SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

YARHANDS DISSOU ARTHUR

 Basic concept of sampling
• Overview
 Nearly all statistical surveys, whether they are for decision
making in business, for policy formulation in government, or
for development of social and economic theories, are
sampling.

 Sampling is the process of learning about the population on

the basis of a sample drawn from it.

 Data obtained from a sample during sample surveys are used

to estimate population quantities (called parameters) such as
the mean, proportion or total.

 In theory, all these parameters can be determined exactly

through
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 Why Sampling
The following are the main justifications for using sampling.

• Sampling can provide reliable information at far less cost.

With a fixed budget, doing a census is usually impracticable.

• Sampling is less costly to administer.

• Sample data can be collected more quickly for the survey

results to be published in a timely fashion.
• Sample is less cumbersome and more practical to administer .

• Estimates based on sample surveys are often more accurate

than the results based on a census. This is a little surprising. A
census often requires a large administrative organization and
involves
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a lot of personnel in the data. 3
 Definition of terms applied in sampling
The concept of the sample is important in the area of inferential statistics since the
composition of sample reflects a composition of the population from which the
sample is drawn but on reduced scale.

The following terms as often in sampling are defined.

• Sampling Units: Sampling units are items included in population.

• Sampling units can be classified into two kinds: elementary and primary sampling
units.
 Elementary Sampling Unit: Elementary sampling units are all the items contained in the
population whose characteristics are to be measured or counted.

 An example of elementary sampling unit includes students of UEW.

 Primary Sampling Unit: Primary sampling units are the groups or clusters of the
elementary units.

 For example, students may be grouped according to departments.

 Here, the primary units are the departments, and the students are the elementary units.
Primary units may be elementary units themselves, for example the departments in the
UEW.
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 Definition of terms applied in sampling
• Sampling Frame: In selecting a sample from a population, the
list of members of the population is referred to as the
sampling frame. Synonyms for sampling frame are sampled
population or working population.
 The sample frame is the operationally feasible population or
the population that can actually be sampled.
 Every member of the population should appear in the frame,
so as to have a chance of selection.
 For example, the register of electorates, the lists of members
of professional organizations such as doctors, dentists,
lawyers and clergymen, the list of members of clubs and
societies, etc.
• Target Population: The population originally defined or the
population we intend to sample is referred to as the target
population.
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 Non-Probability Sampling
• The non-probability sampling designs select
samples with features not embodying randomness.
• The chance of selecting an element cannot be
determined.
• For this reason there is no means of measuring the
risk of making erroneous conclusion derived from
non-probability samples.
• Thus the reliability of results (i.e. sampling error)
cannot be assessed and also used to make valid
conclusion about the population.
• The main methods of non-probability sampling are
convenience, judgmental, quota sampling and
snow balling.
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Why use non probability sampling?

Advantage
• Speed
• Convenience
• Lower cost

Disadvantage
• Lack of accuracy due to selection bias.
• Lack of generalizability of the results.

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 Convenience and Judgemental Sampling
• Convenience (or accessible) sampling chooses the
sample units that are easily accessible or
conveniently available.
• For example, in an opinion survey on local
government policy, volunteers are sought to give
responses.
• This is very quick and easy to carry out.

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 Judgemental or Purposive Sampling
• The sample obtained by judgemental (also known as
purposive) sampling is based on personal judgment and some
pre-knowledge of the population.
• The expert exercise control in the selection order to draw
elements that are representative of the majority of the
elements in the population.
• Judgmental sample is used whenever limitations such as time
and cost make it necessary to choose very small sample.
• For instance, in a survey on pineapple production in Ghana
for export, the farms of typical export are selected. It is
readily useful because constructing a list of farms may be
costly and inconvenient.
• The selection of samples for these sampling methods (also
may be called preferential sampling) is too subjective which
does not give reliable information about variability in the
population, and that the data obtained would not be suitable
for the purpose of probabilistic inference.
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 Quota sampling
• Quota sampling involves first classifying the population into
non-overlapping subpopulations, called strata.

• The sample is then obtained by selecting the individual

elements from each stratum based on a specified quota.

• Since the selection of the sample is non-random, the

enumerator is allowed to use his/her own judgment to meet
the various quotas.

• For example, an interviewer, working for a public opinion pool

may be asked to interview 50 lecturers, 100 university
students, 200 factory workers, etc.

• This, accidentally, introduces a large degree of bias.

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 Quota sampling
• The lack of randomness is, however, compensated
for by less cost and administrative convenience.

• Quota sampling has the basic objective of making

the best use of stratification without incurring high
cost which may be involved in following any
probabilistic method of sampling.

• Essentially, quota samples are judgment samples

and so: they do not lend themselves to any sort of
statistical evaluation; there is bias due to the
personal prejudice of the investigator or interviewer
in selecting and/or interviewing.
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Probability Sampling or Random sampling
methods
• Taking a sample is not simply a matter of taking the nearest items.

• If worthwhile conclusion relating to the whole population is to be made from the

sample, it is essential to ensure as far as possible that the sample is representative
of the population from which it was drawn, and free from bias.

• Such an unbiased sampling method which is always required to select a sample for
a statistical inferential study is called probability or random sampling.

• A random sampling method selects a sample such that every member or element
in the population has a known probability of being included in the sample.

• The most commonly used random sampling methods are

 Simple random sampling

 stratified random sampling
 systematic random sampling
 cluster sampling
 Multistage
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 Simple random sampling
• Simple random sampling is designed to draw sample
items from a population in such a way that each item in
the population is equally likely to be selected.

• The selection is done without replacement and also

ignores the order in which the sample items are drawn.

• It is the most widely used random sampling method

and can be executed by the lottery system (blind draw)
or random numbers table (mechanical randomization)

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 Basic methods of sampling
• There are two basic methods by which samples are
selected:
• Sampling with replacement
Sampling with replacement means that once a
person or item is selected it is returned into the
frame where it has the same probability of being
selected.
• Sampling without replacement
 Sampling without replacement means that a
person or item once selected is not returned to the
frame and therefore cannot be selected again.
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 Stratified Random Sampling
• Stratification is the act of dividing a population of sampling units into, say,
subgroups that share a given characteristic.

• These smaller and relatively homogeneous non-overlapping subgroups are called

strata of sizes .

• In this technique, we select at random from within each stratum using simple
random sampling, the appropriate sub-sample (say, 15 from 50 female students
and 35 from 150 male students in a class).

• The sub-sample results (15 and 35 are then added together to obtain the overall
sample size (50) from the population size of 200 students in the class.

• A criterion known as stratifying factor is employed to classify the various sampling

units into different strata.
• Among the commonly used stratifying factors include age, sex, educational status
or income level, geographical area, economic status, etc.

• A stratifying factor is said to be effective if it divides the given population into

different strata which are homogeneous within themselves; and the units in
different
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 Systematic Random Sampling
 When a population is divided into subdivisions, clusters
or strata, the next question is how to select a sample
from each stratum (cluster) or, for that matter, from the
entire population.

 One way is to use simple random sampling. However,

there are many situations when the most practical
method of selecting a sample is to use systematic
sampling.

 In systematic sampling, we may number the sampling

units in the population serially from 1 to

 Suppose that a sample of size is to be selected, then

we determine first what is called the sampling interval
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 Cluster Sampling
If the members of a population are physically
separated from one another and simple random
sampling procedure is impractical, we may use
cluster sampling.
Cluster sampling refers to the procedure of dividing
the population into groups called clusters and
drawing a sample of clusters to represent the
population.
In cluster sampling, the total population is divided,
depending on the problem under study, into
relatively smaller but recognizable subdivisions,
called clusters, and a simple random sample of
these clusters is drawn
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 Cluster Sampling
We can either include in the sample all the elementary
units in the selected clusters or take a random sample
of smaller primary units or elementary units from the
selected clusters.
When all the elementary units in the clusters are
observed, we have what we call single-stage sampling.
When a sample of elementary units is drawn from
selected clusters we have two-stage sampling or sub-
sampling.
At both stages, a simple random sample is selected.
 If the clusters are of geographic subdivisions, the
cluster sampling is also referred to as area sampling.
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 Multistage sampling
Multi-Stage sampling refers to sampling technique
which is carried out in various stages in the population.

The entire population is divided into a number of

clusters (primary units) and each of these clusters
(primary units) is further divided into a number of
units, called secondary units.

These secondary units are also subdivided into third

stage units and so on, until we ultimately reach the
desired sampling units in which we are interested.

 A random sample of the relevant people within each of

these clusters is then taken.
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 Survey Errors
• Even when surveys employ random probability
sampling methods, they are subject to potential
errors.
• Good survey research design attempts to reduce or
minimize these various survey errors often at
considerable cost.
• Four major survey errors include:
Coverage error or selection bias
Nonresponse error or nonresponse bias
Sampling error
Measurement error
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 Coverage Error
• The key to proper sample selection is an adequate
population frame or up-to-date list of all the
subject from which the sample will be drawn.
• Coverage error occurs if we exclude certain groups
of subjects from this population listing so that
they have no chance of being selectedd in the
sample.
• Coverage error results in selection bias

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 Nonresponse Error
• Not everyone will be willing to respond to a survey.
• Nonresponse error arises from the failure to collect
data on all subjects in the sample.
• Nonresponse error leads to nonresponse bias.
• Because it cannot be generally assumed that persons
who do not respond to surveys are similar to those who
do, it is extremely important to follow up on the
nonresponse after a specified period of time.
• The mode of response affects the rate of response.
• Personal interview and telephone interview produce
high rate than does the mail survey- but at a higher
cost.
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 Sampling Error
 There are three main reasons for drawing a sample rather
than taking complete census.
 It is more expedient, less costly and more efficient, however,
chance dictates who in the population frame will or will not
be included.
 Sampling error reflects the heterogeneity ,or chance
difference from sample to sample based on the probability of
a particular individual or item being selected in the particular
sample.
 The margin of error which is the sampling error must always
be stated.
 Sampling error can be reduced by taking larger sample size
although this will increase the cost of conducting the survey.

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 Measurement Error
• In the practice of good survey research, a questionnaire
is designed with the intent that it will allow meaningful
information to be gathered.
• The obtained data must be valid.
• Obtaining meaningful measurement is often easier said
than done.
• Unfortunately, the process of obtaining a measurement
is often governed by what is convenient , not what is
needed,
• Measurement error refers to inaccuracies in the
recorded response that occur because of a weakness in
question wording , an interviewers effect on the
respondent or the effort made by the respondent.
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 Sources of Measurement Error
• There are three sources of measurement error.
• Ambiguous wording of questions:
• Halo effect: It occurs when the respondents feels
obligated to please the interviewer. This type of
error can be minimized by proper interviewer
training.
• Respondent error: Its occurs as a result of
overzealous or under zealous effort by the
respondent.

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 Evaluating Survey Worthiness
• Not all research is good, meaningful, or important.
• To avoid those survey lacking in objectivity or
credibility we must critically evaluate what we read
and hear by examining the worthiness.
The following must be followed to evaluate worthiness.
1. We must evaluate the purpose of the survey, why it
was conducted and for whom.
2. Determine whether it was based on a probability or a
nonprobability sample.
Surveys employing nonprobability sampling methods are
subject to serious, perhaps unintentional , biases that
may render the results meaningless.
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 Ethical Issues in Survey
• Ethical considerations arises with respect to the
four types of potential errors that may occur when
designing surveys that use random probability
samples:
• Coverage error or selection bias
• Nonresponse error or nonresponse bias
• Sampling error
• Measurement error

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 Ethical Issues in Survey
• Coverage error or selection bias become an ethical
issue only if particular group or individuals are are
purposely excluded from the population frame so
that the survey results are skewed.
• Nonresponse error or nonresponse bias becomes
an ethical issue only if particular group or
individuals are likely to respond to a particular
survey format and the sponsor knowingly desigs the
survey in a manner aimed at excluding such groups
or individuals.

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 Ethical Issues in Survey
• Sampling error becomes an ethical issue if the findings are
purposely presented without reference to sample size and
the margin of error so that the sponsor can promote a view
point that might otherwise be truly insignificant.
• Measurement error becomes an ethical in one of the three
ways
1. A survey sponsor may purposely choose loaded, lead-in
questions that would guide the responses in a particular
direction.
2. An interviewer through mannerisms and tone, may
purposely create halo effect or otherwise guide the
responses in a particular direction
3. A respondent having a disdain for r the survey process may
willfully provide false information.
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x x
P xA  
n
Overview of probability
• Before one can use probability in decision- making
process.
• We must understand what probability means. In every
day speech the word probability implies how likely or
the chance of an event either taking place or not.
• Probability may be defined as the measure of the
likelihood that an event will occur.
• Probability can be evaluated by the following
definition.
• If an event A can occur xtimes out of n, the probability
of an event A occurring is given by the ratio P  A  n( A)
nS 
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