Dmsytify Exotic Materials

A 9.
9 Media Publication The Small Book of Big Thoughts
Exotic
125
128
Materials
What makes the technology
around us so incredibly special?
Hint: the answer lies above
The Small Book of Big Thoughts
Exotic
Materials
All through history, exotic materials
have ruled. They still do.
Powered by
2 Chapter 01
AUGUST 2015
Humanity tries to play god

through exotic materials
Credits
The people behind this book:
Executive Editor:
INSIDE Robert Sovereign-Smith
Managing Editor:
7 The Divine Siddharth Parwatay
Elements Writer: Nachiket Mhatre
16 Carbon: Copyediting: Abhijit Dey
Embodying DESIGN
Versatility Sr. Creative Director:
Jayan K Narayanan
33 Enhancing the
Sr. Art Director: Anil VK
Television
Associate Art Director: Anil T
51 Batteries: The Visualiser: Baiju NV
Weakest Link
Sr. Designer: Pradeep G Nair
© 9.9 Mediaworx Pvt. Ltd.

Published by 9.9 Mediaworx
No part of this book may be
reproduced, stored, or trans-
mitted in any form or by any
A 9.9 Media Publication The Small Book of Big thoughts means without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
Exotic
125
Materials
128
August 2015
What makes the technology
around us so incredibly special?
Hint: the answer lies in the headline.
Free with Digit. If you have paid
to buy this dmystify from any
source other than 9.9 Media-
Cover Design worx Pvt. Ltd., please write to
ANIL VK editor@digit.in with details
4 Introduction
Introduction
The usage of exotic materials has proven
to be one of the biggest catalysts of human
progress.
Introduction 5
T
he last two editions of dmystify have covered what
can essentially be categorised into hard theoretical
science. However, as geeks whose primary interest lies
in computing, gadgets and consumer electronics, no
other branch of science and technology shapes this realm more
than engineering. Hard science has saved us from the brink
of extinction with vaccines, whereas the marvels of genetic
research have ushered the Green Revolution that delivered
us from imminent starvation. It is amply evident that sci-
ence saved our collective souls on numerous occasions, but
humanity couldn’t unlock its true potential until it made strides
in engineering.
This may sound like hyperbole, but this veritable fact is clear
once you look at the timeline of human achievement. Great
strides in the hard sciences have been taking place since the
time of the ancient Greeks, with a vast majority of theoretical
physics, chemistry and other crucial disciplines of modern sci-
ence being perfected in the 18th and 19th centuries. However,
awe-inspiring real-world applications of this knowledge only
came to fruition during the 20th century through the Industrial
Revolution. That and the breakthroughs in computing, telecom-
munications and electronics made during the World War II and
Cold War formed the basis of all modern consumer electronics.
6 Introduction
The past few decades have been spent in making incremental

improvements to these technologies. The focus has largely been on
shrinking electronics and transmuting them from their erstwhile
bulky desktop avatars found in our living rooms to their modern
mobile equivalents. These seemingly incremental improvements,
more often than not, require a major overhaul of the manufacturing
process and the raw materials that go into the production process.
From rapid advancements and phenomenal shrinkage of silicon
transistors to the high-tech materials underpinning display and
battery technology – materials science and engineering has been
the catalyst for this change.
Significant advancements in the field of nanotechnology have
enabled the enhancement of existing exotic engineering materials
to facilitate modern consumer electronics that exhibit a level of
portability, efficiency and power that evokes disbelief. In the coming
decades, materials science and nanotechnology will form the
backbone of all major research that eventually will lead to cutting
edge products of the future. In the subsequent pages, our aim is
to prime the reader with how materials science and engineering is
shaping existing technologies to tackle the demands of the future.
The Divine Elements 7
Chapter #01
The Divine Elements

Exotic engineering materials haven’t just
revolutionised science and technology, but
they have been instrumental in pushing the
envelope of human progress.
I
n their penchant for romanticising the underdog, fiction writers
love to make pithy statements glorifying skill and how tools tend
to be secondary in the pursuit of excellence. Well, you might want
to tell that to our fist-swinging early primate ancestors who were
subsequently bludgeoned and stabbed out of the gene pool by Nean-
derthals with the help of improvised tools. Even the early humans
realised the worth of good materials and how they improve the
tools at hand.
That’s how humanity progressed from relying on stones to forging
tools made of bronze and then discovering iron. It’s no surprise why
human prehistory is divided according to the engineering mate-
8 The Divine Elements
Materials Science has opened up new avenues

for engineering with nanoscience
rials available at the time into – stone, bronze, and iron ages. It’s
not just scientists and engineers in lab coats who appreciate the
significance of exotic engineering materials. Even our ancestors
discovered that evolution goes hand in hand with science and engi-
neering, and how the best way to accelerate that is through superior
engineering materials.
It took thousands of years for this concept to gradually be
ingrained within us, until a few thousand years later materials sci-
ence and engineering proved to be a one of the biggest catalysts of

human progress.
Materials Science: Genesis of Exotic Engineering Materials

Not surprisingly, the most significant engineering inventions and
applications have either been developed or perfected during the two
World Wars. This includes feats of modern technology such as telecom-
munications, aviation, computing, nuclear energy, the internal com-
bustion engine, and radar. Peace begotten from the nuclear détente
has prevented all out wars, but that coincidentally has also led to the
advancements in science and engineering becoming incremental
and derivative. Since then, the prime engineering focus has been on
increasing efficiency and pushing the envelope of existing technologies.
The field of materials science and engineering has been pivotal
in achieving just that. It incorporates the elements of physics and
chemistry to improve existing engineering materials and seek out
new ones that unlock greater possibilities in engineering applica-
tions. This discipline of science and technology is instrumental in
creating exotic engineering materials. From high-tech alloys and
composite materials to cutting edge research in nanoscience and
nanotechnology, the advancements in materials science is one of
the key factors behind mankind’s meteoric transition from industrial
revolution to space age.
The Viking sword employed advanced crucible steel
What Constitutes Exotic Engineering Materials?

This is best understood by defining engineering materials first. This
includes any raw material employed for construction, manufacturing
process, or any other engineering application. Modern goods are
manufactured using the most optimum raw materials, which have
been extensively tested for their properties and classified into broad
groups. These engineering materials are broadly classified into metal,
polymer, elastomer, ceramic, glass, and finally composite materials.
Engineering materials are ranked and valued according to
properties that make them suitable for specific applications. These
include strength, durability, density, weight, conductivity, and other

properties. Exotic engineering materials are distinguished by their
distinction in one or more of such properties that makes them highly
desirable for certain cutting edge engineering applications. However,
in order to truly understand the impact of exotic engineering mate-
rials on human evolution, it’s important to consider their evolution
through history.
Evolution of Engineering Materials

The Vikings famously terrorised all of Europe and beyond between the
8th and 11th century, but very little is spoken about the mighty Viking
sword, which was a significant contributing factor in the success of
their bloody conquest. Known as the Ulfbehrt, the Viking sword was
one of the earliest examples of a weapon created using exotic engi-
neering materials. Forged from a crucible steel of mysterious origins,
the double-edge, straight-bladed sword was phenomenally strong and
flexible. The combination of strength and flexibility in a sword went a
long way at a time when wooden shields were employed to catch, trap,
and then break the opponent’s sword by twisting the shield.
The composite bow is another example of exotic engineering
materials employed in ancient times. Comprised of wood and sinew
laminated together, these bows combined the compression gener-
ated by wood with the elasticity of hide to store more energy than a
The Mongolian mounted archers were a

by-product of composite bow technology
conventional wooden bow. Composite bow technology allowed much

smaller and compact bows to store as much energy as longbows.
This tactical advantage was leveraged to the fullest by Mongolian
army, which redefined archery tactics by raising highly successful
and deadly units of horse-mounted archers.
After the significant technological innovations introduced in
World War II set the precedent for modern warfare, the Cold War
improved upon these designs with judicious use of exotic engineering
materials. This can be seen with innovative use of ceramics, depleted

uranium, titanium, exotic alloys, and other composite materials on
tank armour to thwart the growing threat of increasingly effective
anti-tank weapons. Fighter jets benefitted from exotic titanium,
aluminium, Kevlar, and carbon fibre composite materials that not
only added structural strength, but also increased their power-to-
weight ratio. Even more exotic radar-absorbing materials were further
utilised in stealth fighters and bombers during the era.
The space race, however, saw some the most extensive usage
of exotic engineering materials. The result was significant advance-
ments in liquid and solid propellants used in increasingly efficient
rocket motors. Exotic materials such as ceramics and other compos-
ites were now employed to enable spacecraft to withstand anything
from extreme heat generated during re-entry to even impacts from
micro-asteroids and space debris. Popularly dubbed as space-age
materials, they brought everything from supersonic commercial
transport to space exploration into the realm of possibility.
The end of the Cold War and the ensuing peace ensured by
the nuclear détente meant that the superpowers decided to stop
spending on war as well as the space race. There isn’t a better indi-
cator of this fact than United States Air Force, which is the world’s
biggest spender on air dominance. To put this into perspective, the
F-15 Eagle developed as an air-superiority fighter aircraft during the
The F-16 was a downgrade from its predecessor F-15
height of the Cold War is much superior to its successor – the F-16
Fighting Falcon. The results of recent one-on-one combat exercises
between USAF’s latest F-35 Lightning II and the F-16 indicate that
USAF’s trillion dollar frontline fighter cannot hope to win a dogfight
against the F-16.
In modern times, superpowers aren’t the only ones adopting
exotic engineering materials in the pursuit of excellence. High tech-
nology has a way of trickling down to the masses eventually. Not
surprisingly, after the governments gave up on war, corporates
have taken up the mantle of employing exotic materials on the next
So is F-35 when compared to the F-16
frontier – consumer technology. Pricey materials such as aircraft

grade aluminium, titanium, carbon fibre, and Kevlar are being increas-
ingly utilised in high end consumer electronics. However, consumer
technology hasn’t just co-opted engineering materials that were
formerly used to fuel the war machine. As you flip through the pages,
you’ll realise that significant advancements in nanotechnology and
nanosciences ensure that newer varieties of exotic engineering
materials are poised to change the very face of consumer electronics
and computing as we know them.
16 Carbon: Embodying Versatility
Chapter #02
Carbon: Embodying
Versatility
No other engineering material is as exotic
yet functional as carbon. From structural to
electronic, the applications are diverse as they
are fascinating.
Graphene
There isn’t a better alternative to begin a piece on exotic engineering
materials than graphene. The simplest way to describe the material
is that it’s an uncannily thin layer of pure carbon. By uncanny, I mean
single atom thin layer of carbon. This thin layer is bonded tightly and
quite strongly into a hexagonal honeycomb lattice. The lack of thick-
ness means that graphene can be classified as a two-dimensional
carbon allotrope.
Carbon: Embodying Versatility 17
Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon

allotrope with limitless applications
Unlike super-materials used extensively in the arms and space

race during Cold War, this wonder material is completely new. And
wonder material is a good way to describe this carbon allotrope,
because anyone who has picked up a science journal in the past few
years would wonder if there’s anything it doesn’t do. From application
as a super-strong structural material and possible silicon replace-
ment to serving as a super capacitor and generating power by acting
as a photovoltaic surface, this wonder material spans a mind-boggling

spectrum of possible engineering uses.
Most modern isotopes and allotropes are difficult to produce
and are born in the laboratory through careful and deliberate feats
of science and engineering. Graphene, however, bucks this trend.
Although graphene indeed is a new material, it has been in exist-
ence for centuries. The only difference is that no one really knew
that they had unwittingly synthesised what could potentially turn
out to be the most important engineering material. Graphene can
be inadvertently synthesised by everyday applications of graphite,
as simple as pencils.
In fact, University of Manchester researchers Andrei Geim and
Konstantin Novoselov won the 2010 Physics Nobel for isolating
graphene and testing its electrical properties in 2003. What sort of
complexity did the process of isolating graphene entail, you ask?
Well, the researchers crushed some graphite rather finely and then
proceeded to peel away layer after layer of the powder with adhesive
tape. After enough layers were peeled, the soon to be Nobel laureates
were left with a single atom thick mesh of carbon. The reason for its
ease of synthesis will be clear if you remember 10th grade organic
chemistry. It’s essentially an indefinitely large aromatic molecule.
And like aromatic hydrocarbons, it readily forms flat rings of carbon
atoms that are extremely stable honeycomb structure.
Strength
How strong, you ask? Graphene is a whopping 200 times stronger
than steel by weight, which makes it the strongest material ever
tested. The single atom thick, two-dimensional material is not only
strong, but it is flexible and stretchy as well, which further improves
its structural integrity and desirability as an engineering material.
Most graphene research and testing are undertaken theoretically,
but US researchers actually tested out the bulletproof properties of
the material. The scaled down test involved firing micrometre-sized
bullets into 10-100 nanometre-thick graphene sheets at 3000 metres
per second, or twice the muzzle velocity of high-powered military
rifles. The sheet was found to possess ten times the stopping power
of a steel plate and twice that of Kevlar.
That sounds even more impressive when you consider the fact
that, unlike Kevlar, graphene layers are single atom thick, so they
can be stacked virtually indefinitely without the penalty of added
weight or bulk. To put this into perspective, a million layers of gra-
phene would only be a millimetre thick. This test merely shows the
prowess of a few nanometre-thick layers of graphene. What about
a layer of the material that’s palpably thick? According to research
conducted by James Hone of Columbia University, “it would take an
elephant, balanced on a pencil, to break through a sheet of graphene
the thickness of Saran Wrap”. The upshot is essentially thinner, but
The complexity of graphene is only rivalled

by the simplicity of its discovery
virtually smartphones that leverage the extreme tensile strength

of the material.
Conductivity
The material’s strength is only rivalled by its capacity to conduct
electricity. Graphene exhibits what’s called ballistic conduction. This
Graphene based circuits are highly efficient
is a fancy way of saying that an electrical charge can move through

it unimpeded. Its super conductivity is a result of the carbon allo-
trope being a zero-overlap semi-metal. Its charge carrying efficiency
comes due to both holes and electrons serving as charge carriers
in the material. As a consequence, it conducts electrical charges
much faster than silicon, the material of choice for manufacturing
modern integrated circuits. Unfortunately, this also means that the
material cannot replace silicon as a semiconductor, since it cannot
be switched from a conductive to an insulating state. Don’t expect
graphene-based processors anytime soon, although research is being

conducted to imbue semiconductor properties within the material.
However, the excellent conductivity of the carbon allotrope makes
it ideal for analogue circuits. Researchers have managed to create
graphene transistors operating at 300GHz – that’s switching on and
off 300 billion times per second, or thirty times faster than silicon.
This makes it a material that could herald great leaps in telecom-
munication circuitry. In 2011, IBM successfully demonstrated that
the two-dimensional carbon allotrope can be a material of choice in
circuits handling wireless signals. IBM managed to create the fastest
integrated circuits, which far surpassed the capabilities of existing
silicon-based implementations. The real world applications entail
faster and more power efficient circuits for processing and generating
radio signals. It’s not just circuits. The thinness, flexibility, durability,
and excellent conductivity of the material can open off vast avenues
of integration of electronics into clothing, for example.
Optoelectronic Applications
Graphene’s electrical conductivity becomes an even bigger boon
when combined with its unique optical property of transparency.
This opens a wide gamut of possibilities in the rarefied realm of
optical electronics. It is of great significance in the area of opto-
electronics, which is quite important in the world of mobile gadgets
Graphene’s superior conductivity and thinness

makes for excellent touchscreens
that combine touchscreens with displays. Viable optoelectronic

application requires a material with the ability to transmit more
than 90-percent of light and low electrical resistance necessitated
by touchscreen sensitivity. Not only does graphene far exceed the
conductivity requirements of a touchscreen, but it also transmits
up to 97.7-percent of light. This makes it a viable replacement for
the existing optoelectronic material Indium Tin Oxide (ITO), which

forms the basis for all modern touchscreens.
It would be prudent to ask if replacing ITO with graphene brings
any value addition in touchscreens. Frankly, the difference won’t be
palpable or revolutionary in existing touchscreen implementations.
However, displays of the future won’t be possible without graphene-
based optoelectronics. For starters, the material is incredibly thin,
flexible, and boasts of stupendous structural strength. Graphene
has a significantly small bending radius – one that’s well within the
5-10mm requirement for rollable displays. In simple terms, graphene-
based touchscreen implementation on FOLED or other low-power
electrophoretic displays could make the concept of e-paper a reality.
From foldable and flexible electronic displays to clothes that can
make the wearer blend into the surroundings – the applications
are limitless.
Photovoltaic Cells
Silicon and ITO are the materials of choice in photovoltaic or solar
cells due to the former’s excellent conductivity and the latter’s
optoelectronic property. Graphene, however, ticks both the boxes
with consummate ease. The material absorbs just 2.7-percent of
white light, which makes it highly efficient at harnessing sunlight.
The electron mobility within the material is also demonstrably better
that that of silicon. The best part is that graphene based photovoltaic
solutions will be significantly cheaper than existing silicon and ITO
implementations. This is a rare case of cheaper being better because
silicon-based photovoltaic cells aren’t exactly efficient, with most of
the light being lost as heat.
Unlike silicon which generates a single electron for every photon
absorbed, graphene-based photovoltaic cells generate multiple
electrons for every photon absorbed. Furthermore, the material can
also generate electricity from all wavelengths of light, as opposed to
silicon which is limited to certain wavelengths. The real icing on the
cake is the inherent flexibility, thinness, and durability of graphene.
This means solar cells can be integrated onto clothing or even the
body of smartphones, which would ensure that electronic devices
of the future won’t run flat as long as the sun’s out.
Batteries and Supercapacitors

The most common complaint for any mobile device invariably starts
and ends with battery life. This isn’t a surprise because although all
areas of electronics have showed rapid development, meanwhile
battery technology has remained more or less stagnant. As a con-
sequence, the growing power draw of more advanced and powerful
mobile devices is proving to be unsustainable for existing battery
implementations. However, graphene isn’t just content on saving
batteries, but it’s paving the way for highly efficient and cheap super-
capacitors. These supercapacitors promise high current discharge
values at low costs, while also promising backup duration rivalling or
even exceeding that of contemporary battery technology.
Current supercapacitors are limited by their dismal backup
duration due to the lack of surface area. The extremely large surface
area offered by the two-dimensional carbon allotrope is an important
factor in its viability as a supercapacitor. The nature of the material
also ensures that the supercapacitors will not only be highly efficient
but also significantly lighter than conventional alternatives. Moreover,
since graphene is a form of carbon, it is also ecologically friendly when
compared to the highly toxic materials found in existing capacitors
and batteries. The efficacy of graphene-based supercapacitors is only
rivalled by its low cost and ease of production. Researchers at UCLA
were able to produce graphene supercapacitors using commercially
available thermo-lithography. In layman’s terms, they created gra-
phene supercapacitors using a simple LightScribe compatible DVD
writer. It doesn’t get any cheaper and easier than this.
Graphene isn’t just about supercapacitors. It is also being used
to significantly improve existing battery technology as well. Conven-
tional batteries have been let down by their poor backup, ridiculously
long recharge duration, and overall durability. Adding graphene to
the mix promises to solve all these glaring issues. For example,
Graphene based supercapacitors can be synthesised

at home using LightScribe DVD burners
researchers found that using graphene electrodes in conventional

lithium-ion batteries increased their capacity by a factor of ten and
also made them last longer between charges. This hybrid combina-
tion also significantly sped up the recharge time for conventional
batteries. The superior structural and chemical integrity of graphene
electrodes also ensured greater longevity. This means electric cars
that can travel farther, charge quicker, last longer, and cost lower
than existing batteries.
Biological Engineering
The Bioenginneering potential of graphene is largely untapped at the
moment. That’s primarily because so far, there’s no conclusive data
available on the possibility of biopermeability and hence toxicity on
account of the incredibly small size of the material. However, it is esti-
mated that the safety and regulatory trials clearing the material for
biological applications won’t be cleared until 2030. However, the high
strength, small size, thinness, large surface area, and conductivity
of graphene make it the best candidate for bioelectric sensors that
could make blood work a thing of the past. Monitoring platelet count,
haemoglobin levels, glucose levels, cholesterol, and other diagnostic
procedures can also be made potentially non-invasive and extremely
convenient. If future clinical tests confirm its biocompatibility, gra-
phene can also be used in complex medically procedures such as
tissue regeneration. If that sounds radical, University of Wisconsin
researchers have already created graphene-based optogenetic brain
implants and interfaced them with mice.
Ultrafiltration
The single atom thick, two dimensional nature of graphene is
Graphene’s conductivity and thinness makes it

potentially ideal for medical purposes
particularly useful in the application of filtration. What makes it

special is its ability to allow water to pass through it, while also
proving completely impervious to other liquids and gases. The
capability of graphene to form a single-atom thick, yet incredibly
strong filtration layer allows it to act as a barrier between two
substances while accurately and reliably measuring pressure
between the two. This opens up many scientific and engineering
applications where pressure sensitivity readings are valuable. Fur-

thermore, graphene-based filtration systems are more thorough
than existing ones due to the possibility of creating incredibly
small filter pore sizes. Researchers at Columbia University have
created graphene filters with a pore size of 5nm. The smallest fil-
tration membranes available today are much coarser at 30-40nm.
The sheer thinness of graphene membranes also ensures that the
filtration is extremely efficient due to reduced pressure exerted
by the membrane on the flow of fluids. This material definitely
has the potential to revolutionise water filtration and desalina-
tion as we know it.
Carbon Fibre
As the name suggests, the engineering material is comprised of
carbon atoms arranged to form fibres of approximately 5-10 micro-
metre in diameter. The man-made fibre is formed when carbon
atoms bond forming crystals that lie parallel along the length of
the fibre. A multitude of such fibres form something called the tow,
which is basically the term of untwisted form of fibre. These tows
are then woven at right angles to maximise structural integrity. This
woven material is in the form of a fabric, which is then layered and
formed into desired three-dimensional shape, thereby giving rise to
extremely strong carbon fibre structures.
The strength, thinness, and lightness of carbon

fibre makes it perfect for smartphone casing
The significant strength-to-volume ratio of carbon fibre gives

it phenomenally high tensile strength, stiffness, and low weight.
The strong carbon bonds also mean that carbon fibre has marked
chemical as well as corrosion resistance, in addition to high thermal
tolerance as low thermal expansion. These desirable properties make
them indispensible for defence, aerospace, sports, and automobiles.
This material isn’t usually found in consumer electronics due to its
prohibitive cost. However, expensive gadgets such as smartphones

which are prone to breaking could very well benefit from this thin
and light, yet extremely strong material.
Korean electronics giant Samsung, which has been criticised
for fashioning its high end smartphones with plastic, seems to have
warmed up to carbon fibre. The lightweight yet strong material will
not only make its high-end phones slimmer and more durable, but
using a premium material such as this gives the phones a premium
look and feel. However, the company aims to do this without breaking
the bank by employing economies of scale. Samsung’s 2013 joint
venture with carbon fibre specialist SGL group could result in future
Samsung smartphones eschewing plastic in favour of the high-tech
material, at least for its expensive models.
Enhancing The Television 33
Chapter #03
Enhancing The
Television
CRT and Plasma technology might have
been replaced by the inferior LCD panel, but
nanotechnology has set out to set it right.
Display Technology: Materials Science to the Rescue

The most predictable aspect of technology is how it advances with
time and progressively improves the overall quality and experience as
it matures. Unfortunately, this hasn’t been true for display technology.
It can’t be argued that measurable attributes such as screen sizes
and resolution has steadily increased over the decades. However,
display tech is a visual medium and specifications are only one part
of the picture. The death of CRT and now plasma technology and
the rise of technology hasn’t necessarily been a boon for picture
quality. It may sound surprising for the modern generation, but
34 Enhancing The Television
The various layers within an LCD panel
CRT technology of yore beats modern day LCD panels hollow when
it comes to the crucial aspects of colour reproduction, response
time, viewing angles, and contrast ratio. The existence of widescreen
flat CRT TVs such as the legendary Sony KV-HR36 showed that they
could achieve 1080 lines of resolution with finer pitch.
One of the prime reasons for the industry moving from CRT to
LCD was rooted more in shipping weight and logistics issues, which
hurt bottom-lines. There’s absolutely nothing wrong with replacing
old, bulky technology with a lighter, sleeker, and power efficient
alternative. However, the problem with the display industry switching
to LCD panels was that this new technology was significantly infe-
rior to its predecessor. Plasma technology was an example of CRT
replacements that was leagues better than LCD panels. Unfortunately
even that has withered quietly and conceded the market to grossly
inferior competition. OLED technology is a worthy example of new
displays that can stand up to the quality expectations set by CRTs.
However, the fabrication cost, complexity, and the difficulty in mass
producing OLED panels means that the technology is in no position
to take on the incumbent LCDs at the moment.
If you pay attention, you’ll notice the one thing common with all
aforementioned display technologies that are superior to LCD. They all
are emissive displays. In layman’s terms, each pixel in plasma, OLED,
and CRT displays generates light and isn’t dependent upon backlighting
for illumination. This property is ideal because it categorically solves all
issues with colour reproduction, contrast levels, viewing angles, and
response time faced by LCD technology. That’s because transmissive
displays such as LCD use liquid crystals to block and bend light gener-
ated by a backlight to reproduce colour and contrast.
Quantum dots will eventually make LCDs cheaper
The problem is caused by the fact that it isn’t possible to

completely block out backlight, which leads to poorer blacks.
Moreover, bending light by changing the physical orientation of
liquid crystals is neither accurate enough to reproduce authentic
colours nor is it fast enough to ensure sufficient response times.
The end result is inaccurate colours and disconcerting level of
motion blur in fast-moving pictures. Worse yet, the inherent
fallout of bending light to reproduce colour is subject to parallax
issues, which severely restricts viewing angles and unacceptable
levels of colour shift.
Given the death of plasma and the slow development and uncer-
tain adoption of OLED technology, it seems the only viable solution
would be to find a way to fix existing LCD technology. Fortunately, the
field of materials science and engineering has come to the rescue.
TV manufacturers have resorted to nanotechnology to address
substantial shortcomings of the LCD panel. Researchers have not
only found a way to enhance the colour reproduction of LCD displays,
but the technology has already begun trickling out into the market.
The solution is quantum dot displays.
Quantum Dot Displays

There’s a great deal of confusion surrounding Quantum Dot (QD)
display technology. In its current state it isn’t exactly a standalone
display panel, but rather a means to enhance current LCD display.
A QD television is essentially the same old LCD panel, albeit with the
addition of QD technology to enhance colour reproduction. Having
said that, efforts are on to achieve a commercially viable standalone
display based on QD technology. But before we can fully understand
what are QD displays and how they work to enhance LCD TVs, a
primer on LCD technology is in order.
As explained earlier, LCD TVs generated moving images by using
liquid crystals to block and bend light generated by a backlight. The
now defunct CCFL backlit LCD panels employed a fluorescent tube
Quantum dot displays are already out in the market
to generate white light. Modern LED-backlit LCD TVs achieve white

backlighting by the means of yellow phosphor coated blue LEDs. This
light is diffused and directed by a light guide onto a pair of polarising
filters sandwiched between a layer of liquid crystals and a set of red,
green, and blue colour filters. The middle layer of liquid crystals and
RGB colour filters are responsible for reproducing colour. However,
the overall colour fidelity is compromised by the impurity of the
backlight. The white light generated isn’t comprised of pure red,
blue, and green light. It also contains impure pink, orange, and yellow
hues, which affect the overall quality of the primary RGB spectrum.
This problem can be addressed by using a backlight with indi-
vidual Red, Green, and Blue LED diodes, but this makes displays
prohibitively expensive. The solution lies in employing quantum dots
to enhance the backlight. QD displays ditch the phosphor coating for
pure blue LED diodes in the backlight. Blue because it is high-energy
visible light that can then easily be converted to red and green light.
The blue LEDs naturally generate the blue bit of the RGB spectrum,
but creating the other two colours requires nanoscience. This is
where quantum dots come into the picture.
They are essentially light-emitting semiconductor (cadmium
selenide) nanocrystals. Their main USP is the ability to absorb and
convert a light of one wavelength into that of specific required wave-
length. This is achieved with a layer of cadmium-selenium quantum
dots sandwiched between layers of electron-transporting and hole-
transporting organic materials. When an electric field is applied, the
electrons and holes in the organic layers are captured by the quantum
dot, which causes them to emit photons. The hue of the colour can
be accurately achieved by controlling the size of the quantum dots.
QD setups employ two sizes of nanocrystals. The relatively large
dots, which possess a diameter of approximately 50 atoms, generate
red light, whereas the 30 atom wide quantum dots glow green.
Because the light gener-

ated by quantum dots is
exceptionally pure, it passes
almost unhindered through
the final polarisation filter.
QD technology essentially
uses backlighting and
quantum dots to create pure
RGB coloured light rather
inexpensively. This not only
increases colour accuracy
by a great degree, but the
purity of primary colours
also minimises light loss
attributed to polarisation Carbon nanotubes are 200
filters. The end result is rich times stronger than steel
colours and an extremely
bright display with highly saturated colours.
The endgame for QD technology is a lot more than just a stop-gap
enhancement for LCD televisions until OLED technology becomes
cheaper and easier to produce. Efforts are on to create QD televi-
sions where the underlying LCD technology is altogether bypassed
to generate picture purely using quantum dots. However, this process
is still in the nascent stage. The reliability of QD only displays is in its

infancy, and it will be still some time before pure QD TVs become easy
to mass produce and cheap enough to displace LCD televisions. It’s
anyone’s guess whether this could happen before the much superior
OLED technology becomes commercially viable, which would make
pure QD TVs rather pointless unless they are significantly cheaper.
Be that as it may, QD technology has definitely achieved its goal
of improving upon LCD TVs and has successfully rid the imperfect
LCD technology of most of its damning flaws. However, quantum
dots aren’t the only application of exotic materials that have been
improving LCD and overall display technology.
Carbon Nanotube Enhanced LCD Displays

We have already witnessed the mind-boggling applications of the
two-dimensional carbon allotrope graphene. It looks like the most
overachieving engineering element carbon strikes again with another
allotrope. This time, it is Carbon NanoTube’s (CNT) turn in the spot-
light. CNTs are essentially carbon atoms arranged in the shape of
tubular cylinders at the nano scale.
Like graphene, this carbon allotrope exhibits extraordinary feats
of strength and incorporates mind boggling physical properties. Each
individual CNT has 200 times the strength of steel and five times its
elasticity at just half the density of an element as light as aluminium.
Carbon nanotubes act as additives to

enhance existing LCD technology
It shares graphene’s capability of ballistic transport and exhibits five

times the electrical conductivity of copper and a thousand times its
thermal conductivity. And like an ideal exotic engineering material,
CNTs show virtually no signs of physical degradation typical of metals.
This includes resistance to corrosion, sensitivity to radiation, and
thermal expansion and contraction.
The impressive structural integrity of CNTs allows them to exhibit
phenomenal length-to-diameter ratios of up to 132 million to one.
The diameter of a typical CNT ranges from 1 to 50nm, with their
length typically ranging in the microns, which are several thousand

nanometres long. Higher qualities of CNT fibres are large enough to
be measured in millimetres. CNT’s engineering applications generally
see it being used in the powder form as an additive for enhancing
attributes such as strength, durability, and thermal/electrical conduc-
tivity. The applications of the engineering material are instrumental
in improving existing semiconductors, sensors, and more importantly
LCD displays. The ballistic transport property of CNTs and enhanced
electrical conductivity goes a long way in improving existing LCD
technology in a cost effective manner.
As explained earlier, LCDs create images by employing liquid
crystals to bend and block light. This process is complicated and calls
for the liquid crystals to bend light precisely to reproduce colours.
This is made possible by the unique property of liquid crystals to
possess properties of both conventional liquids and those of solid
crystals. This allows liquid crystals to flow like a liquid, but at the
same time allow them to be oriented with the uniformity of crystalline
structures. Colour reproduction in an LCD panel is possible because
the orientation of liquid crystals can be modified to accurately control
how they bend light. This is achieved by applying current. Serious
problems associated with LCD technology, such as slow response
times, are caused by the relative sluggishness of liquid crystals when
it comes to changing orientation.
Sony and Canon are still sitting on patents

for advanced emissive CNT displays
This can be effectively addressed by enhancing existing LCD

displays with CNT additives. Introducing tiny quantities of CNTs to
liquid crystals considerably increases their speed and efficiency.
The additives improve the response time of regular LCD panels.
To express this in numbers, a typical LCD panel renders an image
in 15 milliseconds. However, a CNT-enhanced LCD requires just
four milliseconds. This reduces ghosting and blurring generally
witnessed during action flicks, sports broadcasts, or otherwise in
any content featuring fast moving scenes. The phenomenal elec-
trical conductivity of CNTs also means that liquid crystals require
less amount of current to change their orientation. This makes
displays much more power efficient. Further research on the field
could even potentially create CNT enhanced LCDs boasting of highly
stabilised liquid crystals that don’t require permanent voltages to
maintain their states.
Prominent TV manufacturers such as Sony, Samsung, along
with other players such as Toshiba and Canon have made abortive
attempts in the past to change the game with carbon nanotubes. Back
in 2006, these manufacturers had announced plans to create a new
display technology where CNTs would be used to create picture from
scratch instead of being added as an additive to LCD panels. Known
as Field Emitter Displays or FEDs and SED (Surface-conduction
Electron-emitter Display) depending on the company, this new
IGZO based LCD TVs are faster and more power efficient
technology is aimed to leverage the ballistic transport property of

CNTs to create images.
Unlike LCDs, these displays were designed to be emissive displays
based on the same underlying principles as CRT – albeit only slimmer
and more power efficient. The working principle involved employing
CNTs to fire electrons onto phosphor-coated screens, which light up
to reproduce colours. The incredibly small diameter of CNTs meant
that this technology was expected to offer better resolution and overall
picture quality than existing LCD or even the sublime but now defunct
plasma TVs. Unfortunately, this programme was subsequently put on
ice following prolonged copyright lawsuits and the main backers finding
the research costs unviable in the wake of emerging OLED technology.
IGZO displays
IGZO is an acronym for Indium Gallium Zinc Oxide, which is a semi-
conducting material that was discovered less than a decade ago.
It’s being used in Thin Film Transistors (TFT), which are crucial for
controlling liquid crystals to create picture in LCD panels. Like carbon
nanotubes, IGZO is another example of exotic engineering material
that has improved existing LCD technology. However, unlike CNT-
enhanced LCD panels, IGZO panels are already out in the market
– most notably helping Apple make its iPad Air lighter, thinner, and
more visually detailed than its predecessors. IGZO TFTs are meant
as a high-tech replacement for existing amorphous Silicon (a-Si)
based TFT LCD displays.
There are a plenty of reasons why IGZO is better than a-Si for
LCD panels. To understand how and why the former is better, it must
be noted that transparency is an important virtue in LCD panels. A
typical example of a panel has around six different layers consisting
of light diffuser/guide, polarisers, glass, TFT, and the liquid crystals.
All of these except the liquid crystal layer are transparent to varying
degrees. Transparency is crucial to ensure that the backlight passes
through the liquid crystals in order to create pictures. Existing a-Si
based TFT layer isn’t entirely transparent. It’s just that the millions
of transistors are tiny and thin enough to allow light to pass through.
IGZO trumps a-Si as a better TFT material because unlike the
latter IGZO transistors are actually transparent. Moreover, IGZO
sports 50 times the electron mobility of a-Si transistors. This allows
IGZO transistors to be fabricated in much smaller dimensions. This
not only allows manufacturers to allow higher resolution and pixel
density, but it also makes the display more power efficient. The better
electron mobility also allows the liquid crystals to be manipulated
much faster, which in turn improves the overall response time. That
means, IGZO displays exhibit relatively lower ghosting and blurring
when compared to conventional LCD panels.
Nanopixels
If you think 4K displays are high tech, you might want to check out
the possibilities unlocked by nanopixels. This is yet another feather
in the cap of nanoscience discipline within the branch of materials
science and engineering. Created by British researchers, nanopixels
form the crux of a new display technology that not only promises an
incredible level of efficiency, but also unprecedented levels of resolu-
tion and pixel density. Some of the tiniest pixels in modern displays
such as iPhone 5’s Retina display measure in at 78 micrometres.
Nanopixels raise the game with an incredibly miniscule pixel size
of 300x300 nanometres. To put this into perspective, that’s 150

times smaller than the individual pixels in the Retina display. This
also means that displays incorporating nanopixel technology will
be able to have 150 times higher resolutions as well.
The secret behind the working principle of this technology lies in
Phase Change Materials (PCM). PCMs possess the unique property
of being able to switch between amorphous and crystalline state
through the application of electric current. Working on the same
principles as LCD technology, the application of voltage determines
whether each subpixel of a nanopixel display is either transparent
(amorphous) or opaque (crystalline). Unlike traditional LCD panels,
nanopixel displays don’t require complicated polarising filter, which
enables them to assume paper thin proportions. The PCM layers
are made using the same ingredient behind rewriteable DVDs –
Germanium Antimony Tellurium (GST). This involves sputtering GST
particles to create a thin film of PCM. This allows the screen to be
slim enough to exhibit impressive flexibility. This thin nanopixel film
is sandwiched between two layers of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO), which
serve as electrodes to control the PCM layer.
Controlling the thickness of GST allows the nanopixels to assume
a desired colour. This unique property makes the pixels persistent,
just like E-ink displays. This also means that they don’t require power
to hold the image, but only to bring about a change in the pixels.
Nanopixel display prototypes measure in at just 200nm thick
Apart from the amazing resolution, current prototypes of nanopixel

displays are as thin as 200 nanometre thick. This allows them to be
used on foldable screens, smart glasses, windshield displays, and
even on synthetic retinas designed to mimic the photoreceptor cells
within the human eye. These displays can be used in the passive form
as low-power, high-resolution alternatives to colour E-ink displays,
or a more competent replacement for LCD panels by integrating
backlighting. Although, commercial adoption of this technology
is still a long way ahead, the future holds interesting prospects.
Batteries: The Weakest Link 51
Chapter #04
Batteries: The
Weakest Link
Existing battery technology might not be living
up to your expectations considering your
usage of mobile devices, but exotic materials
are going to make batteries much better.
B
ring up the subject of batteries and every single technology
user, whether he’s a geek or a layman, invariably has nothing
but complaints, as opposed to a single word of apprecia-
tion. Agreed that batteries are the very reason why mobile
devices are, well, mobile, but the risk, unwieldiness, and the overall
problems brought upon by the technology far outweigh the positives.
As yourselves, when was the last time any device that relied on bat-
teries didn’t outright such and left you in the lurch by transforming
into an expensive paperweight when you needed it the most?
52 Batteries: The Weakest Link
This fire hazard posed by existing lithium-based batteries

is grave considering the proximity of mobile devices
The transgressions of batteries don’t end with adding an extra

element of unreliability to electronic gadgets. Their very volatile
nature introduces flammability, which makes most devices dan-
gerous to boot. This risk is amplified further when the virtue of
portability lends these devices the sort of proximity that leaves them
in the position to seriously hurt users. The risk isn’t just restricted
to third degree burns suffered as a consequence of a burning bat-
tery that burns hotter courtesy of aluminium shells. The aviation
industry has had close calls on account of volatile batteries within

commercial aircraft, where hundreds of lives were potentially jeop-
ardised. Lithium-Polymer batteries used in hobby-grade R/C planes
are known to cause massive forest fires, which cause extensive loss
to life and property.
Apart from the grave safety concerns, the next hurdle for battery
technology is the quest for boosting efficiency in terms of backup
longevity and the reduction in their inherent bulk as well as weight.
These challenges need to be met rapidly and with great potency if bat-
tery technology is to keep up with rapid advancements in electronics
and computing. As of now, the virtually stagnated battery technology
is the one aspect that has severely curtailed the progress of mobile
devices. This aspect is in dire need of rapid improvement considering
that faster processors, powerful radios, added memory will only make
mobile devices even more power hungry than they are currently.
Saving Mobile Devices with Materials Science

Thankfully, the department of materials science and engineering
is hard at work, researching ways and means to improve existing
technologies and leveraging exotic engineering materials to improve
the power sources that form the backbone of mobile technology.
In the course of this chapter, you will find exotic materials bringing
forth improvements in four key areas of battery technology. These
are creating power sources with improved safety features and

safeguards, higher energy densities, faster charging, and enhancing
their basic lifespan.
While revolutionary new discoveries in materials science such as
graphene are expected to herald a radically new era of supercapaci-
tors as well as extremely high energy and fast charging batteries, that
exotic material is largely unknown and untapped at the moment. It will
be another good decade until graphene and its battery applications
become commercially viable. Until then, the only logical course of
action is to leverage the recent advancements in materials science to
improve upon existing battery tech. This is being achieved by making
existing Li-Po batteries better with high-tech materials being used for
the battery anodes. This should enhance not only the capacity as well as
durability of Li-Po batteries, but that should also bring about improve-
ments in absorption rates and thereby enhance the rate of re-charge.
Additionally, efforts are on to replace conventional electrolytes
employed in today’s batteries with more high-tech variants that
promise better performance and longevity at reduced production
costs. Modern batteries enhanced with exotic engineering materials
are being designed to pack in higher densities of lithium-ion sites
with durable anodic materials for significant improvements that
could potentially allow engineers to ramp up power and versatility
of mobile devices without having to worry about meagre runtimes.
Modern Battery Tech: From Nickel to Lithium

Waxing eloquent on the downfalls of existing battery technology and
the efforts to improve upon them with exotic engineering materials
is rather moot if we don’t dissect the modern battery in order to see
what makes it tick, or rather fail miserably at supporting modern
mobile technology. The revolution of hobby grade R/C in the late
twentieth century introduced the concept of rechargeable batteries
to the mass market. The nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries of those
times were heavy, bulky, slow to recharge and addled with the
dreaded memory effect that severely reduced longevity. Nothing
underscores the importance of batteries more that the fact that
mobile phones and pow-
erful portable electronics
came into their own only
after the advent of more
efficient nickel–metal
hydride (NiMH) bat-
teries. These batteries
were lighter, slimmer and
could recharge faster, in
addition to lacking the Ni-Cd batteries of yore were
durability-compromising heavy, bulky, took ages to charge
memory effect. Mobile and didn’t last long enough
devices could now last longer without being bulky, heavy or taking
too long to charge.
However, the modern slim smartphones, hobby grade R/C, and
ultra-slick, lightweight and powerful laptops as well as other mobile
electronics came into their own with the lithium based batteries. This
includes lithium-ion (Li-Ion) originally seen as button cells or in their
larger cylindrical rechargeable form. This new technology improved
upon every aspect of NiMH battery technology. Li-Ion cells were more
energy efficient, high capacity, recharged faster and lasted longer. The
subsequent improvement in lithium-derived battery tech primarily
improved discharge rates and form factor. This technology works
by replacing the liquid electrolyte within Li-Ion batteries with a solid
polymer composite. This makes the existing lithium battery lighter,
slimmer and more efficient. Cutting edge lithium-polymer (Li-Po)
batteries made slim smartphones such as the recent variants of the
iPhone possible. The high discharge rate meant that manufacturers
could now include even more power-hungry (read: powerful) mobile
processors and memory banks without fearing for device stability
and backup duration.
Understanding Contemporary Battery Technology

The working principle for lithium-derivative batteries involves chem-
ical transition of positive lithium ions from the anode to the cathode
through the electrolyte solution. This process results in the elec-

trictricity within the circuitry, which in turn powers the connected
mobile devices. Recharging a lithium-based battery is essentially
the exact reversal of the aforementioned discharge process. It
involves the positive lithium ions being absorbed by the anode. The
battery capacity is directly proportional to the number of lithium
ions that can be absorbed by the anode. Modern lithium batteries
employ extremely conductive materials such as graphite, which
can maximise ion absorption thanks to its highly regular surface.
Unfortunately, this process of prolonged ion discharge and
absorption isn’t without its risks and shortcomings. This regular
ionic transition is what causes lithium-based batteries to deteriorate
over time. High working and charging temperature is one of the
leading causes of battery degradation. Heat generated by overheating
laptops and smartphones severely reduces battery life. So does the
heat generated by fast charging the batteries at higher amperages.
That’s why it is advised to recharge the batteries slower at lower
inputs currents to prolong their lifespan.
The degradation of the electrodes also occurs to the constant
discharge and absorption of lithium ions, which tends to damage the
highly regular surface of the electrodes. The lithium salts contained
within the electrolytes also tend to clog up the pores within the
electrodes. This not only prevents the electrodes from efficiently
absorbing or discharging
ions, but also leads to the
crystallisation within the
battery electrolyte which
renders it useless.
The problems aren’t
restricted to internal deg-
radation either. Any form
of collapse in the electrical
circuitry or the physical
integrity of batteries can
lead of catastrophic con- Li-Po batteries could be improved
by incorporating anodes made
sequences. Both Li-Ion and
from exotic materials
Li-Po batteries are liable to
explode or catch fire if they are subjected to short circuits and
punctures or any form of overheating and short circuits. Modern
chargers for these batteries incorporate several electronic safe-
guards to prevent overcharging, overheating and short circuits, but
even a slight failure in this regards can potentially burn down your
residence. The susceptibility of batteries to punctures or design
failures that don’t factor in ventilation for expansion and drainage
of flammable electrolytes are another causes of potential fire and
explosion hazards.
Fortunately, hard earned advancements in materials science

and engineering have resulted in various improvements that are
currently being tested and implemented to improve upon existing
Li-Ion and Li-Po batteries. Let’s take a look at some of the more
promising examples.
Exotic Solutions for Lithium-based Batteries: Titanium

Dioxide
It’s fairly clear now that the single most important factor affecting
battery performance and reliability is the anode itself. The electrical
efficiency and durability of the material has far reaching effects.
Chinese scientists are no stranger to this fact and that’s why they
have come up with a high-tech replacement for the incumbent
graphite electrode technology. Their solution borrows from two
major disciplines of materials science – exotic materials and nano-
technology. The researchers at Nangyang Technological University
have managed to replace graphite electrodes with a more efficient
and durable alternative comprised of titanium dioxide.
Other scientists haven’t had much success with the material due
to the lack of sufficient surface area to improve capacity. However
the Chinese researchers have got around this problem courtesy
of nanotechnology. The answer lies in creating the electrode as a
titanium dioxide gel containing titanium nanotubes. This significantly
increases the available surface area, which in turn improves the

absorptive capacity of the electrode. In fact, the Chinese researchers
have managed to recharge this new titanium dioxide enhanced
battery to 70-percent capacity within just two minutes during lab
test trials.
What’s more, their tests further revealed that this new electrode
was capable of absorbing more lithium ions than the graphite elec-
trode it replaced. It also made the battery less prone to degrada-
tion. The best part about the new electrode is that unlike most new
technologies which are expensive, titanium dioxide electrodes are
actually easier and hence potentially cheaper to mass produce. The
end result of this new research would be incredibly faster charging
batteries that possess more capacity and last longer, even while being
cheaper to produce. This sounds just about perfect to be honest.
Perfluoropolyether (PFPE)
From raging forest fires to apartment blazes – the hazards of Lith-
ium-based batteries explained earlier are enough to send shivers
down any smartphone users’ spine. Thankfully, the good lads at
the materials science and engineering department have been busy
making batteries safer. And it looks like they are on the verge of a
breakthrough as well. One of the major causes of battery explo-
sions and flame outs is the battery electrolyte itself. The lithium
salts and the highly volatile organic solvents or polymers encases

within lithium-based batteries are basically ticking time bombs.
The unstable nature of these materials makes them susceptible
to short circuits, overheating and physical damage.
Fortunately, a few American researchers have tapped into mate-
rials science to come up with a more benign solvent that could make
batteries less of ticking time bombs than they are at the moment. The
answer lies in perfluoropolyether (PFPE) oils that have been used
widely as popular industrial lubricants. Unlike dangerous solvent
used in current batteries, PFPE is safer and reduces the chances
of batteries exploding or causing fires. The best part is that it does
a much better job at dissolving lithium salts than existing solvents.
Although PFPE is currently being tested for viability of mass pro-
duction, its implementation could potentially prolong battery life
by reducing the crystallisation of electrodes. When it’s perfected
and ready for production, it could very well result in non-flammable
batteries that last longer to boot.
Lithium Ceramic Polymer

Everyone is largely in agreement about how flexible screens will be
the future of display technology. However, what everyone seems to
have forgotten is the one thing that will make flexible screens moot.
No portable device is viable without a battery, and current battery
technology doesn’t allow flexibility. That pretty much means that

even if we were to produce a commercially viable flexible screen
tomorrow, implementing it into flexible and wearable devices would
be impossible without a flexible battery. The virtues of a flexible
battery go beyond merely being able to bend with flexible displays.
The advent of pliable batteries means that modern graphene based
conductive and power generating clothing could be enhanced with
batteries that don’t stick out but rather bend along with and conform
to the pliable hybrid graphene-cloth material. Flexible batteries
could be incorporated into the straps of smartwatches, thereby
significantly increasing the capacity and operating life of the devices.
The answer is Lithium Ceramic Polymer batteries. And unlike
other examples mentioned here, this innovation is already ready
for commercial production. In fact, Taiwan-based ProLogium has
already announced the production of this flexible battery technology.
ProLogium’s implementation of Lithium Ceramic Polymer battery
is extremely thin and therefore viable as a power source not only
for flexible devices, but also pliant and slim enough to be used in
smart clothing applications. Most impressively, this thin and flex-
ible battery does not catch fire. Not even when it is punctured, torn
or subjected to short circuits. This level of safety makes it the best
solution for wearable devices and smart clothing. Unfortunately, this
nascent technology isn’t cheap to produce and not quite as efficient
ProLogium’s Lithium Ceramic Polymer battery is a

godsend for flexible screens and wearable technology
as conventional batteries in its thinner forms. However, it can still be

used in specialised applications where flexibility and safety override
cost and battery capacity.
A few decades ago, most exotic engineering materials would be
concerned with increasing structural integrity or weight reduction.
However, the information age has seen electronic gadgets shrink
down and follow us from our living rooms and studies to pretty much
anywhere we can go in the form of mobile devices. It’s no surprise
why most of the engineering materials discussed in this booklet are

designed to enhance electronic devices and rely on nanotechnology
to make them smaller and more efficient. That’s why rolamite, which
is a type of bearing invented in the ‘60s, was the last basic mechanical
invention of the 20th century. The future holds gadgets shrinking down
in size and scaling up in power and efficiency. The nanotechnology
branch of materials science will serve as the veritable catalyst for this
change. But that’s a subject that deserves another dmystify to itself.
You can look forward to nanotech and other exciting subjects in
our upcoming issues. Do email us your thoughts on exotic materials
at editor@digit.in
There’s plenty of room at the bottom
http://dgit.in/TinyMachines

Dmsytify Exotic Materials

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dmsytify Exotic Materials

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A 9.

9 Media Publication The Small Book of Big Thoughts

Humanity tries to play god

© 9.9 Mediaworx Pvt. Ltd.

The past few decades have been spent in making incremental

The Divine Elements

Materials Science has opened up new avenues

ence and engineering proved to be a one of the biggest catalysts of

Materials Science: Genesis of Exotic Engineering Materials

The Viking sword employed advanced crucible steel

What Constitutes Exotic Engineering Materials?

include strength, durability, density, weight, conductivity, and other

Evolution of Engineering Materials

The Mongolian mounted archers were a

conventional wooden bow. Composite bow technology allowed much

materials. This can be seen with innovative use of ceramics, depleted

The F-16 was a downgrade from its predecessor F-15

So is F-35 when compared to the F-16

frontier – consumer technology. Pricey materials such as aircraft

Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon

Unlike super-materials used extensively in the arms and space

as a photovoltaic surface, this wonder material spans a mind-boggling

The complexity of graphene is only rivalled

virtually smartphones that leverage the extreme tensile strength

Graphene based circuits are highly efficient

is a fancy way of saying that an electrical charge can move through

graphene-based processors anytime soon, although research is being

Graphene’s superior conductivity and thinness

that combine touchscreens with displays. Viable optoelectronic

the existing optoelectronic material Indium Tin Oxide (ITO), which

Batteries and Supercapacitors

Graphene based supercapacitors can be synthesised

researchers found that using graphene electrodes in conventional

Graphene’s conductivity and thinness makes it

particularly useful in the application of filtration. What makes it

applications where pressure sensitivity readings are valuable. Fur-

The strength, thinness, and lightness of carbon

The significant strength-to-volume ratio of carbon fibre gives

prohibitive cost. However, expensive gadgets such as smartphones

Display Technology: Materials Science to the Rescue

The various layers within an LCD panel

Quantum dots will eventually make LCDs cheaper

The problem is caused by the fact that it isn’t possible to

Quantum Dot Displays

Quantum dot displays are already out in the market

to generate white light. Modern LED-backlit LCD TVs achieve white

Because the light gener-

is still in the nascent stage. The reliability of QD only displays is in its

Carbon Nanotube Enhanced LCD Displays

Carbon nanotubes act as additives to

It shares graphene’s capability of ballistic transport and exhibits five

length typically ranging in the microns, which are several thousand

Sony and Canon are still sitting on patents

This can be effectively addressed by enhancing existing LCD

technology is aimed to leverage the ballistic transport property of

of 300x300 nanometres. To put this into perspective, that’s 150

Nanopixel display prototypes measure in at just 200nm thick

Apart from the amazing resolution, current prototypes of nanopixel

This fire hazard posed by existing lithium-based batteries

The transgressions of batteries don’t end with adding an extra

industry has had close calls on account of volatile batteries within

Saving Mobile Devices with Materials Science

are creating power sources with improved safety features and