edition, 2019

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44