Edu 321

Unit 1: Let’s Talk about
Curriculum
The Teacher and the Curriculum| 1

CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Change is a constant law of nature. It brings improvements like changes in the

curriculum, it is an on-going process. Not all changes lead to improvement, but all
improvement requires change. The ability to develop, test and implement changes
in the curriculum is essential for every student, stakeholders and administrators
in an educational institution.
CONCEPTS, TYPES AND COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM.
A. Concepts of Curriculum
What is curriculum?
Broader Sense: the total

Narrow Sense: a listing of learning experiences of
subjects to be taught in individuals not only in
school schools but in society as well
Curriculum is often one of the main concerns in the educational field. Educators are
concerned about what choices are to make about teaching content and methods.
As for the parents, they would like to know what their children are going to learn.
Learners are also concerned about what kinds of content they are going to have in
class. “Curriculum” seems to be considered greatly as what teachers are going to
teach and, in other words, what learners are going to learn. In fact, “curriculum” is
also closely related to how well the learners learn—the outcomes.
In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it

is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly
educators define or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge
and skills students are expected to learn, which includes the learning standards or
learning objectives they are expected to meet; the units and lessons that teachers
teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books, materials, videos,
presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and
other methods used to evaluate student learning. The term curriculum refers to the
lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific course or program.
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its
narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subject to be taught in
school. In a broader sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not
only in schools but in society as well.
The concept of curriculum is characterized as diverse, and are influenced by the

different modes of thoughts, principles, pedagogies and cultural influences.

Points of View in Curriculum Development
1. Traditional Point of View
According to Robert M. Hutchins, he views curriculum as “permanent studies”,

where the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic
education are emphasized -Basic Education should emphasize the 3Rs and college
education should be grounded on liberal education.
While Arthur Bestor, believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training; -curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual discipline of
grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science,
history and foreign language.
For Joseph Schwab’s, he views the curriculum as the discipline that is the sole
source of curriculum. He said that curriculum should consist only of knowledge which
comes from discipline which is the sole source. This definition leads us to the view
of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of curriculum.
Lastly, in our education system in the Philippines, curriculum is divided into chunks
of knowledge we call subject areas in the basic education such as English,
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline may include
humanities, sciences, languages and many more. Most of the traditional ideas view
curriculum as written documents or a plan of action in accomplishing goals.
2. Progressive Points of View Curriculum
On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school, subjects, syllabi, course

of study, and list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These
can only be called curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner.
Broadly speaking, curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of the
individual.
This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and

education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular
elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application
Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the “experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the
students.
It is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is

anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and education. He believed that
reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular. Thought is not derived from action
but tested by application.
According to Caswell and Campbell, he viewed curriculum as “all experiences

children have under the guidance of teachers”.
For Smith, Stanley and Shores they defined curriculum as a “sequence of potential
experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in
group ways of thinking and acting.”
It is clear that curriculum is a dynamic process. Development connotes changes

which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration, modification or
improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes, development
should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum evolves.
B. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools (Allan Glatthorn, 2000)
1. Recommended Curriculum
Most of the curricula are recommended. Proposed by scholars and professional

organizations. The curriculum may come from a national agency or any professional
organization who has stake in education.
2. Written Curriculum
Includes documents, course of study or syllabi for implementation. Most written
curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. An example
of this is the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) and the written lesson plan of each
classroom teacher made up of objectives and planned activities of the teacher.
3. Taught Curriculum
The different planned activities which are put into action in the classroom compose
the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are implemented in order to
arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum. It varied according
to the learning styles of the students and the teaching styles of the teacher.
4. Supported Curriculum
In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher, there must be materials
which should support of help in the implementation of a written curriculum. Support
curriculum includes material resources such as textbooks, computers, audio-visual
materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, and other facilities. Support
curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and lifelong learning.
5. Assessed Curriculum
This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. Series of evaluations are being
done by the teachers at the duration and end of the teaching episodes to
determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing.
Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic instruments like portfolio are
being utilized.
6. Learned Curriculum
This refers to the learning outcomes achieved by the students. Learning
outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which
can be either cognitive, affective or psychomotor.
7. Hidden Curriculum
This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned but ay modify
behavior or influence learning outcomes. Peer influence, school environment,
physical condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teacher and many
other factors make up the hidden curriculum.
8. Concomitant Curriculum
Things that are taught at home; those experiences that are part of a family's
experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the family.
This type of curriculum may be received at church, in the context of religious
expression, lessons on values, ethics or morals, molded behaviors, or social
experiences based on a family's preferences.
9. Phantom Curriculum
The messages prevalent in and through exposure to any type of media. These
components and messages play a major part in the enculturation of students
into the predominant meta-culture, or in acculturating students into narrower or
generational subcultures.
10. Null Curriculum

Refers to what is not taught. Not teaching some particular idea or sets of ideas may
be due to mandates from higher authorities, to a teacher’s lack of knowledge, or to
deeply ingrained assumptions and biases. Thus, giving students the message that
these elements are not important in their educational experiences or in our
society.
C. Elements/Components of the Curriculum

Curriculum plays an important role in an educational system. It is somehow a blueprint
which leads the teacher and the learner to reach the desired objectives. As a result,
authorities have to design it in such a way that it could lead the teacher and the learner
meet the desired learning outcomes.
The four components of the curriculum are:

1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives
2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
3. Curriculum Experience
4. Curriculum Evaluation
When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the

following:
1. What is to be done?
2. What subject matter is to be included?
3. What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?
4. What method and instruments will be used to assess the results of
the curriculum?
The components of a curriculum are distinct but interrelated to each other. These
four components should be always present in a curriculum. Curriculum experience
could not be effective if the content is not clearly defined.
The aims, goals and directions serve as the anchor of the learning journey, the
content or subject matter serve as the meat of the educational journey, curriculum
experience serves as the hands –on exposure to the real spectrum of learning and
finally the curriculum evaluation serves as the barometer as to how far had the
learners understood on the educational journey.
1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

Aims, goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”, the subject
matter/content: what subject matter is to be included, the learning experience”
what instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed, and the
evaluation approaches, while curriculum evaluation is“ what methods and
instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum.
All schools shall aim to:

1. inculcate patriotism and nationalism;
2. foster love of humanity;
3. promote respect for human rights;
4. appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of
the country;
5. teach the rights and duties of citizenship;
6. strengthen ethical and spiritual values;
7. develop moral character and personal discipline;
8. encourage critical and creative thinking;
9. broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote
vocational efficiency.
Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act 1982)

- Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values.
- Provide learning experiences.
- Promote and intensify knowledge.
- Promote work experiences
Aims of Secondary Education

- Continue to promote the objectives of elementary education
- Discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students
Aims of Tertiary Education

- Provide general education program
- Train the nation’s manpower in the skills
- Develop the professions
- Develop the professions
- Advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge
The school’s mission statement, spells out how it intends to carry out its vision.
The mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after
having been educated over a certain period of time.The mission targets to produce
the kind of persons the students will become after having been educated over a
certain period of time.
Examples of school mission

• To produce globally competitive lifelong learners
• Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the
upliftment of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality
instruction, updated facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times.
The school’s vision is a clear concept of what the institution should would like to
become in the future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to
which the school staff, faculty, students perform individually or collectively.
Examples of a school’s vision

• A model performing high school where students are equipped with
knowledge, skills and strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
• Commits to the Exemplary Christian Education for Life and responsive to the
needs of the total person and the world.
The school’s vision and mission are further translated into goals which are broad
statements or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may
include the learners, the society and the fund of knowledge.
In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each
learner. These are called educational objectives.
Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager defined educational objectives in two ways:
1. explicit formulation of the ways in which students are expected to be

changed by the educative process;
2. intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in
learners.
Examples of Goals
• Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts
• Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the
university and community
Benjamin Blooms and his associates classified three big domains of objectives.
These are cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Each domain is composed
of specific skills, attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy or levels.
The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to
capture what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission
statement and objectives. Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the
curriculum is to be acted upon and try what to drive at.
2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter
In the same manner, curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be

learned in school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are
accomplished. According to Gerome Bruner, “Knowledge is a model we construct
to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience”.
A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized

knowledge in distilled form to a new generation of young learners.
The traditional sources of what is taught and learned in school is precisely the
foundation of knowledge, therefore, the sciences and humanities provide the basis of
selecting the content of school learning.
In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and

continuity form a sound content.
Subject areas in basic or general education:
• Communication Arts – skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as

well as effective use of language in daily living.
• Mathematics – numeric and computational skills, geometry and
measurement, algebra, logic and reasoning.
• Science – branches of the natural sciences, exploration and discovery and
use of scientific method of investigation.
• Social S t u d i e s – basic elements of Geography, History, Sociology,
Anthropology, Economics, Civics, Political Science and Psychology.
• Music – basic music theory, practice in listening, singing, playing musical
instruments and music preparations.
• Physical Education – health and physical fitness, individual and team sports,
spectatorship and music preparation.
• Vocational Education – psychomotor and manipulative skills.
Some criteria which can be used in the selection of subject matter

content or knowledge for the curriculum.
The prime guiding principle for content selection is

helping the learner attain self-sufficiency in learning in
Self-sufficiency the most economical manner. Economy means less
teaching effort and educational resources, less learners’
effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.
Content or subject matter is significant if;
a. it will contribute to basic ideas, concepts, principles
and generalizations to achieve the overall aim of the
Significance curriculum;
b. it will develop the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
skills of the learners;
c. if the cultural aspects will be considered.
The authenticity of the subject matter. Subject matter
should be checked or verified at regular intervals to
Validity determine if the content that was originally valid
continues to be.

This is the key criterion for a learner- centered
curriculum. A learner will value the content if it is
Interest meaningful to him/her. Students’ interests should be
adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior
experiences, educational and social value of their
interest among others.
Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be
Utility relative to the learner who is going to use it. Usefulness
may be either for the present or the future.
Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the
Learnability range of the experiences of the learners.
Feasibility Content selection should be considered within the
context of the existing reality in schools, in society and
government
Other considerations that maybe used in the selection of the learning content;
a. frequently and commonly used in daily life;
b. suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students;
c. valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of a future career;
d. related with other subject areas;
e. important in the transfer of learning
Basic Principles of Curriculum Content
Content should be fairly distributed in the depth and

Balance breadth. This will guarantee that significant contents
should be covered to avoid too much or too little of
the contents needed within the time collection
Articulation The content complexity progress with the educational
levels, vertically or horizontally, across the same
discipline smooth connections or bridging should be
provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the
content.
The logical arrangement of the content refers to the
sequence or order. The pattern usually is from easy
Sequence to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is
current to something in the future.
Integration Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or
in isolation. Contents should be infused in other
disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a
holistic or unified view of curriculum instead of
segmentation.

Content when viewed as a curriculum should
continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now,
and where it will in the future. It should be perennial.
Continuity It endures time. Constant repetition, reinforcement
and enhancement of content are all elements of
continuity.
3. Curriculum Experience
For the third component, the curriculum experience, instructional strategies and
methods are the core of the curriculum. These instructional strategies and
methods will put into action the goals and use of the content in order to produce an
outcome. These will include a multitude of teaching methods and educational
activities which will enhance learning.
Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, interacting with

computer programs, field trips and other experiential learning will also form part of
the repertoire of teaching.
These would convert the written curriculum to instruction. Moreover, mastery is the
function of the teacher direction and student activity with the teacher supervision.
Different instructional strategies provide the experiences. The instructional

strategies and methods will put into action the goals and the use of contents in order
to produce an outcome. Teaching strategies convert the written curriculum into
action. Both the teacher and the learner take actions to facilitate learning. The action
are based on planned objectives, the subject matter to be taken and the support
materials to be used.
Guides for the selection and use of methods:

• Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate
the objectives into action.
• There is no single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on
the learning objectives, the learners and skill of the teacher.
• Teaching method should stimulate the learners desire to develop the
cognitive, affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual.
• In the choice of the teaching methods, learning styles of the students
should be considered.
• Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in
the three domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
• Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods.
4. Curriculum Evaluation
For the fourth component, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective

curriculum. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and
product of the curriculum.

All curricula to be effective must have the element of evaluation (Worthen and
Sanders, 1987). This refer to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or
value of the program, process, product of the curriculum. Evaluation is meeting the
goals and matching them with the intended outcomes. There are different evaluation
methods that can be utilized like diagnostic, placement, formative or summative
evaluation or the norm or criterion referenced evaluation.
Suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation:

• Focus on one particular component of the curriculum.
• Collect or gather the information.
• Organize the information.
• Analyze information.
• Report the information.
• Recycle the information.
REFERENCES
Bilbao, P., Lucido, P. et.al. (2014) Curricular Development for Teachers. Cubao,
Quezon City; Lorimar Publishing.
Andres, T. and F. Francisco (1989) Curriculum Development in the Philippine
Setting. Manila; National Bookstore
Colin J. Marsh. (2014) Key Concepts for Understanding Curriculum / ISBN 0-415-
31918-8 ;Routledge Falmer

UNIT II - FOUNDATIONS OF
CURRICULUM

CURRICULAR FOUNDATIONS
This unit includes the study of the fundamental research-based concepts and
principles in the foundations of curriculum such as philosophical, psychological,
historical-sociological and legal which serve as foundation to engage prospective
teachers as curricularists.
This unit shall emphasize the more active role of the teacher in planning,
implementing and evaluating school curriculum as well as in managing school
curriculum change vis-à-vis various context of teaching-learning and curricular
reforms.
PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum?
Philosophy helps us answer the following: What are schools for? Why do we need
to study? How can we learn the content of the subject? Who will teach us the content
of the subject?
Philosophy provides the educators a framework for organizing schools and

classrooms, to determine the goals of education, its content, organization,
methodologies to be applied and the process of teaching and learning.
PHILOSOPHIES OF CURRICULUM
There are four philosophies of curriculum namely: Perennialism, Essentialism,

Progressivism and Reconstructionism.
Perennialism- is the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy, has its
roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Perennialism is a teacher-centered
educational philosophy that focuses on everlasting ideas and universal truths. This
philosophy suggests that the focus of education should be the ideas and truths that
are always valid and have lasted for centuries believing the ideas are as relevant
and meaningful today as when they were written.
Essentialism – comes from the word “essential” which means the main things or the
basics. It was originally popularized in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the
1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. Essentialism is a philosophy which
instills in the students the essentials or basics of academic knowledge and character
development. Essentialism philosophy believes that teachers should instill traditional
moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model
citizens.
Progressivism- is a philosophy that argues that education must be based on the

fact that humans are by nature social and learn best in real-life activities with other
people. Progressive education emphasized the need to learn by doing. Dewey
believed that human beings learn through a ‘hands-on’, approach and allow learner’s
to realize their interests and potential.
Reconstructionism- is a philosophy that favor reform and argue that students must
be taught how to bring about change. Students are to study social problems and
think of ways to improve society. One proponent of Reconstructionism was George
Counts (1932).
PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Psychology is a discipline devoted to the study of behavior, mind and thought. When
applied to teaching and learning, it provides the basis for understanding how
students learn and understand a body of knowledge.
There are four psychological perspectives that have had an impact on curriculum,
namely: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Humanism and Constructivism.
Behaviorism - is the theory that human behavior consists of reflexes and behaviors
learned through conditioning. Learning occurs as a result of responses to stimuli in
the environment that are reinforced by adults and others, as well as from feedback
from actions on objects. The teacher can help students learn by conditioning them
through identifying the desired behaviors in measurable, observable terms, recording
these behaviors and their frequencies, identifying appropriate reinforcer for each
desired behavior and providing the reinforce as soon as the student displays the
behavior.
Cognitivism – focuses on the conceptualization of students’ learning processes and

address the issues of how information is received, organized, stored and retrieved by
the mind. The learner is viewed as a very active participant in the learning process. It
emphasizes also the role that environmental conditions play in facilitating learning.
Instructional explanations, demonstrations and illustrative examples are all
considered to be instrumental in guiding student learning.
Constructivism - is the psychological foundation which believe that the learner

actively constructs his or her own understandings of reality through interaction with
objects, events and people in the environment and reflecting on those interactions.
Learners are not passive recipients of information but are active agents engaging in
constructing their own knowledge.
Humanism- believes that the learner should be in control of his or her own destiny.
Since the learner should become a fully autonomous person, personal freedom,
choice and responsibility are the focus. The learner is self-motivated to achieve
towards the highest level possible. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism.

HISTORICAL- SOCIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM
Historical Foundation of the Curriculum
There are major events in the life of the Filipinos that have great impact on the
educational system. Three colonizers dominated the Filipinos and used education in
different ways to spread their principles and beliefs. Because of this, education in our
country has undergone various changes throughout the years. Pre-Hispanic Filipinos
had no formal schools. Learning began in the home. Education was oral, practical
and hands-on. Pre-Spanish children were taught reading, writing and arithmetic by
their parents.
Spanish Government
The arrival of the Spaniards in the Philippines paved way to the establishments of
schools in the country. Religion was a compulsory subject at all levels-from the
primary schools to the universities. Establishment of normal school for the training
of teachers with a mastery of the Spanish language.
Although, the Spanish government exerted effort to educate the Filipinos, basic
education remained inadequate and defective. The educational system was
characterized by the absence of a systematic government supervision of the
schools, over-emphasis on religion, limited and irrelevant curriculum, obsolete
teaching method, poor classroom facilities and inadequate instructional materials.
There was also racial discrimination against Filipino students and absence of
academic freedom.
American Government
There were three levels of education during the American period -the elementary,
secondary and college. Higher education was promoted by the Americans, the
Public Schools- the University of the Philippines in 1908 and the Philippine Normal
School; the Private Schools- Siliman University in1901, Centro Escolar University
in 1907 and the Philippine Women’s University in 1919 were created and started.
Americans encourage Filipino in the field of teaching. Outstanding Filipino scholars
were sent to US to train as teachers. Americans restored damaged school houses,
build new ones and conduct classes. They infused their students the spirit of
democracy and progress as well as fair play.
Japanese Government
The Japanese period recognized the important role of education in realizing their
vision of a New Order in Asia and emphasized the six basic principles. They
promoted the vocational courses and inspire people with the spirit of love and labor.
On October 14, 1943, the Japanese sponsored Republic created the Ministry of
Education. There were important changes in the curriculum this period. The class
size increased to 60, no summer vacation for students, deleted anti-Asian opinions,
American symbols and banned the singing of American songs. Nihongo was used as
means of introducing and cultivating love for Japanese culture.
After World War II, in 1947, by the virtue of Executive Order no. 94, the
Department of Instruction was changed to “Department of Education”. During this
period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to the
Bureau of Public and Private Schools.
Education after 1940

The objective of the Philippine Education was to established “integrated, nationalistic,
and democracy- inspired educational system” which include the following:
1. Inculcate moral and spiritual values inspired by an abiding faith in God.
2. To develop an enlighten, patriotic, useful and upright citizenry in a
democratic society.
3. Conservation of the national resources.
4. Perpetuation of our desirable values.
5. Promote the science, arts and letter.
Martial Law period

The Department of Education became the Department of Education and Culture in
1972, the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 and with the Education Act of
1982, the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports. A bilingual education scheme
was established in 1974, requiring Filipino and English to be used in schools. Science
and Math subjects as well as English language and literature classes were taught
in English while other subjects were taught in Filipino.
From 1986 to the present

The bilingual policy in education was reiterated in the 1987 Constitution of the
Philippines. The Congress passed Republic Act 7722 and Republic Act 7796 in
1994, creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). The institute governing basic
education was thus renamed in 2001 as the Department of Education (DepEd).
Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (Kto12)

Kto12 Strength:
The Kto12 curriculum shall provide a twelve (12) year basic education; pursue
protective employment, entrepreneurship and higher educational studies; graduates
is expected to be equipped with 21st century skills.
Kto12 Weaknesses:
The Kto12 curriculum was seen as a burden for average Filipino family, it does not
address the basic problems of education (classrooms, chairs, books etc.)
Bases of K to 12 Implementation:
Mastery of basic competencies is insufficient due to congested curriculum.
Philippines is the only remaining country in Asia with a ten (10) year basic education
program. Use of spiral progression approach to ensure mastery of knowledge and
skills in every level.
Curriculum Tracks:
The students who will enroll in Senior High School can choose among four
tracks: •Academic •Technical-Vocational-Livelihood •Sports track •Arts and Design
track. Academic track includes the following strands: Business, Accountancy,
Management (BAM), Humanities and Social Sciences (HUMSS), Science,
technology, engineering, mathematics (STEM) General Academic Strand (GAS).
Sociological Foundations of the Curriculum
Schools are part of the society and exist for the society. Society influences society
through its curriculum. Schools, through their teaching of the curriculum, can shape
and mold society and society in turn can impact the curriculum. Schools exist within
the context of society and influence culture which in turn shapes the curriculum. A
curriculum should be able to prepare students for the present and the future. It
should address the wants and needs of the learners by responding to social
conditions locally, nationally and globally.
LEGAL FOUNDATIONS OF THE CURRICULUM
The four dimensions of the legal bases of Philippine Education are the following:
1. The Philippine Constitution of 1987
2. The Educational Decree 6-A
3. The Educational Act of 1982 and
4. The Educational Act of 1994
Philippine Constitution of 1987 Article XIV: Education, Science and Technology,

Arts, Culture and Sports states that:
 Quality education accessible to all.
 Complete, adequate, and integrated relevant education.
 FREE public education in the elementary and high school levels.
 Elementary education is COMPULSORY for all children of school age.
 Scholarship programs to deserving students especially to the
underprivileged.
 Non-formal, informal and indigenous learning systems.
 Training in civics, vocational efficiency, and other skills to adults, the
disabled, and out-of-school youth.
The Educational Decree No. 6-A – this decree shall be known as the Educational
Development Decree of 1972 which emphasized the following:
 To strengthen national consciousness and promote desirable cultural

values in a changing world.
 Respond effectively to changing needs and conditions of the nation
through a system of educational planning and evaluation.
The Education Act of 1982 - was an act providing for the establishment and
maintenance of an integrated system of education. ... In accordance with Section 2,
this act shall apply to and govern both formal and non- formal system in public and
private schools in all levels of the entire educational system.
The Educational Act of 1994

The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) was established by virtue of
Republic Act No. 7722 otherwise known as the Higher Education Act of 1994, which
was signed into law on May 18, 1994. The creation of the Commission abolished the
Bureau of Higher Education, and confined the jurisdiction of the Department of
Education (DepEd) to elementary and secondary levels of education. The CHED is
under the Office of the President. It covers both public and private higher educational
institutions as well as the degree granting programs in all postsecondary educational
institutions. Pursuant to Republic Act No. 7722, the CHED is mandated to:
 promote quality education
 broaden access to higher education
 protect academic freedom for continuing intellectual growth and
 ensure advancement of learning and research.
REFERENCES:
Aleyan, C., Education act-of-1982 Published in Education, Feb 13, 2017 Ertmer,
P.A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, cognitivism,
constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional
design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43-71.
Glo, John Arvin, Historical Foundations of Curriculum in the Philippines,
published May 6,2017,
Reyes E., Dizon E. and Villena D.K. Curriculum Development, copyright 2015,
Adriana Publishing Co.Inc.
Simborio,E. Legal Bases of Philippine Education, published October 2014
Online Sources :
https://study.com/academy/answer/what-is-behaviorism-in-philosophy-of-
education.html
https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP4.html
https://www.slideshare.net/johnarvin18/historical-foundations-of-curriculum-in-the-
philippines.
https://www.google.com/search?q=2.+The+Educational+Decree+6-
A&oq=2.%09The+Educational+Decree+6-
A&aqs=chrome..69i57.2171j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 ched.gov.ph,
Executive Summary-CHED,2017

Unit III: Phases and Processes
of Curriculum Development

CURRICULUM PLANNING
Selecting and structuring experiences are the primary stage that curriculum
workers should do to provide more appropriate and properly sequenced learning
experiences to the learners. They need to identify who will write, the kind of
design, and the curriculum's expected outcome. Teachers' involvement in this
process called upon because of their knowledge of expertise in a particular subject
area. Furthermore, this activity is done before the actual implementation of the
curriculum. This process of curriculum development is called curriculum planning.
The curriculum is an integral part of every school. Having acknowledged the

importance of the curriculum, this unit discusses the procedures in the curriculum-
making process, including its sources and influences. It will further describe how
these influences affect the planning of the curriculum. Moreover, two samples of
curriculum models show the elements of curriculum planning, such as goals and
objectives, curriculum content, selecting learning resources, and assessment.
We must equip ourselves with the different terminologies involved in the field of
curriculum. The knowledge of these terminologies can help us effectively participate
in curriculum planning activities. Planning a curriculum is very crucial;
n e v e r t h e l e s s , before we fully define what curriculum planning is, let us first
a short discussion on what a curriculum plan. A curriculum plan is the advance
arrangement of learning experiences for a particular set of learners (Andres &
Francisco, 1989). The product of the curriculum plan is called a curriculum guide. In
the Philippines, the curriculum guides provided by the Department of Education
(DepEd). These guides are composed of carefully selected curriculum standards
and contents tailored to address the characteristics of each group of learners and
the demands of the society, which are the fruits of proper and appropriate
curriculum planning.
Curriculum planning is the primary stage in developing a curriculum. It is a complex

activity involving the interplay of ideas from the curriculum field and other related
disciplines. Moreover, it is a process of selecting the best learning experiences
available for the learners. Hence, the ultimate concern of curriculum planning is on
the experiences and opportunities of the learners.
According to experts in the field, like Ralph Tyler, we can say that when we talk about
curriculum, we identified three significant sources of curriculum – subject matter,
society, and learners (Pawilen, 2015). Curriculum workers must have a thorough
understanding of these sources. The nature of the subject matter should be
understood to provide knowledge and skills vital to the discipline's nature.
Understanding society's nature can provide a more comprehensive idea of the
needs, demands, and problems that we need to address when we develop a
curriculum. Moreover, as the largest member of the school, identifying the nature
of the learners is essential in curriculum development. We need to identify the
learners' needs, nature, interests, learning styles, learning preferences, and thinking
styles. Learners are the most critical stakeholders of the school and the direct
subject of the curriculum. Hence, it is essential to include them as one of the
curriculum sources, particularly in selecting the curriculum (Tyler, 1949).
Subject Matter
The subject matter is the topics or content knowledge that we want our learners to
learn. It can also be called discipline. Tyler (1949) stated that the nature of subject
matter or discipline as one of the primary sources of the curriculum. He reiterated
that each subject is unique in terms of design and content. Each subject matter
targets a particular skill which is different from the other subject. On the other
hand, some subjects target the same skills, concepts, and strands that may be
possible points for integration (Pawilen, 2015).
In the Philippines, the trifocal of education consists of the Department of Education

(DepED), Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Technical Education Skills
Development Authority (TESDA). Each department provides different subject matter
or discipline according to their target clientele or learners. For example, the
Department of Education (DepEd) provides the subject matter for the primary level.
For educators to fully understand the nature of the subject matter for this
department, they need to study the curriculum framework, curriculum goals,
descriptions, standards, and competencies. Doing this may help educators to
understand what and how subject matters should teach.
CHED prescribed guidelines in different courses. The curriculum is designed

based on the policies mandated by the government for different institutions. The
curriculum requirements followed on the department's memorandum or the CHED
Memorandum Orders (CMOs) issued for different courses like the course title,
description, and credit.
Society
At present, we are living in a 21st-century society. This society demands individuals

who are not just literate but functionally literate. People should be knowledgeable
in solving and finding problems, formulating solutions to problems, creative and
critical thinkers are among the skills needed to survive. Hence, there is a need to
understand the nature of society when developing a curriculum. Curriculum workers
should consider providing a curriculum adapted to the changes in society and new
forms of knowledge that produce a world-class workforce (Pawilen, 2015).
Aside from the fact that society is changing, let us not forget that as curriculum
workers, we need to understand the primary considerations when we talk about
society as an essential curriculum source. Teachers, as part of curriculum workers,
should have a full understanding of the culture, socioeconomic, and political
condition of the people in the community when selecting curriculum goals and
objectives, content, and learning experiences (Oliva, 2005; Pawilen, 2015). Their full
understanding of these considerations may lead them to provide a curriculum that
is relevant and responsive to society.
Learners
Knowledge about the nature of the learner is one of the critical sources of the
curriculum. Learners are different from each other. They are different in terms of
nature and needs. They come from different contexts, cultures, languages, learning
styles, types, and levels of motivation, even socioeconomic status and educational
background (Pawilen, 2015). Wraga (2017) added that learners' characteristics are
one of the ingredients in developing a curriculum. Hence, curriculum workers must
closely align the curriculum with the attributes of learners to provide responsive
and relevant learning experiences.
THE ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM PLANNING
Planning a curriculum is a crucial stage in curriculum development. It involves the

process of identifying and creating learning goals, opportunities, resources, and
expected outcomes. To do so, professionals in the different fields, particularly in
education, need to work together to create a relevant and responsive curriculum
tailored to the needs and characteristics of the learners, demands of the society,
and nature of the subject matter.
In 1940, Ralph Tyler developed a prototype model of curriculum development in

the scientific approach. This model is one of the best-known models in this field. In
his model, he presented four fundamental questions that guide curriculum works in
planning a curriculum. He believes that answering these questions provide purpose
and direction.
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What can educational learning experiences provide that are likely to
attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes taught?
These questions may be expressed into a four-step process: stating the objectives,
selecting learning experiences, organizing learning experiences, and evaluating the
curriculum. These steps will be discussed below:
Defining Objectives of the Learning Experience
Tyler recommended that curriculum workers should identify general objectives

gathered from different sources. After identifying numerous general objectives, they
need to filter the most important objectives to include in the curriculum. The selected
objectives are popularly known as instructional objectives. The term can refer to as
"goals," "educational ends," "educational purposes," and "behavioral objectives"
(Oliva, 2009).
The fundamental source of identifying the objective, according to Tyler, is the learner.
He emphasized the importance of finding out the interests of the learner, the
problem that he encounters, and what purpose he has in mind can provide the
information needed for formulating objectives (Maheshwari, 2015). Furthermore,
he was interested in knowing how learning related to society's issues and believed
studies of contemporary life provided information for learning objectives. The
educational objective should have originated from the three sources: learners,
society, and subject matter. After, the objectives extracted from the three sources
will be classified into two: the school's educational philosophy and knowledge of the
psychology of learning, which results in a final set of educational objectives.
Defining Learning Experience
Once the learning objectives are selected and refined, we will proceed to the next
step: the selection and organization of learning experiences. The term "learning
experience" refers to the interaction between the learner and the external conditions
in the environment to which he can react. The learning experience is not the content
that the teacher presented to the learners. Tyler argued that it deals with the
learning that takes place through the active behavior of the learners. They can
learn if they actively work on the learning experience and not on the activities
performed by the teacher. It is more about the interaction of learners to their
environment.
There are several principles in determining learning experiences:

1. Learners experience must be appropriate to the goals you want to
achieve;
2. Each learning experience must satisfy the learners;
3. Each design of learner learning experience should involve learners;
and
4. In one learning experience, learners can reach different objectives.
Organizing of Learning Activities for Attainment of the Defined Goals
Organizing and sequencing the learning activities are important because they
greatly influence the efficiency of instruction and the degree to which significant
educational changes brought about in the learners. According to Tyler (1949, as
mentioned by Maheshwari, 2015), there are three primary criteria in organizing
learning experiences: continuity, sequence, and integration. Learners need concrete
experiences to which subject matters are meaningfully connected. Through
discussion on the arrangement of learning experiences will be discussed in the next
lesson of this unit.
Evaluation and Assessment of the Learning Experiences
After presenting learning experiences to the learners, the teachers must

determine what learners have learned from the experience. Evaluation is the process
of determining to what extent the curriculum's educational objectives are realized
(Maheshwari, 2015). Tyler stated that identified learning objectives not only used
for selecting learning experiences but also to determine which part of the curriculum
and instruction should be appraised or revised. It is matching the initial objective with
the outcomes achieved by the learners.

An evaluation has two functions. These are called summative and formative
functions. The summative is the evaluation used to obtain data on the educational
goals achieved by the learners. Simultaneously, the formative is the evaluation
used to measure the learning process's effectiveness. Teachers must remember
that the process of assessment is critical to Tyler's Model. The results gathered from
the evaluation can have implications for the curriculum.
Hilda Taba, in 1962, presented a curriculum model as a reaction to Tyler's Model.

According to her, the curriculum should be designed by its users. For example,
teachers should have significant contributions to the curriculum development
process. They should begin by creating specific teaching-learning units for their
learners. The inductive approach to curriculum development should be used by
teachers - starting with specifics and building to a general design instead of the
traditional deductive approach.
Taba's Model modified Tyler's Model and presented seven steps that curriculum
workers can use in developing a curriculum.
● Diagnosis of needs or Needs analysis - In this model, the curriculum

workers start the process by identifying the needs of the learners for whom
the curriculum implemented. Identifying the needs of other sources like
society and other stakeholders can be useful in developing the curriculum.
● Formulation of objectives - After identifying the needs that require attention,

it is now for the curriculum workers to determine the specific objectives
accomplished.
● Selection of content - In this step, curriculum workers select the subject

matter that they want to include in the curriculum based on the stated
objectives per unit lesson. Further, they have to consider the validity and
significance of the content to be included.
● Organization of content - In this step, curriculum workers need to organize

and sequence the identified content accurately. They have to consider the
cognitive maturity of the learners, their academic achievement, and interest
areas.
● Selection of learning -activities - Depending on the content and its

sequence, curriculum workers, need to identify the suitable and appropriate
instructional methodologies that will help the learners involve themselves with
the content.
● Organization of learning-activities - The learning activities organized to

allow continuity of learning. There are pre-require for each activity. It provides
the learners with a challenge without compromising what the learners are
capable of.
● Evaluation - Evaluation purports to monitor learner's progress throughout the

year and how much of the objectives could achieved. The evaluation results
can help both the teachers and learners plan and adapt learning activities to
meet the objectives.

The samples above showed us the essential elements of curriculum planning.
These elements include the identification of learning objectives, content, learning
experiences, and evaluation. As curriculum workers, we need to know and become
familiar with these elements to create a responsive and relevant curriculum for our
learners. Likewise, the curriculum should follow different sources that affect the entire
curriculum.
In a nutshell, curriculum planning is part of the curriculum development process

that directly affects curriculum planning. These are the learners, society, and
s u bject-matter. The learners’ attributes, including their interests, learning styles,
learning preferences, and motivation, should be considered. Society is continuously
changing, and these changes become demanding. Hence, when planning a
curriculum, we need to consider the needs and demands of society. With this,
we can produce individuals that are suited to these demands. Last, different
subject matters have a different nature. Knowing the nature of each subject matter
can lead us to create an appropriate curriculum.
We have seen the different elements of curriculum planning from the Tyler Model
and Taba Model. Each model is unique but has similarities. The models showed us
the various elements needed for planning a curriculum. In a nutshell, we can say that
curriculum planning should involve identifying objectives, selecting content,
organizing content, and evaluating content. However, Taba Model pointed out the
importance of the diagnosis of needs. It can help us to identify the needs of the
learners as well as the needs of society.
References:
Maheshwari, V.K. (2015). Ralph W. Tyler – Curriculum Model. Retrieved

August 12, 2020, from http://www.vkmaheshwari.com/WP/?p=1894
Pawilen, G. T. (2015). Curriculum Development: A guide for teachers and

students. Manila: REX Bookstore.
Oliva, P. F. (2005). Developing the Curriculum, 7th Ed. US: Pearson

Education, Inc.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic Principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:

University of Chicago Press.

CURRICULUM DESIGN AND ORGANIZATION
Curriculum design is a term used to show the systematic organization of the four
elements of the curriculum. These elements are the goals, aims, and objectives,
content, learning activities, and evaluation. Designing a curriculum is not an easy
task for curriculum workers or teachers to do. It is a complicated process that needs
careful thought decision-making strategy. The success of the curriculum relies on
selecting the appropriate decision on arranging the curriculum components.
In this lesson, you shall provide knowledge regarding curriculum design and
organization. Specifically, you will learn about the approaches in curriculum
designing, types of curriculum design, elements of designing, and components of
curriculum design.
APPROACHES IN CURRICULUM DESIGNING
Curriculum design refers to the arrangement of the elements of a curriculum. The

curriculum elements should properly be organized because they are the essential
building blocks of any curriculum. From the organization of different curriculum
elements emerge various curriculum designs. The design of the curriculum differs
based on the understanding of the curriculum workers. For example, how do they
understand education and learning?
There are different approaches involved in designing the curriculum - philosophy,

sociology and culture, and psychology. The approaches are the foundation for
developing a responsive and relevant curriculum.
Philosophy
This approach is fundamental to all curriculum foundations. It is concerned with

making sense of what we encounter in our lives (Print, 1993). The understanding of
philosophy and comprehension of one's educational philosophy is essential to
create useful and intelligible statements about experiences that eventually can be
passed to the next generation. Indeed, the principal area of philosophical influence
in the curriculum found in the way curriculum workers handles the philosophical
issues.
One of the issues concerning teaching is what knowledge is worth the most. In the
curriculum design process, we select and organize knowledge and content. The
challenge is what should be selected to foster learners becoming literate and thinking
individuals. Hence, curriculum workers need careful reflection on how our selected
design and related educational materials facilitate symbol processes in knowledge
development. Unfortunately, most schools are playing with the symbols they are
putting in schools via textbooks. Let us always remember that mastering codes
are not synonymous with knowledge (Orstein & Hunkins, 2013)
Sociology and Culture
Our society is composed of different cultures. Learners who come to school bring
with them different cultures. They are diverse in religious belief, race, gender,
ethnicity, status, age, and disabilities. Hence, when designing a curriculum, one
of the critical factors are society and culture. Curriculum workers are planning
education that suits our multicultural society. That will help every child from every
different background live, work, and go on to lead successful lives in our melting
pot of society. Different related issues are emerging regarding the role of
educational institutions in society. Society's expectations for its higher education
institutions and these institutions' responses to society will reflect in the curriculum.
Every stakeholder has a different view on the relationship of the curriculum to the
society. There are times wherein a curriculum is appropriate to one society but not
with another society. For example, in the Philippines, a subject like sex education
has profound difficulty in our curriculum because of the resistance from some
religious groups. They will not tolerate a curriculum that does not follow their belief
system. However, some groups believe that including sex education to the
educational system will be beneficial to the leaners. In this case, we can say that
society has both positive and negative influences on the curriculum.
On the other hand, culture plays a significant role in curriculum development. Few
topics of discourse have caused the maximum amount of controversy in education
because of the curriculum. The challenge with the concept of culture is that it is
not easily understandable to organizational participants because people define
culture differently. Additionally, cultural impediments are often tougher to spot than
structural impediments, and so, more challenging to beat Culture influences the
educational change process at the institutional and departmental levels.
Psychology
The contribution of psychological sources to the foundation of the curriculum is

significant and growing. Psychology provides information about the teaching and
learning process. It finds answers on how a curriculum is organized to achieve
children's learning at the maximum level and what amount of information they can
absorb in learning the curriculum's different content.
The curriculum can draw upon psychology for at least five areas of information:
Educational objectives – Psychology helps curriculum workers to formulate and

phrase appropriate learning goals and objectives. It can help them determine
if the goal or objective is suitable to the various d evelopmental levels and ages of the
learners and, hence, attainable and not.
Learner characteristics – Understanding the uniqueness of learners can assist

curriculum workers in curriculum decision-making. The study of individual
differences of the learners can tell if learning experiences are responding in different
ways. Likewise, understanding of individual differences is most useful to the
curriculum workers. Remember that the more effective curricula in schools can
accommodate and address differences in learner skills and abilities.
Learning process – Possibly, the best contribution of psychology to the curriculum

is understanding how people learn. The curriculum worker who understands learning
and learning theory is in a command position to devise an appropriate curriculum
for learners. Moreover, the knowledge of learning is essential to the valid selection of

appropriate learning and teaching strategies.
Teaching methods – In school, understanding psychology is essential in selecting

appropriate learning experiences and conditions for learning. In selecting learning
experiences, the curriculum workers should have taken the accounts of psychological
factors such as learning theories, individual differences, teaching methodology, and
learning styles.
Evaluation procedures – Psychology provides direction for undertaking the

evaluation of learner and teacher performance. Educational psychologists have
developed a vast array of techniques for measuring the degree of children learning,
attitudes towards learning/teaching, and others, as well as the extent of teacher
effectiveness.
TYPES OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
When we talk about curriculum design, there are three essential elements of
curriculum design. These are subject-centered design, child- centered design, and
problem-centered design. However, Print (1988, as mentioned by Pawilen in 2015)
added another curriculum called the core learning design. Let us discuss the
significance of each one of them to curriculum development.
Subject-centered design
This design organized based on the subject. It revolves around the teaching of an
established body of content derived from the accumulated wisdom of the academic
discipline. The design is not learner-centered because it is not concerned with
the learners' attributes, such as the learning style compared to other designs. In this
design, the learners expected to acquire the content of a distinct subject. However,
this design is the most popular compared with the three other curriculum designs.
There are three specific designs under the subject-centered design. These are the
subject design, academic discipline design, and integrated design.
Subject Design
This design is probably the oldest and most widely used form of curriculum
organization found in school. The design is classified and organized based on
school subjects like Science, English, Mathematics, Filipino, and others, which
commonly offered at the elementary level (Pawilen, 2015). The subjects are
fragmented, and the integration is not the primary concern. Learners expect to
learn general knowledge for each subject.
Academic Discipline Design
This design is similar to the subject design. The curriculum's organization is

arranged based on academic disciplines like Biology, Physics, Chemistry, Literature,
Economics, and Philippine History. This type of design commonly used in high school
or college level.

Broad Field Design
This design developed to address the perceived weakness in the subject design. It
is based on the principles of integration or combining two or more related subjects
into a single broader and integrated field of study to avoid fragmentation and
compartmentalization of subjects. Print (1988) reiterated that this design is more
suited for younger learners and those who are less able to cope with the rigors
of subjects and academic discipline. There are three types of integration:
interdisciplinary, multidisciplinary, and core. Interdisciplinary involves combining two
or more subjects or disciplines into one activity, for example, Science and Health.
Multidisciplinary involves integrating three or more related subjects or disciplines, for
example, History, Geography, and Culture. While the core requires all the subjects
in the school curriculum to be put in one using a single theme, for example, "My
Community."
Learner-centered design
This design contrasts with the subject-centered design because it revolves around
the needs, interests, and goals of the learners. It acknowledges the individuality of
each learner and that each of them is unique and not uniform. This design aims to
empower the learners to develop their potentials from a relevant and responsive
curriculum.
There are two forms of learner-centered design: activity/experiences design and

the humanistic design.
Activity/experience design
This design is base on the learners' genuine needs and interests of learners that
will be the basis of the curriculum. Learners provided with activities that they do
because of the belief that children learn when they experience. In doing these
activities, they will develop skills such as communication, problem-solving, critical
and creative thinking skills, and collaborative skills, which are essential for them to
acquire and learn.
Humanistic design
The humanistic design focused on the meeting of individual needs in a conducive

and supportive learning environment. The curriculum is composed of learning
experiences that revolve around the holistic development of individuals. The aim of
this design is the development of a well-rounded and self-propelling individual.
Problem-centered design
Problem-centered design is a design that directs the attention of the learners in

solving real-life problems, both individual and social. The learners are required
to use what they have learned from different subjects or disciplines in solving
problems like persistent life situations, pollution, illegal drug abuse, peace and
order, traffic, garbage, and many others. Under this design are two kinds – the
thematic design and the problem design.

Thematic design
This design focuses on the theme. It suggests a thematic approach to integration.

Themes are classified based on human activities or different topics that are
interesting to learners. These are either concepts, guided questions, activities,
standards, or skills which the purpose is to provide holistic learning experiences
relevant and related to the learners' lives.
Problem design
This design argues that learners should encounter substantial real-life problems in
order to understand the real world. Learners exposed to different problems, and by
doing the activity, they can identify and formulate solutions to the problems.
Core learning design
This curriculum design focuses on learning a set of familiar subjects, disciplines,

courses, skills, or knowledge necessary for the learners to master (Pawilen, 2015).
The aim is to provide a uniform type of education based on a specific educational
philosophy. Further, it aims to provide education that is transformative and relevant
to all types of learners.
Core design
This design focuses on a set of collective learning, such as knowledge, skills, and
values that learners need to study before they graduate from college or move to
a different level.
National Core Design
This design is a set of subjects that learners are required to learn, and teachers are
required to teach in the whole country. For example, for primary level DepEd has its
national curriculum guide for kinder to grade 12, CHED released memorandum for
the different programs for the tertiary level.
There are two types of organizations in designing a curriculum. These are the
horizontal and vertical organization.
Horizontal organization
This organization refers to the arrangements of topics, themes, or courses offered in

the same period. It is concerned with the scope and horizontal integration, which
sometimes referred to as integration. This organization is the side-by-side
arrangement of curriculum elements. For example, a Chemistry class might require
learners to take Algebra II to balance the molecules. For the primary level, Social
studies curriculum is the integration of different subjects such as History, Geography,
Civics, and Culture.

Vertical organization
This organization focuses on the spiral progression of curriculum content. It

establishes skills and knowledge which are used and further developed across
a whole program of study. The organization of content centers on sequence and
continuity. For example, the skills and knowledge of Mathematics taught in Kinder to
Grade 6. The contents in the curriculum for Mathematics distributed for Kinder to
Grade 6 curriculum.
ELEMENTS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
In the previous part of this lesson, you have learned about the various approaches
and elements of curriculum design. In designing a curriculum, it is necessary to
consider how its parts are interrelated. Thinking about the curriculum plan and the
arrangement of its part addresses the essence of curriculum design. The parts
should promote the wholeness of the curriculum (Oliva, 2005).
When designing a curriculum, we always have to consider the philosophical and
learning theories to determine if our design is related to our belief concerning people,
what and how they learn, and how they should use their acquired knowledge.
Curriculum design deals with the nature and arrangement of four necessary parts:
objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation—a discussion on these
components already done in the previous lessons.
As curriculum workers, we should always remember the connection of components

to each other. To see the relationship between the four components, we can
then use the following questions as a guide (Oliva, 2005).
1. What should be done?

2. What subject matter should be included?
3. What instructional strategies, resources, and activities should be
employed?
4. What methods and instruments should be used to appraise the result of
the curriculum?

Curriculum design involves philosophical, theoretical, and practical issues. The
design of the curriculum is very much affected by the beliefs of the curriculum
worker. These ideas greatly influence our interpretation and selection of objectives,
selection and organization of content, how to teach or deliver the curriculum content,
and the judgment about how to evaluate the entire curriculum. To clarify the ideas
of workers when designing a curriculum, they must consider several sources that
can use as a foundation. These sources are science, society, eternal truths, and
divine will be identified by Ronald Doll.
COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN
Curriculum design addresses the relationship between different components. These

components are scope, sequence, continuity, integration, articulation, and balance.
Scope
The scope is all the educational experiences that engage learners in learning.
Domains such as cognitive, psychomotor, and affective learnings are the prime
considerations in deciding on the scope. When we say educational experiences, it
includes all the content, topics, learning experiences, and organizing threads.
Curriculum designers should consider the breadth and depth of the content. Hence,
teachers, as curriculum designers, should make careful decision-making in what
included in the curriculum's scope. The scope can be a full year scope, monthly, or
weekly, but sometimes it is divided into units or lessons organized in a certain period
of hours.
Sequence
Sequence refers to the arrangement of contents and experiences based on either

logic of the subject matter or the developmental patterns of growth of the cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor domains. Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) stated that
curriculum workers could use well-accepted principles in sequencing contents as
introduced by Smith, Stanley, and Shore.
● Simple-to-complex learning
It indicates that content is optimally organized in a sequence proceeding from
simple subordinate components to complex components, highlighting
interrelationships among components.
● Prerequisite learning
It is similar to part-to-whole learning. It works on the assumption that bits of
information must be grasped before other bits can be comprehended.
● Whole-to-part learning
It receives support from cognitive psychologists. They urged the curriculum to
arrange so that the content or experience presented in an overview provides
learners with a general idea of the information or situation.
● Chronological learning

It refers to content whose sequence reflects the times of real-world occurrences.
History, political science, and world events frequently are organized chronologically.
Continuity
It is the vertical repetition of curriculum components. This element enables

learners to strengthen the steadiness of learning and development skills. Ideas
and skills that teachers believe learners should develop over time reappear over the
curriculum (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013). Jerome Bruner calls continuity a spiral
curriculum. He reiterates that the curriculum should be organized consistently with
interrelationships among the essential ideas and structures of every primary subject.
Integration
Everything in the world is integrated and interconnected. It is the main essence of

integration as an element of curriculum design. Integration refers to the connection
of all types of knowledge and experiences contained within the curriculum plan. It
links all the curriculum pieces for the learners to understand and understand
knowledge as unified rather than isolated. In other words, subject matter content
erased, and isolation eliminated.
Articulation
This component refers to the vertical or horizontal interrelatedness of various facets

of the curriculum. Vertical articulation is the sequence of content from one grade
level to another. While horizontal articulation happens simultaneously, social studies
in grade six are related to science in grade 6. Articulation is challenging to achieve,
and few school districts have developed procedures by which the interrelatedness
among subjects clearly defined.
Balance
This component refers to giving appropriate weight to every aspect of the planning.
In an exceedingly balanced curriculum, learners can acquire and use knowledge in
ways in which advance their personal, social, and intellectual goals. However,
Doll (n.d.) detected that achieving balance is difficult because we strive to localize
and individualize the curriculum while trying to keep up a typical content. Keeping
the curriculum balanced requires continuous fine-tuning also as a balance in our
philosophy and psychology of learning.
Curriculum design is the arrangement of the elements of the curriculum. It is one of

the essential stages of curriculum development. There are several approaches to
curriculum design that contribute to the success of the curriculum. These
approaches are philosophy which deals with the various ideas on how individuals
learn and acquire knowledge, sociology and culture provide the basis of content for
curricula. Thus the school curriculum reflects the nature of society. On the other
hand, culture-induced bias is the primary concern of curriculum developers and
last, psychology, which includes the educational objectives, learner's

characteristics, learning processes, teaching methods, and evaluation procedures.
Four types of curriculum designs are unique to each other. These are subject-
centered design, learner-centered design, problem-centered design, and core
design. Design forces in the curriculum are referred to as horizontal organization and
are concerned with the arrangement of curriculum competencies at any one point
in time. In contrast, the vertical organization addresses the relationship between
curriculum components over the entire duration of the curriculum's application.
The different parts of any curriculum are known as curriculum elements. They are
the essential building blocks of any curriculum that may be arranged in various ways
to produce different designs. In designing a curriculum, various components should
be involved. These components are scope, sequence continuity, integration,
articulation, and balance.
REFERENCES
Oliva, P. F. (2005). Developing the Curriculum, 7th Ed. US: Pearson

Education, Inc.
Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (2013). Curriculum Foundations, Principles, and
Issues. US; Pearson Education Inc.
Pawilen, G. T. (2015). Curriculum Development: A guide for teachers and
students. Manila: REX Bookstore.
Print, M. (1993). Curriculum Development and Design, 2nd Ed. Australia: Allen
& Unwin.
Tyler, R. (1949). Basic Principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.

CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION
After you have laying plans and deign in the curriculum, the next thing to do is to
implement it. As a teacher this is a major role that you do in the school. Many of the
curricula that you use may have been recommended or written down. Your task is
to implement such. Daily, your plans should be ready for implementation. The
success of learning depends on your implementation effort.
There is a miniscule curriculum like your lesson plan or a big one like the K – 12
Curricula. You will be both an implementer and a manager of this curricula. You will
put action to what has been planned and designed. It is you, a teacher, who will add
more meaning to the various activities in the classroom. This is what we call
teaching styles. You have to make the day of learners interesting, engaging and
unforgettable. No curriculum should stop at planning and designing phase. It has to
be implemented.
We hear teachers say: “Here goes again, another curricular change. We are already
overloaded! Why do we have to do this?” This is a common voice that we hear from
teachers and implementers. But as we mentioned earlier, change is inevitable from
curriculum development. To be relevant, we need to change – a change for
better and it can be obviously seen through implementation. As future teachers,
what changes do you foresee in the curriculum after 5 years?
CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION DEFINED
Following the Curriculum Models of Tyler, Taba, Saylor, and Alexander and Lewis,
is the next step to curriculum designing which is curriculum implementing. This is
the phase where teacher action takes place. It is one of the most crucial process
in curriculum development although many education planners would say: “A good
plan is work half done”. If this is so, then the other half of the success of
curriculum development is rests in the hands of implementer who is the teacher.
Curriculum implementation means putting into practice the written curriculum that
has been design in syllabi, course of study, curricular grades and subjects. It is the
practice where the learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills and
attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in
society. (SADC MoE Africa, 2000)
Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum implementation as the interaction

between the curricula that has been written and planned and the persons(teachers)
who are in charged to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the
following:
 Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum

 Changed in knowledge, actions and attitudes of persons involved.
 Change in behavior using new strategies and resources.
 Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.

Loucks and Lieberman defined it as the trying out of a new practice and what it
looks like when actually used in school system. It simply means that implementation
should bring desired change and improvement.
In the classroom context, curriculum implementation means “teaching” what has

been written in lesson plan. Implementing means using the plan as a guide to
engage with the learners in the teaching-learning process with end in view that
learning has occurred and learning outcomes have been achieved. It involves the
different strategies of teaching with the support instructional materials to go with the
strategy.
In a larger scale, curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into

operation with the different implementing agenda. Curriculum implementation takes
place in a class, a school, a district, a division or the whole educational system. In
higher education, curriculum implementation happens for the course, the degree
program, the institution or the whole higher education system. It requires time,
money, personal interaction, personal contacts and support.
FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS IN CURRICULUM CHANGE
According to Levin, change will be better if the restraining process shall be

decreased, rather than increasing the driving force. As Curricularist, how would you
do this?
Let us look first at the different changes that occur in the curriculum. It is important
to identify these as part of understanding of curriculum implementation.

Categories of Curriculum Change
1. Substitution- Replace the present with a new one
2. Alteration- Introduce minor changes or modification on the current one
3. Restructuring- Introduce major modification of the current curriculum
4. Perturbation- Changes happen within a fairly short time
5. Value Orientation- Respond to shift in emphasis within the
vision/mission of the school
Regardless of the kind of change in curriculum and implementation, the process of

change may contain three important elements. As a process, curriculum
implementation should be developmental, participatory and supportive.
Developmental – should develop multi-perspective and make learning

autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust and
appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher. There should be
teacher support in trying new task, reflection in the new experiences
and challenge.
Participatory – for curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be

participatory, especially because other stakeholder like peers, school
leader, parents and curriculum specialist necessary.
Supportive - curriculum implementation is required in the process of change.

Material support like supplies, equipment, conductive learning
environment like classroom, laboratory should make available.
Time is an important commodity for a successful change process. For any innovation
to be fully implemented, period of three to five years to institutionalize a curriculum
is suggested. Time is needed by the teachers to plan, adapt, train or practice,
provide the necessary requirements and get support. Time is also needed to
determine when the implementation starts and when it will conclude, since curriculum
implementation is time-bound.
Support from peers, principals and external stakeholders will add to the success of
implementation. When the teachers share idea, work together, solve problems,
create new materials and celebrate success, more likely that curriculum
implementation will be welcomed.
REFERENCES
Bilbao, Purita P., Dayagbil, Filomena T., & Corpuz, Brenda B. (2015) Curriculum
Development for Teachers. Quezon City: Lorimar Publishing, Inc.
http://www.fnbaldeo.com/EDCI547/Resource%20Materials/Philosophical
%20Foundations%20of%20Curriculum%202.pdf

CURRICULUM EVALUATION
Curriculum evaluation is a component of curriculum development that responds

to public accountability. It looks into educational reforms or innovations that happen
in the teacher’s classroom, the school district, division or the whole educational
system as well. It is establishing the merit and worth of a curriculum. Merit refers
to the value and worth of the curriculum. Test results will only be used as one of the
piece evidence of evaluation. For in the end, the purpose of evaluation is to improve
and not to prove.
Curriculum evaluation is premised on the concept of alignment of planned, written

and implemented curriculum. It is an attempt to answer two big questions as:
1. Do planned courses, programs, activities as written and implemented
produce desired outcomes?
2. How can these school curricula be improved?
This lesson is all about curriculum evaluation on the context of its definition and the
role of the teacher as an evaluator. It will present the ways of evaluating the
curriculum as written, planned or implemented. It will reference popular curriculum
models currently used in educational programs here and abroad.
CURRICULUM EVALUATION: A PROCESS AND A TOOL
Do you have a clear understanding of what curriculum evaluation is all about? Is it

anonymous to assessment of learning? Analysis of the various definitions reveals
that evaluation is both a process and a tool. As a process it follows a procedure
based on models and frameworks to get to the desired results. As a tool, it will help
teachers and program implementers to judge the worth and merit of the program
and innovation or curricular change. For both process and a tool, the results of
evaluation will be the basis to IMPROVE curriculum.
Let’s look at how curricularist define curriculum evaluation. Read what each of them
say.
Persons Definition
Ornstein and Curriculum evaluations is a process done in order to
Hunkins (1998) gather data that enables one to decide whether to accept,
change, eliminate the whole curriculum of a textbook
Evaluation answers two questions: 1. Do planned learning
McNeil, J. (1977) opportunities, programs, courses and activities as
developed and organized actually produced desired
result? 2. How can a curriculum best be improved?
Evaluation is to identify the weaknesses and strengths as
Gay, L. (1985) well as problems encountered in the implementation, to
improve curriculum development process. It is to
determine effectiveness of and the returns on affected
finance.

It is a process of delivering, obtaining and providing useful
Oliva, P. (1988) information for judging alternatives for purpose of
identifying or eliminating the curriculum.
Reasons for Curriculum Evaluation
Why is there a need to evaluate a curriculum? The curriculum processes

presented by Tyler, Taba and others at the end of the line or cycle undergo an
evaluation. All of them agree that planning, designing and implementing are less
useful unless there is evaluation. Here some specific reasons:
 Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weaknesses of an existing
curriculum that will be the basis of the intended plan, design or implementation.
This refers to as the needs assessment.
 When evaluation is done in the middle of curriculum development, it will tell if
designed or implemented curriculum can produce or is producing the desired
results. This is related to monitoring.
 Based on some standards, curriculum evaluation will guide whether the results
are equaled or exceeded the standards, this can be labelled as success. This is
sometimes called terminal assessment.
 Curriculum evaluation provides information necessary for teachers, school
managers, curriculum specialists for policy recommendations that will enhance
achieve learning outcomes. This is the basis of decision making.
In curriculum evaluation, important processes were evolved such as (a) needs

assessment, (b) monitoring, (c) terminal assessment and (d) decision making
CURRICULUM EVALUATION MODELS
Curriculum Models by Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba and with evaluation. Evaluation
is a big idea that collectively tells about the value or worth of something that was
done.
How can merit or worth of an aspect of a curriculum be determined? Curriculum

specialists have proposed an array of models which are useful for classroom teachers
and practitioners. Let us look at some of these.
1. Bradley Effectiveness Model
In 1985, L.H. Bradley wrote a handbook on Curriculum Leadership and Development.

This book provides indication that can help measure effectiveness of a developed or
written curriculum. For purpose of classroom teachers, some of the statements were
simplified.
First, identify what curriculum to evaluate. Then find out if t h e curriculum

evaluation questions answers Yes or No. Answering yes to all the questions, means
good curriculum as described by Bradley.

Bradley’s Effectiveness Model for Curriculum Development Indicators
Indicators Descriptive Questions Yes
or No
 Does the curriculum reflect the format (i.e K to 12, OBE,
Vertical Inquiry, etc.) that enables teachers quickly access what is
Curriculum being taught in the grade/year levels below or above the
Continuity current level? (Example: If you’re looking at Science 5,
below means Science 4 and above means Science 6)
Horizontal  Does the curriculum provide content and objectives that
Curriculum are common to all classes of the same grade level?
Continuity (Example: All English 101 for all 1st Year College Students)
Instruction  Are lessons plans/syllabi/course design derived from
Based the curriculum and strategies? Are materials used
o correlated with the content, objectives and activities?
n
Broad  Is there evidence of involvement of the different
Curriculum
Involvement curriculum stakeholders in the planning, designing and
implementation and review of the curriculum?
Long Range  Is review cycle followed within the period of planning
Planning and implementation of the curriculum?
Positive  Did the initial thoughts about the curriculum come from
Human teachers, principals, curriculum leaders and other
Relations stakeholders?
Theory-Into  Is there clarity of vision, mission, graduation outcomes,
Practice program philosophy, learning outcomes in the curriculum?
Planned  Are there tangible evidence to show that the internal and
Change external publics accept the developed program?
If any of the indicators is answered with a “No”, actions should be made to
make it Yes.
2. Tyler Objectives Centered Model
Ralph Tyler in 1950, proposed a curriculum evaluation model which until now
continues to influence many curriculum and assessment process. His Monograph
was entitled Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
In using the Tyler’s Model, the following curriculum components and processes
are identified in curriculum evaluation.

Curriculum Elements Evaluation Process Y/N
1. Objectives/  Pre-determined intended learning outcomes
Intended Learning or objectives
Outcomes
 Identify the situation/context that gives
2. Situation or Context opportunity to develop behavior or achieve
objectives
3. Evaluation  Select, modify and construct evaluation
Instruments/Tools instruments/tools. Check its objectivity,
reliability and validity.
4. Utilization of Tool  Utilize the tools to obtain results
 Compare the results obtained from several
instruments before and after to determine the
change.
5. Analysis of Result  Analyze the result obtained to determine
strengths and weaknesses. Identify possible
explanation about the reasons for the
particular pattern.
6. Utilization  Use the results to make the necessary
of Results modifications.
Using all the steps to evaluate the curriculum and obtaining all YES answer would
mean the curriculum has PASSED the standards. Tyler’s Model of evaluating the
curriculum is relatively easy to understand which many teachers can follow.
3. Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process Product Model (CIPP)
The CIPP Model of Curriculum Evaluation was a product of Phi Delta Kappa
Committee chaired by Daniel Stufflebeam. The model made an emphasis that the
result of evaluation should provide data for decision making. There are four stages of
program operation. These include (1) CONTEXT EVALUATION (2) INPUT
EVALUATION (3) PROCESS EVALUATION and (4) PRODUCT EVALUATION.
However, any evaluator can only take any of the four stages as the focus of
evaluation.
 Context Evaluation – assesses needs and problems in the context for

decision makers to determine the goals and
objectives of the program/curriculum.
 Input Evaluation – assesses alternative means based on the inputs for the
achievement of the objectives to make the decision
makers to choose option for optimal means.
 Process Evaluation – monitors the processes both to ensure that the
means are actually being implemented and make
necessary modification.
 Product Evaluation – compares actual ends with intended ends and lead
to a series of recycling decision

For all the four stages, the six steps are suggested.
Stages of CIPP Model Steps Taken in All Stages

1. Context Evaluation
Step 1: Identify the kind of decision to
be made.
2. Input Evaluation Step 2: identify the kinds of data to

make that decision
Step 3: Collect the data needed

3. Process Evaluation
Step 4: Establish the criteria to
determine quality of data
Step 5: Analyze data based on the criteria

4. Product Evaluation
Step 6: Organize needed
information needed for decision makers
4. Stake Responsive Model. Responsive model is oriented more

directly to program activities than program intents. Evaluation focuses more
on the activities rather than intent or purpose.
Robert Stake (1975) recommends to the curriculum evaluate the following
steps:
The Curriculum evaluate follow the steps before

Step 1 Meet with stakeholder to identify their perspective and intentions regarding
curriculum evaluation
Step 2 Draw from step 1 documents to determine the scope of evaluation.
Step 3 Observes the curriculum closely to identify the unintended scene of

implementation and any deviations from announced intents
Step 4 Identifies the stated real purpose of the program and the various audiences.
Step 5 Identifies the problem of the curriculum evaluation at hand and identifies an
evaluation design with needed data
Step 6 Selects the means needed to collect data or information
Step 7 Implements the data collection procedure.
Step 8 Organizes the information into themes
Step 9 Decide with stakeholders the most appropriate formats for the report.
5. Scriven Consumer Oriented Evaluation. Michael Scriven in 1967

introduce this evaluation among many others when education products flooded
the market. Consumers of educational products which are needed to support an
implemented curriculum often use consumer-oriented evaluation. These products
are used in schools which require a purchasing decision. These products include
textbooks, modules, educational technology like soft wares and other instructional
materials. Even teachers and school themselves nowadays write and produce these
materials for their own purposes.
Consumer-oriented evaluation uses criteria and checklist as a tool for either

formative or summative evaluation purposes. The use of criteria and checklist was
proposed by Scriven for adoption by educational evaluators.
An example of Instructional Material Review Form by Marvin Patterson of Florida

State University is adapted for better understanding.
Preliminary Information Recommendation
Title Author(s) Copyright date Retain for further review

Material Evaluator Rejects (comments)
Use the following codes to rate the material

(+) means yes or good quality (-) means no or poor quality
(o) means all right but not good quality (NA) means not applicable
Yes or Alright No or Not

Criteria good but poor Applica
not ble
1. Content covers a significant portion of good
the course competencies
2. Contents are up-to-date
3. Reading level is appropriate for most
students who will use the material
4. Intended learning outcomes,
competencies are stated
5. Formative and summative
assessment are included
6. Activities are varied to meet the
needs of students
7. Teacher’s guide is included with
management suggestions
8. Materials are presented in logical
order
9. Learning outcomes, competencies
and/or tasks
10. Degree of match between learning
activities and intended learning
outcomes
11. Quality of test items and degree

of match with intended learning
outcomes
12. Quality in decision of how students
will process through the material
13. Quality of drawing, photographs
and/or other materials
14. Overall design of the learning
activities for individual instruction
15. Quality of management procedure
for teachers (TGs)
16. Optional (List course maps
competencies covered by the
instructional material)
Using the checklist for instructional material review or evaluation may help any
curricularist make decision as to which textbook, modules or any instructional
support material will be used, revised, modified or rejected.
A SIMPLE WAY OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION PROCESS
For a very simple and practical way of curriculum evaluation, responding to the
following questions will provide an evaluation data for curriculum decision. Just ask
the following questions and any NO answer to an item will indicate a need for a
serious curriculum evaluation process.
1. Does the curriculum emphasize learning outcomes?

2. Does the implemented curriculum require less demand?
3. Can this curriculum be applied to any particular level?
(kindergarten, elementary, secondary and tertiary levels)
4. Can the curriculum aspects be assessed as (a) written (b) taught
(c) supported (d) tested and (e) learned?
5. Does the curriculum include formative assessment?
6. Does the curriculum include summative assessment?
7. Does the curriculum provide for quantitative methods of assessment?
8. Does the curriculum provide for qualitative methods of assessment?
9. Can the curriculum provide the data needed for decision making?
10. Are the findings of evaluation available to stakeholders?
REFERENCES
http://www.fnbaldeo.com/EDCI547/Resource%20Materials/Philosophical
%20Foundations%20of%20Curriculum%202.pdf

CURRICULUM IMPROVEMENT
Curriculum designers need to enhance the curriculum and propose curricular

innovations to respond to the changing educational landscape in the country as well
as in the other parts of the globe. It is most necessary that as future curricularist and
a teacher, you should be familiar with what is happening and will happen in our
curriculum. There is no substitute for being READY and INFORMED.
In this lesson, you will have a comprehensive knowledge on curricular reforms

initiated in the Philippines and abroad to improve the quality of teaching and learning.
Let’s study them one by one.
Curriculum designers need to enhance the recommended curriculum and propose

curricular innovations to respond to the changing landscape in education regionally
and globally.
Republic Act 10533, otherwise known as the Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013,
is the latest educational reform in Philippine Education signed into law by
President Benigno Aquino III last May 15, 2013. It is an act enhancing Philippine
Basic Education system by strengthening its curriculum and increasing the number
of years for basic education appropriating funds therefore and for purposes. The
Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013 popularly known as K – 12 includes one (1)
year of kindergarten education, six (6) years of elementary education and six (6)
years of secondary education. The six-year secondary education includes four (4)
years of Junior High School and two (2) years of Senior High School. With K to
12, the existing 10 years of basic education is increased with 12 years with
kindergarten education as a prerequisite to entry in Grade 1.
Why K to 12?
K to 12 makes the Philippine education system at par with the international standard
of 12-year basic education thereby contributing to a better educated society capable
of pursuing productive employment, entrepreneurship and higher education studies.
After going through kindergarten, elementary, junior high and a specialized senior
high school program, every K to 12 graduate is ready to go into different paths – higher
education, middle level skills development, employment or entrepreneurship. The
K to 12 graduates are also expected to be equipped with 21 st Century skills like
information, media and technology skills, learning and innovation skills, effective
communication skills and life and career skills.
When K to 12 was launched in 2012, many Filipinos are apprehensive because of

the addition of two (2) more years in secondary schooling. Some said, the additional
two years are added burden for the average Filipino family. Other said, the K to 12
program is doomed to fail since it does not address the basic problems in education
like lack of classrooms, chairs, books, teachers, quality teaching and many more.
Amidst criticism, the Department of Education pushed K to 12 program
implementation. What could be the reasons?
Let’s consider these existing realities in Philippine education that became the bases
of K to 12 program implementation:
1. Mastery of basic competencies is insufficient due to

congested curriculum
In international examination, the Philippines performed poorly as revealed in

2003 TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science) scores. In grade 4
Science and Math, the Philippines ranked 23 out of 25particpating countries. In High
School II Science, the Philippines rank 43 out of 46 and in math ranked 34 out of 38.
Even with only the science high schools participating in the Advance Mathematics
category in 2008 TIMSS, the country’s ranking did not improve. In fact, it ranked the
lowest (10) among ten participating countries.
One of the factors that contribute to the low performance in achievement test is the
congested basic education curriculum. What other countries teach in twelve (12)
years, the Philippines teach only in ten years. The 10 years would not be enough to
master the competencies. Adding 2 years would make possible the decongestion of
the curriculum for comprehensive acquisition of basic competencies and the 21
st Century skills.
2. The Philippines is the only remaining country in Asia with a 10-year

basic education program
The Philippines is the only country in Asia that has ten-year basic education
program. The short duration of basic education program also puts million overseas
Filipino workers, especially the professionals, and those who intend to study abroad
at a disadvantage. Graduate of Philippine Schools are not automatically recognized
as professionals outside the country due to the lack of two years in basic education.
Bologna Accord imposes twelve (12) years of education for university admission and
practice of profession in European countries. Washington Accords prescribes twelve
(12) years of basic education as an entry of recognition of engineering professionals.
With K to 12, Filipino professionals would have the same competitive edge with
professionals from the other countries having gone through 12 years of basic
education.
Employability of Filipino high school graduates
The K to 12 curriculum prepares the students for the world of work, middle level
skills development, entrepreneurship and college education. As early as Grade 7 and
Grade 8, the student is made to explore at least 8 subjects in the four areas of
Technology and Livelihood Education (TLE) namely: Home Economics, ICT,
Industrial Arts and Agriculture and Fishery Arts. In Grade 10 and Grade 12, the
student is supposed to have obtained a National Certificate (NC) Level and NC Level
II from TESDA. NC I and NC II make a Grade 12 graduate employable.
The short duration of basic education in the Philippines resulted as 15-year- old
graduate who are not legally employable. With the implementation of K to 12, the
graduates of senior high is 18-years old who is legally employable.

Let’s pause and answer this question.
Are the existing realities enough for justification for the implementation of the K – 12
Program? Why and Why not? Write your answers.
The K to 12 Curriculum
Section 5 of the Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013, stipulates the following
curricular standards which the curriculum developers adhered to in crafting the K to
12 Curriculum:
a) The curriculum shall be learner-centered, inclusive and developmentally
appropriate;
b) The curriculum shall be relevant, responsive, and research-based;
c) The curriculum shall be culture-sensitive;
d) The curriculum shall be contextualized and global;
e) The curriculum shall use pedagogical approaches that are constructivist,
inquiry-based, reflective, collaborative and integrative;
f) The curriculum shall adhere to the principles and framework of Mother
Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) which starts from where the
learners are and from what they already knew proceeding from the known to
the unknown; instructional materials and capable teachers to implement the
MTB-MLE curriculum shall be available;
g) The curriculum shall use the spiral progression approach to ensure
mastery of knowledge and skills after each level; and
h) The curriculum shall be flexible enough to enable and allow schools to
localize, indigenize and enhance the same based on their respective
educational and social contexts. The production and development of locally
produced teaching materials should be encouraged and approval of these
materials shall devolve to the regional and division education units.
The Senior High School Curriculum
There are four tracks in Senior High School. These are Academic track, TechVoc
track, Sports track and Arts and Design track. The Academic Track has four strands
namely: STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics), HUMSS
(Humanities and Social Sciences), ABM (Accounting, Business and Management)
and GAS (General Academic Strand). This means that at Grade 11, student chooses
which track to pursue and if he/she chooses the academic track he/she must also
choose the strand. If the student intents to go to college after Grade 12, then
he/she must take the academic track. The college program which he/she wants to
enroll in determines which strand to take – STEM, HUMSS, Sports and Arts
and Design. If a Grade 12 Graduate wants to pursue TechVoc courses in
Technological Education Skills Development Authority (TESDA), he/she takes the
TechVoc track. He/she who is interested in Arts and Design will pursue the Arts
and Design Track. The sports track will be for any sports-minded Grade 12
Graduate.

Figure 1 – Tracks in Senior High School
Grade 11
Academic
TechVoc Sports
Arts and Design Grade 1
Grade 12
Figure 2 – Academic Track – 4 Strands
The Senior High School Curriculum has a total of thirty-one subjects. 31 subjects
are grouped into 15 core subjects, 7 contextualized subjects and 9 specialization
subjects.
The following are the core subjects to be taken by all students regardless of track.
There are also common subjects for different tracks and the highly specialized
courses for each track:
Core Subjects
Oral Communicaton
Reading & Writing
Language Komunikasyon at Pananaliksik sa Wikang Filipino at Kulturang
Pilipino
Pagbasa at Pagsusuri ng iba’t ibang Teksto tungo sa Pananaliksik
21st Century Literature from the Philippines and the World

Humanities
Contemporary Philippine Arts from the Regions

Communication Media and Information Literacy
General Mathematics
Mathematics
Statistics and Probability
Earth and Life Science Lecture and Laboratory
Science
Physical Science Lecture and Laboratory
Personal Development/Pansariling Kaunlaran
Social Science
Understanding Society and Culture
Philosophy Intro to the Philosophy of the Human Person/Pambungad sa
Pilosopiya ng Tao
PE and Health – Physical Education and Health
The Philippines has implemented the K to 12 Curriculum Program from Kindergarten

to Grade 3 in elementary and Grade 7 to 9 in the junior high. Conduct a survey among
teachers handling those grade levels. Ask them what they like and what they do
not like about the curriculum. Ask their suggestions on how to improve the curriculum
implementation.
REFERENCES

UNIT IV: TRENDS AND ISSUES
ON CURRICULUM AND
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

CONTEXTUALIZATION OF THE CURRICULUM
This unit focuses on how the curriculum context gets involved in the field of
education as well as the indigenization and localization. Teachers are also known as
curricularists because they implement curriculum inside the classroom and they are
the ones who also give contribute in the curriculum and so they should be more
aware of this matter.
Contextualization refers to the educational process of relating the curriculum to a

particular setting, situation or area of application to make the competencies relevant,
meaningful, and useful to all learners.
To contextualize curriculum, teachers use authentic materials, activities, interests,

issues and needs from learners’ lives to develop classroom instruction.
Contextualized curriculum helps students learn language skills by teaching the skills
using the authentic contexts in which students must use those skills in the real
world. Contextualizing curriculum is effective both for community-based and
workplace classes. For example, students in a workplace education such as
English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) class can practice clarifying
questions using actual situations they encounter with their supervisors. Students in
a community-based ESOL class can learn how to respond to discriminatory behavior
using scenarios based on their real experiences. A good curriculum helps students
learn, practice and evaluate specific skills and competencies, and contextualized
lessons are effective tools for accomplishing this. An effective curriculum also elicits
students’ experiences and knowledge, and affirms and Contextualized Curriculum
for Workplace Education: An Introductory Guide. Written by Jenny Lee Utech of the
MA Worker Education Roundtable for the MA Dept. of Education, Adult and
Community Learning Services, 2008. 8 builds on them. Finally, it should create
room for students to pose problems and issues and develop strategies together for
addressing them.
The process for contextualizing curriculum includes these steps:

1. Identify learners’ needs, issues and themes.
2. Gather information and materials.
3. Create and teach lessons; practice skills in the classroom.
 “Chunk” and sequence material.
 Adapt authentic materials if needed.
4. Put new skills into action in the real world.
5. Reflect on and evaluate the contextualized lessons.
6. Revise and add new information or skills.
CURRICULUM INDIGENIZATION
Difference between Indigenization and Multiculturalism

When talking about Indigenization, it is important to keep in mind that this process
and approach to working in post-secondary institutions is different from
approaches that place multiculturalism at the center. While multiculturalism
approaches are also necessary and relevant, they differ from Indigenization at a
philosophical, political, and systemic level. A question we often hear when trying to
include Indigenous perspectives into the curriculum is: “Why are we not including
other ethnic groups if Canada is a culturally diverse country?” In response to this
question, it is important to remember the following:
 Indigenization does not require abandoning multiculturalism; both can be

practiced side-by-side.
 While multiculturalism as a law and as policy also recognizes Indigenous
Peoples, it does not address the social injustices and racist policies to which
Indigenous Peoples have been subjected. The history and current situation
of Indigenous Peoples in Canada differs in significant ways from immigrants
and minority settlers. These differences must be acknowledged to form
respectful relationships.
 We all live on Indigenous lands, many of which were never ceded but
were stolen by settler governments. Those of us who are settlers are
considered to be visitors in the lands of Indigenous Peoples. Out of respect,
we must come to know, understand, and value Indigenous culture. This means
learning about local cultures, languages, and protocols.
While multiculturalism presents a valuable approach to honoring diversity,

Indigenization is a distinct process that needs to be practiced in its own right, and
the two should not be merged together in policy or practice.
The benefits of Indigenization
Indigenization is not an “Indigenous issue,” and it is not undertaken solely to benefit

Indigenous students. Indigenization benefits everyone; we all gain a richer
understanding of the world and of our specific location in the world through
awareness of Indigenous knowledge and perspectives. Indigenization also
contributes to a more just world, creating a shared understanding that opens the
way toward reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous people. It also
counters the impacts of colonization by upending a system of thinking that has
typically discounted Indigenous knowledge and history.
Mi’kmaq educator Marie Battiste (2002) emphasizes that we should view

Indigenous and Western knowledge systems not as oppositional binaries, but rather
as concepts that complement each other, with Indigenous knowledge as a source
to fill the gaps within Eurocentric models of teaching, learning, research, and
education processes. Similarly, Elder Albert Marshall from the Eskasoni Mi’kmaq
First Nation (2012) describes Etuaptmumk, the approach of two-eyed seeing, as
a way to learn to appreciate both Indigenous and Western knowledges and ways
of knowing, and he says that using these two perspectives can be to our benefit.
He contends that by fostering an active engagement with both ways of seeing,
we are providing all students with support systems to move toward a decolonized
academy.
CURRICULUM LOCALIZATION
Relevance of curriculum content is a crucial dimension of quality education. The

promotion of localized curricula is a way of encouraging such relevance in very
different local, cultural and socio-economic contexts. It is an important component of
the decentralization of education, governance and management.
The localization of the curriculum can allow learning to become more meaningful
and relevant. It supports policy formulation and standard setting for reform of the
curriculum and the impact of this on teacher skills and knowledge. Localization
will involve the use of local materials both as the subject and object of instruction.
Localization will also involve making the local culture an integral part of the curriculum.
However, there are a number of constraints in the devolution of responsibility for

curricula to local levels, including lack of local technical expertise and material
resources, fear of the unknown and resistance to change among teachers and
local educators. These constraints are often managed through:
 Developing a curriculum framework, including a clear set of curriculum

standards, at the central level;
 Ensuring compliance with these standards in local and school
developed curriculum, either through paper-based accreditation or
endorsement processes or through supervision and monitoring processes (or
both);
 Providing training of local and school-based curriculum developers;
and
 Ensuring clear and open communication exists between central and
localized authorities.
Challenges and opportunities
As we have seen, while important, the process of localizing curricula is challenging

on a number of levels. This section seeks to explore some of those challenges
and to consider approaches which may help to address them.
When embarking on a process of localization, educators at all levels in an

education system are required to adopt additional responsibilities, new roles and
to perform familiar tasks in different ways. The role and definition of “expert” is
changed as the system and the individuals within it become learners to varying
extents. It is important to acknowledge in advance that such a process will be
stressful, frustrating, and at times difficult, but one hopes, ultimately rewarding and
positive.
If the education system is seen as a learning organization and the individuals within
it as learners, the role of the policy maker and implementer becomes one of
facilitating change and building capacity throughout the system. Effective localization
processes demand both a clear articulation of policy and a sympathetic
understanding of the new demands on individuals and organizations. Areas where
capacity is not adequate to deal with new demands need to be identified in advance
and given the support necessary to fulfil the expectations of policy makers and of the
public.

Four main areas where practical difficulties may arise can be identified:
 Lack of competent staff

 Teachers attitudes and potential resistance
 Fear of the unknown
 Lack of resources
References:
Contextualized Curriculum for Workplace Education: An Introductory Guide. Written
by Jenny Lee Utech of the MA Worker Education Roundtable for the MA Dept.
of Education, Adult and Community Learning Services, 2008.
https://www.slideshare.net/rtipolo/contextualization-
presentation#:~:text=Key%20Concepts%20Contextualization%20refers%20to,and%
20useful%20to%20all%20learners.
https://opentextbc.ca/indigenizationcurriculumdevelopers/chapter/the- need-to-
indigenize/
Aboriginal Wordviews and Perspectives in the Classroom: Moving
Forward: https://youtu.be/dZjshXqEk8o ↵
http://www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/COPs/Pages_documents/R
esource_Packs/TTCD/sitemap/Module_4/Module_4_2_concept.html

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Unit 1: Let’s Talk about

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 1

Change is a constant law of nature. It brings improvements like changes in the

CONCEPTS, TYPES AND COMPONENTS OF CURRICULUM.

Broader Sense: the total

In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school, but it

The concept of curriculum is characterized as diverse, and are influenced by the

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 2

1. Traditional Point of View

According to Robert M. Hutchins, he views curriculum as “permanent studies”,

2. Progressive Points of View Curriculum

On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school, subjects, syllabi, course

This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of experience and

It is defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is

According to Caswell and Campbell, he viewed curriculum as “all experiences

It is clear that curriculum is a dynamic process. Development connotes changes

B. Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools (Allan Glatthorn, 2000)

Most of the curricula are recommended. Proposed by scholars and professional

10. Null Curriculum

C. Elements/Components of the Curriculum

The four components of the curriculum are:

When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the

1. Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

All schools shall aim to:

Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act 1982)

Aims of Secondary Education

Aims of Tertiary Education

Examples of school mission

Examples of a school’s vision

1. explicit formulation of the ways in which students are expected to be

2. Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

In the same manner, curriculum has a content. In here, it contains information to be

A primordial concern of formal education is primarily to transmit organized

In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and

Subject areas in basic or general education:

• Communication Arts – skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as

Some criteria which can be used in the selection of subject matter

The prime guiding principle for content selection is

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 8

Basic Principles of Curriculum Content

Content should be fairly distributed in the depth and

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 9

Educational activities like field viewing, conducting experiments, interacting with

Different instructional strategies provide the experiences. The instructional

Guides for the selection and use of methods:

For the fourth component, the curriculum evaluation is an element of an effective

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 10

Suggested plan of action for the process of curriculum evaluation:

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 11

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 12

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

What is the connection between philosophy and curriculum?

Philosophy provides the educators a framework for organizing schools and

There are four philosophies of curriculum namely: Perennialism, Essentialism,

Progressivism- is a philosophy that argues that education must be based on the

PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF CURRICULUM

Cognitivism – focuses on the conceptualization of students’ learning processes and

Constructivism - is the psychological foundation which believe that the learner

The Teacher and the Curriculum| 14

Historical Foundation of the Curriculum

Education after 1940

Martial Law period

From 1986 to the present