LIST OF CONTENT

1. Types of forces.
2. Types of structure materials.
3. Major types of structure members.
4. Strength reduction factors.
1. TYPES OF FORCES
1.1 EXTERNAL FORCES
 Any type of loading applied to the structure
from outside of the structure either STATIC or
DYNAMIC.
 The TOTAL LOAD is the sum of the static and
dynamic loads.
 The STATIC LOAD is the effect of gravity on a
structure.
 The DYNAMIC LOAD is the forces that move or
change while acting on the structure, because
these forces change their magnitude, direction,
point and plane of application over time.
1.2 INTERNAL FORCES
 The RESISTANCE developed by a structure or a
system against to counteract the external forces
and provide EQUILIBRIUM and STABILITY.

 The internal force can be divided into 5 TYPES

depending upon the reaction produced within
the body in a system:
1. COMPRESSION FORCE:
 It is a force that tends to squeeze
or press a material together.

 This strain frequently shortens

materials.
2. TENSION FORCE:
 It is a force that tend to stretch or
expand a material away from each
other.

 This strain frequently lengthens

materials.
3. SHEAR FORCE:
 When two nearby forces pushing or
pulling each other, but not directly
opposing each other.

 By moving an object's molecules

apart sideways, a shearing stress
slice or rips it.
4. TORSION FORCE:
It is a force that twists or turns the body in
different directions.
5. BENDING MOMENT:
 It is the process of
bending a straight
material into a curved
shape.

 One side of the material is pressed against the

other (compression). The other side spreads out
(tension).
2. TYPES OF STRUCTURE MATERIALS
The most important and well known materials
used in construction are:
2.1 WOOD MATERIAL
It is used as a construction material for thousands
of years and if properly maintained can last for
hundred of years.
It is a readily available and economically feasible
natural resource with a light weight and highly
machine-able properties. It also provides good
insulation for buildings.
 The tensile strength of soft- woods parallel to
grain at 12% moisture content generally ranges
between 70 to 140MPa.
 The compression strength is lower and is
usually in the range 30 to 60 MPa.
 For hard- woods, these values are generally
higher.
 These values are for clear, straight-grained
wood samples.
2.2 CONCRETE MATERIAL
 Concrete is a composite
material made from
mixing cement &
aggregates (sand and
crushed stone) with
water.
 Sometimes fly ash & admixtures are added to
improve quality.
The properties of concrete depend on the ratios
used in the mix design.
 The most famous mixing ratios (cement: sand:
gravel) of concrete are: (1 : 1 : 2) – (1 : 1.5 : 3) – (1 : 2
: 4) – (1 : 2.5 : 5) – (1 : 3 : 6).
 The minimum weight of cement per one cubic
meter is 300 Kg for reinforced concrete & 200 Kg
for plain concrete.
 Concrete compressive strength varies from 15
MPa to 50 MPa depending on cement ratio &
type of aggregates.
 Concrete tensile strength is normally about 10%
to 15% of the compressive strength.
 Allowable bending stress is calculated based on
a factor of safety = 3. Therefore the allowable
bending stresses = 1/3 of compressive strength
to avoid the fear of structure failure.
2.3 STEEL MATERIAL
Steel is one of the
strongest building
materials available
with excellent
strength capacity
in both tension and
compression.
The Yield stress of steel (Fy) ranges between
280Mpa – 420Mpa.
 The allowable axial tension = 0.6 Fy.
 The allowable bending tension or compression =
0.66 Fy.
 The allowable bearing stress = 0.75 Fy.
 The allowable shear stress = 0.45 Fy.
A. STEEL REINFORCEMENT BARS.
 The maximum length of steel bar is 12 M.
 When a certain length is required; it is either
cut (below 12 M) or lapped (above 12M).
 The unit weight of any steel bar diameter is
shown in the following tables.
 Measurements of steel reinforcement is made
in (Kg or Ton).
 Steel bars either plain of deformed surface.
B. HOT ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS.
 Steel is ideal for structural framework of tall
buildings and large industrial facilities.
 Structural steel sections are available in
standard shapes such as L, I , T, H and C
shapes.
 These shapes is connected together by welding
or high-strength bolting to build structures
capable of resisting large forces and
deformations.
C. COLD ROLLED STEEL SECTIONS.
 Cold rolled steel sheets and coils are commonly
used for applications in which dimensional
tolerances, strength and surface finish quality
are critical.

 They are usually smaller, stronger and with a

better surface finish than hot rolled, also the
sections can be supplied with a pre-coated
surface finish of paint or zinc.
2.4 MASONRY MATERIAL
A. BLOCKS & BRICKS.
1. CONCRETE BLOCKS.
 It is made from concrete mix that has a
compressive strength of 3.5 Mpa.
 They are of two types either hollow or solid
blocks.
 The sizes of concrete blocks:
 40 cm * 20 cm * 7 cm
 40 cm * 20 cm * 10 cm
 40 cm * 20 cm * 15 cm
 40 cm * 20 cm * 20 cm
2. CLAY BRICKS.
 It is composed of (clay, &
water).
 It is formed by continuous
strips cut by wires into
special forms.
 It is manufactured with
crushing strength between
15 – 25 Mpa.
3. SAND-LIME BLOCKS.
 It is composed of (lime, sand, & water).
 Quick and slaked lime type is used by 5-9% of
sand weight.
 Silica sand type is used.
 Water as per specifications.
 The standard sizes are:
 25 cm * 12 cm * 6.5 cm
 25 cm * 12 cm * 8.8 cm
 25 cm * 12 cm * 13.8 cm
4. GLASS BRICKS. MATERIAL % BY WEIGHT
LINSEED OIL PUTTY 12%
ADDITIVES 2.5%
WATER 0.5%
OVARY (‫)مبيض‬ 85%

STANDARD DIMENSIONS
SHAPE L W T
SQUARE 298 298 98
197 197 98
146 146 98
RECTANGULAR 298 95 98
197 95 98
5. THERMOSTONE BLOCKS.
 It is a lightweight cement-based material,
containing many gas bubbles evenly distributed
in the volume, produced by blending and
maturing of a mixture of cement, lime, sand,
water, agent generating cells.
 Crushing strength 30 Kg/cm2.
 Density 500 Kg/m3.
 Sizes 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, 25 & 30 cm.
 Faster in construction.
 Lightweight.
 Reduces noise pollution.
 High thermal efficiency and energy saving.
 Fire resistance.
 Earthquake resistant.
 Precision (sizes & surface finishing).
 Workability (can be easily cut, drilled, nailed and
grooved with manual or power tools).
 Sustainable (improves indoor air quality).
 Cost effective (reduce cost of construction).
B. NATURAL STONE.
 It is a natural material that cut to the required
size and shape with 4-5 cm thickness minimum.
 Course height is 25cm or 50cm; but can be
manufactured to any height required as per
designer selection (10-15-20-40)cm, with or
without Zamleh.
 The surface pattern of stone pieces is called:
 Tubzeh.
 Musamsam.
 Munakar.
 Matabeh.
 Manshoor.
 Mhazar.
 There are different stone special pieces that are
used in construction.

Column pieces (Dastoor). Jambs of openings (Kalb & Araka).

Lintels (Qamt). Coping.
Marabee’a. Corner.
Curbs Stairs (tread & riser).
Floors Special columns
3. MAJOR TYPES OF STRUCTURE MEMBERS

LINE ELEMENTS PLATE ELEMENTS SHELL ELEMENTS

 Beams.  Slabs.  Domes.

 Columns.  Foundations.  Arches.
 Struts/Ties.  Walls.  Tents.
 Fames.
 Trusses.
1. BEAMS:
The are horizontal members which
transfer loads to supports which resist the applied
loading in flexure. Therefore, shear forces and
bending moments are developed throughout the
beam span.
2. COLUMNS:
They are vertical members which transfer
compressive loads to below levels.
3. STRUTS / TIES:
 They are members that interconnect and stiffen
columns with beams.
 Strut which take the compressive forces.
 Tie which take the tension forces.
4. FRAMES:
 It is a combination of beam and column structure
to resist the gravity and lateral loads (wind).
 It is used to overcome the large forces, moments
developing due to the applied loading.
5. TRUSS:
It is a frame structure that consists of members
organized into connected triangles so that the
overall assembly behaves as a single object.
6. SALBS:
It is flat horizontal surfaces used as floors, roof
decks, and ceilings.
7. RETAINING WALLS:
It is used to support soil where a sloping site
requires excavations or a need of landscape
activities.
8. FOUNDATIONS:
It is used to transfer load from the structure to the
to subsoil.
9. DOMES:
It is a curved shape formation or structure. It is like
half of a sphere.
10. ARCHES:
It is a curved member that is used to span an
opening and to support loads from above.
11. TENTS:
It is an irregular shape of structure that is used to
provide a certain shape and function.
4. STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS.
 The strength reduction factor is used to
decrease the estimated strength of
structural members, in computing the design
strength of concrete elements.
 It is used to account for uncertainties in
materials, possible design, and construction
errors.
 The ACI 318-19 specifies the strength reduction
factors for different concrete elements like
beams, columns, slabs, and for various forces
that influence the members such as moments,
shears, and torsion.
 Tables are prepared to present various
reduction factors based on actions and concrete
elements.
PURPOSE OF STRENGTH REDUCTION FACTORS
1. To account for in-accuracies in the equations of
design.
2. To reflect the significance of structural
members.
3. To account for probable under-strength of
structural elements because of change in
material strength and dimensions of the
concrete member.
4. To reflect the available ductility and needed
reliability of the str. members under load effects.
 DESCRIPTION FACTOR
Tension controlled beams and slab. 0.90
Components of connections of precast members controlled by 0.90
yielding of steel elements in tension.
Shears and torsions in beams. 0.75
Brackets and corbels. 0.75
Struts, ties, nodal zones, and bearing areas designed in 0.75
accordance with the strut-and-tie method.
Post-tensioned anchorage zones. 0.75
Columns (tie or spiral). 0.65 - 0.75
Bearing on concrete. 0.65
Plain concrete elements. 0.6
Anchors in concrete elements. 0.45 - 0.75