Ancient History Prelims Booster Consolidated PDF 14224663 2023 04

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PARTICULARS HARAPPAN CULTURE (2550 BC- 1900 BC)
• Bronze age
• origin- difficult to explain
• older than Chalcolithic culture
• 1921- Harappa
Origin, Home, • spread southwards and eastwards
Identity ◦ N- Jammu (Manda)
◦ S- Narmada estuary (Daimabad, Pune)
◦ W- Makran coast of Baluchistan (Sutkangedor)
◦ E- Meerut (Alamgirpur)
• 1500 Harappan sites in subcontinent
Conflicts/ wars • Rigveda- battle @Hariyumpia: identified with Harappa

Town planning (under civic authority)
• citadel/ acropolis- ruling class
Featured Part lower town- brick house- common people
• grid s/s, roads at right angle
• multi floor houses existed
• Indus river- walls of burnt bricks for flood protection

wooden ploughshare*
• double cropping existed
• used both canal & well irrigation
• Gabarbands/ nalas- water storage
Agriculture
◦ canal irrigation- absent
• domestication of animals
◦ oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, camels
◦ humped bull- preferred by Harappans
◦ elephants, rhinoceros
◦ Harappan cattle were called Zebu (large breed...often
represented on seals)

• wheat, rice (relatively rare), millet, barley, rai, peas, sesamum (तीळ),
Crops mustard,cotton (maize- not known)
• bronze making/ bronze smiths

• spindle-whorls: spinning
• boat-making
• seal-making + terracotta manufacture
• bead-making
• Pottery- glossy and shining
Crafts and
• wheel- like modern ekka
Technology
◦ spoked wheel not known
• Jasper- semi-precious stone
• Faience- a material made up of ground sand or silica mixed with colour &
gum & then fired
• Carnelian- a beautiful red colour
Script
• Harappan invented art of writing
◦ 4000 specimens of writing on stone seals and other objects
• reading- not possible- so, their contribution to literature can't be judged
• inscriptions- recorded on seal. few words
• pictographic script/ Logo-syllabic script
• right to left ( sometimes follows a boustrophedonic style)
Pottery
Arts • use of potter's wheel
• designs of trees and circles
• fish scale, Pipal leaf, Peacock
Seals
• greatest artistic creation
• 2000+ found
• short inscription with pictures of-
◦ one horned bull, buffalo, tiger, rhino, goat, elephant

Images
• made of metal
• women dancer made of bronze
◦ except necklace she is naked
• Steatite statue-
◦ wearing ornamented robe over left shoulder under right arm
◦ short locks at the back of head- kept tidy by woven fillet
Arts
Terracotta figurines
• Terracotta- fire-baked earthen clay
• toys/ objects of worship
• bird, dog, sheep, cattle, monkey
• men < women
• unsophisticated artistic work
• regulated weights and measures
◦ multiple of 16....(link to Indian s/s)

◦ weights were made of stones called- chert
• barter system
• Harappans- commercial link with
◦ RJ, Afghanistan, Iran

Economy/
◦ land in Tigris and Euphrates
trade
◦ Mesopotamia/ Sumeria- Harappan seals
▪ Mesopotamian text- 2 intermediate trading stations
1. Dilmun- Bahrain on the Persian Gulf
2. Makan/ Magan- Oman
◦ Meluha (ancient name given to Indus region) [meaning- land of
seafarers]
• trade in lapis lazuli (gemstone)
◦ social prestige of ruling class
• cultural homogeneity
• no central authority
Polity • no of debates, coz- labour mobilization => existence of political s/s (centre-
state like polity)

Administration • Absent
• homogeneous society
• 2 main groups- rich (more pots) & poor
• Games played- chess, dice (oppo side sum= 7)
• Harappans did not believe in burying precious things with dead
Society
(NCERT*)
• burials have pottery, ornaments, jewellery, Cu mirrors & beads =>
belief in afterlife (New TN Board)
Social division • Absent

Metal known • tin (Afghanistan), copper (Khetri mines, RJ), bronze
Tax • in the form of cereals*
• no temples
• no religious structures except- Great Bath (side- rooms)
• practice of fire cults@Lothal (but no use of temple for it)
• terracotta figurines of women
◦ plant growing out of women embryo= Goddess of Earth
• Male deity- Pushupati Mahadeva
◦ 3 horned heads
◦ sitting in Yogi posture
◦ surrounded by- elephant, tiger, rhino, buffalo (below throne),
deer (2, @feet)
Religion • Phallus and female sex organs
• tree worship- Pipal
• animal worship
◦ unicorn
◦ humped bull
◦ + animals surrounding Pushupati Mahadeva
• Origin of Swastika
such practice was common in- Egypt and Mesopotamia
• Amulets- ghost and evil forces
Shamans- men & women who claim magical & healing powers + ability
PRELIMS to communicate
BOOSTER bywith the other world
Bookstawa ( Youtube Channel )
• mature Harappan culture: 2550 BC- 1900 BC

• 19th C BC- Harappa and Mohenjodaro- disappeared
◦ other faded gradually
• Causes:
End/ ◦ increase in rainfall in Indus region (current affairs- due to climate
decline change)
◦ sudden subsidence/ uplift of land- floods
◦ earthquakes
• Aryans being destroyer of IVC was a myth (#PYQ-CAPF)
• 1st to produce cotton in the world

CURRENT RELEVANCE:
• many socio-economic traditions are continued till today
◦ jewellery
Importance ◦ beauty-aid
◦ mirrors made of Cu
◦ griddles, necklace, bangles, anklets
• learnings- drainage s/s, town planning, socio-economic equality
Belan valley (UP)- earliest evidence of rice cultivation
Other civilisations during Harappa
NAME REGION
Kaytha culture Chambal valley
Malwa culture W. MP
Jorwe culture Pune
Ahar RJ
Munda culture Chhotanagpur Plateau

Ganeshwar- Jodhpura RJ
culture

(Shatughai, Mundigaq- sites from Afghanistan)
SITE STATE IMPORTANCE

• Granaries
Harappa Pakistan ◦ 2-roomed barracks: for labourers
• remarkable use of burnt bricks
• the Great Bath:
@ citadel mound
◦ side rooms- cloth changing
◦ floor- burnt bricks
Mohenjo-daro Pakistan
◦ ritual bathing
• Granary
• drainage system*
◦ equipped with manholes
• piece of woven cotton
• warehouses*
Bhirrana HR • Oldest Harappan site*
• City w/o citadel
Chanhu-daro Pakistan
• bead making factory
• use of rice
• horse- doubtful terracotta figurine
• only place of dockyard*
• Persian seal
Lothal* Gujarat
• twin burials
• citadel was not walled off
• source of Carnelian*
• India + Portugal---> Museam
• town divided into 3 parts- upper, middle, lower
• stadium
Dholavira Gujarat • reservoir- water storage
• an inscription comprising 10 large-sized signs of
Harappan script

SITE STATE IMPORTANCE

• houses with wells*
• world's earliest evidence field with plough marks
Kalibangan Rajasthan
(double cropping)
• fire altars*
• remains of street and drain
• terracotta model of plough*
Banawali Haryana
• barley cultivation
• lack of- grid s/s of town planning, drainage s/s
Rakhigadi Haryana • largest settlement in India
Sutkagendor
coastal cities • each is marked by Citadel
and Surkotada
Nageshwar & Balakot (near the coast)- specialized centres for making shell objects like-
bangles, ladles & inlay
Shortughai (far-off Afghanistan)- best source of Lapis Lazuli; traces of canals
Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira

Sites of craft production: Chanhudaro, Nageshwar, Balakot
Sites of raw material: Nageshwar, Balakot, Khetri
HOW THE HARAPPAN CULTURE IS DIFFERENT FROM WEST ASIAN CULTURE ?
HARAPPA WEST ASIA

Planned towns:
chess-board s/s, streets, haphazard growth of cities
drainage pipes, cess pits
rectangular houses with brick-
not found
lined bathrooms and wells
not known, except- Cretein
excellent drainage s/s
Knossos
own characteristic pottery and
local animal world
seals
wide spread didn't spread widely
Indus & Tamil Civilization

•Towns of ancient Tamizhagam such as Arikamedu, Keezhadi & Uraiyur have flourished as
part of 2nd urbanization of India & these towns are quite diff from Indus cities
EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 LATER VEDIC PERIOD

PARTICULARS
BC-1000 BC) (1000BC- 600BC)
ARYANS: (Mentioned In Rigveda)
• origin: Central Asia
• Language: Indo- European*
• Common names:
◦ Animals- goats, dogs, horses
◦ Plants- pine, maple
• Aryans expansion from Punjab
• Residence: Earliest- E.
over W.UP and Ganga-Yamuna
Afghanistan, NWFP, PB, W. UP
doab
• Saptasindhu region: land of 7
◦ formation of Kuru people
rivers
Origin, Home, (Link)
◦ Indus (Sindhu)-
Identity • 600 BC spread from doab to
Saraswati(Naditarna)
◦ Koshala, E.UP
• conflict with dasas, dasyus (Rig
◦ Videha, N.Bihar
Veda)
• tribes during LVP- Kurus,
◦ dasyus- original inhabitants of
Panchalas, Vashas, Ushinaras
the country
▪ Trasadasyus overpowered
them
▪ Dasyuhatya- slaughter
ofdasyus
◦ defeat of Sambara by Divodasa

PARTIC EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC- 600BC)
ULARS BC-1000 BC)
Tribal conflicts
• Aryans were powerful, because
◦ chariots- driven by horses
◦ soldiers equipped with coats of mail
(varman) and better arms (PYQ)
• fought with pre-Aryans and among • Kuru- Panchala authority
themselves ◦ capital- Hastinapur
• divided into 5 tribes called • Battle of Mahabharata (950 BC)
Conflicts Panchajana ◦ Kauravas vs. Pandavas
/ wars • Bharatas & Tritsu- ruling clans, ◦ Both from Kuru clan
supported by priest- Vasishtha • Panchala kingdom- famous for-
Battle of ten kings ◦ philosophical kings
• Bharata vs. 10 kings (5-Aryans ◦ Brahmana theologians
head)
• fought on river- Parushni (Ravi)
• winner- Sudas
• Bharata + Purus= Kurus
◦ later, Kurus + Panchalas
RIG VEDA- collection of lyrics (1st
testament of humankind) [Arthved]
SAM VEDA- collection of vedic hymns +
mantras, music notes [Gandharvaved]
YAJUR VEDA- hymns + rituals which have
to accompany their rituals [Dhanurved]
ATHARVA VEDA- charms and spells to
Feature RIG VEDA- collection of prayers offered
ward offevils and disease [Ayurved]
dPart to gods
# Rigveda + Samveda + Yajurveda=
Vedatrayi(trio of vedas)
Brahmanas
• series of texts
• full of ritualistic formulae
• explain social and religious meaning of
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EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC-

PARTICULARS
BC-1000 BC) 600BC)
• Agriculture
◦ primary occupation- so, settled life
◦ tools- use of iron
• Agriculture ◦ primitive
◦ mainly for fodder purpose • 6,8,12,24 oxen yoked to plough
◦ secondaryoccupation • wooden ploughshare
• wooden ploughshare • Shatapatha Brahmana- ploughing
Agriculture
• Pastoral people (wars rituals
[gavishthi] for the sake of ◦ Janaka (Videha king, Sita's father)-
cows) {cow, bull} lent hand for plough
◦ cows- wealth ◦ Balarama- Haladhar/ wielder of plough
◦ in this text Brahmana is placed above
Kshatriya, while in Panchavimsa
Brahmana- Kshtriya is placed above
Crops • java, yava (barley) • wheat, rice (vrihi)- chief crops
• iron implements (buried along with
dead bodies)
◦ arrow-heads, spear-heads (W.UP)
• Tools- socketed axes, ◦ iron axe- to clear forests (upper
bronze dirks, swords Gangetic basin)
• Carpenter, Chariot maker, • smiths and smelters
weaver, leather worker, • W.UP + Bihar: Cu tools (copper smiths)
Crafts and potter • weaving- confined to women
Technology • Spoked wheel* • Kulala = potters
(Caucaseas area- 2300BC) • urna sutra = wool
Living Living
• fortified mud settlements • mudbrick houses
• Bhagwanpura- 13 roomed • wattle-and-doab houses erected on
mud house wooden poles
• nagara- faint beginning of towns
• Hastinapur and Kaushambi- primitive
towns/ proto-urban towns

PARTICULARS
BC-1000 BC) 600BC)
Vedic literature
1. Vedas Pottery- 4 types:
◦ Vedas were called 1. black-and-red ware
Apaurasheya (i.e. not created 2. black-slipped ware
by god but god-gifted) & Nitya 3. painted grey ware
Arts
(existing in all eternity) ◦ bowls, dishes- for rituals, eating
2. Samhitas ◦ PGW layers- glass hoards and
3. Brahmanas bangles
◦ Aranyakas 4. red ware
◦ Upanishadas
Economy/
• no clear evidence of trade
trade
• Rajan- Tribal chief, elected- no
ultimate power
• assemblies lost importance
• Sabha, samiti, Vidatha, Gana-
• royal power increased
tribal assemblies; Function:
• sabha, samiti- continued
deliberative, military*, religious
but,women not permitted
• women allowed to attend sabha,
Polity samiti
◦ dominated by- nobles and
brahmans
• Vrajapati led Kulpas or gramanis
• rashtra- territory; sovereign power
• Vrajapati- authority over large
(term appeared 1st time)
land or pasture ground*
• KING/ raja- elected, basis- best in
• kulpas- heads of families
physical and other qualities
• gramanis- heads of the fighting
hoards


PARTICULARS
BC-1000 BC) 600BC)
• King assisted by few functionaries
◦ Purohita (imp)
◦ Senani (used spears, axes,
• sangrihitri- tax collecting officer
swords)
• King was assisted by-
• no standing army, but in war times
Administratio
military functions were performed
◦ priest
n
by tribes - vrata, gana, grama,
◦ commander
sardha
◦ chief queen + others
• no standing army
• no officer for administering justice
• cases of theft and burglary (cow
theft)
• Vis- common people
• Jana- tribes • patriarchal society
• Vis [tribe]- divided into Gramas/ • polygyny was prevalent
smaller tribal units meant for • princely families- primogeniture-
fighting getting stronger
• Sangrama- clashing b/w gramas • women status- started degrading
• kula (family)- rarely mentioned • gotra- place where cattle belonging
• Griha (family)- frequently to clan were kept
mentioned ◦ gotra exogamy- no marriage in
Society • Joint families, Patriarchal*, no same gotra
desire for daughter • Ashramas/ 4 stages of life: (1st to
• desire for children and cattle is 3rd- vedic, 4th- later vedic) [the
recurrent theme in hymns concept was not established in this
• marriage institutions* time]
• practice of levirate and widow ◦ brahmachari- student
remarriage and NO ex. of child ◦ grihasta- householder
marriage ◦ vanaprastha- hermit
• Tribal and egalitarian ◦ sannyasin- ascetic/ completely
renounced old life


PARTICULARS
BC-1000 BC) 600BC)
• Rigveda- Varna: term used for
colors* (arya varna & dasa 4 varnas:
varna) 1. brahmanas
• Factors contributed to the ◦ => rise in importance of
creation of social divisions- Brahmanas (unlike Aryan period)
conquest of the indigenous ◦ conducted rituals and sacrifices
inhabitants by aryans ◦ officiated festivals associated with
• Dasas & dasyus- conquered by agricultural operation
aryans and treated as slaves and ◦ prayed for success in war
shudras 2. rajanyas/ kshatriyas
• Gradually, society was divided ◦ warrior-nobles for positions of
into 3 groups- (similar pattern in supremacy
Iran) 3. vaishyas
Social division
1. warriors ◦ common people
2. priest ◦ producing functions- agriculture,
3. people cattle-breeding etc
• Shudras as a category of people ◦ artisans (rathakaras enjoyed higher
appeared at the end of Rig Vedic status- right to wear sacred thread)
period ◦ only tribute payers
• Unequal distribution of the 4. shudras
spoils of warcreated social ◦ servants
inequalities, hence the rise of common feature of 3 higher varnas-
the princes and priests over • entitled to upanayana or investiture
people withsacred thread according to
• slavery was common but there is mantras
no reference to wage labour
• Iron (Shyam Ayas- black copper)
• earliest literary references to iron in
Metal known • Copper (Ayas)
Indian subcontinent are found in Yajur
Veda & Atharva Veda (#PYQ-CAPF)
Tax • Bali- voluntary offerings • Bali- voluntary offerings

PARTIC EARLY VEDIC PERIOD

LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC- 600BC)
ULARS (1500 BC-1000 BC)
Rituals to increase King's powers:
• Natural gods
• rajasuya- to confer supreme power to him
◦ Indra: Purandara/ ashvamedha- unquestioned control over area
•
breaker of forts-
warlord: Rain god
◦ royal horses ran un-interrupted
• vajapeya- chariot race
◦ Agni: God of
fire:significant (burning
◦ royal chariot was made to win the race against his
kinsmen
forest, cooking)
Other rituals:
▪ cult of fire @central
semontonnayam- a ceremony to ensure the safety
•
place (same in Iran)
of the child in the womb
◦ varuna: God of water
jatkarma- a birth ceremony performed before the
•
◦ Soma: god of plants
cutting of the umbilical cord
(intoxicating drink
• upanayana- an initiation ceremony to confer status
named after him)
to boys of the higher varnas in their 8th yr;
◦ Maruts: god of strength
acceptance of student by guru; sacred thread-
◦ Aditi, Ushas (dawn):
Yogyapavita or Janeu
Female divinities-
Gods:
Religion mentioned but
• Prajapati- the creator, supreme
notworshipped
• Rudra- god of animals
◦ others- Surya, Vayu,
Vishnu- protector of people
•
Mitra, Yama, Sarasvati,
• Pushan- god of Shudras
Prithvi, Rudra, Sinivali
Worship:
• Mode of worship:
• some objects- began to worshipped as symbol of
Prayer(common+
divinity
individual),sacrifices
• prayers- dominant mode of placating the god
• offering of vegetable, barley
• sacrifices gain importance
• Gifts to priest- cows, women
Sacrifices:
slaves* and NO LAND
• sacrificer- yajamana, performer- yajna
• Important priest:
• killing of animals, loss of cattle wealth
◦ Vashistha(conservative Upanishadas- 600 BC
)
• philosophical text criticized rituals, stressed on- value
◦ Vishvamitra(liberal)-
of right belief and knowledge
composed Gayatri
• knowledge of Atman, relation b/w Atman and Brahma
mantra
• Brahma- emerged as supreme entity
EARLY VEDIC PERIOD LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC-

PARTICULARS
(1500 BC-1000 BC) 600BC)
• beginning of territorial kingdoms
• battle of Mahabharata
• society: pastoral to agricultural
Other info Zend Avesta
• tribal pastoralists to peasants
• tribal society to varna-divided society
• women status started declining

PARTICULARS BUDDHISM JAINISM
• numerous religious sects (62) in the 2nd half of

6th C BC ORIGIN
◦ basis- customs and rituals practiced by diff • 24 tirthankaras/ great
people in NE India teachers
• Causes of origin: ◦ 1st- Rishabhadev
◦ tensions due division on the basis of Varna s/ (Birth-Ayodhya)- laid
s foundation for orderly
◦ brahmanas- higher privileges human society
◦ above 3 varnas dvija category ◦ 24th- Vardhaman
▪ dvija- wearing sacred thread and studying Mahavira
Vedas (Shudras were out)(#PYQ-CAPF) ▪ Birth- Kundagrama,
◦ severe punishments to lower varna near Vaishali (540
◦ concept of private property andcoins BCE) (#PYQ-CAPF)
disliked by people ▪ father-
▪ bcoz- created social inequalities and mass Siddhartha:head of
suffering kshatriya clan-Jnatrika
• Imp cities- Kaushambi, Kusinagar, Banaras, ▪ mother- Trishala-
Vaishali, Chirand, Rajgir sister of Lichchhavi
Origin, Home, GAUTAM BUDDHA: chief Chetaka (#PYQ)
Identity • birth- 563 BC- Lumbini (Nepal) near ▪ so, rich family
Kapilvastu, in Shakya Kshatriya family (#PYQ- ofMagadha
CAPF) ▪ householder till 30,
• he is also known as Shakyamuni then- became ascetic
• father- Suddodhana, elected ruler ofKapilvastu, ▪ 42- attained
headed Republic clan of Shakyas Kaivalya*(Juan), so
• mother- Mahamaya, Princess fromKoshalan called Jina/ conqueror
dynasty ▪ mission- Koshala,
• foster mother- Mahapajapati Gotami (#PYQ- Magadha, Mithila,
CAPF) Champa
• married Yashodhara & had a son Rahul ▪ he was closely
• left home at 29, chariot pulled by his favourite connected to rulers of
horse Kanthaka & driven by his charioteer Magadha, Anga, Videha
Channa ▪ death- 72, Pavapuri,
• attained knowledge- 35 at Bodh Gaya under near- Rajgir (#PYQ-
Pipal tree, so called enlightened CAPF)
• 1st sermons @Sarnath, Banaras ◦ 23rd- Parshvanath
◦ defeated Brahmanas in debates (Birth- Varanasi)
• death- 80, 483 BC, Kusinagar (#PYQ-CAPF)


DOCTRINES OF JAINISM: 5
DOCTRINES OF BUDDHISM: (pentagon- mains)
1. do not commit violence
Asthanayika marga (DOSALEMM) (Ahimsa)
1. right observation 2. do not speak lie
2. right determination 3. do not steal
3. right speech 4. do not acquire property
4. right action 5. observe continence
5. right livelihood (brahmacharya) {added by-
6. right exercise Mahavira}
FeaturedPart 7. right memory JAINISM
8. right meditation 2 sects:
middle path 1. shvetambaras- put on white
1. do not covet the property of others dress
2. do not commit violence 2. digambaras- naked
3. do not use intoxicants* Triratna (KFC)
4. do not speak a lie 1. right knowledge
5. do not indulge in corrupt practices* 2. right faith
objective: to secure salvation of individual/ 3. right action/ conduct
nirvana Prohibited practice of war and
agriculture
• villages were divided into
◦ cultivated plots and allotted family-wise
• fenced fields and irrigation channels
• no landlords
Agriculture
• villages- granted to Brahmans and big
merchants
• gahapatis- rich peasants
• iron ploughshare*
• Rice, barley, pulses, millets, cotton,
Crops sugarcane


• NBPW- Northern Black Polished Ware Phase
◦ glossy and shining pottery
• iron implements for crafts and agriculture
◦ axes, adzes, knives, razors, nails, sickles
• beginning of metal money
Crafts and • use of burnt bricks and ringwells
Technology • marked- 2nd phase of urbanisation
• 7 storeyed palaces (Pali text)
• Saddalaputta @Vaishali- 500 potter's shop
TECHNOLOGY
• iron- crucial role
• smiths
LITERATURE
• language- Ardhamagadhi
• compiled in 6th CAD in
GJ@Valabhi- great centre of
Arts &
education
Literature
• earliest work- Apabhramsha-
1st grammar
• manuscripts- found in Jaina
shrines in GJ, RJ
• coins: punch-marked coins (5th C BC)
◦ beginning of metal money
◦ appeared 1st time in E UP & Bihar
◦ nishka and satamana- names of coins
◦ marks- hill, tree, fish, bull, elephant, crescent
◦ so, trade and commerce- increased the
importance of Vaishyas
• setthis- merchants: made hand gifts to Buddha and
his disciples, because
Economy/
trade
◦ initial stage- didn't attach to importance of
Jainism and Buddhism
◦ preached non-violence: put end to war b/w
kingdoms, promote trade and commerce
◦ Dharmasutras- lending money on
interest(vaishyas eager to improve social
status)
ECONOMY
• advanced food-producing economy
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• tax collection- army maintenance
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• no sabha, samitis, assemblies (bcoz of huge sizes of
kingdoms)
◦ only in small kingdoms
• parishads- exclusively of Brahmans
REPUBLICAN EXPERIMENT
• Shakyas, Lichchhavis
Polity ◦ Administration:
▪ Raja- King
▪ Uparaja- Vice-king
▪ Senapati-commander
▪ Bhandagarika- treasurer
• no place for brahmans
• become feeble from- Mauryan period
• King- highest official status
• mahamantras- highest officials- various functions
◦ mantrin- minister
◦ senanayaka- commander
◦ judge
◦ chief accountant
◦ ayuktas- officers
• imp ministers:
◦ Varsakara- Magadha
◦ Dirghacharayana- Koshala
Administration
• higher officials- recruitment from priestly class
RURAL ADMINISTRATION
• gramini- leader of grama or tribal militant unit
◦ later transformed to village headman
◦ titles- gramabhojaka, gramini or gramika
▪ gramini prevails in Shri Lanka to this date
ARMY
• Nanda ruler- huge (ref)
TAX
• Balisadhakas- tax collectors
• Shaulkika or shulkadhyaksha- collected tolls from
artisans and traders

• nucleated rural settlements
• Bhojaka- village headman
• 3 types of villages: inhibited by
◦ typical villages- various caste and
communities
Society
◦ craft villages- carpenters
◦ border villages- countryside merged
into forests
• legal and judicial system- originated
• civil and criminal law based on Varna s/s
• criminal offence- punishments- revenge
form
4 varnas: 4 varnas:
1. brahmanas 1. brahmanas
Social
2. kshatriyas 2. kshatriyas
division
3. vaishyas 3. vaishyas
4. shudras 4. shudras
Tax
• Bali- 1/6th of the produce as tax
(collected by royal agents)
SPREAD OF JAINISM:
SPECIAL FEATURES OF BUDDHISM AND
• Chandragupta Maurya (322-298 BC)
ITS SPREAD:
• didn't recognize soul/ atman ◦ Karnataka king, spent last years of life as
Jaina
◦ => revolution of history of Indian ◦ Bhadrabahu was his spiritual teacher
religions
(#PYQ-CAPF)
• Women also admitted to sangha • Great famine in Magadha (200 years after
• more liberal and democratic than Mahavira death)
Brahminism
• Budhha fight evil by goodness and ◦ lasted for 12 years
hatred by love
◦ so, movement to South (leader-
Bhadrabahu)
• Pali language
Religion
• 3 main elements of Buddhism- Budhha, ◦ those stayed in Magadha (leader-
Sthalabahu)
Sangha, Dhamma
• Magadha, Koshala, Kaushambi* ▪ conflicts among them, so councilcalled
@Pataliputra
(#PYQ)
• Mauryan king- Ashoka ▪ boycotted by south. So now onwards-
▪ southerns- digambaras
◦ spread it to- C and W Asia, Sri Lanka ▪ Magadhans- shvetambaras
• Patimokkha--> code of conduct for
• 5th C BC- establishments ofbasadis (Jaina
monasteries; repetition every fortnightly
monastic establishments) in KA
assembly/ Uposath (assembly of
• 4th C BC- Kalinga (king- Kharavela)
Theravada)
• Malwa. GJ, RJ

CAUSES OF DECLINE OF BUDDHISM:
• 12th CAD- extinct from India
• religion is inspired by spirit of reform
• became victim to evils of Brahmanism
◦ Brahman reforms
▪ preserve cattle
▪ assured women and shudras admission to
heaven
• monks- cut-off from mainstream: pali-->
sanskrit
End/ decline
◦ 1 CAD- idol worship
◦ offerings
◦ monasteries- revenue collection (Nalanda- 200
villages)
◦ monasteries- became corrupt
◦ new form- Vajrayana
◦ women- object of lust
• Persecution of Buddhists
◦ Brahmana ruler- Pushyamitra Shunga
◦ Huna king- Mihirakula (Shivaworshipper)
• South India- Shaivites and Vaishnavites conflicts
with Buddhists
• showed keen awareness about problems of people
• traders- wealthy
• sharp social and economic inequalities
• Budhha- to remove poverty in the world
◦ farmers- grains • 1st serious attempt fight
◦ traders- wealth against Varna s/s
◦ labourers- wages • Prakrit- growth and
• new changes in material life literature
Importance
• opened the doors for women and shudras ◦ many religious
• sanctity of animal life- languages developed
◦ text- Suttanipata- declares cattle to be givers out of it-
of food, beauty and happiness Shauraseni-->
• new awareness in the field of intellect and culture Marathi
• new type of rationalism in people • growth of Kannada
• Buddhist monasteries- residential universities
◦ Nalanda, Vikramashila (Bihar), Valabhi (GJ)
• 1st human statue worship- Budhha
• arts- Sanchi, Bharhut, Gandhara art
PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA
• founder (defeated Dhananda)
• 321 BCE
• from ordinary family
• took advantage of growing weakness of Nandas
• help from- Chanakya/ kautilya
Origin, Rulers
BINDUSARA
ASHOKA
• greatest Mauryan ruler
• Buddhist tradition
• initially cruel (killed 99 brothers to get throne)
• Easternmost part of his territory- Dhauli major rock edict (#PYQ-CAPF)
• Chnadragupta liberated NW from thraldom of Seleucus (Greek viceroy)
KALINGA WAR:
• only major war fought by Ashoka
• 1 lakh killed, 1.5 lakh prisoners
• suffering- Brahmanas and Buddhist monks
• Impact of war
◦ Ashoka- grief and remorse
Conflicts/ wars ◦ abandoned policy of physical occupation (bherighosha)
◦ favour- policy of cultural conquest (dhammaghosha)
◦ asked the people to follow dhamma
◦ steps for welfare of men and animals in foreign land
◦ sent peace ambassadors to Greek kingdom
◦ policy of consolidation of empire
◦ disbanded army
◦ appointed rajukas- to reward and punish people
• virgin land brought under cultivation (land- sita)
Agriculture ◦ to meet expenses of army etc.
• employment of slaves in agriculture operations (men + women)


CRAFTS:
Crafts and • weaving
Technology • spinning
• mining
ASHOKAN INSCRIPTIONS:
• 39
• CLASSIFICATION- (edict= royal orders) [based on- no of edicts]
◦ major rock edicts (14)
◦ minor rock edicts
◦ separate rock edicts
◦ major pillar edicts
◦ minor pillar edicts
• devanampiya piyadasi- dear to all gods
• language: Prakrit (PYQs)
Arts
◦ NW- Aramaic language, Kharosthi script
◦ Afghanistan- Aramaic + Greek scripts (Lampak inscription)
• royal orders, career, external and domestic policies
• present on imp highways
• stone pillars were made in Chunar near Varanasi
◦ transported to N and S India
• 80 pillar hall @ Kumrahar, near modern Patna
• high technical skills in polishing stones
• shining NBPW
• sculpture in the form of lion and bulls
• caves for monks
◦ Ex. Barabar caves
• basis- Arthashastra of Kautilya
27 adhyakshas (superintendents)- to regulate economic activities of
state
◦ Sitadhyaksha- agriculture
◦ Shulkadhyaksha- commerce
Economy/
◦ samaharta- highest officer in-charge of assessment (#PYQ-CAPF)
trade
◦ sannidhata- chief custodian of state treasury(#PYQ-CAPF)
◦ dharmastha- CJ of civil courts (dharmasthiyas)
◦ Pradeshtha- CJ of criminal courts (kantakshodhanas)
◦ Sansthadhyaksha- superintendent of markets (#PYQ-CAPF)
◦ Antarvamshika- chief of the palace guards
• coins- punch-marked silver coins (named as- Panas)
◦ symbols- peacock, hill and crescent

• empire divided into no of provinces- prince: scion of royal dynasty
• tirthas- important functionaries
Polity
◦ mantrin- minister
◦ purohita- high priest
◦ senapati- commander-in-chief
◦ yuvaraja- crown prince
Imperial administration
• accounts:
◦ Arthashastra of Kautilya---> admin + military admin
◦ Indica of Megasthenes (Greek Ambassador) [he succeeded Deimachos
as ambassador]
▪ King- assisted by council (6)
• capital: Pataliputra
• admin- 6 committees (5 members each)
◦ Foreign affairs
◦ Census*
◦ Trade
◦ Craft
◦ Weights & measures
◦ Tax
• Pativedakas- reporters (to report Ashoka the affairs of the people at all
Administratio
times)
n
• amatyas- Civil servants
• Bandhavgarh- jail
• charaka- police lock-up
• nagarika- city superintendent
• gudhapurushas- secret agents under control of Mahamatyapasarpa
Armed forces
• Army
◦ Pliny (Roman writer)
▪ 30k- cavalry
▪ 6 lakh- foot-soldiers
▪ 9k- elephants
• Navy*
• Admin of armed forces- board of 30 officers
◦ dived into 6 committees
◦ Army, Cavalry,Elephants, Chariots, Navy,
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4 varnas:
1. brahmanas
Social
2. kshatriyas
division
3. vaishyas
4. shudras
Tax • tax from peasant, artisans and traders
INTERNAL POLICY AND BUDDHISM:
• # himself became Buddhist monk, visited Buddhist shrines
◦ converted by- his nephew: Nigrodha
• 3rd Buddhist council (Sangiti) held by him
◦ 250 BC
◦ @Pataliputra
Religion ◦ after this he sent Buddhist missionaries to Ceylon & Suvarnabhumi
• sent missionaries to S India, Sri Lanka, Burma,.....
• appointed dhammamahamantras- to propagate Dhamma
• killing of some birds and animals prohibited
• animal slaughter- completely prohibited
• Ashoka's dhamma- broad objective: to preserve social order
• strengthen institution of family and existing social classes
CAUSES OF FALL OF MAURYAN EMPIRE
• Brahmanical reaction
◦ due to tolerant policy of Ashoka- asked to respect them too
◦ prohibited animal killing, birds
◦ loss of Brahmanas
◦ new kingdoms- ruled by Brahmanas (Shungas, Satavahanas)
• Financial crisis
◦ enormous payment to army and bureaucracy
◦ largest- army and regiments of officers
◦ Ashoka- large grants to Buddhist monks
• Oppressive rule
End/ decline
◦ Bindusara- Taxila citizens complaint about wicked bureaucrats
(dushtamatyas)
◦ Ashoka- same complaint, same city
▪ solutions by Ashoka
▪ rotation of officers in Tosali (Kalinga), Ujjain, Taxila
▪ admin supervision....
▪ FAILED
• New knowledge in the outlying areas
• Neglect of NWFP and great wall of China
◦ Chinese ruler Shih Huang Ti: constructed The Great Wall of China (220 BC)
◦ Greek kingdom in N Afghanistan- Bactria
• Last ruler of Mauryan empire- Brihadratha was assassinated by his
commander-in-chief- Pushyamitra Sunga

ASHOKA'S PLACE IN HISTORY:
• great missionary ruler
• political unification of country
• respected other scripts- Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Aramaic, Greek
Importance
• languages- Greek, Prakrit, Sanskrit
• followed tolerant and religious policy
• policy of peace, non-aggression and cultural conquest
• so, he was far away from his day and generation
PARTICULARS CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS

THE INDO-GREEKS
THE SHAKAS
THE PARTHIANS
THE KUSHANAS
Origin, Home,
mlechchha-->
Identity
• it is the general term used to refer the above mentioned migrant
communities
• the term indicated that they didn't observe the norms of caste society &
spoke languagesthat were not derived from Sanskrit
Agriculture
• Kushans- promoted agriculture
• irrigation evidences- Afghanistan and central Asia
Science & Technology
• Indian Astronomy & Astrology (Greek influence)
• term- horoscope was derived from the term horashastra (Astrology in
Sanskrit)
• Greek term Dramcha came to be known as dramma
Crafts and
• medicine, botany, chemistry
Technology
◦ Charakasamhita- names of plants & herbs
◦ Oshadhi= aushadhi
• trousers+ long boots
• practice of leather making
• glass making


Structures
• advanced building activities
• burnt bricks for flooring
• tiles- flooring and roofing
• brick-walls
Pottery
• red ware- painted and polished
Arts • medium to fine fabric
• distinctive pots- sprinklers and spouted channels
Cavalry
• horse riding
• Shakas and Kushans
◦ best horse riders
◦ introduced- turban, tunic, trousers, heavy long coat
• cap, helmet, boot
Trade
Economy/ • gold from Altai mountains (through trade with Roman empire)
trade • Kushans- controlled silk route: tolls from traders
• Kushanas were 1st to issue gold coins in India
• development of feudal organisation
• Kushans- title: King of Kings => supremacy over several small princes
• Shakas and Kushans- idea of divine origin of Kingship
• Kushan kings- sons of God (adopted from Chinese- son of heaven)
◦ used in India- to legitimize the royal authority
• Kushans- Satraps system of government
Polity
◦ empire divided into satrapies
◦ ruler- satrap (kshatrapas & mahkshatrapas)
◦ these governors had power to issue their own inscriptions & mint their own
coins
◦ = world leaders or governors who are heavily influenced by large world
superpowers or hegemonies & act as their surrogates
• dual rule- 2 kings ruling the same kingdom (father + son)=> less centralisation
• military governorship- governor = strategos

Administrati • Greeks: practice of military governorship
on ◦ Strategos- military governors
• all GSPK got completely Indianized
most absorbed as- warrior class i.e. Kshatriyas
Society • Manu- Shakas and Parthians = kshatriya who deviated from their duties and
fallen in status
◦ so also called- second-class Kshatriya
Religious developments
• some converted to Vaishnavism
◦ Vishnu worship
◦ god of protection and preservation
◦ Greek ambassador- Heliodorus: set up pillar in honor of Vasudeva near
Vidisha
• some adopted Buddhism
◦ famous Greek ruler- Menander
◦ Milind Panho
• Kushan- worshipped: Shiva and Buddha (images on coins)
Religion • Kushan ruler Vasudeva
Origin of Mahayana Buddhism
• 4th Buddhist Council (98 AD, Kashmir)- Kanishka (Kushanas)
• accepted gold & silver
• took non-veg food
• ware elaborate robes
• some assumed household life
• image worship of Buddha
• with its rise: the old puratin school of Buddhism called as- Hinayana/ lesser
wheel
• Kanishka- great patron of Mahayana

INVADERS ABOUT
• Greeks- 1st to cross Hindukush, ruled Bactria
• reason- weakness of Seleucid empire (side- Iran: Parthia)
• came upto Ayodhya, Pataliputra
• failed to establish united rule in India
• Menader (Milinda)
THE INDO-
◦ most famous ruler
GREEKS
◦ capital- Sakala (modern- Sialkot, PB)
◦ converted to Buddhism by Nagarjuna/ Nagasena
▪ Milind Panho or Questions of Milinda
• large no of coins- gold
• introduced feature of Hellenistic art in NWFP
• Gandhara art
• they were also called- Yavanas*
• controlled > part than Greek
• = Afghans + Turks
• 5 branches
1. Afghanistan
2. Punjab (Taxila)
3. Mathura
4. W India
5. Deccan
• Ujjain king fought against Shakas
1. called himself- Vikramaditya (India-14, most famous- Chandragupta
II)
THE SHAKAS 2. era- Vikrama Samavat (58 BC)
• silver coins
Rudradaman I
• most famous
• ruled- Sindh, GJ, Konkan, Narmada valley, Malwa, Kathiawar
• important: repaired Sudarshan lake (semi-arid zone of Kathiawar)
◦ it was built by local governor during Maurya ruler
◦ earlier it was repaired during Ashoka time by great master Tushasp
◦ also repaired during Gupta rule (Skandagupta) by his governor
Parnadatta; Chakrapalit
• great Sanskrit lover
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INVADERS ABOUT
• from Iran
• < part than Greeks, Shakas, Parthians
THE PARTHIANS Gondophernes
• most famous
• St. Thomas- came to India to propagate Christianity (died in Chennai)
• also called- Yuechis or Torcharians (Yuechi- tribe)
• 2 successive dynasties
KADPHISES
• 2 kings
1. Kadphises I- issued coins S of Hindukush, minted Cu in imitation of
Roman coins (Khujala Kadphises- conquered Afghanistan)
2. Kadphises II- issued gold money, spread kingdom East of Indus
(Wima Kadphises)
THE KUSHANAS KANISHKA
• 1st to issue gold coins- high degree metallic purity than in Gupta age
• Mathura- coins, inscriptions, constructions and sculpture pieces
◦ 2nd capital in India (1st- Purushapura/ Peshawar)
• most famous ruler
• importance
◦ started era in 78 AD- Shaka era
◦ patronage to Buddhism (Kanishka- Mahayanist)
▪ 4th Buddhist council- Kashmir (Mahayanadoctrines finalized)

PARTICULARS AGE OF SATAVAHANAS

• Satavahanas= Andhras in Puranas
• ironshare, paddy transplantation, urbanism, writing--> created conditions
for state formation
• sources of study: Purana & Nashik + Nanaghad inscription
• founder- Simuka
Origin, Home,
Gautamiputra Satakarni
Identity
• called himself the only Brahmana
• defeated Shakas & many Kshatriya rulers
• set up capital @Pratishthan
Vashishtha Putra Satakarni was 24th ruler, was married to daughter of
Saka Kshatrapa Rudardaman I, but was defeated by him twice
Featured Part • 1st to grant lands to Brahmanas
• paddy transplantation
Agriculture
• Andhra- famous for cotton products
Crops • paddy
MATERIAL CULTURE
• fusion of local elements & north ingredients
• exploited iron ores of Karimnagar & Warangal
Crafts and
• use of coins, burnt bricks, ring-wells, art of writing
Technology
• Karimnagar- fire-baked bricks & use of flat, perforated roof tiles
CRAFT & COMMERCE
• Gandhikas- perfumers (modern title Gandhi)
ARCHITECTURE
•caves- Nashik, Junar
•Chaityas (sacred shrines)- large hall with no of columns
•Viharas (monestry)- central hall entered by a doorway from Verandah in
front
Arts
•Karle, MH- most expressive specimen of massive rock architecture
Language
•official language- Prakrit
•Prakrit text: Gathasattasai or Gathasaptasati- attributed to
Satavahana king Hala

PARTICULARS AGE OF SATAVAHANAS

Economy/ trade • mostly issued lead coins
Polity
ADMINISTRATION
• ahara- district
• officials- amatyas & mahamantras
• #senapati- provincial governor
• #gaulmika- head of military regiment + rural area admin
Administration
• kataka & skandhavaras- military camps & settlements
• 3 grades of feudatories
1. raja
2. mahabhoja
3. senapati
Family structure
• matrilineal social structure
Society • kings named after his mother
• Queens- made imp religious gifts in their own right
• ruling family- patriarchal (coz- throne succession to male member)
Social division • 4 fold varna system
• rulers represented march of triumphant Brahmanism
• vedic sacrifices- Ashvamedha, Vajapeya
Religion • worshipped Vaishnava gods- Krishna, Vasudeva
• promoted Buddhism- Mahayana
• they patronized Buddhism & Brahmanism

PARTICULARS GUPTA PERIOD

also called golden period of Ancient India
Background
• empire size: < Maurya
• centre of power- Prayag
• founder- Sri Gupta
CHANDRAGUPTA I (319-334)
• 1st imp king
• ruler of considerable importance because he started Gupta era in AD 319-20
SAMUDRAGUPTA (335-380)
• enlarged the empire
• policy of violence & conquest
• court poet- Harishena: wrote glowing account of military exploits of his
patron
◦ Allahabad inscription (Sanskrit)-> Samudragupta = most powerful Gupta
ruler (#PYQ-CAPF)
▪ it is written in very simple & refined Sanskrit in Champu Kavya style
Origin, Home,
▪ line 14- SG capturing king of Kota family
Identity
▪ line 21- SG violently destroying several kings of Aryavarta & surrounding
all forest kings
▪ line 22- rules offering him tribute, obeying his orders & performing
obeisance before him
• Napoleon of India
CHANDRAGUPTA II (380-412)
• extended empire by marriage alliance & conquest (his daughter Prabhavati
married withVakataka king- Rudrasena II)
• exploits: glorified in iron pillar inscription near Qutb Minar, Delhi
• adopted title- Vikramaditya (most famous Vikramaditya)
• Fa-hein visited India during his reign
Skandagupta (455-467)
• also called- the saviour of India (coz- successfully fought battle against
Hunas) [Bhitaripillar inscription]
• title- Vikramaditya
• issued 5 types of gold coins- archer, king & queen, chhatra, lion-slayer,
horseman
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• issued 4 types of silver coins- garuda, bull, altar, madhyadesha)

Science & Technology
Crafts and
• Aryabhatiya- written by Aryabhatta (Pataliputra)
Technology
• astronomy field- Romaka Sidhanta*
ART
• Samudragupta & Chandragupta II- great patrons of art
• Samudragupta represented on his coins playing lute (vina)
• Chandragupta II- 9 luminaries/ great scholars in court
• art was inspired by religion
• massive stone pillars, caves, stupas
◦ iron pillar @Mehrauli, Delhi (not rusted since 15 centuries)
• Ajanta paintings
• images- chief god @middle, large size (=> social discrimination & hierarchy)
• Gupta period- poor in architecture
• Paintings during Gupta period- Bagh caves near Gwalior (mural paintings)
LITERATURE
• remarkable period for production of secular literature
• 13 plays written by- Bhasa
• # Mirchchhakatika/ Little Clay Cart- written by Shudraka (#PYQ)
Arts
• # Abhijannashakuntalam- by Kalidasa (love story of- Dushyanta &
Shakuntala) (#PYQ)
• Brihatsamhita- Varahamihira (#PYQ)
• Bhagvadgita*
• most plays- comedies
• characters of higher & lower varna don't speak same language
◦ women & shudras- Prakrit
◦ higher classes- Sanskrit
• Mahabharata & Ramayama*
• development of Sanskrit grammar based on- Panini & Patanjali
◦ Panini- Asthtadhyayi (#PYQ)
◦ Patanjali- Mahabhashya (#PYQ)
• # Amarkosha- by Amarsimha (CG II court)---> he was the famous
lexicographer of ancient India (#PYQ- CSE, CDS, CAPF)
• ornate style


• issued large no of gold coins= dinaras (but not as pure as Kushanas)
Economy/ • silver coins= Rupak (#PYQ)
trade • didn't regulate economic activities on large scale
• decline in long-distance trade (coz- fall of Roman empire)
SYSTEM OF ADMINISTRATION
• Gupta king adopted pompous titles
◦ parameshvara maharajadhiraja
◦ paramabhattaraka
• throne didn't always go to eldest son
• huge army, horse chariots
• forced labour-vishti (C & W India) (#PYQ)
• Judicial system
◦ civil & criminal laws were clearly demarcated
Administrati
◦ theft & adultery- criminal laws
on
◦ property disputes- civil laws
• bureaucracy not as elaborate as Mauryas
◦ imp officer- kumaramatyas
• s/s of provincial & local admin
• empire--> divisions--> districts--> vithis--> villages
◦ divisions= bhuktis: under uparika
◦ districts= vishayas: under vishayapati
◦ village headman- imp*
• major part of the empire was held by the feudatory chiefs
• charters were marked with Garuda seal
• religious functionaries- land grants free of taxes
• Brahmana supremacy- huge wealth, land grants (mentioned in- Narada smriti
law book ofNarads [5 CAD])
• caste--> sub-castes (so no. of foreigners assimilated into Indian society)
• Shudras position improved
◦ allowed to listen- Ramayanas, Mahabharatas, Puranas (women allowed to
Society do the same)
◦ could worship new God- Krishna
◦ economic status changed
• untouchables increased in no- especially Chandalas
• women freedom: lower varna > higher varna (higher- complete dependence on
men for
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Tax • taxes: 1/4th to 1/6th of the produce
STATE OF BUDDHISM
• no longer royal patronage to Buddhism
• stupas, vihars & Nalanda university
ORIGIN & GROWTH OF BHAGAVATISM
• Vishnu worship/ Bhagvat- started post-Maurya
• Vishnu:
◦ minor God in Vedic times ( Sun & fertility cult)
◦ 2C BC- merged with Narayana => narayana-Vishnu
Religion
▪ Narayana- non-Vedic tribal god (Bhagvat)
◦ identical with legendary hero of Vrishni tribe in W India- Krishna- Vasudeva
• Bhagvatism:
◦ marked by- bhakti & ahimsa
◦ liberal enough to attract foreigners
◦ overshadowed Mahayana Buddhism
◦ doctrine of incarnation or avtara
◦ history- presented as 10 avtaras of Vishnu
◦ 6 CAD- Vishnu became member of trinity of Gods
◦ religious recitations- Vishnusahasranama
CAUSES OF DECLINE
End/
• successors faced- Hunas invasion
decline
• may found difficult to maintain large army

PARTICULARS HARSHA PERIOD (606- 647 CE)

Harsha's Kingdom
• ruler of Vardhan dynasty (foreign)
• father- Prabhakarvardhana (defeated Alchon Huna invaders & younger
brother ofRajyavardhana, a king of Thanesar [present day: Haryana] )
Origin, Home,
• Kanauj- seat
Identity
• trade declined- money scarce, officers & soldiers paid through grants
• power shifted to military camps- skandhavaras
• #Banabhatta- court poet: book- Harshacharita
• Harsha- last great Hindu emperor of India
HSUAN TSANG'S ACCOUNT
• came to India to study in Nalanda University
• spent many years to Harsha's court
• Harsha became great supporter of Buddhism
• Pataliputra- in state of decline
• Prayag & Kanauj- became imp
• Brahmanas, Kshatriyas- simple life, but nobles & priest- luxurious life
Arts
• takes notice of untouchables- scavengers, executioners
Misc
• Banabhatta gave flattering a/c of Harsha in Harshcharita
• Harsha- author of 3 dramas-
◦ Priyadarshika
◦ Ratnavali
◦ Nagananda
• on same lines as Gupta
• land grants continued
• grant of land to officers by charters
• Huan Tsang informed- Harsha revenue divided into 4 parts
1. king expenditure
Administratio
2. scholars
n
3. endowment of officials & public servants
4. religious purposes
• law & order was not well-maintained
• Robbery- considered to be 2nd treason- right hand of robber was
amputated
PARTICULARS HARSHA PERIOD (606- 647 CE)

BUDDHISM & NALANDA
• Nalanda- around 10k students
• philosophy of Mahayana school of Buddhism
• Harsha followed tolerant religious strategy
Religion ◦ initially- Shaiva
◦ later- Buddhism (initially Hinayana Buddhist, later to Mahayana)
• 2 assemblies: (#PYQ)
◦ Kannauj- to popularize Mahayana Buddhism
◦ Prayag- to popularize himself
SOUTH INDIAN KINGDOMS
PARTICULARS PALLAVAS
• decline of Sangam age---> Kalabhra rule for 250 yrs---> Pallavas
• kingdom @Tondaimandalam; capital- Kanchipuram
• rule- continued till Tondaimandalam was captured & annexed by imperial
Cholas (in the beginning of 10th C)
• theories of origin
Origin ◦ =Parthians, foreigners who ruled W India
◦ branch of Brahmin royal dynasty of Vakatakas
◦ descendants of Chola prince & Naga prince whose native was the island of
Manipallavam
• most accepted view: natives of Tondaimandalam
• identical with Pulindas mentioned in Ashokan inscription

• 1st line: 250 AD- 350 AD (Prakrit charters)
◦ Sivaskandavarman
◦ Vijayaskandavarman
• 2nd line: 350 AD- 550 AD (Sanskrit charters)
◦ Vishnugopa- defeated by Samudragupta during his S India expedition
• 3rd line: 575 AD- fall in 9th C (Sanskrit+Tamil charters)
◦ Simhavishnu- 1st ruler
▪ destroyed Kalabhras & firmly established Pallava rule in Tondaimanadalam
▪ defeated Cholas; territory up to Kaveri
Mahendravarman I (600-630)
• Pallava-Chalukya conflict began
• follower of Jainism (earlier), later converted to Shaivism by Saiva saint
Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar
• built Shiva temple @Tiruvadi
• titles: (Mandagapattu inscription)
◦ Gunabhara
◦ Satyasandha
◦ Chettakari- builder of temples
Political ◦ Chitrakarapuli- paintings (tiger among artists)
History ◦ Vichitrachitta- Mandagappattu inscription (cave temples)---> constructed temple
for Brahma, Vishnu & Shiva w/o use of bricks, timber, metal & mortar
◦ Mattavilasa
• author of Mattavilasa Prahasanam (Sanskrit)
• music expert- Kudumianmalai music inscription
• irrigation tanks @Mahendravadi & Mamandoor
Narasimhavarman I (630-668)
• = Mamalla--> great wrestler
• Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi (defeated Pulakesin II)
• army general- Paranjoti (destroyed Vatapi)
• title- Vatapikonda
• naval expedition to Sri Lanka--> restored throne to his friend & Sri Lankan prince
Manavarma
• Hiuen Tsang visit
◦ described Kanchi
◦ Kanchi people- great learners, ghatikas
• founder of Mamallapuram
• monolithic rathas erected

Mahendravarman II
Parameswarvarman I
Narasimhavarman II or Rajsimha (695-722)
• peaceful, more interested in art & architecture
• Shore temple@Mamallapuram
• Kailasnath temple@Kanchipuram
• court- Dandin (Sanskrit scholar)
Political History
• sent embassies to China; maritime trade flourished
• titles- Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhar & Agamapriya
Parameswarvarman II
Nandivarman II---> Uthiramerur Chaturvedi Mangalam
Aparajita
• last Pallava ruler
• defeated by Chola king Aditya I
• well organized
• state--> Kottams
• king= fountain of justice
• army
Administration • land grants to (below 2- exempted from tax)
1. temples: Devadhana
2. Brahmans: Brahmadeya
• irrigation tanks @Mahendravadi & Mamandoor [during Mahendravarman I]
• village assemblies- sabhas
• caste s/s became rigid (high positions to Brahmins, temples-
responsibility)
• rise of Shaivism & Vaishnavism (coz- Bhakti Movement)--> temples
Society
◦ Shaiva Nayanmars
◦ Vaishnava Alwars
• decline of Buddhism & Jainism
Ghatika @Kanchi
•founder of Kadamba dynasty: Mayurasarman- studied Vedas
Education •Dinganga- Buddhist writer came to study Vedas
•Dharmapala studied here (later became Head of Nalanda U)
•Bharavi- great Sanskrit scholar (time of Simhavishnu) )
• Mahendravarman I- Mattavilasa prahasanam (Sanskrit)
• #Nayanmars- Devaram (NSD)*** (#PYQ)
• #Alwars- Nalayradivyaprabandam (AVN)*** (#PYQ)
Literature
• Perundevnar (patron- Nandivarman II)- translated Mahabharata as
Bharathavenba in Tamil
• unknown author- Nandikkalambagam
• great age of temple building
• beginning of Dravidian style
• cave temples---> monolithic rathas---> structural temples
4 stages of development of temple architecture
• Stage 1
◦ intro of rock-cut temples by Mahendravarman I
◦ places- Mandagappattu,.....
• Stage 2
◦ monolithic rathas & mandapas (@Mamallapuram) (#PYQ)
◦ 5 rathas- Panchapanadava rathas
◦ most popular mandapas- Mahishasuramardhini M, Trimurthi M, Varaha M
• Stage 3
◦ intro of structural temples by Narsimhavarman II/ Rajasimha
Art &
◦ use of soft sand rocks
Architecture
◦ Kailasanath temple @Kanchi--> greatest architectural master-piece of
Pallava art (#PYQ)
◦ Shore temple @Mamallapuram (#PYQ)
• Stage 4
◦ structural temples by later Pallavas
◦ Vaikundaperumal T, Muktheeswara T, Matagenswara T---> @Kanchipuram
Sculpture
• #Descent of Ganges/ Penance of Arjuna @Mahabalipuram---> fresco
painting in stone (#PYQ-CAPF)
Fine Arts
• Mamandur inscription- vocal music
• Kudumianmalai inscription- musical notes & instruments
• dance, drama
• Sittannavasal paintings
• Dakshincharita- commentary (during Mahendravarman I) )
PARTICULARS CHALUKYAS (543-755)

• ruled over extensive area in Deccan
• off-shoots of W Chalukyas family-
About
◦ E Chalukyas of Vengi
◦ Chalukyas of Kalyani
• founder- Pulakesin I
• capital: Vatapi or Badami
Pulakesin I
Kirtivarman
• founded the capital- Badami
Pulakesin II
• most imp ruler
• grandson of Kirtivarman
• details of his reign- Aihole inscription
• fought with-
◦ Kadambas of Banavasi
◦ Ganges of Mysore
Political ◦ defeat of Harshavardhana on Narmada bank (check to Harsha's ambition of
History conquering south)
(Pu Ki Pu Vi ◦ victorious in 1st expedition of Pallavas; later humiliating defeat by
Ki) Narsimhavarman I near Kanchi
• Durvinita (the Ganga ruler) accepted his overlordship & gave his daughter in
marriage
• visit of Hiuen Tsang
◦ mentioned about decline of Buddhism in W Deccan
◦ Jainism steadily on the path of progress
• Ravikirti (Jain)- court poet---> composed Aihole inscription (Sansrit)
Vikramaditya
Kirtivarman II
• last ruler
• defeated by Dantidurga (founder of Rashtrakutas)
• highly centralized
• village autonomy- absent
Administration
• great maritime power
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PARTICULARS CHALUKYAS (543-755)

• Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus, but they gave respect to other religions
Society
• Pulakesin I--> Ashvamedha
• developed Vesara style (Dravida + Nagara) (peak- under Rashtrakutas
& Hoysalas)
• cave temple architecture---> @Ajantha, Ellora, Nashik
• painting @Ajanta- reception given to Persian embassy by Pulakesin II
• Badami cave temple- best specimen of Chalukyan paintings
• 2 states of Chalukyan temple
◦ 1- T @Aihole & Badami
▪ Aihole
▪ Ladh Khan T
▪ Durga T- resembles a Buddha Chaitya
▪ Huchimalligudi T
▪ Jain T @Magudi
Art &
▪ Badami
Architecture
▪ Mukhteeswara T
▪ Melagutti Sivalaya
◦ 2- T @Pattadakal: 10= 4N + 6S
▪ N- Papanatha T
▪ S- Sangamesvara T & Virupaksha T (#PYQ)
▪ UNESCO WHS
▪ location- W bank of Malaprabha river
▪ other names with this place known by-
▪ Kisuvolal- valley of red soil
▪ Raktapura- city of red
▪ Pattada-Kisuvolal- red soil valley of coronation
• Virupaksha T: built by- Lokamahadevi, Queen of Vikramaditya II (733-745)
◦ it was built to commemorate victory of her husband over Pallavas of
Kanchipuram (#PYQ)

PARTICULARS RASHTRAKUTAS (755-975)

• Kannada origin
Origin
• founder- Dantidurga
Dantidurga
• defeated Gujaras & captured Malwa from them
• annexed Chalukya Kingdom by defeating Kirtivarman II
Krishna I
• great conqueror
• defeated Gangas & E Chalukyas of Vengi
• built Kailas T @Ellora (8th C) (#PYQ)
Govinda III
Amoghvarsha I (815-880)
Political history
• cultural developments
(DK Go Am Kr)
• follower of Jainism
• Jinasena- his chief perceptor
• ##Kannada work- Kavirajamarga (#PYQ)
• built Rashtrakuta capital: city of Malkhed/ Manyakheda
Krishna III
• defeated Cholas @Takkalom
• captured Tanjore
• built Krishneswara T @Rameswaram
• he patronized 3 gems of Kannada literature- Ponna, Pampa & Ranna
• empire--> rashtras--> vishayas--> bhukti
• king--> rashtrapatis--> vishayapatis--> bhogapatis
• village admin= village headman; village assemblies
Administration
• nad gaundas & dessha gramakutas- hereditary revenue officials
◦ ur gaundas- village level
◦ nadu gaundas- Nadu level

PARTICULARS RASHTRAKUTAS (755-975)

• Vaishnavism & Shaivism- flourished
Society &
• Jainism- still progressing
Economy
• active commerce b/w Deccan & Arabs
• Sanskrit literature
◦ Amoghavarsha- Prasnottarmalika (#PYQ)
◦ Trivikrama- Nalachampu
◦ Halayudha- Kavirahasya*
• Jain literature
◦ Jinasena*-
▪ Parsvabhudaya- biography of Parsva in verses
Culture ▪ Adipurana- life story of various Jain saints
◦ Gunabhadra- Mahapurana of Jainas
• Kannada literature
◦ Amogavarsha- Kavirajamarga (#PYQ)
◦ Pampa (greatest Kannada poet)- Vikramasenavijaya
◦ Ponna- Santipurana
• Sakatyana- Amogavritti- grammar
• Viracharya- Ganitasaram
Art & • Ellora- Kailasa T (Krishna I) (#PYQ)
Architectur • Elephanta (Sripuri was renamed as Elephanta by Portuguese)----> Trimurti: 3
e aspects of Shiva- as Creator, Preserver, Destroyer(#PYQ)

PARTICULARS CHOLAS
History of Cholas- fall naturally into 4 periods
• early Cholas of Sangam Literature
• interrengnum b/w the fall of Sangam Cholas
• rise of medieval Cholas under Vijayalaya
• Chalukyan Chola dynasty of Kulothunga Chola I
Origin/ About • Sangam decline--> Cholas became feudatories in Uraiyur
• called imperial Cholas- coz: also extended to Sri Lanka & Malay
peninsula
• 9th C prominent
• capital- Tanjore
• founder- Vijayalaya
Vijayalaya
• founder
• captured Tanjore from Muttaraiyars
• built Durga T
Aditya
• ended Pallavas by defeating Aparajita
• annexed Tondaimandalam
Parantaka I
• defeated Pandyas & ruler of Ceylon
• got defeated from Rashtrakutas in the Battle of Takkolam
• temple builder
• provided Vimana of Nataraja T @Chidambaram with golden roof
Political History (#PYQ)
(VAP Raja Raje • 2 Uttiramerur inscriptions- village admin
Ku2 Raje) Rajaraja I
• defeated Chera ruler Bhaskararavivarman in naval battle of
Kandalusarai
• defeated Pandya ruler Amarbhujanga
• annexed Sri Lanka [only half] (Mahinda V- fled away); capital
shifted:Anuradhapura---> Polanaruva (Shiva T)
• titles- Mummidi Chola, Jayankonda, Sivapadasekara
• follower of Shaivism
• completed construction of Rajarajeswara/ Brihadeswara T
@Tanjore (#PYQ)
• helped in construction of Buddhist monestry@Nagapattinam [Sailendra
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PARTICULARS CHOLAS
Rajendra I
• same as father- policy of aggressive conquest & expansion
• after defeating Mahipala I of Bengal, he founded the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram+ construction of Rajeswaram T
• excavated irrigation tank called Cholagangam
• titles- Mudikondan, Gangaikondan, Kadaramkondan, Pandita Cholan
Political History
• gave his daughter Ammangadevi to Vengi Chalukyas
(VAP Raja Raje
• completely annexed Ceylon (#PYQ)
Ku2 Raje)
Kulottunga I
Kulottunga III
Rajendra III
• last Chola king
• defeated by Jatavarman Sundarapandya II
• Chola country absorbed into Pandya Empire
Central govt
•King- top
•big capital cities- Tanjore, Gangaikondacholapuram
•large royal courts & extensive grants to temples
•royal tours
•elaborate admin machinery
•officials- perundanam, sirudanam
Revenue
•Puravuvarithinaikkalam- land revenue dept
Administration
•ur nattam- residential portion of village (+ temple lands: exempted from
taxes)
•tolls & customs on goods; professional taxes; duties on ceremonial
occasions- marriage; judicial fines
•Kulottunga I- became famous by abolishing tolls & earned title- Sungam
Tavirtta Cholan

PARTICULARS CHOLAS
Military Admin
•Kaikkolaperumpadai- royal troops
•Velaikkarar- personal troops to defend the king
•Kadagams- army & military cantonments
•naval achievements- climax
•BoB---> Chola lake(#PYQ)
Provincial Admin
•Empire---> Mandalams---> Valanadus & Nadus
•mandalams- under royal princes or officers
Administration
•valanadu- under periyanttar
•nadu- under nattar
•town= nagaram---> under admin of council called nagarattar
Village Assemblies
•sabhas & its committees
•2 Uttiramerur inscriptions- village admin (during- Parantaka- I)
•qualifications & disqualifications
•Kudavolai system
•6 variyams---> samvatsara, eri, thotta, pancha, pon*
• caste s/s
• Brahmins & Kshatriyas- special privileges
• 2 major divisions among caste: Valangai & Idangai
• sati; devadasi s/s- emerged
Society &
• Shaivism & Vaishnavism
Economy
• agri + industry
• peruvazhis = trunk road
• Arabian horses were imported
• commerce with- China, Sumatra, Java, Arabia

PARTICULARS CHOLAS
• inscriptions @ Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal, Thirubhuvanai---> details of
colleges
• Sivakasintamani- by Thiruthakkadevar & Kundalakesi (10th C)
• Ramayana- by Kamban
• Periyapuranam/ Tiruttondarpuranam- by Sekkilar (2- master piece)
• Kalingattupparani- by Jayankondar (description of Kalinga war fought by
Education & Kulotunga I)
Literature • Moovarula- by Ottakuthar
• Nalavenba- by Pugalendi
• Tamil grammar
◦ Kalladam- by Kalladanar
◦ Yapperungalam- by Amirthasagar
◦ Nannul- by Pavanandhi
◦ Virasoliyam- by Buddhamitra
• Dravidian style---> perfection
• Chief feature- VIMANA (#PYQ)
• Brihadeshwara/ Pragadeeswara T @Tanjore- built by Rajaraja I
(master piece) (#PYQ)
Art & ◦ vimana, ardhamandapa, mahamandapa, nandimandapa
Architecture • Shiva T @Gangaikondacholapuram- built by Rajendra I
• Airavathesvara T (Tanjore dist)
• Kampahareswara T (Tribhuvana)
• bronzes- famous
• Chola paintings- walls of Narthamalai & Tanjore

VAKATAKAS
• b/w: 3rd & 5th C
• extent: S edges of Malwa & GJ in N to Tungabhadra in S; Arabian Sea in W to CG in E
• most imp successors of Satavahanas in Deccan
• contemporaneous to Guptas in N India
• Shaivite rulers
• capital- Nagardhan
• elephant god
• animal rearing- main occupation
• rock-cut Buddhist Viharas & Chaityas of Ajanta caves were built under patronage of
Vakataka emperor Harisena

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PARTICULARS HARAPPAN CULTURE (2550 BC- 1900 BC)

Conflicts/ wars • Rigveda- battle @Hariyumpia: identified with Harappa

• Indus river- walls of burnt bricks for flood protection

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• bronze making/ bronze smiths

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• regulated weights and measures

◦ multiple of 16....(link to Indian s/s)

• Harappans- commercial link with

◦ RJ, Afghanistan, Iran

• trade in lapis lazuli (gemstone)

◦ social prestige of ruling class

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Social division • Absent

• mature Harappan culture: 2550 BC- 1900 BC

• 1st to produce cotton in the world

Belan valley (UP)- earliest evidence of rice cultivation

Other civilisations during Harappa

Kaytha culture Chambal valley

Jorwe culture Pune

Munda culture Chhotanagpur Plateau

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(Shatughai, Mundigaq- sites from Afghanistan)

SITE STATE IMPORTANCE

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SITE STATE IMPORTANCE

Shortughai (far-off Afghanistan)- best source of Lapis Lazuli; traces of canals

Sites of agriculture: Harappa, Banawali, Kalibangan, Mohenjodaro, Dholavira

HOW THE HARAPPAN CULTURE IS DIFFERENT FROM WEST ASIAN CULTURE ?

HARAPPA WEST ASIA

Indus & Tamil Civilization

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 LATER VEDIC PERIOD

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EARLY VEDIC PERIOD (1500 LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC-

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PARTIC EARLY VEDIC PERIOD

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000BC-

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PARTICULARS BUDDHISM JAINISM

• numerous religious sects (62) in the 2nd half of

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PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

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PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

PARTICULARS MAURYAN PERIOD

PARTICULARS CENTRAL ASIAN CONTACTS AND THEIR RESULTS