Accepted Manuscript

Impacts of the pore- and petro-fabrics on porosity exponent and lithology factor
of Archie’s equation for carbonate rocks

Bassem S. Nabawy

PII: S1464-343X(15)00096-5
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2015.04.014
Reference: AES 2262

To appear in: African Earth Sciences

Received Date: 10 February 2015

Revised Date: 8 April 2015
Accepted Date: 27 April 2015

Please cite this article as: Nabawy, B.S., Impacts of the pore- and petro-fabrics on porosity exponent and lithology
factor of Archie’s equation for carbonate rocks, African Earth Sciences (2015), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jafrearsci.2015.04.014

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 1 Impacts of the pore- and petro-fabrics on porosity exponent and lithology
2 factor of Archie’s equation for carbonate rocks
3 Bassem S. Nabawy
4 bsnabawy@yahoo.co.uk
5 Department of Geophysical Sciences, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt.

6 Abstract
7 Archie’s parameters, including the tortuosity factor ‘a’ and the porosity exponent ‘m’,
8 are important parameters controlling the formation resistivity factor-porosity relationship.
9 Though, they are among the most important parameters, they are still a matter of controversy
10 due to their dependence on many geological factors. They are not constant values, but vary
11 greatly from facies to facies and from sub-facies to another. So, a considerable error would be
12 assigned when the Archie’s parameters are assumed to be constant values.
13 The present study is a trial to assign the identity of Archie’s parameters and their
14 controlling factors. Based on the petrographical and petrophysical study for 261 carbonate
15 core samples (representing Risan Aneiza, Halal, Bir Maghara, Rajabia and Masajid
16 Formations, in Sinai Peninsula in Egypt), the studied samples can be grouped into three major
17 facies types which are further discriminated into ten sub-facies; each one has its diagnostic
18 Archie’s parameters (1.06 ≤ ‘a’ ≤ 8.76, and 1.19 ≤ ‘m’ ≤ 2.67). Petrographically, the present
19 samples are mostly characterized by intercrystalline pore spaces, sometimes other pore types
20 as vuggy and vuggy channels are assigned. The closed pore spaces are assigned also, but with
21 no effect on the conductivity properties of the studied rocks.
22 From the present, it is achieved that, the lithology factor ‘a’ for the carbonate rocks is
23 dependent mostly on the permeability and formation factor, as an indication for the pore channels
24 tortuosity, as well as the porosity and mineralogy; whereas the porosity exponent ‘m’ is dependent
25 mostly on the porosity types and values, as well as permeability and formation factor. The pore
26 and grain elongations are other factors controlling the Archie’s parameters.
27 In other words, the porosity exponent ‘m’, is dependent mostly on the pore fabric,
28 whereas the tortuosity factor ‘lithology factor’ is dependent mostly on the petro-fabric, as well
29 as the pore fabric. Dependence of Archie’s parameters on the same factors, but with varying
30 behaviors, can be explained by an inverse proportional relationship assigned between ‘a’ and
31 ‘m’ (r = -0.93).
32 Key words: Porosity exponent, tortuosity, carbonate rocks, Sinai, Egypt.
33

1
34 1. Introduction
35 The physical behaviour of the reservoir rocks is the net result of the physical integration
36 of their two main phases, the solid phase and the pore phase, including its fluid content. Due to
37 their porous and permeable properties, electric properties of reservoir rocks are mostly
38 electrolytic, due to the current flow through their fluid content and fine clay content.
39 The formation resistivity factor ‘F’ and the effective porosity ‘∅’ are among the most
40 important parameters describing the electric properties of reservoir rocks. Both petrophysical
41 parameters can be obtained through the well logging using the resistivity and porosity logs,
42 and can be obtained on the Lab scale using core analysis.
43 The electrical logs are always used as a qualitative method to differentiate between
44 different formations penetrated during the drilling process. The differentiation should be
45 conducted in the availability of sufficient data on the penetrated lithologies. However, their
46 use as a quantitative tool is still extremely limited, due to many affecting factors obscuring the
47 reliability of electrical logs, as a precise quantitative tool.
48 In 1942, Archie mentioned that, in rocks fully saturated with brine solution, the rock
49 resistivity ‘Ro’ is related to the porosity ‘∅’ and saline-water resistivity ‘Rw’, and pore
50 geometry or porosity exponent ‘m’. He believed that ‘m’ has be related to the degree of
51 cementation or pore fabric. These factors are related in the Archie’s equation given below:
R 1
52 F= o = m (Archie, 1942) (1)
Rw φ

53 Indeed, the Archie’s equation is mostly applied for clean sandstones, not shaly rocks.
54 So, Archie had indicated that, caution is necessary in applying his empirical relationship to
55 more complex reservoir rocks.
56 Some equations can be used to determine ‘m’, in case of the value of ‘m’ cannot be
57 determined. The most famous one is the Humble formula, which can be used to estimate the
58 formation factor. It was developed by Winsauer, et al. (1952) who analyzed the data from 30
59 samples (28 sandstones, 1 limestone, and 1 unconsolidated sandstone samples). He developed
60 a correlation known as “Humble Eq.”, as follows.
0.62
61 F = 2.15 (Humble Oil Company formula; Winsauer, et al. 1952) (2)
φ

62 Carothers (1968) analyzed 793 sandstone sample points. Another generalized equation
63 can be used to calculate ‘a’ and ‘m’, as follows.
1.45
64 F = 1.54 (Carothers, 1968) (3)
φ

65 Shell Oil Company generalized the former equation, keeping for low porosity (9 %), not
66 fractured carbonate rocks, keeping ‘a’ equals 1, and processing ‘m’ as a variable value, as follow:
1
67 F= m
φ

2
 0.019
68 where: m = 1.87 +
φ

69 A comparison among the different equations introduced for tracing the formation
70 resistivity factor-porosity relationships is illustrated in Fig. 1.
71 In case of other rocks, rather than the clean sandstone, e.g. shaly and marly rocks, as
72 well as carbonate rocks, it is recommended to generalize Archie’s formula, as follows:
a
73 F= m
φ

74 where: ‘a’ is a constant ‘lithology’ factor can be determined from the intercept of the
75 negatively sloping best-fit line with the y-axis of the F-∅ logarithmic plot at ∅ = 1, and ‘m’
76 ‘the porosity exponent’ is its slope. This equation is now widely used by the workers in the
77 field of oil production all over the world.
78 Values of ‘a’ and ‘m’ depend mainly on the degree of cementation, pore geometry and
79 tortuosity, type of clays and its distribution, presence of conductive minerals, compaction and
80 packing, as well as the thermal expansion of the rock (Archie, 1942; Amyx et al., 1960;
81 Lynch, 1962; Serra, 1988; and Nabawy et al., 2010)
82 The purpose of the present study is to test Archie’s equation and its main parameters ‘a’
83 and ‘m’ and to examine their identities as well as their governing factors. Achieving this
84 purpose, it is recommended to present some laboratory measured data, due to their high
85 precision as mentioned before, and to introduce a number of reliable empirical equations could
86 be applied to calculate one parameter in terms of the others. In other words, the purpose of the
87 present article is to study the pore- and petro-fabrics of some carbonate rocks and their effect on
88 the bulk rock conductivity, the formation resistivity factor and on Archie’s parameters.
89 2. Theoretical Outlines
90 Archie’s equation is a well known equation that is widely used in the field of
91 petrophysics. It relates the formation factor ‘F’ to the porosity ‘∅’ values by the lithology
92 factor ‘a’ and the porosity exponent ‘m’.
a
93 F= m
φ

Rw
94 Sw = n F ×
Rt

a Rw
95 Sw = n m
× (Archie, 1942) (4)
φ Rt

96 Archie’s formula indicates that, the variation of ‘a’ and ‘m values control the
97 calculation of Sw significantly.
98 The most important target for the petrophysical analyses is to calculate the water
99 saturation ‘Sw’, i.e. the hydrocarbon saturation ‘Sh’. Many trials have been conducted

3
100 achieving to the actual ‘Sw’, e.g. Archie (1942), Patnode and Wyllie (1950), Winsauer and
101 McCardell (1953), Wyllie and Southwick (1954), Waxman and Smits (1968), Poupon and
102 Leveaux (1971), Clavier et al. (1984), Worthington (1985), and Alimoradi et al. (2011).
103 A very small shift in the amount of porosity exponent will cause a great error in the
104 Sw calculation due to its effect on the formation resistivity factor (Tabibi and Emadi, 2003).
105 The formation resistivity factor ‘F’ and porosity ‘∅’ values will be larger, if the ‘m’ values
106 are larger than its real value and vice versa (Fig. 1). Consequently, for better reservoir
107 characterization and reserve estimation, the most practical and reliable ‘a’ and ‘m’ values are
108 recommended to be precisely measured for core samples, not to be suggested.
109
110 2.1 Formation resistivity factor ‘F’
111 In porous rocks, the electric current is mostly electrolytic conducted through the saline-
112 water content in the pore spaces. The effect of surface conductivity on the total electric
113 conductivity, of a given rock, diminishes by increasing porosity, whereas it is more effective at
114 low porosity values, particularly at values less than 5%.
115 The observed electric conductivity of a bulk rock samples ‘σb’ for a two-phase model
116 is the sum of the surface electric conductivity of the solid ‘matrix’ phase ‘σs’ and the
117 electrolytic conductivity of the saline water filling the pore phase ‘σw’.
σw
118 σb = +σ s (Mavko et al., 2009; and Nabawy et al., 2010) (5)
F
119 where: ‘F’ is true formation resistivity factor.
120 The ‘σs’ conductivity is mostly controlled by the petro-fabric, as well as the amount,
121 type and distribution of the authigenic clay content attached to the pore surface. The ‘σw’
122 values are mostly controlled by the pore fabric, salinity of the saline filing the pore, cation
123 exchange capacity (CEC) of the pore surface, and by the acidity or alkalinity of the pore
124 filling saline.
125 For the two-phase model, consisting of uniform solid spheres imbedded in a fluid
126 continuum, and based on Maxwell’s observations (1881), Fricke (1931) mentioned that, the
127 bulk resistivity ratio of the rock sample to the pore fluid resistivity ‘Ro/Rw’ increases with
128 increasing the irregularity of spherical grains. Consequently, he developed the following
129 equation, by introducing a variable x, which equal 2 for spheres and less than 2 for spheroids:
RO ( x + 1) − φ
130 = (Fricke, 1931) (6)
RW x.φ

131 Fricke’s equation indicates that, the resistivity ratio (Ro/Rw) minimizes by increasing
132 the sphericity of grains and vice versa, i.e. the formation resistivity factor decreases by
133 increasing the sphericity of the grains. Accordingly, Salem and Chilingarian (1999) used the
134 term shape factor to describe the ‘m’ factor of Archie (1942).
135 2.2 Porosity exponent ‘m’

4
136 Porosity exponent ‘m’ was a matter of confusion for many decades so it was an interested
137 material for many authors (e.g. Archie, 1942; Winsauer et al., 1952; Wyllie and Gregory, 1953;
138 Hill and Milburn, 1956; Towle, 1962; Helander and Campbell, 1966; Waxman and Thomas,
139 1974; Windle and Worth, 1975; Jackson et al., 1978; Biella and Tabbacco, 1981; Sen et al., 1981;
140 Wong et al., 1984; Givens, 1987; Brown, 1988; Donaldson and Siddiqui, 1989; Ruhovets, 1990;
141 Salem, 1992; Salem and Chilingarian, 1999; Tiab and Donaldson, 2012).
142 The porosity exponent ‘m’ of Archie’s equation is not a constant value, but a function of
143 many physical parameters and lithological attributes of porous media. The general range of ‘m’,
144 given in the literatures, varies between slightly less than one for fractured rocks and 5.12 for well
145 consolidated and highly compacted rocks (Archie, 1942; Wyllie and Rose, 1950; Pirson, 1958;
146 Wyble, 1958; Aguilera, 1976; and Jorgensen, 1988). The dependence of ‘m’ on various properties
147 has given it up different terms, e.g. cementation factor, shape factor, conductivity factor, resistivity
148 factor, porosity exponent and cementation exponent (Salem and Chilingarian, 1999).
149 2.3 lithology factor ‘a’
150 Winsauer et al. (1952) mentioned that, the formation resistivity factor is varied as a
151 function of porosity and the factor ‘a’ of Archie. He described ‘a’ as a geometrical parameter
152 and called it tortuosity, which is referred to the complexity of pore channels in porous rocks.
153 Wyllie (1963) indicated that, two formations with the same porosity and fully
154 saturated with the same brine solution may have different formation resistivity factors. This
155 can be attributed to different pore geometries and different rock textures of the two
156 formations, i.e. different ‘a’ values.
157 Adisoemarta et al. (2000) found that, ‘a’ represents the tortuosity of the current path
158 length and that; its value is reasonably constrained between 1.0 and 1.4.
159 2.4 Factors affecting Archie’s parameters
160 As described by many authors, the ‘m’ exponent is dependent mostly on porosity,
161 degree of cementation and compaction, grain shapes, pore types and sizes, specific surface area,
162 lithological and mineralogical composition, overburden pressure (compaction) and on the
163 anisotropy degree (e.g. Keller, 1982; and Salem and Chilingarian, 1999). On the other side, the
164 ‘a’ factor seems to be dependent upon the lithological and mineralogical composition of the
165 rock samples, as well as the tortuosity and complexity pore channels (Winsauer et al., 1952; and
166 Hlichie, 1982). Therefore, the Archie’s parameters are mostly governed by and dependent on
167 the pore- and petro-fabrics characteristics.
168 In general, ‘a’ is thought to be dependent on the petro-fabric, whereas ‘m’ seems to be
169 dependent on the pore fabric. The pore fabric effect increases in the highly porous rock
170 samples, whereas the effect of the petro-fabric diminishes in clean rocks. Sometimes, both
171 parameters are dependent on the same factors, which can be explained by the fact that, the
172 pore and petro-fabrics are mostly coincident, particularly when the pore fabrics are
173 depositional or found by replacing the original pore fabric.
174 2.4.1 Pore Fabric

5
175 The pore fabric is a term refers to the pore orientation in the 3-D; it controls both the
176 electric and hydraulic conductivities and it is the most significant factor affecting ‘m’. The
177 higher porosity of the rock samples and the larger pore size indicate much lower formation
178 resistivity factor. The pore fabric is affected by: 1) pore volume, 2) pore connectivity and
179 distribution, 3) pore shape/type, 4) pore throat distribution, and 5) tortuosity.
180 The pore fabric of the carbonate rocks are mostly the contribution of depositional
181 history, compaction and a complicated history of diagenesis; including cementation,
182 dissolution and leaching out, chemical alteration and clay formation, fracturing, weathering,
183 metamorphism and dolomitization. Some of these factors act as porosity-reducing factors,
184 while others are enhancing factors, i.e. the pore fabric is the net result of these factors.
185 2.4.2 Petro-fabric
186 The petro-fabric (referring to the grain type, size and distribution) is more significant in
187 compacted rocks having negligible porosity (∅ < 5 %) (Nabawy and El-Hariri, 2008). The
188 presence of minor amounts of dispersed authigenic clays lining the pore walls and filling the pore
189 throats is greatly governing the hydraulic and electric conductivity, causing great reduction in the
190 hydraulic conductivity, while causes increase in the electrical conductivity (Nabawy et al., 2010).
191 The petro-fabric of the carbonate rocks is mostly the contribution of the mineralogical
192 composition and the grain to grain relationship, including packing, sorting and orientation
193 (texture), as well as the contribution of the diagenetic history, including cementation,
194 silicification, dolomitization, dedolomitization, dissolution, chemical alteration, weathering,
195 metamorphism and presence of clays (type, percentage and distribution).
196
197 3. Sampling and Measuring Procedure
198 A total of 261 dry and clean carbonate core samples of standard dimensions (1 inch
199 diameter and 1 inch length) have been selected from different surface localities in Sinai, e.g.
200 Risan Aneiza (93 samples) and the other raw data were recalled from the petrophysical studies
201 on Gebel El-Maghara (109 samples) and Gebel El-Halal (59 samples) published by Nabawy
202 (2007 and 2013). The recalled data have been reprocessed and re-described petrographically to
203 focus on the target of the present article, to differentiate between the effective pores and
204 ineffective pores (closed and dead-end pores) and to serve for accurate description for the pore
205 types governing the Archie parameters. Age of the studied samples ranges from Jurassic to
206 Early Cretaceous.
207 The bulk volume (vb) and dry weight (wd) of the studied plugs were measured using a
208 high precision caliper (0.1 mm precision) and an electronic balance (0.1 mg precision),
209 whereas the grain volume (vg) of the core samples was measured using Automated Helium
210 Pycnometer (UltraPyc 1200e by Quantachrome) at 19 psi and the ambient temperature.
211 Porosity ‘∅’ of the dry core-shaped samples was then calculated precisely by
212 substituting the grain volume ‘vg’ in the following equation.

6
 (vb − v g )
213 φ = 100 × (7)
vb

214 To rank the different porosity levels and to precisely categorize the storage capacity of
215 the studied samples, the porosity classification introduced by Nabawy et al. (2009), which was
216 modified after Levorsen (1967), has been applied to the present samples, as shown as follows:
217 negligible 0 <∅≤5%
218 poor 5 < ∅ ≤ 10 %
219 fair 10 < ∅ ≤ 15 %
220 good 15 < ∅ ≤ 20 %
221 very good 20 < ∅ ≤ 25 %
222 excellent 25 < ∅
223 Permeability was then measured for the selected core samples using a Gas
224 Permeameter, the core sample was handled through a Hasler type core holder with the outer
225 frame sealed to prevent bypass, using a pressure of 27.58 bar (400 psi). Dry Nitrogen gas of
226 viscosity µ was injected through the sample at a constant pressure. Taken into consideration,
227 the length ‘L’, the cross sectional area ‘A’ of the core samples, the pressure difference
228 between both sides of the sample ‘∆P’ and the flow rate ‘Q’. Permeability ‘k’ was then
229 calculated using the following equation:
Q.µ.L
230 k= (8)
A.∆P
231 Following Klinkenberg (1941) and Zinszner and Pellerin (2007), the compacted
232 samples have been measured for permeability values under relatively high flowing pressure,
233 in which the samples having negligible to fair permeability ‘k’ values (k < 10 md) have been
234 corrected for the slip flow effect.
235 The following classification has been applied for ranking the permeability of the
236 present samples (modified by Nabawy et al., 2009 and Nabawy, 2013; after Levorsen, 1956).
237 The present permeability classification is more beneficiary to characterize the impermeable
238 rock samples and more helpful to differentiate between the different petrophysical facies.

negligible 0 < k ≤ 0.1 md

Impermeable
poor 0.1 < k ≤ 1.0 md
Fair fair 1.0 < k ≤ 10 md
good 10 < k ≤ 100 md

Permeable very good 100 < k ≤ 1000 md

excellent 1000 < k

239

7
240 The electrical conductivity measurements of the studied samples were carried out using a
241 two-electrode A-C bridge at five brine concentrations (6, 30, 60, 90 and 120 kppm NaCl
242 solutions, Rw = 0.96, 0.34, 0.14, 0.07 and 0.05 ohmm, respectively; Serra, 1988). The electrical
243 resistivity of the water is assumed to be homogeneous inside the sample, once it is fully saturated
244 (Jouniaux et al., 2006). A fixed frequency of 1 kHz was chosen for the present measurements. At
245 this frequency, we get the best accuracy with no capacitance effect. Capacitance exists anywhere,
246 through a conductor insulated from another one. At higher frequencies, the distributed capacitance
247 in the pores reduces the signal and takes it out of the current path, that is the higher frequency, the
248 more signal will be lost due to this effect. The measurements were carried out under stable
249 ambient conditions, atmospheric pressure and room temperature.
250 The true formation resistivity factor ‘F’ was then calculated by plotting the measured
251 rock conductivities (σb) versus fluid conductivities (σw) (e.g. Worthington, 1985; Mavko et
252 al., 2009; and Nabawy et al., 2010).
σw
253 σb = +σ s (9)
F
254 where: σs is the surface conductivity.
255 To rank the true formation resistivity factor, based on the obtained results, the present
256 classification has been proposed.
257 very low F ≤ 50
258 low 50 < F ≤ 150
259 medium 150 < F ≤ 300
260 high 300 < F ≤ 500
261 very high 500 < F (based on the present data)
262 The low and very low ‘F’ values characterize the fair and permeable rocks, whereas the
263 high and very high ‘F’ values correspond to the compacted and impermeable rocks. To derive
264 the Archie’s parameters, ‘F’ was plotted against ‘∅’ on a log-log scale X-Y plot and ‘a’ is
265 determined as the intercept of the obtained best-fit line with the Y-axis, while ‘m’ as its slope.
266 To investigate the mineralogic composition and to discriminate the different types of
267 pore spaces of the present carbonate samples, some representative thin sections were prepared
268 and impregnated, using blue dye and stained with Alizarine Red-S. The Alizarine Red-S is
269 used to differentiate between the dolomite and calcite crystals, whereas the impregnation with
270 blue dye is used to discriminate the different types of pore spaces. The petrography and
271 mineralogy were examined using the polarizing microscope.
272 The carbonate microfacies were classified, according to the depositional textures,
273 through the classification of Flügel (1982), that based on Dunham’s classification (1962) and
274 its modification by Embry and Klovan (1972). The names are further adopted using Folk’s
275 classification (1959). The nomenclature and classification of the pore spaces were carried out,
276 following Choquette and Pray's classification (1970).

8
277 For the present study, the petrophysical facies discrimination can be achieved
278 successfully, not only based on the porosity and permeability, but also based on the formation
279 factor, Archie’s parameters, lithology and the pore types.
280 The average porosity, permeability, formation factor, Archie’s parameters, as well as
281 the lithology and pore types are shown in Table-1.
282 4. Results
283 The present Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous carbonate samples were studied petrographically
284 and petrophysically, which enabled grouping them into three major facies, each one has distinct
285 petrographical and petrophysical properties. Further facies discrimination has been achieved by
286 plotting the formation factor ‘F’ against the porosity ‘∅’ values. Accordingly, ten sub-facies can
287 be assigned, each one with its diagnostic Archie’s parameters (Figs. 2 and 3, Table 1).
288 The values of Archie’s parameters ‘m’ and ‘a’ of the present crystallined carbonate
289 rocks show considerable variations from facies to facies and from sub-facies to another sub-
290 facies, due to the variation in pore structure, volume and connectivity, i.e. ‘pore fabric’, and
291 due to the variation in crystal sizes and structures, i.e. ‘petro-fabric’.
292 The petrographical and petrophysical properties of these facies are studied in details,
293 where several empirical equations, with reliable correlation coefficients ‘r’, ranging from
294 0.911 to 0.988, were introduced. The discriminated sub-facies are different also in their
295 petrophysical behaviours and therefore show different Archie’s parameters. A detailed
296 description for these facies and sub-facies are discussed in the following paragraphs.
297 The problem of vaying ‘m’ is particularly acute in the carbonate reservoirs. Focke and
298 Munn (1987) observed the ‘m’ values varying from 1.5 (for interparticle or intercrystalline
299 porosity systems) to 5.4 (for poorly interconnected porosity).
300 4.1 Facies 1 (Bio micritic and micro to pseudo dolosparite facies):
301 The present facies is composed mostly of bio micrite to micro dolosparite, sometimes
302 sparitic and micro to pseudo dolosparite. The interstitial effective pore spaces are described
303 moslty as micro intercrystalline, but also sometimes as; 1) bio molds, 2) micro channels, and 3)
304 micro to meso vugs. Their storage properties vary greatly from poor to excellent porosity, and
305 negligible to good permeability (Table 1). Based on the proposed classification for the formation
306 factor, its values vary from very low (17.7) to high (325.7). Archies’ parameters of facies 1 are the
307 least for the studied samples, where ‘a’ and ‘m’ equal to 1.31 and 1.99, respectively (Fig. 2).
308 F = 1.31∅-1.99 (r = -0.982)

309 Carbonate samples of facies 1 seem to be heterogeneous in their petrophysical

310 features. It can be further discriminated into four sub-facies (Fig. 3) discussed in details in the
311 following paragraphs.
312 The permeability is a function of both the formation factor ‘F’ and porosity ‘∅’ (Figs.
313 4, 5). Permeability values can be calculated in terms of ‘∅’ and ‘F’ using the following
314 empirical equations. The multiplication factor and the exponent of the k-∅ relationship may
315 be dependent on the irreducible water saturation, and the pore throat distribution, as well as

9
316 the clay type, content and distribution. On the other side, it is thought that, the multiplication
317 factor and the exponent of the F-k relationship are dependent on the porosity and tortuosity of
318 channels.
319 k = 1.07x103∅3.24 (r = 0.912)
-0.53
320 F = 98.8k (r = -0.924)

321 Permeability valeus are then plotted versus porosity, and the formation factor of the
322 discriminated ten sub-facies (Figs. 6 and 7).
323
324 4.1.1 Sub-facies 1, Bio micrite (dolopackstone):
325 The studied bio-micrite sub-facies is composed mainly of micrite containing some
326 foraminiferal tests, algal remains, echinoid spines, ammonites, echinoderms, gastropods,
327 brachiopods and molluscan shell fragments of micritic to microsparitic composition (Fig. 8 A
328 & B). These particle remains are cemented together and disseminated in micrite matrix,
329 sometimes contains micro sparite patches. The total pore spaces are of low percentage and
330 mostly not more than 10 % (poor porosity). Few samples can exceed up to 15 % porosity (Fig.
331 8B). The open pore spaces are represented by micro intercrystalline pore spaces, and 2) micro
332 to meso bio moldic pores (Fig. 8B), sometimes filled with micro sparite. However, the closed
333 pores are described as: 1) meso vugs filled with silica, and 2) meso pore channels filled with
334 silica cement and drusy sparry to micro sparite cement.
335 Petrophysically, the samples of the bio micrite sub-facies have poor to fair porosity (5-
336 15.6 %) of average 9 % porosity (poor porosity), whereas the permeability varies from 0.07 to
337 5.13 md, of average 0.87 md (poor permeability). Studying the electric properties of the present
338 sub-facies show true formation factor varying from 38.6 to 5000, of average 227.1 (medium
339 average ‘F’ value); indicating a broad variation of the electric properties of this sub-facies.
340
341 4.1.2 Sub-facies 4, Sparitic bio micro dolosparite (sparitic dolopackstone):
342 It is composed of some shell fragments represented by mollusca and brachiopods
343 retaining their original internal structure, embedded in and cemented together by micro
344 dolosparite matrix and euhedral to xenotopic pseudo dolosparite cement (Fig. 8C). The shell
345 fragments vary in size up to mega size, like the oyster bands. Th pore volumes are moslty fair,
346 varying from 10 to 15 %. The studied pore spaces are mostly open and represented by micro
347 intercrystalline in addition to micro to meso molds, and micro channel pore spaces.
348 Petrophysically, the studied samples of the sparitic bio micro dolosparite have poor to
349 good porosity (7.9-17.6 %), of average 12.3 % porosity, whereas the permeability varies from
350 0.04 to 17.9 md, of average 4.91 md (fair permeability). On the other hand, the true formation
351 factor varies from 36.5 to 250, of average 129.8 (medium ‘F’); indicating samples of more or
352 less homogeneous electric behaviour.
353

10
354
355 4.1.3 Sub-facies 7, Micro dolosparite (dolomudstone):
356 The micro dolosparite samples are composed mostly of dolomicrite mosaic
357 groundmass of very fine clear idiotopic dolomite rhombs, sometimes filled with patches of
358 sparry calcite cement (Fig. 8D).
359 The petrographical 2-D porosity estimation clears samples of good to very good porosity,
360 mostly more than 20 % and may reach up to 30 %. Accurate estimation of porosity from the
361 petrographical studies is not of high accuracy, due to the difficulty of estimating the micro-sized
362 pores. The studied pore spaces are mostly open and represented by: 1) micro to meso
363 intercrystalline porosity (Fig. 8D), and 2) vuggy-channel porosity. The intercrystalline pore spaces
364 are sometimes filled with dull clay and/or iron oxide patches (< 10%) (Fig. 8D), whereas the
365 vuggy pore spaces are rarely filled with patches of sparry to pseudo sparite calcite cement.
366 The micro dolosparite samples have very good to excellent porosity (21.2-31.0 %), of
367 average 25.8 % porosity (excellent porosity); whereas the permeability varies from 3.36 to
368 26.1 md, of average 12.9 md (good permeability). On the other hand, the true formation factor
369 varies from 11.7 to 24.4, of average 17.7 (ranked as very low); indicating highly porous,
370 permeable and low resistivity samples.
371 4.1.4 Sub-facies 6, Pseudo dolosparite (dolomudstone):
372 The present sub-facies samples are composed of clear euhedral to xenotopic micro
373 dolosparite to pseudo dolosparite cement, with some iron oxides pigments/rims at the outer
374 surface of the studied rhombs. Petrographical description of the interstitial pore spaces shows
375 different types of open pores as: 1) micro to meso intercrystalline porosity, and 2) micro to
376 meso vuggy-channel porosity (Fig. 8E). In general, the pore spaces are less than 10 %,
377 revealing negligible to poor porosity.
378 The pseudo dolosparite sub-facies has very low porosity values varying from 6.6 to
379 7.8 %, of average 7.1 % porosity (poor porosity); therefore the permeability values are also
380 too low, it varies from 0.025 to 0.063 md, of average 0.04 md (impermeable rocks of
381 negligible values). Due to the impermeable and impervious properties of the present samples,
382 the electric properties are relatively high with ‘F’ varies from 238.1 to 434.8, of average 325.7
383 (ranked as high values), indicating impervious, impermeable and highly resistive samples.
384 4.2 Facies 2 (dolomitic micrite to dolosparite facies):
385 The carbonate samples of facies 2 are composed mainly of well developed and
386 dolomitized micrite dolosparite sub-facies. The effective pore spaces are represented by: 1)
387 micro intercrystalline, and 2) micro channels. The pore volume is ranked as fair to very good
388 porosity and poor to fair permeability (Table 1). On the other hand, the formation factor is
389 ranged from low to very high (F > 500) which is higher than that of facies 1. Archie’s
390 parameters of Facies 2 are also relativley higher than those of the samples of Facies 1, where
391 ‘a’ is 1.93 and ‘m’ equals 2.49 in average (Fig. 2). The formation factor can be calculated in
392 terms of ‘∅’, using the following equation:

11
393 F = 1.93∅-2.49 (r = -0.982)

394 The samples of facies 2 can be further desriminated into two sub-facies (Figs. 3, 4, 5);
395 namely dolosparite and dolomitic micrite sub-facies. The discrimination was based on the
396 different petrophysical behaviours of the mutual relationships between the different
397 petrophysical parameters.
398 Permeability is mostly dependant upon the porosity ‘∅’ values in direct proportional
399 relationship (Fig. 4) and upon the formation factor ‘F’ in inverse proportional relationship
400 (Fig. 5). The following relationships can be used to calculate ‘k’ in terms of ‘F’ and ‘∅’.
401 k = 398 ∅3.27 (r = 0.948)
402 F = 194.5 k-0.69 (r = -0.935)

403 The discriminated sub-facies are different in their petrophysical behaviours and
404 therefore, show different Archie’s parameters. A detailed description for the sub-facies are
405 discussed in the following paragraphs.
406 4.2.1 Sub-facies 8, Dolomitic micrite (dolomitic mudstone):
407 The present sub-facies is mostly composed of micrite, sometimes of micro sparite,
408 neither particles nor grains are present, just micritic matrix with very good micro
409 intercrystalline pore spaces, frequently filled with micro dolosparite to dolomicrite patches
410 (Fig. 8F). The effective pore spaces can be described as micro intercrystalline pores, and
411 sometimes as micro to meso channels. Other types of pore spaces can be described as micro to
412 meso vugs frequently filled and reduced by micro to pseudo dolosparite cement.
413 Petrographically, the percentage of the connected pore spaces is fair to very good, as it
414 varies between 10 % and 22%. Petrophysically, the dolomitic micrite sub-facies is represented
415 by very good porosity (av. 22.1 %) varying from 15.5 to 27.5 %, fair permeability (av. 3.54
416 md) ranging between 0.60 and 8.12 md, and true formation factor (av. 102.0, low ‘F’) varying
417 from 44.4 to 227.3 (Table-1) (very low to medium), indicating highly porous and low
418 permeable rocks.
419 4.2.2 Sub-facies 9, Dolosparite (dolomudstone):
420 This dolosparite sub-facies is characterized by interlocking mosaic of coarse
421 crystalline xenotopic to idiotopic dolosparite rhombs (Fig. 9A). The dolomite rhombs are
422 mostly cloudy and sometimes clear. The pore spaces are represented by micro to meso
423 intercrystalline pore spaces, sometimes reduced by drusy dolosparite cement. Micro to meso
424 channels are also present, but greatly reduced by drusy dolosparite cement.
425 Petrographically, the connected porosity of the studied samples varies greatly in
426 percentage, due to the different stages of crystallization and growth of the dolosparite into the
427 pore spaces, causing reduction of the pore volume. Percentage of the interconnected pore
428 spaces is ranked as fair porosity, up to 15 %.
429 Petrophysically, the dolosparite samples have poor to good porosity (7.8-17.9 %) of
430 average 11.4 % porosity (fair porosity), whereas the permeability varies from 0.11 to 2.30 md

12
431 of average 0.50 md (impermeable rocks of poor values). The electric properties of the present
432 sub-facies show true formation factor ‘F’ varying from 149.3 to 1075.3, of average 576.3
433 (very high), indicating a fairly porous, impermeable and highly resistive samples. The very
434 high ‘F’ measured for some samples though having poor to fair porosity can be explained by
435 high to very high tortuosity of the connected pore paths.
436 4.3 Facies 3 (micrite/pseudo sparite to micritic dolosparite):
437 The micritic dolosparite and pseudo sparite to micrite sub-facies are charcterised by
438 micro intercrystalline pore spaces as a soul pore type; its percentage reveals negligible porosity
439 and permeability values (Table 1). The average value of the resistivity formation factor for the
440 different sub-facies are high to very high (369 ≤ F ≤ 2862). Facies 3 is characterized by very
441 high ‘a’ values, of average 6.84, and very low ‘m’ values, avergaing 1.30, as follows:
442 F = 6.84∅-1.30 (r = -0.961)
443 The present facies can be subdividied into four sub-facies, of relatively high ‘a’
444 values, but are different slightly in their petrophysical behaviour (Figs. 4, 5). A detailed
445 description for the mentioned sub-facies can be discussed in the following paragraphs.
446 However, due to the impermeable property of facies-3, no relationship can be assigned
447 for ‘k’ with the negligible porosity, and the very high formation factor values.
448 4.3.1 Sub-facies 3, Micrite/micro sparite (mudstone):
449 It is composed of micrite to micro sparite, with some neomorphic micro sparite
450 patches. Some foraminiferal molds are disseminated within the micritic ground mass; these
451 molds are mostly replaced by micro sparite.
452 Petrographically, the present samples seem to be compacted with negligible pore
453 spaces (doesn’t exceed 5 %). The connected pore spaces, however, can be described as micro
454 intercrystalline pore spaces, while the closed pore spaces can be described as: 1) meso vugs
455 filled with micro sparite and silica cement, 2) micro to meso bio molds filled with micro
456 sparite and micro dolosparite (Fig. 9B), and 3) micro to meso channels filled with silica
457 cement and micro dolosparite (Fig. 9C).
458 The present sub-facies samples are characterized by negligible porosity values varying
459 between 0.9 and 4.73 % (of average 2.72 %), and negligible permeability (averages 0.048 md)
460 ranging between 0.032 and 0.068 md. The formation factor varies from 294.1 to 3333, of avergae
461 1192 (very high), which indicates compacted non porous and impervious samples.
462 4.3.2 Sub-facies 2, Sparitic micrite (mudstone):
463 The sparitic micrite samples are composed of micritic matrix with few micro sparite
464 patches and with negligible matrix porosity (< 5 %). Porosity has been greatly reduced, due to
465 filling the vugs and channels by cementation with drusy micro to pseudo sparite. The
466 connected pore spaces are represented by micro intercrystalline porosity, whereas many pore
467 spaces are obliterated due to filling by drusy micro sparite matrix, e.g. meso channels, micro
468 to meso vugs (Fig. 9D) and meso bio moldic porosity, filled with drusy microsparite matrix
469 (Fig. 9D).
13
470 Petrophysically, the sparitic micrite samples are highly resistive compacted samples of
471 negligible to poor porosity (3.2-6.8 %), of average 4.9 % porosity; negligible permeability
472 (0.032-0.068 md), of average 0.047 md, and of high ‘F’ varies from 227.3 to 569.8, of average
473 369.4. Samples of the present sub-facies are petrophysically homogeneous.
474
475 4.3.3 Sub-facies 10, Sparitic pseudo sparite (mudstone):
476 The sparitic pseudo sparite samples are composed mostly of pseudo sparite to
477 microsparite groundmass containing few sparite patches (Fig. 9E). The connected pore spaces
478 (negligible to poor, less than 10 %) are represented by micro intercrystalline pores, whereas
479 much obliterated pores can be discriminated into: 1) meso bio molds filled with microsparite,
480 and 2) meso vugs and meso to large channels filled with silica cement.
481 The present samples are petrophysically homogeneous, they are compacted samples of
482 negligible porosity and permeability, of average 2.11 % (1.6 - 7.1 %) and 0.046 md (0.038 -
483 0.056 md), respectively. Therefore, the measured values for the true formation factor are very
484 high (295 to 7729) averaging 2862.
485 4.3.4 Sub-facies 5, Micritic dolosparite (micritic dolomudstone):
486 The present sub-facies is composed of zoned euhedral dolosparite to pseudo
487 dolosparite cement, with some micrite patches (Fig. 9F) and rare foraminifera tests.
488 Petrographically, the connected porosities are negligible (< 5 %) and represented mostly by
489 micro intercrystalline porosity, whereas other types of pores such as vugs were recorded, but
490 closed and filled completely by micrite to microsparite size patches.
491 The studied dolosparite samples are compacted of negligible porosity (3.7-4.4 %), of
492 average 4.0 % porosity, impermeable of negligible permeability (of average 0.055 md) varies
493 from 0.045 to 0.077 md, and of relatively high ‘F’ (averaged 399.1) ranges from 357.1 to
494 434.8. The present samples are petrophysically homogeneous and composed of poor samples
495 of very low storage capacity.
496 5. General discussion
497 Archie’s parameters are mostly controlled by the pore- and petro-fabric properties, e.g.
498 lithology, rock mechanical, chemical and physical properties, which are not homogeneous in
499 reservoir rocks and vary greatly in the vertical and horizontal directions. The most effective
500 way to overcome this problem is applying all the relevant pore- and petro-fabric parameters,
501 and integrating them together into overall mathematical models.
502 Both the Archie’s parameters are thought to be dependent on the same factors of the
503 pore and petro-fabric. The porosity exponent ‘m’ seems to be mostly controlled by the
504 porosity and formation resistivity factor, while the lithology factor ‘a’ seems to be dependant
505 mostly on the formation resistivity factor, tortuosity and mineralogic composition. Very high
506 ‘a’ values are introduced for some of the present carbonate samples which are not acceptable
507 for the sandstones; i.e. the relatively high ‘a’ values is an indicator for the carbonate rocks.

14
508 Though that, Glover et al. (1997) stated that, most porous arenaceous sediments have
509 porosity exponent ‘m’ values range between 1.5 and 2.5, values higher than 2.5 and as high as
510 5, are generally found in carbonate rocks, where the pore spaces are less well connected (Tiab
511 and Donaldson, 2012). Lucia (2007) mentioned that, the values of ‘m’ for the non touching-
512 vug carbonates range from 1.8 to as high as 4.
513 Ehrlich et al. (1991) showed that, the ‘m’ values vary widely and change continuously
514 in the borehole, due to variations in the depositional sub-facies; i.e. ‘m’ depends also on the
515 mineralogic composition. In other words, although ‘m’ and ‘a’ seem to be statistical factors,
516 they vary greatly from less than one for the fractured rocks (as an indication of tortuosity of
517 channels) up to as high as 5, sometimes exceeds up to 7 for the carbonate rocks, many authors
518 tend to attribute this variation to the types of pores.
519 In the presence of fractures and other touching-vug pore types, the ‘m’ value may be
520 less than 1.8 (Meyers, 1991; and Wang and Lucia, 1993).
521 Lucia (2007) tried to relate the ‘m’ exponent values to the pore fabric, specifically to
522 vuggy porosity. He used some laboratory data introduced by Lucia (1983) and some borehole
523 data introduced by Lucia and Conti (1987) to demonstrate that, the ‘m’ value is a function of
524 the ratio of separate-vug porosity to the total porosity, a ratio referred to as the vug porosity
525 ratio ‘VPR’. He calculated the ‘VPR’ by using the separate-vug porosity estimated from the
526 acoustic logs, and the total porosity calculated from either the neutron or density logs. Based
527 on the laboratory measurements and the log calculations, he introduced an empirical equation
528 relating ‘m’ to ‘VPR’ as follows:
φ 
529 m = 2.14 ×  sv  + 1.76 (Lucia, 2007)
 φt 

530 where: ∅sv is the separate-vug porosity, and ∅t is the total porosity.
531 Therefore, as the case of the lithology factor ‘a’, the porosity exponent ‘m’ seems also
532 to be dependent on the types of pores and their tortuosity.
533 The interference between the factors controlling the Archie’s parameters may be
534 explained by an inverse proportional relationship between the lithology factor ‘a’ and the
535 porosity exponent ‘m’, which has been assigned for the present carbonate samples (Fig. 10).
536 This relationship indicates that, the higher porosity exponent ‘m’, the lower lithology factor
537 ‘a’, where ‘m’ can be calculated in terms of ‘a’ as follows:
538 m= 2.16 a-0.257 (r = -0.988)

539 It is indicated that, both parameters are closely related for most of the studied sub-
540 facies, which ensures that they are mostly controlled by the same parameters. This relationship
541 is not applicable to the dolosparite sub-facies 9, which are characterized by very high ‘F’ values,
542 fair porosity and poor permeability; i.e. high tortuosity of channels.

15
543 The ‘a’ and ‘m’ relationship for the different sub-facies can be explained by plotting
544 both parameters against the different petrophysical parameters including porosity ‘∅’ (Fig.
545 11), permeability ‘k’ (Fig. 12), and formation factor ‘F’ (Fig. 13).
546 The Archie’s parameters-porosity relationship shows increasing the porosity values
547 with increasing the ‘m’ exponent values and decreasing the ‘a’ factor (Fig. 11).
548 ∅ = 0.019 m2.21 (r = 0.894)
549 ∅ = 0.21 a-0.89 (r = -0.894)

550 The multi-regression analysis was applied to investigate the relationship between the
551 Archie’s parameters and the measured average porosity for the studied sub-facies. It indicates
552 that, increasing the ‘m’ exponent is an indication for higher porosity, whereas decreasing the
553 ‘a’ values is an indication for lower porosity as follows:
m1.11
554 φ = 0.063 0.45 (R² = 0.799)
a
555 The permeability, as an indication for the actual tortuosity and pore shape, and as an
556 indication for the ease by which the current can flow through the pore spaces, is a main
557 contributor to the Archie’s parameter, particularly to the ‘a’ factor. Raiga-Clemenceau (1977)
558 attempted to establish a relationship between the ‘m’ and the permeability as follows.
2
559 m = 1.28 + (Raiga-Clemenceau, 1977) (10)
log k + 2

560 For the present study, permeability has a good direct proportional relationship to the ‘m’
561 exponent with no relationship indicated for the sub-facies 4, 6 and 7 (Fig. 12); namely they are
562 the micro dolosparite, the sparitic bio micro dolosparite and the pseudo dolosparite sub-facies.
563 a = 2.26 k-0.38 (r = -0.970)
564 m = 2.20 k0.175 (r = 0.945)

565 The permeability-Archie’s parameters relationships indicate that, the higher the ‘m’
566 values indicate, the less tortuous pore channel, the easier and the more conductive hydraulic
567 paths and vice versa. The lithology exponent ‘a’ has a more reliable relationship with ‘k’ than
568 ‘m’, where the 9 sub-facies satisfy the mentioned ‘a’-‘k’ relationship, except for the sub-facies
569 no. 6 including 10 samples out of 261 samples.
570 The Archie’s parameters are the main contributors to the formation resistivity factor ‘F’.
571 The ‘F’-‘a’ and ‘m’ relationships are plotted in Fig. 13, where ‘m’ is related inversely to the ‘F’
572 factor (r = -0.933) and is directly related to the ‘a’ factor (r = 0.807), as follows:
573 m = 6.12 F-0.2 (r = -0.933)
574 a = 0.002 F + 1.05 (r = 0.807)

575 Therefore, the higher the ‘m’ exponent, the lower the formation factor ‘F’, i.e. the ‘m’
576 exponent is an indication for the complexity of pore channels, an indication of the
577 cementation and may be an indication for the abundance of clays. The higher the ‘m’ values,
16
578 the less the formation factor, and the lower the degree of cementation and compaction, the
579 lower the ‘m’ values, the more complex pore channel and the lower the clay content, i.e. the
580 current is enforced to pass through more complicated and tortuous pore channels.
581 In the present study, it is thought that, the Archie’s parameters are an indication for
582 both porosity and electrical conductivity indicated by the formation factor ‘F’. It is also
583 thought that, the permeability as a measure for the fluid conductivity is a hydraulic analogue
584 for the electric conductivity; both are a measure for the ease of the current flow, whatever it is
585 electric or fluid flow. Accordingly, a multi-regression analysis was applied (at confidence
586 level α=0.95) to the porosity (in fraction), permeability (in md) and the formation factor data
587 in a trial to introduce a set of reliable equations can be used to calculate one parameter in
588 terms of the other. These equations are dependant mostly on the mineralogical composition
589 and the texture of the studied samples, as shown as follows:
590 Sub-facies 1
2
591 F = 0.078 0.52 (r = -0.936)
φ .k
592 Sub-facies 2
0.89
593 F= (r = -0.929)
φ .k 0.045
1.22

594 Sub-facies 4
1.57
595 F= (r = -0.936)
φ .k 0.21
0.50

596 Sub-facies 7
0.29
597 F= (r = -0.969)
φ .k 0.054
1.69

598 Sub-facies 8
0.18
599 F= (r = -0.966)
φ .k 0.019
2.69

600 The multiplication factor as well as the porosity and permeability exponents of the
601 former equations can be used as an indicator for the quality of the storage capacity of the
602 studied sub-facies. The higher the porosity exponent, the lower the multiplication factor and
603 the lower permeability exponent indicate the better the storage capacity properties (Table-1).
604 From the present study, relatively high ‘m’ values are assigned for samples having
605 relatively low ‘F’ and high ‘k’ values, which seems to be reasonable, where increasing the ‘F’
606 values should be accompanied with decreasing the ‘k’ values.
607 Atkins and Smith (1961) referred that, the ‘m’ factor is strongly dependent on the
608 shape of grains and pores, and is analogous to the shape factor of the Kozeny-Carman
609 equation (Kozeny, 1927; Carman, 1937). Salem and Chilingarian (1999) mentioned that, the
610 dependence of ‘m’ on the degree of cementation is not as strong as its dependence on the

17
611 grain and pore properties, including shape and type of grains, as well as the shape and size of
612 pores and pore throats. They suggested that, ‘m’ should be called the ‘‘shape factor’’ instead
613 of ‘porosity exponent.
614 Nabawy (2013), stated through integrated theoretical models and practical studies that,
615 porosity and permeability are indicators for the pore and grain shapes. In that study, it is stated that
616 “the intergranular porosity decreases with increasing the grain elongation ‘E’ (the length of the
617 grain/the diameter of the grain), as a shape of anisotropy parameter”. He proposed models relating
618 the grain elongation (shape anisotropy parameter) ‘E’ to the total pore volume, as follows:
619 ∅ = 26.19 E-1 + 21.43
620 k = 206.3 E-13.11
621 The proposed models indicated that, the more pore and grain elongation, the lower
622 porosity values, i.e. the more the sphericity the grains, the higher the porosity and
623 permeability values. Therefore, the higher the ‘m’ exponent is an indication for the lower
624 grain elongation (more sphericity) and the higher the porosity and permeability.
625 The electric and hydraulic conductivities indicated by the formation factor and
626 permeability are the net result of the pore shape and tortuosity, as well as the pore
627 connectivity, which are related to each other. For example, the fracture porosity means the
628 lowest tortuosity and vice versa. For the present study, the pore shapes are described and
629 assigned petrographically. They are mostly intercrystalline pores, but sometimes are vuggy
630 and vuggy-channels. In addition, other pore types have been assigned but completely closed
631 due to the diagenetic cementation, so they are out of service through the connective pore
632 network.
633 In spite of, a number of reliable equations were introduced from the present study; a
634 much care must be experienced in dealing with the more complicated lithologic facies. It is
635 more appreciated to introduce more models, following the same concept introduced in the
636 present study, to be applied for each case study individually.
637
638 6. Conclusions
639 The petrophysical properties of the studied rocks are due to their pore- and petro-
640 fabrics properties. The porosity exponent ‘m’ and lithology factor ‘a’ are the important
641 parameters introduced by Archie (1942) and Winsauer et al. (1952). The electrical properties
642 are mostly related to the storage capacity properties through the Archie’s equation that related
643 the formation factor to the pore volume. Many equations have been introduced relating ‘F’ to
644 ‘∅’ with constant ‘a’ and ‘m’, but the practical experience showed that, the Archie’s
645 parameters are not constant and have to be assigned, case-wise for each facies.
646 The main aim of the present study is to assign the ‘a’ and ‘m’ parameters for three major
647 crystalline carbonate facies; namely they are: 1) bio micritic and micro to pseudo dolosparite
648 facies, 2) dolomitic micrite to dolosparite facies and, 3) micrite/pseudo sparite to micritic
649 dolosparite facies). The samples of these facies are characterized by intercrystalline porosity,

18
650 varied porosity (2.11 % up to 25.8 %), negligible to fair permeability (0.046 to 12.9 md) and
651 greatly varied formation factor (very low to very high, 17.7 up to 2862). For the present
652 carbonate sub-facies, ‘a’ varies from 1.06 up to 8.76, while ‘m’ varies from 1.19 to 2.67.
653 The great variation of both the lithology ‘tortuosity’ factor ‘a’ and the porosity
654 exponent ‘m’ are due to their dependence on several factors, e.g. porosity, permeability and
655 formation factor. Therefore, they are also related to each other as electric and storage capacity
656 indicators.
657 Porosity exponent ‘m’ is mostly dependent on the pore volume and elongation ‘pore
658 fabric’, whereas lithology ‘tortuosity’ factor ‘a’ is dependent on the lithology and
659 permeability, as well as the porosity; i.e. on both ‘pore- and petro-fabrics.
660 Formation factor values are mostly controlled by the brine concentration, the pore
661 volume, connectivity and very low to very high pore channel tortuosity, as well as the
662 mineralogic composition, clay content, type and distribution, pore and grain elongation
663 ‘shape’, which can be indicated by the values of both ‘m’ and ‘a’.
664 Several empirical equations between the Archie’s parameters and other petrophysical
665 parameters were introduced with reliable coefficients of correlation and hence can be safely
666 applied only to similar carbonate rock varieties of the same lithofacies and depositional
667 environments.
668
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730 Levorsen, A.I., 1967. Geology of Petroleum, W.H. Freeman Company, San Francisco, ISBN
731 0716702304.
732 Lucia, F.J., 1983. Petrophysical parameters estimated from visual descriptions of carbonate
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735 Springer-Verlag, Berlin, ISBN 3540727426.
736 Lucia, F.J., Conti, R.D., 1987. Rock fabric, permeability, and log relationships in an upward-
737 shoaling, vuggy carbonate sequence. The University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of
738 Economic Geology, Geological Circular, 87(5), 22 p.
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741 Maxwell, J.C., 1881. A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, vol. 1. Oxford.
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770 Ruhovets, N., 1990. A log analysis technique for evaluating laminated reservoirs in the Gulf
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22
810 Wyllie, M.R.J., Gregory, A.R., 1953. Formation factors of unconsolidated porous media:
811 influence of particle shape and effect of cementation. Trans. AIME, 198, 103–110.
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813 Resistivity Phenomena in Dirty Sands, Pet Trans, AIME, 201, 43–56.
814 Wyllie, M.R.J., 1963. The Fundamentals of Well Log Interpretation, 3rd edn. Academic
815 Press, New York, New York, ASIN: B0000CLZO9.
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818
819

23
820 Figures Caption
821 Fig. 1 A plot showing the different F-∅ relationships.
822 Fig. 2 Plot of the true formation resistivity factor ‘F’ versus porosity ‘∅’ on log-log scale plot
823 for the carbonate samples.
824 Fig. 3 Further discrimination of the studied carbonate facies based on formation resistivity factor
825 ‘F’ and porosity ‘∅’.
826 Fig. 4 Plot of the permeability values versus porosity ‘∅’ on log-log scale plot for the
827 carbonate samples.
828 Fig. 5 Plot of the permeability ‘k’ values versus the formation factor ‘F’ on log-log scale plot for
829 the carbonate samples.
830 Fig. 6 Further discrimination of the studied carbonate facies into sub-facies based the
831 permeability ‘k’ and porosity ‘∅’ relationship.
832 Fig. 7 Discriminating the studied microfacies into sub-facies based on the k-F plot on log-log
833 scale plot for the carbonate samples.
834 Fig. 8 Photomicrographs showing: A) Photomicrograph showing some foraminifera tests,
835 molluscan remains and echinoid spines scattered in a micritic matrix, Bio-micrite sub-facies,
836 PPL; B) ammonite shell fragment, algal remains, as well as glauconite pellets embedded in
837 micritic matrix; Bio-micrite sub-facies, PPL; C) mollusca shell fragments (dyed red) float in
838 euhedral to xenotopic micro dolosparite, sparitic bio micro dolosparite sub-facies, PPL; D)
839 very fine to fine dolomicrite crystals cemented together by patches of dolomitic cement
840 containing very good intercrystal porosity (dyed blue) with some iron oxides and clay patches
841 filling inbetween, micro dolosparite sub-facies, PPL; E) euhedral to xenotopic pseudo
842 dolosparite rhombs with vuggy-channel porosity, pseudo dolosparite sub-facies, CN; and F)
843 micrite to micro sparite groundmass with much intercrystalline porosity, sometimes filled
844 with patches of dolomicrite to micro dolosparite filling cement, dolomitic micrite sub-facies,
845 PPL.
846 Fig. 9 Photomicrographs showing: A) Photomicrograph showing clear to cloudy coarse crystalline
847 idiotopic to xenotopic dolosparite of sucrosic fabric with very good micro to meso intercrystal
848 porosity, dolosparite sub-facies, C.N; B) meso to micro molds replaced by microsparite and
849 embedded in micritic matrix, micro sparite/micrite sub-facies, PPL; C) meso channels filled with
850 micro dolosparite through micrite matrix (dyed red), bio micro sparite/micrite sub-facies, PPL; D)
851 vuggy and moldic porosity filled with equigranular drusy micro sparite, sparitic micrite sub-facies,
852 PPL; E) pseudo sparite groundmass containing some patches of sparite, sparitic pseudo sparite
853 sub-facies, PPL; and F) dolosparite groundmass contains vugs completely reduced by micrite and
854 micro sparite patches, micritic dolosparite sub-facies, C.N.
855 Fig. 10 The relationship between the different parameters of Archie’s equation.
856 Fig. 11 Dependence of the Archie’s parameters ‘a’ and ‘m’ on the connected pore volume ‘∅’.
857 Fig. 12 Dependence of the Archie’s parameters ‘a’ and ‘m’ on Permeability ‘k’.
858 Fig. 13 Dependence of the Archie’s parameters ‘a’ and ‘m’ on the formation resistivity factor ‘F’.
859

24
860
861 Table-1 The average petrophysical parameters including Archie’s parameters as well as facies
862 and pore types.
863
Facies Sub-facies Facies Pore type a m ∅ k F

Bio micrite micro intercrystal,

(Bio micritic and micro to pseudo

Sub-facies 1 1.71 1.90 9.0 0.87 227.1

(dolopackstone) moldic porosity
Sparitic Bio micro
(a = 1.31, m = 1.99)
dolosparite facies)

micro intercrystal,
Sub-facies 4 dolosparite 1.06 2.16 12.3 4.71 129.8
Facies 1

micro channel
(sparitic dolopackstone)
Pseudo dolosparite micro intercrystal,
Sub-facies 6 1.22 2.11 7.1 0.041 325.7
(dolomudstone) micro to meso channel
Micro dolosparite micro to meso intercrystal,
Sub-facies 7 1.19 1.95 25.8 12.9 17.7
(dolomudstone) vuggy-channel
(dolomitic micrite to

(a = 1.93, m = 2.49)

Dolomitic micrite micro intercrystal,

dolosparite facies)

Sub-facies-8 1.47 2.67 22.1 3.54 102.0

(dolomitic mudstone) micro channels
Facies 2

Dolosparite
Sub-facies-9 micro to meso intercrystal 2.43 2.38 11.4 0.50 576.3
(dolomudstone)

Sparitic micrite
Sub-facies-2 micro intercrystal 7.84 1.26 4.9 0.047 369.4
(micrite/pseudo sparite to

(mudstone)
micritic dolosparite)
(a = 6.84, m = 1.30)

Micro sparite/micrite
Sub-facies-3 micro intercrystal 6.33 1.31 2.72 0.048 1192
Facies 3

(mudstone)
Micritic dolosparite
Sub-facies-5 micro to meso intercrystal 8.76 1.19 4.0 0.055 399.1
(micritic dolomudstone)
Sparitic pseudo sparite
Sub-facies-10 micro intercrystal 8.05 1.35 2.11 0.046 2862
(mudstone)

864

865

25
866 Figure 1

867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882 Figure 2

883

884
885

26
886 Figure 3

887
888

27
889 Figure 4

890

891

892 Figure 5

893
894

28
895 Figure 6

896
897

898 Figure 7

899
900

29
901 Figure 8

250 µm 250 µm

(A) (B)

250 µm 250 µm

(C) (D)

250 µm 250 µm

(E) (F)

902

30
903 Figure 9

250 µm 500 µm

(A) (B)

500 µm 500 µm

(C) (D)

500 µm 250 µm

(E) (F)
904
905
906

907

908

31
909 Figure 10
910

911
912
913 Figure 11
914

915
916
917

32
918 Figure 12
919

920
921
922
923 Figure 13
924

925
926

33
927

928 Highlights
929 1- Studying Archie’s parameters of carbonate rocks is still a matter of argument.
930 2- Precise calculations must be done for the Archie’s parameters for each facies.
931 3- Three facies types can be distinguished; each has its diagnostic parameters.
932 4- The lithology factor ‘a’ depends on permeability and formation factor,
933 5- The porosity exponent ‘m’ depends on porosity, permeability and formation factor.
934

34