Newtonian Mechanics

Lecture 1

M. Siddikov

September 26, 2019

Outline
Today’s topics:
Elements of Newtonian Mechanics.
Equations of motion of one particle.
Theorems of conservation
Organizational issues
Bibliography
I will try to follow the list of topic from our
program. I recommend everybody to start
with a book:
“Mechanics”, Symons. (Addison Wesley)
“Classical Dynamics of particles & Systems”,
Additional bibliography (ordered by increasing
level of complexity):
Marion. (Academic Press). “Classical
Mechanics”,
Goldstein. (Addison Wesley).
*Fetter, Walecka, “Theoretical Mechanics
of Particles and Continua”, Dover publications
*Landau, Lifshitz, “Mecánica” (Editorial
Reverté)
Class organization
All slides will be uploaded to the
“Aula Virtual” after the lecture
no need to copypaste during lecture
Please focus on what we discuss.
You are encouraged to participate. If
You have any questions or doubts,
raise your hand and ask (do not wait
till the end of lecture).
You are free to use Mathematica (or
similar programs), both during lectures
and during exams
Control questions
During lecture, I will give some control
questions and short problems. It allows
You to practice with application of
new concepts (and also it is a very
important feedback for me).
Organizational issues (II)

If You have quesitons

Ask during the class (the best & the fastest)
By email: Marat.Siddikov@usm.cl
In my office (E-425)
During Ayudantía with Sr. Ankai Hernandez, his email is
Ankai.Hernandez@sansano.usm.cl

Technical remark
Some students have problems with registration for the course via SIGA. As of
now Sra. Loreto Silva works on this problem, most likely will solve it very soon.
Meanwhile, please don’t worry about this issue and follow attending the
lectures.
Motion of pointlike mass in external field

Equation of motion
Assume that the pointlike particle moves in
external field (for example gravitational field).
How many kinematical variables are needed
to describe its motion ? Which equation
describes the dynamics (evolution) of the
particle?
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
Equation of motion Coordinate system
Assume that the pointlike particle moves in Cartesian system {x(t), y (t), z(t)} is
external field (for example gravitational field). a popular choice
How many kinematical variables are needed
to describe its motion ? Which equation
describes the dynamics (evolution) of the
particle?

We can work in any other systems

(polar, spherical, ...)
Velocity: ~v ≡ d~rdt(t) or momentum
~p = m~v

Beware
In curvilinear coordinates basis vectors
(~e 1 , ~e 2 , ~e 3 ) depend on point (change
orientation from point to point). This
matters when You take derivatives
 If the body moves along straight line
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
with constant velocity in our ref. frame,
Laplace’s determinism
from the point of view of reference
The dynamics of the particle is fully frame rotating around some axis, its
determined by its initial position and trajectory is not straight line at all.
~ might depend only on
velocities. The force F
coordinates and velocities, but cannot depend
on higher order derivatives

The first law of Newton

1 If the net force (the vector sum of all
forces acting on an object) is zero, then the
The second formulation establishes
velocity of the object is constant.
the concept of inertial frame in which
the first law is valid
X
~ i = 0 ⇒ ~v = const
F
i
All inertial frames move with constant
velocity with respect to each other
2 More comlpete: There are reference - coordinates are related by Galileo’s
frames (called inertial ref. frames) in which transform:
the particle moves with constant speed if the
sum of all forces is zero ~ rel t
~r 1 = ~r 2 + V ~ rel
~v 1 = ~v 2 + V

FIS-211: If we work in non-inertial

frame, the first law is not valid, and
there are various “ficticious” forces
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
Equation of motion Laplace’s determinism
Motion of the pointlike particle in external The dynamics of the particle is fully
field: in general need three coordinates (~r (t)) determined by its initial position and
and velocities ~ might depend
velocities. The force F
only on coordinates and velocities, but
d~r (t)
~v (t) ≡ ≡ ~r˙ . cannot depend on higher order
dt derivatives
Acceleration of the particle
The first law of Newton
d~v (t) d 2~r (t) If the net force (the vector sum of all
~a = =
dt dt 2 forces acting on an object) is zero,
is described by the second law of Newton then the velocity of the object is
constant.
d~p d~v ~ (~r , ~v , t)
=m = m ~a = F (1)
dt dt The third law of Newton
All forces between two objects exist in
Newton’s equation (1) is written for pointlike
equal magnitude and opposite
object (the object of zero size). Later (in FIS-
direction: if one object A exerts a
211) we will see how to describe the motion of
force FA on a second object B, then B
the objects of finite size (“rigid bodies”)
simultaneously exerts a force FB on A,
and F~ A = −F ~B .
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
Equation of motion The third law of Newton
Motion of the pointlike particle in external All forces between two objects exist in
field: in general need three coordinates (~r (t)) equal magnitude and opposite
and velocities direction: if one object A exerts a
force FA on a second object B, then B
d~r (t) simultaneously exerts a force FB on A,
~v (t) ≡ ≡ ~r˙ .
dt and F~ A = −F ~B .
Acceleration of the particle
Implicit assumption of the 3rd law: the
d~v (t) d 2~r (t) interaction between bodies propagates
~a = = with infinite speed, for example in case
dt dt 2
of electrostatic interaction
is described by the second law of Newton
~ 12 = const q1 q2 ~r1 − ~r2
F
d~p d~v
=m ~ (~r , ~v , t)
= m ~a = F (1) |~r1 − ~r2 |3
dt dt
we use instant positions. This assump-
Newton’s equation (1) is written for pointlike tion is valid for motion with velocities
object (the object of zero size). Later (in FIS- v  c (speed of light).
211) we will see how to describe the motion of
the objects of finite size (“rigid bodies”)
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
Control question 1
The pointlike mass m rests in the point
~r0 (0, 0, 0). At the moment t = 0 the
constant force F ~ is applied to the body.
Find the trajectory of the body.
Control question 2
Suppose that a body of mass m moves with
constant velocity ~v0 . At the moment t = 0,
the external time-dependent force F~ (t)
starts acting on the body. Evaluate the
trajectory of the body.
Motion of pointlike mass in external field

Control question 1 Control question 2

The pointlike mass m rests in the point Suppose that a body of mass m moves with
~r0 (0, 0, 0). At the moment t = 0 the constant velocity ~v0 . At the moment t = 0,
constant force F ~ is applied to the body. the external time-dependent force F~ (t)
Find the trajectory of the body. starts acting on the body. Evaluate the
trajectory of the body.
~ t2
F
~r = ~r0 +
m 2 Z t Z t1
~r = ~r0 + ~v0 t + dt1 ~ (t2 )
dt2 F
0 0
Motion of pointlike mass in external field

Control question 3
Suppose that a projectile of mass m is
launched, at t = 0, from ground level (in a
flat plain), making an angle θ to the
horizontal. Suppose, further, that, in
addition to the force of gravity, the
projectile is subject to an air resistance force
which acts in the opposite direction to its
instantaneous direction of motion, and
whose magnitude is directly proportional to
~ drag = −α~v . Find
its instantaneous speed, F
the trajectory of the projectile.
 Note that
Motion of pointlike mass in external field
Control question 3 mg
lim ~v = ~v∞ = − ~ez
t→∞ α
Suppose that a projectile of mass m is
launched, at t = 0, from ground level (in a -terminal velocity, might be found from
flat plain), making an angle θ to the balance of air resistance and gravita-
horizontal. Suppose, further, that, in tional forces:
addition to the force of gravity, the When the particle moves with velocity
projectile is subject to an air resistance force ~v∞ ,
which acts in the opposite direction to its ~ (∞) = −α~v∞ = m ~g
Fdrag
instantaneous direction of motion, and
whose magnitude is directly proportional to
its instantaneous speed, F ~ drag = −α~v . Find
the trajectory of the projectile.

α
~v˙ = − ~v + ~g
m
 α 
vx = v0 cos θ exp − t
m
 mg   α  mg
vz = v0 sin θ + exp − t −
α m α
Z t
~r = d τ ~v (τ )
0
Motion of pointlike mass in external field In general the equation of motion
(1) is a system of three coupled
The first law of Newton
second-order equations for components
If the net force (the vector sum of all forces {r1 , r2 , r3 }.
acting on an object) is zero, then the velocity
of the object is constant. In some books instead of “solve
differential equation” the authors say
The second law of Newton “integrate the differential equation
(equation of motion)”; these are
synonyms. The goal is to find its so-
d~p d~v ~ (~r , ~v , t)
=m = m ~a = F (1) lution ~r (t) with proper initial conditions
dt dt
In general case solution of (1) is chal-
The third law of Newton lenging.
All forces between two objects exist in equal In some problems there are quantities
magnitude and opposite direction: if one called “integrals of motion” which are
object A exerts a force FA on a second object conserved along the trajectory. Typi-
B, then B simultaneously exerts a force FB cally, these integrals of motion are built
on A, and F ~ A = −F
~B . of the quantities which contain only the
first order derivatives of coordinates.
Conservation laws in external field

Momentum conservation
If the projection of the force F~ on some
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of
the momentum ~p on this direction is
conserved

d~p ~ (1)
=F
dt
d (~n · ~p )  
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F
dt
Conservation laws in external field

Potential field
We say that the force F ~ is a potential
force, if there is a uniquely defined scalar
function U (~x ) called potential, such that
~ = −∇U (~x ) .
F

which we may formally define as

Z ~x  
U (~x ) = d ξ~ · F
~ ξ~

What condition should we impose on the

function F~ in order to guarantee that
U (~x ) can be uniquely defined ?
Conservation laws in external field

Potential field Energy conservation

We say that the force F ~ is a potential The pointlike mass m moves in the
force, if there is a uniquely defined scalar time-independent potential field U(~x ),
function U (~x ) called potential, such that so that the force acting on particle is
~ = −∇U. Demonstrate that the
F
~ = −∇U (~x ) .
F energy of the system

which we may formally define as m ~v 2

E = + U (~x )
Z ~x   2
U (~x ) = d ξ~ · F
~ ξ~ is conserved along the trajectory

~ =0
rot F
R ~r1
⇒ ~r0
d ξ~ does not depend on path due to
the Stokes’ theorem
Conservation laws in external field d ~v
Energy conservation m = −∇U
dt
The pointlike mass m moves in the Let’s multiply by ~v both parts:
potential field U(~x ), so that the force
d m v2
 
~ = −∇U. ~v d ~v
acting on particle is F m = = −~v · ∇U =
Demonstrate that the energy of the dt dt 2
system d ~r ∂U dU
− =−
m ~v 2 dt ∂~r dt
E = + U (~x )
2  2

d mv
is conserved along the trajectory ⇒ +U =0
dt 2
m v2
E = + U = const
2
Note that in general (non-potential field) the
change of kinetic energy is given by
Z t2
∆T = T2 − T1 = ~ · ~v
dt F
t1
Z ~r2
= ~
d~r F
~r1

-the work done by the external force.

Conservation laws in external field
Momentum conservation Important notice
If the projection of the force F~ on some Not all forces are potential, even if
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of ~ = 0. For example, existence of
rot F
the momentum ~p on this direction is friction/air resistance immediately
conserved:
implies that the energy is not
d~p ~ (1) conserved.
=F
dt
d (~n · ~p )  
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F
dt

Energy conservation
The pointlike mass m moves in the
potential field U(~x ), so that the force
acting on particle is F~ = −∇U. Then the
energy of the system

m ~v 2
E = + U (~x )
2
is conserved along the trajectory.
Conservation laws in external field
Momentum conservation Integrate the equations of motion of a
If the projection of the force F~ on some particle moving in the field of the potential
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of U(x) in one dimension. For the case when
the momentum ~p on this direction is the particle is locked in potential well
conserved: between the points x1 and x2 , evaluate
the period of oscillation. Analyze your
d~p ~ (1) solution for the case of the harmonic
=F
dt oscillator potential U(x) = k x 2 /2.
d (~n · ~p )  
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F
dt

Energy conservation
The pointlike mass m moves in the
potential field U(~x ), so that the force
acting on particle is F~ = −∇U. Then the
energy of the system

m ~v 2
E = + U (~x )
2
is conserved along the trajectory.
Conservation laws in external field
mẋ 2
Integrate the equations of motion of a + U(x) = E
2
particle moving in the field of the potential Z t Z x
dξ
U(x) in one dimension. For the case when t − t0 = dτ = q
2
the particle is locked in potential well
t0 x0
m
(E − U(ξ))
between the points x1 and x2 , evaluate Case of particle locked in potential well:
the period of oscillation. Analyze your
Z x2 (E )
solution for the case of the harmonic dξ
T =2
oscillator potential U(x) = k x 2 /2.
q
2
x1 (E )
m
(E − U(ξ))

In case of harmonic oscillator turning points

r Z
2E dz
x1,2 = ± , √ = arcsin(z)
k 1 − z2
r
m
T = 2π .
k
Conservation laws in external field

Case of particle locked in potential well:

Note that in certain potentials there could Z xi +1 (E )
be more than two turning points; in that dξ
T =2 q
case the particle might be locked in one of xi 2
(E − U(ξ))
m
several local minimas (depending on initial
conditions) Integral behaviour near the return point
U (xi ) ≈ E :

U(x) ≈ E + U 0 (xi ) (x − xi ) +
(x − xi )2
+ U 00 (xi ) + ...
2
If U 0 (xi ) 6= 0, the integral is convergent
near the turning point:
Z xi +1 (E )
dx
T ∼ p <∞
xi |x − xi |
0
Conservation laws in external field
Momentum conservation Demonstrate that the angular momentum
~ on some ~ = ~r × ~p satisfies
of the particle M
If the projection of the force F
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of ~
dM ~ ≡ ~r × F
~,
the momentum ~p on this direction is =K
dt
conserved:
where K~ is called torque. Demonstrate
d~p ~ (1)
=F that in any central field
dt
d (~n · ~p )   ~ (r ) = ~r f (r ) = ∇U (r )
F
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F
dt
all components of the angular momentum
Energy conservation ~ are conserved.
M
The pointlike mass m moves in the
potential field U(~x ), so that the force
acting on particle is F~ = −∇U. Then the
energy of the system

m ~v 2
E = + U (~x )
2
is conserved along the trajectory.
Conservation laws in external field
Momentum conservation Demonstrate that the angular momentum
~ on some ~ = ~r × ~p satisfies
of the particle M
If the projection of the force F
direction ~n is zero, then the projection of ~
dM ~ ≡ ~r × F
~,
the momentum ~p on this direction is =K
dt
conserved:
where K~ is called torque. Demonstrate
d~p ~ (1)
=F that in any central field
dt
d (~n · ~p )   ~ (r ) = ~r f (r ) = ∇U (r )
F
~ = 0 ⇒ ~p ·~n = const
= ~n · F
dt
all components of the angular
momentum M ~ are conserved.
Energy conservation
The pointlike mass m moves in the
potential field U(~x ), so that the force dM~ d~p
~ = −∇U. Then the = ~r × ~ + ~v × m~v
+ ~v × ~p = ~r × F
acting on particle is F dt dt | {z } | {z }
energy of the system ~
=K =0

m ~v 2 ~ = ~r × ~r f (r ) = 0, so
In central field ~r × F
E = + U (~x )
2
~ = const
M
is conserved along the trajectory.