Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

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Thin-Walled Structures
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Full length article

Performance of recycled aggregate concrete-filled high-strength steel tubes

under axial compression, tension and torsion
Hua-Yang Zhao a , Lin-Hai Han a ,∗, Chao Hou b , Wan-Qing Lyu a
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, PR China
b
Department of Ocean Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, PR China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: This paper reports the performance of recycled aggregate concrete-filled high-strength steel tubes (RAC-FHST)
Recycled aggregate concrete-filled under axial compression, tension and torsion. A total of 50 specimens, including 22 compressive specimens,
high-strength steel tubes (RAC-FHST) 16 tensile ones and 12 torsional ones, were tested. The main parameters varied in the tests were the sectional
Axial compressive behaviour
type, the steel yield strength and the replacement ratio of recycled coarse aggregate (RCA). Analysis on the
Axial tensile behaviour
full-range load–deformation response, the typical failure modes, the ultimate strength, the passive confinement
Torsional behaviour
Passive confinement effect
effect and the influence of key parameters were conducted. Results reveal that the use of RCA affected the
failure modes especially when subjected to tension or torsion. Meanwhile, the performance of RAC-FHST is
improved due to the excellent confinement effect of high-strength steel tube. The finite element modelling
method was used to investigate the mechanical property and the effects of important parameters. Simplified
models for the calculation of ultimate compressive, tensile and torsional strengths of RAC-FHST were proposed.
Based on reliability analysis, the effects of the steel yield strength, the concrete strength and the confinement
factor on the reliability index of RAC-FHST were evaluated.

1. Introduction
Recycled aggregate concrete-filled high-strength steel tubes (RAC-
FHST) are novel composite structures formed by filling the recycled-
aggregate concrete into high-strength steel tubes. With the develop-
ment of urbanization, the frequent replacement of buildings expands
the demand for raw construction materials, while at the mean time,
a large amount of construction waste is generated. The utilization
of recycled-aggregate concrete (RAC) is an effective way to reuse
construction waste and solve the shortage of natural aggregate. With
the wide application of RAC, new challenges regarding the repeated
recycled concrete also need to be addressed. On the other hand, high-
strength steel tubes (𝑓y ≥ 460 MPa) are increasingly used due to the
high yield strength, high ultimate strength, enhanced fire resistance and
corrosion resistance. Therefore, the mechanical properties of RAC can
be improved due to the confinement effect of high-strength steel tube,
while the thickness of the high-strength steel tube can be reduced when
it is filled with RAC since the steel local buckling can be prevented or
delayed. It is thus expected that RAC-FHST can inherit the beneficial
composite behaviour of conventional concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST),
and has great efficiency in environmental and economic terms as well.
Previously, experimental and numerical research were carried out
on the axial compressive, tensile and torsional behaviour of CFST
[1–4], where the strength, stiffness and stability were studied. The
results of these studies testified that the core concrete played an im-
portant role in all the compressive, tensile and torsional resistance
of CFST. The finite element modelling (FEM) was developed and the
calculation formulas of compressive [2], tensile [3] and torsional [4]
strengths were suggested, showing the CFST composite members had
good bearing capacity and plasticity. The performance of recycled
aggregate concrete-filled steel tubes (RAC-FST) was investigated by
researchers, including the axial compressive behaviour [5–7], the flex-
ural behaviour [6] and the combined axial–flexural behaviour [8]. It
was found that the performance of RAC-FST was generally similar
with the corresponding CFST using natural aggregate concrete infill,
while the use of RCA had influence on the elastic modulus and the
critical strain due to the passive confinement effect. In addition, the
performance of repeated recycled concrete (1st, 2nd and 3rd generation
RAC) was reported by Huda and Alam [9], where it was observed
that the repeated RAC experienced slightly lower compressive strength
than the control concrete whilst all could achieve the target strength
when considering the long-term strength gain. Investigations on the
performance of concrete-filled high-strength steel tubes under different
loading conditions were also reported, including the axial compressive
behaviour [10–14], the flexural behaviour [12,15] and the combined
axial–flexural behaviour [16,17]. The studies on concrete-filled high-
strength steel tubes showed that the high confinement effect provided

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: lhhan@tsinghua.edu.cn (L.-H. Han).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tws.2022.110478
Received 7 October 2022; Received in revised form 1 December 2022; Accepted 15 December 2022
Available online 28 December 2022
0263-8231/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 1. A schematic view of RAC-FHST.

by high-strength steel tubes increased the strength of CFST members. Table 1

Material properties of high-strength steel.
However, the high-strength steel was susceptible to local buckling and
the suitability of existing design codes needed to be further verified. Type 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓u (MPa) 𝐸s (MPa) 𝜇s 𝛥L/𝐿0

Based on the reported research, it can be seen that different passive Q500 512.9 647.5 1.97 × 105 0.27 19%
Q720 721.4 802.2 2.06 × 105 0.27 15%
confinement effect is induced when the materials were varied, and
it is significantly crucial to determine the mechanical properties of
RAC-FHST under axial compression, tension and torsion. So far, the
research on the RAC-FHST members under axial compression, tension
and torsion is still limited, especially due to the lack of experimental
data and analysis of the passive confinement effect between recycled
aggregate concrete and high-strength steel tubes.
This paper thus investigates the full range response of RAC-FHST
under axial compression, tension and torsion. A total of 50 specimens,
including 22 compressive specimens, 16 tensile ones and 12 torsional
ones, were tested. The main parameters varied in the tests were the
section type, the steel yield strength and the replacement ratio of RCA.
The corresponding hollow high-strength steel tubes were also tested to
compare the ultimate strengths and failure modes with RAC-FHST. The
comprehensive performance including the full-range load–deformation
response, the typical failure modes, the ultimate strength, the passive
confinement effect and the influence of important parameters were
conducted. Besides, the FEM was established and verified to investigate Fig. 2. Manufacturing process of repeated recycled coarse aggregate.

the mechanical performance and present parametric analysis. Finally,

simplified calculation models of RAC-FHST under axial compression,
tension and torsion were proposed, with reliability analysis conducted
to calibrate the simplified models.
2. Experimental programme
2.1. General description
A total of 50 RAC-FHST specimens, including 22 compressive spec-
imens, 16 tensile ons and 12 torsional ones, were tested. Both circular
and square sections were tested, as shown in Fig. 1, where D and B
were the outer diameter and width of the cross-section, respectively.
L was the length of the specimen which was designed as 3 times the
outer diameter or width of the cross-section.
2.2. Material properties
The high-strength steel tubes were made of Q500 and Q720 steel
with nominal thickness of 4 mm. Standard high-strength steel tensile
coupon tests were conducted and the measured average yield strength
(𝑓y ), the ultimate strength (𝑓u ), the elastic modulus (𝐸s ), the Poisson’s
ratio (𝜇s ) and the elongation percentage (𝛥L/𝐿0 ) were presented in
Table 1. Since there was no obvious yielding plateau observed, 𝑓y was
taken as the stress 𝑓0.2 corresponding to 0.2% plastic strain.
Four mixtures of different concrete were used in the tests, as shown
in Table 2. The type ‘‘C50’’ denotes that the concrete was natural ag-
gregate concrete (NAC) with the cubic compressive strength of 50 MPa.
The type ‘‘RC1-100%’’ denotes that the concrete was 1st generation
RAC with the replacement ratio of 100%. The types ‘‘RC2-50%’’ and
‘‘RC2-100%’’ denote that the concrete was 2nd generation RAC with
the replacement ratio of 50% and 100%, respectively. For the NAC,
natural coarse aggregate with continuous gradation of 5–31.5 mm with
a crushing indicator of 7.9% was adopted. It should be noted that for
the production of both NAC and RAC, natural sand was used as fine ag-
gregate. For the 1st generation RAC, RCA with continuous gradation of
5–16 mm and 16–31.5 mm was adopted with a mass ratio of 3:2, while
the 1st generation RCA was obtained from the Suzhou Manufacturing
Company and the crushing indicator was 13.6%. For the 2nd generation
RAC, 2nd generation repeated recycled coarse aggregate (RCA2) with
continuous gradation of 5–31.5 mm and crushing indicator of 14.1%
was adopted. The RCA2 was produced using 100% RAC after crushing
and screening process, while the mix proportions of 100% RAC were
as follows: water: 150 kg/m3 ; cement: 500 kg/m3 ; sand: 777 kg/m3 ;
RCA with continuous gradation of 5–16 mm: 643.8 kg/m3 ; RCA with
continuous gradation of 16–31.5 mm: 429.2 kg/m3 . The time of the
RAC crushing was 180 days after the pouring. The average cubic
compressive strength (𝑓cu ) and elastic modulus (𝐸c ) of RAC were 43.8
and 24,637 MPa, respectively. The manufacturing process of repeated
recycled coarse aggregate was shown in Fig. 2.
2.3. Specimen preparation
Circular and square seamless steel tubes were used in the exper-
iments. Two 25 mm thick steel plates were welded to both ends of
the hollow tube. For the tensile specimens and torsional specimens,
stiffeners with a thick of 12 mm were welded to hollow tubes and
steel plates to ensure that the end of the specimen is not damaged
prematurely during the tests.

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Table 2
Mix proportions of concrete (unit: kg/m3 ).
Label Cement NCA 1st RCA 1st RCA 2nd RCA Sand Water
(5–16 mm) (16–
31.5 mm)
C50 480 1088 – – – 788 144
RC1%–100% 500 – 643.8 429.2 – 777 150
RC2%–50% 500 536.5 – – 536.5 777 150
RC2%–100% 500 – – – 1073 777 150

Table 3
Details and sectional capacities of the specimens for compression test.
Section type No. Label D/B×t ×L (mm) 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓cu (MPa) r (%) 𝜉 𝑁ue (kN)
1 cco1a 203×3.90×609 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.05 3093
2 cco1b 203×3.92×609 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.05 2899
3 cco2a 203×3.98×609 512.9 57.0 RC2%–50% 1.15 2870
4 cco2b 203×4.02×609 512.9 57.0 RC2%–50% 1.15 2930
5 cco3a 203×3.93×609 512.9 49.6 0% 1.32 3101
6 cco3b 203×4.02×609 512.9 49.6 0% 1.32 3102
7 cco4a 203×4.00×609 512.9 45.0 RC1%–100% 1.46 2560
8 cco4b 203×4.00×609 512.9 45.0 RC1%–100% 1.46 2881
Circular
9 cco5a 203×4.09×609 721.4 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.48 3946
10 cco5b 203×4.04×609 721.4 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.48 4117
11 cco6a 203×3.96×609 512.9 – – – 1265
12 cco6b 203×4.02×609 512.9 – – – 1244
13 cco7a 203×3.97×609 517.6 59.1 RC1%–50% 1.06 3516
14 cco7b 203×3.97×609 517.6 59.1 RC1%–50% 1.06 3498
15 cco8a 203×3.98×609 698.0 53.6 RC1%–50% 1.61 4085
16 cco8b 203×3.98×609 698.0 53.6 RC1%–50% 1.61 4194
17 sco1a 159×3.93×477 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.37 2207
18 sco1b 159×3.95×477 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.37 2274
19 sco2a 159×3.93×477 512.9 – – – 812
Square
20 sco2b 159×3.93×477 512.9 – – – 887
21 sco3a 159×3.98×477 515.9 58.6 RC1%–50% 1.40 2684
22 sco3b 159×3.98×477 515.9 58.6 RC1%–50% 1.40 2716

2.4. Type I: Compressive test setup and programme 2.6. Type III: Torsional test setup and programme

A total of 22 compressive specimens, including 14 circular RAC-
FHST, 2 circular hollow steel sections (HSS), 4 square RAC-FHST and
2 square HSS, were tested. A summary of the specimens was listed in
Table 3. The following naming rules are used to label each specimen:
the starting letter ‘‘c’’ or ‘‘s’’ denotes the section type of circular or
square; the following letters ‘‘co’’ stand for compressive specimens;
the numeric value denotes specimens with different steel strength or
concrete strength; the last letter ‘‘a’’ or ‘‘b’’ denotes the two specimens
in a same group. The calculation of confinement factor 𝜉 was suggested
by Han [18], as shown in Eq. (1), where 𝐴s and 𝐴c represented the
areas of steel tube and core concrete, 𝑓y and 𝑓ck represented the
yield strength of steel and the characteristic compression strength of
concrete.
𝐴s 𝑓y
𝜉= (1)
𝐴c 𝑓ck
The compressive tests were performed on a 5000 kN capacity servo-
controlled hydraulic testing machine, as shown in Fig. 3(a). Eight
strain gauges were used to measure the longitudinal and transverse
strains along the middle-height section, while two LVDTs were used
to measure the axial displacement of each specimen.
2.5. Type II: Tensile test setup and programme
A total of 16 tensile specimens, including 10 circular RAC-FHST,
2 circular HSS, 2 square RAC-FHST and 2 square HSS, were tested. A
summary of the specimens was listed in Table 4. The naming rules are
the same as those for compressive specimens, except that the second
and third letters ‘‘te’’ stand for tensile specimens. The tensile tests were
performed on a 2000 kN capacity servo-controlled hydraulic testing
machine, as shown in Fig. 3(b). The arrangement of strain gauges
and displacement transducers were the same as those for compressive
specimens.
A total of 12 torsional specimens, including 10 circular RAC-FHST
and 2 circular HSS were tested. A summary of the specimens was
listed in Table 5. The naming rules are the same as those for com-
pressive specimens, except that the second and third letters ‘‘to’’ stand
for torsional specimens. Fig. 3(c) presented the torsional test set-up.
Sixteen high-strength bolts were used to fix the specimen to the left
connecting plate and the right steel plate. A grooved disc was set
in the steel plate to apply the torsional moment, which was induced
through the steel cable installed in the grooved disc. The steel cable
was connected to a jack connected to the strong floor with capacity of
1,000 kN. The torsion was measured by multiplying the tensile force
of the load cell by the radius of the steel plate. Three strain rosettes
were used to measure the shear strains on the middle section for each
specimen. Two LVDTs were used to measure the torsional angle of the
specimen, as shown in Fig. 3(c).
3. Experimental results and discussions
3.1. Type I: Compressive test
3.1.1. Typical failure mode
The failure modes of compressive specimens were shown in Fig. 4. It
was found that both the circular and square compressive specimens had
good integrity after the experiment. For circular specimens, it can be
seen that the specimens with a larger 𝜉 (e.g., specimen cco5a, 𝜉 = 1.48)
were more likely to fail in a drum-like mode and outward buckling
of high-strength steel occurred in the middle height of specimens.
Specimens with a smaller 𝜉 (e.g., specimen cco1a, 𝜉 = 1.05) tended
to show a shear failure mode in diagonal direction and steel outward
buckling occurred at both ends of specimens. For square specimens,
the failure modes were similar to those of circular ones and obvious
outward buckling of high-strength steel were observed after failure.

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Fig. 3. Test set-ups of compression, tension and torsion tests.

Table 4
Details and sectional capacities of the specimens for tension test.
Section type No. Label D/B×t ×L (mm) 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓cu (MPa) r(%) 𝜉 𝑁tu (kN) SI SI average
1 cte1a 203×3.04×609 512.9 60.8 RC2%–100% 0.78 1117 1.18
1.12
2 cte1b 203×2.96×609 512.9 60.8 RC2%–100% 0.78 1005 1.06
3 cte2a 203×2.98×609 512.9 59.0 RC2%–50% 0.80 1022 1.08
1.05
4 cte2b 203×2.97×609 512.9 59.0 RC2%–50% 0.80 967 1.02
5 cte3a 203×2.93×609 512.9 46.3 0% 1.02 1016 1.07
1.06
6 cte3b 203×2.89×609 512.9 46.3 0% 1.02 989 1.04
Circular
7 cte4a 203×2.91×609 512.9 59.6 RC1%–100% 0.80 1023 1.08
1.04
8 cte4b 203×2.99×609 512.9 59.6 RC1%–100% 0.80 961 1.01
9 cte5a 203×3.04×609 721.4 60.8 RC2%–100% 1.10 1449 1.08
1.05
10 cte5b 203×3.06×609 721.4 60.8 RC2%–100% 1.10 1370 1.02
11 cte6a 203×2.94×609 512.9 – – – 950 1.00
1.00
12 cte6b 203×3.04×609 512.9 – – – 950 1.00
13 ste1a 159×3.98×477 512.9 60.8 RC2%–100% 1.37 1458 1.20
1.21
14 ste1b 159×3.97×477 512.9 60.8 RC2%–100% 1.37 1475 1.22
Square
15 ste2a 159×3.92×477 512.9 – – – 1230 1.01
1.00
16 ste2b 159×3.92×477 512.9 – – – 1197 0.99

The steel tube of the specimen was removed to observe the fail-
ure mode of the core concrete, typical failure modes of compressive
specimens and the exposed views of core concrete were shown in
Fig. 4. It was found that both the circular and square specimens failed
with several diagonal cracks and narrow vertical cracks in the core
concrete whilst no penetrating crack occurred. The failure modes of
core concrete for specimens with NAC, 1st and 2nd generation RAC
were generally the same due to the confinement effect of high-strength
steel tube. In the buckling region of high-strength steel tube, the core
concrete was crushed. It can also be seen that the high-strength steel
tube and core NAC or RAC worked as a whole since there was no
scratches or slips along the steel–concrete interface.
3.1.2. Axial compressive load (N) versus average axial strain (𝜀) response
Fig. 5 presented the compressive load N-𝜀 response of RAC-FHST
under axial compression. The typical measured N -𝜀 curves of the tested
specimens were shown in Fig. 6(a). The characteristics of N -𝜀 curve of
RAC-FHST can be generally divided into five stages. During the initial
stage (O–A), the curve behaved linearly until the yielding of steel at

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Table 5
Details and sectional capacities of the specimens for torsion test.
No. Label D/B×t ×L (mm) 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓cu (MPa) r (%) 𝜉 𝑇u (kN m) SI SI average
1 cto1a 203×4.06×609 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.05 95.7 1.39
1.38
2 cto1b 203×4.02×609 512.9 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.05 93.5 1.36
3 cto2a 203×4.07×609 512.9 57.0 RC2%–50% 1.15 1 96.4 1.40
1.39
4 cto2b 203×3.97×609 512.9 57.0 RC2%–50% 1.15 94.9 1.38
5 cto3a 203×4.09×609 512.9 49.6 0% 1.32 100.2 1.46
1.41
6 cto3b 203×3.99×609 512.9 49.6 0% 1.32 93.8 1.36
7 cto4a 203×3.95×609 512.9 45.0 RC1%–100% 1.46 96.6 1.40
1.37
8 cto4b 203×4.10×609 512.9 45.0 RC1%–100% 1.46 91.6 1.33
9 cto5a 203×4.07×609 721.4 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.48 112.2 1.18
1.24
10 cto5b 203×4.03×609 721.4 62.4 RC2%–100% 1.48 124.1 1.30
11 cto6a 203×4.00×609 512.9 – – – 66.9 0.97
1.00
12 cto6b 203×4.05×609 512.9 – – – 70.7 1.03

Fig. 4. Failure modes of the compressive specimens.

point A. After that, the curve kept going up in an elastic–plastic way
(A–B) until the longitudinal strain reached 𝜀scy at point B and it was
recognized as the ultimate compressive strength of RAC-FHST. The
definition and calculation of 𝜀scy associated with ultimate compressive
strength will be discussed later. Then the curve behaved in a strain-
softening stage (B–C) since 𝜉 was relatively small, while a large 𝜉 would
change the curve into strain-hardening stage. Subsequently, the curve
went upwards slightly (C–D) due to the hardening of high-strength
steel. The strength improvement in this stage was not obvious since the
core concrete was crushed. Finally, the unloading process performed
and the curve behaved in an approximately linear way (D–E) where the
small elastic deformation recovered and the large plastic deformation
remained. It is worth noting that, the N -𝜀 curve of HSS descended
rapidly after the ultimate strength due to the early local buckling.
3.1.3. Ultimate compressive strength
The ultimate compressive strength of RAC-FHST and HSS (𝑁ue )
were presented in Table 3. 𝑁ue was defined as the load corresponding
to the critical strain (𝜀scy ), which was in accordance with the defi-
nition for CFST specimens [18]. It was found that all the RAC-FHST
specimens had good bearing capacity and ductility. The influence of
different types of concrete (i.e., NAC, 1st and 2nd generation RAC)
on the ultimate compressive strength was not significant due to the
fact that the designed concrete strength was similar. The difference
in ultimate compressive strength actually attributed to the different
concrete strengths. Although the strengths of different types of concrete
varied, the dispersion of ultimate compressive strength of RAC-FHST
is smaller than that of concrete cubic compressive strength due to the
confinement from the high-strength steel.

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Fig. 5. Compressive load (𝑁c ) versus longitudinal strain (𝜀) response.

3.1.4. Effect of RAC and high-strength steel not significant. Compared to the specimen with NAC, the specimens
Fig. 7(a) presented the effect of concrete type and steel strength on with 100% replacement ratio 1st and 2nd generation RAC had the
N -𝜀 curves. As shown in Fig. 7(a1), it can be seen that the influence of elastic modulus decreased by 1.3% and 21.4%, respectively. For 1st
concrete type on the ultimate compressive strength of specimens was generation RAC, Xiao et al. [19] studied the relationship between the

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H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 6. Typical measured N -𝜀 and T -𝜃 curves for compressive, tensile and torsional specimens.
Fig. 7. Effect of concrete type and steel on the compressive behaviour.
peak strain of RAC and the replacement ratio r, as shown in Eq. (2).
𝜀𝑟0 = 𝜀𝑛0 ⋅ (1 + 𝑟∕𝛽)
where 𝜀𝑟0
denoted the peak strain of RAC; 𝜀𝑛0
denoted the peak strain
of NAC; r denoted the replacement ratio of RAC and 𝛽 = 65.715𝑟2 −
109.43𝑟 + 48.989. Eq. (2) was adopted for the calculation of 𝜀𝑟0 in the
stress–strain model of confined RAC, as suggested by Lyu et al. [5].
The applicable ranges in terms of concrete strength, steel strength and
steel ratio were 𝑓cu =30−60 MPa, 𝑓y =200−700 MPa and 𝛼=0.03−0.2,
respectively. As can be seen from the verification results, good agree-
ments were achieved. Due to lack of large amount of experimental data
and research on 2nd generation RAC, Eq. (2) was also adopted for 2nd
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
generation RAC. As shown in Fig. 7(a2), with the increment of the steel
strength, the ultimate compressive strength and rigidity of the specimen
(2)
increased.
Fig. 7(b) presented the effect of generations of repeated recycled
concrete on 𝑓cu of concrete and ultimate strength of RAC-FHST. It was
found that compared with NAC, the cubic compressive strength of 1st
and 2nd generation RAC decreased by 9.3% and increased by 25.8%,
respectively. The phenomenon that the 2nd generation RAC exhibited
higher cubic compressive strength may be owing to the rougher texture
and more angular shape of RCA2 which could improve the bonding and
interlocking between RCA2 and cement paste. The same trend was also
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H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 8. Compressive and tensile load (N ) versus |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | response.
found in previous study on the mechanical behaviour of repeated re-
cycled concrete [9]. Compared with specimens with NAC, the ultimate
strength of RAC-FHST specimens with 1st and 2nd generation RAC was
reduced by 17.4% and 0.03%, respectively. Due to the confinement
effect of high-strength steel tube, the dispersion of ultimate compressive
strength of RAC-FHST specimens was generally smaller than that of
cubic compressive strength of concrete.
3.1.5. Strain of steel tube
Fig. 8(a) presented typical compressive load (N ) versus |𝑠st ∕𝜀sl | re-
sponse, where |𝑠st ∕𝜀sl | was the absolute value of the ratio of transverse
to longitudinal strain. It can be seen that, for HSS (cco6a), | 𝑠st ∕𝜀sl | was
basically stable during the test and being close to the Poisson’s ratio
of steel (𝜇s = 0.27). For RAC-FHST specimens (cte1b-cte5b), |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl |
increased significantly at the later stage of loading. As shown in the
figure, for specimen cco5b with a relatively larger confinement factor
(𝜉 = 1.48), the increment of |𝑠st ∕𝜀sl | was more significant than that of
specimen cco1b with a relatively smaller confinement factor (𝜉 = 1.05)
with weaker passive confinement effect.
3.2. Type II: Tensile test
3.2.1. Typical failure mode
The failure modes of tensile specimens were shown in Fig. 9. It
can be observed that the use of RAC had influence on the width and
distribution of concrete cracks, and the fracture of high-strength steel
tube was more likely to occur under biaxial tensile stress state. For
specimens cte2b, cte3a, cte3b, cte4a, cte5a, ste1a and ste1b, no visible
failure phenomenon was observed. Fracture occurred in the steel tubes
of specimens cte1a and cte5b, while tensile crack of steel tubes occurred
in specimens cte1b, cte2a and cte4b. For HSS specimens cte6a, cte6b,
ste2a and ste2b, significant pinching phenomenon was observed. The
steel tube of the specimen was removed to observe the failure mode
of the core concrete, as shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen that the core
concrete surface was uniformly covered with cracks, and the direction
of the cracks was perpendicular to the direction of the main tensile
stress. For different types of concrete, the width and distribution of
cracks were slightly different. Fig. 9(a1), (a2) and (a3) show failure
modes of specimen with 2nd generation RAC, 1st generation RAC and
NAC, respectively. It was found that the distribution of cracks was
denser and the width was smaller in the specimens with 1st and 2nd
generation RAC, whilst the widths of cracks were mostly between
0.3–0.8 mm. However, the distribution of cracks was sparser in the
specimens with natural aggregate concrete, and the width of cracks
were mostly between 0.5–1.2 mm.
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
The schematic view of failure modes of tensile specimens was shown
in Fig. 10. Generally, pinching phenomenon occurred in HSS under
axial tension, as shown in Fig. 10(a). For plain concrete, there was
only one thorough straight crack when under axial tension, as shown in
Fig. 10(b). For CFST specimens, the steel tube generally had no obvious
damage due to the support of core concrete, as shown in Fig. 10(c1).
However, when high-strength steel tube was in biaxial tensile stress
state, fracture might occur during loading, as shown in Fig. 10(c2).
When there was initial defect along the high-strength steel tube, it
might fracture at the weak region, as shown in Fig. 10(c3). It can be
seen that several hoop cracks appeared on the surface of core concrete,
and the failure modes can be classified into three categories. When
the core concrete had good ductility, sparse cracks were observed in
the specimens with NAC, as shown in Fig. 10(c4). Dense cracks were
observed in the specimens with RAC, as shown in Fig. 10(c5). When
the outer steel tube fractured, the core concrete at the corresponding
position was damaged locally with large cracks, and the failure mode
was similar to Fig. 10(c6). The reason for the differences in crack dis-
tribution is attributed to the fact that the recycled aggregate contained
more micro-cracks during the production process and the ductility of
RAC is correspondingly lower than that of NAC.
3.2.2. Tensile load (N) versus longitudinal strain (𝜀) response
Fig. 11 presented the tensile load (N ) versus longitudinal strain
(𝜀) response of RAC-FHST under axial tension. The typical measured
N -𝜀 curves of the tested specimens were shown in Fig. 6(b). The
characteristics of N -𝜀 curve of RAC-FHST can be generally divided into
five stages. During the initial stage (O–A), the curve behaved linearly
until the core concrete began to crack at point A. After cracking of
concrete, the curve kept going up in an approximately linear way (A–B)
while the rigidity of RAC-FHST specimen decreased slightly. The high-
strength steel tube in RAC-FHST reached the proportional limit at point
B. Then the curve behaved in an elastic–plastic way (B–C). Due to the
support of core concrete, the high-strength steel tube was in biaxial
tensile stress state and the yield strength would be improved. The
longitudinal strain reached 5000 μ𝜀 at point C and it was recognized
as the tensile strength of RAC-FHST [3]. Subsequently, the curve went
upwards slightly (C–D) due to the hardening of high-strength steel.
The steel tube was in biaxial tensile stress state and might fracture
during this stage. Finally, the unloading process performed and the
curve behaved in an approximately linear way (D–E) where the rigidity
of unloading stage was close to that of initial loading stage. As shown
in Fig. 6(b), the N -𝜀 curve of HSS can be generally divided into three
linear stages: the elastic stage (O–A’), the hardening stage (A’–B’) and
the unloading stage (B’–C’).
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 9. Failure modes of tensile specimens.

Fig. 10. Schematic view of failure modes of tensile specimens.

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H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 11. Tensile load (𝑁t ) versus longitudinal strain (𝜀) response.
3.2.3. Ultimate tensile strength
The tensile strength of circular and square RAC-FHST specimens
(𝑁tu ) and HSS (𝑁tu−hollow ) were presented in Table 4. It can be seen that
the tensile strength of RAC-FHST specimens was higher than that of the
corresponding HSS due to the support of core concrete. The ratio of the
tensile strength of RAC-FHST specimens to that of the corresponding
HSS can be expressed as SI =𝑁tu ∕𝑁tu−hollow . It can be seen from the
comparison of results that the SI values of circular specimens were
1.04–1.12, whilst that of square specimens was a slightly higher value
of 1.21.
Fig. 12(a) presented the comparison of tensile strength between
RAC-FHST and HSS. It can be seen that the SI values of all RAC-FHST
specimens were larger than 1 due to the influence of core concrete.
Table 6 presented the results of tensile strength of this experiment
(𝑓y = 513 and 721 MPa) and the experimental results (𝑓y = 342 MPa)
reported by Han et al. [3]. Comparison of tensile strength of specimens
with different steel yield strengths was shown in Fig. 12(b). It can
be found that the tensile strength improvement proportion decreased
when the yield strength of steel increased. The reason might be that
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
the support of core concrete was weakened when the yield strength of
steel increased.
3.2.4. Strain of steel tube
Fig. 8(b) presented typical tensile load (N ) versus |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | response,
where |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | was the absolute value of the ratio of transverse to
longitudinal strain. It can be seen that, for HSS (cte6b), |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | was
basically stable during the test and being close to the Poisson’s ratio
of steel (𝜇s = 0.27). For RAC-FHST specimens (cte1a and cte5b),
|𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | decreased significantly during the test. When the tensile load
increased from 0 to 400 kN, |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | decreased rapidly from about
0.3 to 0.1. When the load continued to increase till the end of the
test, |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | continued to decrease gradually. This once again proved
that the support of core concrete could restrain the development of
transverse strain in steel tube. It can also be seen that |𝜀st ∕𝜀sl | of
specimen cte5b with steel yield strength 𝑓y = 721 MPa was larger than
that of specimen cte1a with 𝑓y = 513 MPa at the end of loading, which
indicated that the support of core concrete was weakened when the
yield strength of steel increased.
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Table 6
Comparison of tensile and torsional strength of specimens with different steel yield strength.
Label Tensile strength Torsional strength
𝑓y = 342 MPa 𝑓y = 513 MPa 𝑓y = 721 MPa 𝑓y = 513 MPa 𝑓y = 721 MPa
CFST HSS CFST HSS CFST HSS CFST HSS CFST HSS
(SSB-1,2) (SH) (cte1-4) (cte6) (cte5) (Calculation) (cto1-4) (cto6) (cto5) (Calculation)
𝑁tu (kN) 629.5 556 1012.5 950 1409.5 1347 – – – –
𝑇u (kN m) – – – – – – 95.3 68.8 118.2 95.3
SI 1.13 1.00 1.07 1.00 1.05 1.00 1.39 1.00 1.24 1.00

Fig. 12. Effects of specimen types and steel yield strengths on the tensile strength.

Fig. 13. Failure modes of torsional specimens.

3.3. Type III: Torsional test
3.3.1. Typical failure mode
The failure modes of torsional specimens were shown in Fig. 13.
Good integrity was observed for all the torsional specimens, with no
fracture of steel occurred. For RAC-FHST, no obvious buckling of high-
strength steel tube was observed and the specimens had good plastic
behaviour and bearing capacity. However, for HSS (cto6a and cto6b),
the failure mode was quite different. Inclined outward buckling of
high-strength steel tube along 45◦ to the axial line occurred.
The use of NAC and RAC also had influence on the width and
distribution of concrete cracks. The schematic view of failure modes of
torsional specimens was shown in Fig. 14. For HSS, inclined outward
buckling along 45◦ to the axial line would occur, as shown in Fig. 14(a).
For plain concrete, there was only one thorough diagonal crack when
under pure torsion, as shown in Fig. 14(b). For CFST specimens, gener-
ally, no obvious buckling of high-strength steel tube occurred, as shown
in Fig. 14(c1). Several cracks occurred in the core concrete and the
crack directions were perpendicular to the direction of principal tensile
stress with a 45◦ inclination to the axial line. The failure modes of core
concrete can be classified into two categories. When the core concrete
had good ductility, sparse cracks were observed in the specimens with
NAC, as shown in Fig. 14(c2). When the core concrete had bad ductility,
dense cracks were observed in the specimens with RAC, as shown

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H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 14. Schematic view of failure modes of torsional specimens.

Fig. 15. Torsional moment (T ) versus rotation angle (𝜃) response.

in Fig. 14(c3). The reason for the differences in crack distribution
is attributed to the fact that the recycled aggregate contained more
micro-cracks during the production process and the ductility of RAC
is correspondingly lower than that of NAC. When the core concrete
cracking occurred in RAC-FHST specimens, the principal tensile stress
of concrete at the cracking position could be transferred to steel tube
through the interface bonding force, so the cracks in the core concrete
would not be further expanded and showed as a number of evenly
distributed cracks.
3.3.2. Torsional moment (T) versus torsional rotation (𝜃) and shear strain
(𝛾) response
The T -𝜃 response and T -𝛾 response of specimens under pure torsion
were presented in Figs. 15 and 16, respectively. The typical measured
T -𝜃 curves of the tested specimens were shown in Fig. 6(c). The
characteristics of T -𝜃 curve of RAC-FHST can be generally divided into
four stages. During the initial stage (O–A), the curve behaved linearly
until the yielding of high-strength steel tube occurred at point A. The
steel and core concrete beared the torsional load separately since the

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H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 16. Torsional moment (T ) versus shearing strain (𝛾) response.
interaction stress between them was very small. After that, the curve
behaved in an elastic–plastic way (A–B). The micro-cracks in the core
concrete began to develop along 45◦ to the axial line. The confinement
effect increased rapidly due to fact that the transverse deformation of
core concrete was larger than that of steel during this stage. Subse-
quently, the curve went upwards slightly (B–C) due to the hardening
of steel. The cracked core concrete could still bear the torsional load
with the confinement effect provided by steel. Finally, the unloading
process performed and the curve behaved in an approximately linear
way (C–D) where the rigidity of unloading stage was close to that of
initial loading stage. For HSS under pure torsion, it was found that the
T -𝜃 curve descended rapidly after the ultimate torsional moment due
to the early local buckling.
3.3.3. Ultimate torsional strength
The torsional strength of circular RAC-FHST specimens (𝑇u ) and HSS
(𝑇u−hollow ) were presented in Table 5. According to Han et al. [4], 𝑇u
was defined as the torsional load of RAC-FHST when the maximum
fibre strain reached 10,000 μ𝜀. It was found that the torsional strength
of RAC-FHST was significantly higher than that of the corresponding
HSS. The ratio of the torsional strength of RAC-FHST to that of the
corresponding HSS can be expressed as SI =𝑇tu ∕𝑇tu−hollow . It can be seen
that the SI value distribution of circular specimens was 1.37–1.41,
which was significantly higher than 1. This attributed to the changing
in failure modes of high-strength steel tube and the fact that the core
concrete was able to bear the torsional load during the whole loading
process.
Fig. 17(a) presented the comparison of torsional strength between
RAC-FHST and HSS, and comparison of torsional strength of specimens
with different steel yield strengths was shown in Fig. 17(b). It was
found that the torsional strength improvement proportion decreased
when 𝑓y increased, which was similar to result of tensile test. This
attributed to the fact that the contribution of core concrete in bearing
torsional load decreased when 𝑓y increased.
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
4. Finite element modelling (FEM)
4.1. Description of finite element modelling (FEM)
A finite element modelling (FEM) was established using the ABAQUS
software in order to analyse to the further performance of RAC-FHST
under axial compression, tension and torsion, as shown in Fig. 18.
According to Han et al. [20], for mild steel, a five-stage elastic–plastic
model was used, whilst a simplified model consisting of two linear
stages (i.e. elastic and hardening stage) was used for high-strength steel.
The strength hardening of high-strength steel was considered, following
the method suggested by Abel-Rahman and Sivakumaran [21]. The
stress–strain model of confined NAC was proposed by Han et al. [4].
Since the peak strain of RAC was larger than that of NAC, the stress–
strain model of confined RAC suggested by Lyu et al. [5] was adopted.
According to Huda and Alam [9], the peak stress and the corresponding
strain of 1st and 2nd generation RAC had little difference. Therefore, a
single stress–strain model was adopted for both 1st and 2nd generations
RAC. The model of core concrete under tension was determined by the
method proposed by Shen et al. [22].
‘‘Hard contact’’ and ‘‘Coulomb friction model’’ were used to describe
the normal and tangential behaviour of the interface between high-
strength steel tube and RAC, with a kinetic frictional factor taken as 0.6.
Constraint of ‘‘Tie’’ was selected to describe the interaction between
RAC-FHST and the endplate. The S4R elements were selected to model
the high-strength steel tube, while the C3D8R elements were selected
to model the core RAC, the endplates and the stiffeners. Two reference
points were used to apply the boundary conditions, which were coupled
to the two endplates respectively and were set at the centre of the
surface. The top reference point was assigned with fixed boundary
conditions and the loading was applied to the bottom one. For the
axial compressive and tensile tests, the compression or tension was
applied through the axial displacement (U3). For the torsional test, the
tension was applied through the rotation (UR3). The Newton–Raphson
incremental-iterative method was used in the simulation.
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 17. Effects of specimen types and steel yield strengths on the torsional strength.

Fig. 18. A schematic view of the established FEM.

Table 7
Details and sectional capacities of the compression finite element models.
Section type No. Label D/B×t ×L (mm) 𝑓y (MPa) 𝑓cu (MPa) 𝛼 D(B)/t 𝜉
1 CC1 203×1.5×609 513 60.0 0.03 135 0.26
2 CC2 203×4.0×609 513 60.0 0.08 51 0.72
3 CC3 203×5.5×609 513 60.0 0.12 37 1.00
Circular
4 C1 203×7.9×609 345 60.0 0.18 26 1.00
5 C2 203×5.5×609 513 60.0 0.12 37 1.00
6 C3 203×4.0×609 721 60.0 0.08 51 1.00
7 SC1 159×1.2×477 513 60.0 0.03 133 0.26
8 SC2 159×4.0×477 513 60.0 0.11 40 0.93
9 SC3 159×5.5×477 513 60.0 0.15 29 1.32
Square
10 S1 159×7.8×477 345 60.0 0.23 20 1.32
11 S2 159×5.5×477 513 60.0 0.15 29 1.32
12 S3 159×4.0×477 721 60.0 0.11 40 1.32

4.2. Comparisons between FEM and experimental results
Figs. 5 and 11 presented the measured and predicted compres-
sive/tensile load 𝑁c ∕𝑁t − 𝜀 response, respectively. Figs. 15 and 16
presented the measured and predicted torsional moment T -𝜃 response
and T -𝛾 response, respectively. Generally, it can be seen that good
agreements were achieved between the measured and predicted re-
sults. Figs. 4, 9 and 13 showed the comparison between observed and
predicted failure modes and good agreements were also achieved.
Fig. 19(a1) and (b1) presented the comparison between measured
(𝑁ue ) and predicted (𝑁up ) ultimate compressive strength. Fig. 19(a2)
and (b2) presented the comparison between measured (𝑇ue ) and pre-
dicted (𝑇up ) ultimate torsional strength. The measured strengths (𝑁ue
and 𝑇ue ) were obtained from the published tests ([6,7,23–30]) and
this test. It was found that, for the ultimate compressive strength,
the mean values of 𝑁up ∕𝑁ue and the standard deviations were 1.02,
0.042 for circular specimens and 0.98, 0.074 for square ones. For the
ultimate torsional strength, the mean values of 𝑇up ∕𝑇ue and the standard
deviations were 0.98, 0.036 for circular specimens and 0.99, 0.023
for square ones. From the above comparisons, it can be concluded
that the established FEM could accurately simulate the performance of
RAC-FHST under the three loading conditions.

14
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 19. Comparison between measured and predicted ultimate compressive and torsional strength.

Fig. 20. Effect of 𝜉on the characteristics of nominal 𝑁c /𝑁u − 𝜀 curves.

4.3. Analytical behaviour
4.3.1. Type I: Compressive behaviour
(1) Full range axial compressive load (𝑁c ) versus average axial
strain (𝜀) response
As shown in Table 7, six typical compression examples of circular
and square sections were calculated to investigate the full range 𝑁c − 𝜀
response. Fig. 20(a) and (b) presented the effect of 𝜉 on nominal
𝑁c ∕𝑁u − 𝜀 curves of circular and square RAC-FHST examples, respec-
tively. It can be seen that the critical strain (when 𝑁c ∕𝑁u = 1) occurred
later with a larger 𝜉. This was due to the fact that the higher confine-
ment effect of high-strength steel tube could delay the development
of cracks in core RAC, consequently, the RAC-FHST specimen reached
the ultimate compressive strength at a larger critical strain. Besides, it
was found that the nominal N /𝑁u − 𝜀 curves descended more slowly
or even increased with larger values of 𝜉. This was consistent with
the conclusions for CFST and RAC-FST studied by Han [18] and Lyu
et al. [5]. Fig. 21(a) showed the 𝑁c −𝜀 curves of a typical circular RAC-
FHST specimen CC1 and a square one SC1. The axial loads resisted by
the core RAC and steel tube were also specified in the figure. It can

15
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 21. N -𝜀 and T -𝜃 curves of RAC-FHST specimens under axial compression, tension and torsion.
be concluded that proportion of compressive load carried by core RAC
was higher than that carried by high-strength steel tube.
(2) Local buckling of high-strength steel tube
It was found that the section type, the diameter-to-thickness ratio
(D/t ) and the width-to-thickness ratio (B/t ) had important influence on
the local buckling of high-strength steel tube. For circular specimens,
the existing code on CFST [31] limit the D/t ratio by 135(235∕𝑓y ). From
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
the FEM calculation, the D/t ratio of circular example CC1 exceeded
the limit, yet no obvious local buckling of steel tube occurred. For
the square specimens,
√ the existing code on CFST [31] limit the B/t
ratio within 60 235∕𝑓y . From the FEM calculation, the B/t ratios of
square examples SC1 and SC2 exceeded the limit, and the local buckling
of steel tubes occurred before the ultimate strength. It was seen that
the local buckling of the steel tube in the square specimen was more
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 22. Stress condition of RAC-FHST under axial compression, tension and torsion.
likely to occur, once again proving that the confinement effect in the
circular specimen was much better than that in a square one. When
the D/t or B/t ratio met the limit requirements of the code, both of the
circular and square specimens can work as a whole to avoid early local
buckling.
(3) Stress analysis of high-strength steel tube
As shown in Fig. 22(a), for the RAC-FHST specimen under axial
compression, the high-strength steel tube was expected to work under
longitudinal compressive stress 𝜎l , transverse tensile stress 𝜎t and con-
tact pressure stress p. The core RAC was in the tri-axial compressive
stress condition and the contact pressure stress p increased since the
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
Poisson’s ratio of core RAC increased rapidly and exceeded that of high-
strength steel during the loading. Since the value of contact stress p was
much lower than that of the longitudinal stress 𝜎l and the transverse
stress 𝜎t , the Mises stress of high-strength steel can be expressed as
Eq. (3) by neglecting p.
√[ ]
( )2
𝜎Mises = 𝜎t − 𝜎l + 𝜎t2 + 𝜎l2 ∕2 (3)
Fig. 23(a1) and (b1) presented the stress of steel (𝜎) versus strain
(𝜀) response for examples under axial compression with different steel
yield strengths. The absolute value of 𝜎l was adopted for comparison.
For the given examples, 𝑓y = 345 and 513 MPa, 𝐷 = 203 mm, 𝑡 =
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 23. Stress of steel (𝜎) versus strain (𝜀) response with different steel strengths under axial compression, tension.
4.00 mm, 𝐿 = 609 mm, 𝑓cu = 60 MPa, 𝑟 = 100%. It can be seen that the
Mises stress 𝜎Mises was consistently higher than the absolute value of 𝜎l
during the whole compressive loading process. It was also found that
there was an obvious yielding plateau of 𝜎Mises for the specimen with
mild steel. On the contrary, for RAC-FHST with high-strength steel, no
obvious yielding plateau of 𝜎Mises was observed.
The Mises yield criterions and developments of steel tube stress for
both RAC-FST (𝑓y = 345 MPa) and RAC-FHST (𝑓y = 513 MPa) were
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Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
presented in Fig. 24(a). The developments of steel tube stress can be
divided into three stages: elastic stage (O–A or O–A’), elastic–plastic
stage (A–B or A’–B’) and plastic stage (B–C or B’–C’). Before the steel
yielding at point A(A’), the values of 𝜎l ∕𝜎t generally remained the same
for both mild and high-strength steel tube. For the mild steel tube, 𝜎l
was 340.9 MPa at point A’, 1.2% lower than 𝑓y . For the high-strength
steel tube, 𝜎l was 493.7 MPa at point A, 3.8% lower than 𝑓y . It was
also found that the 𝜎Mises of mild steel basically remained constant at
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 24. Mises yield criterion and developments of steel tube stress under axial compression, tension and torsion.

19
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
yielding, while the 𝜎Mises of high-strength steel kept increasing during
the whole loading.
4.3.2. Type II: Tensile behaviour
(1) Failure modes of tensile specimens
Comparisons of typical failure modes of RAC-FHST and HSS were
presented in Fig. 9, where significant differences can be seen. Pinching
phenomenon was observed in both circular and square HSS. However,
this phenomenon was not obvious for RAC-FHST due to the support of
core RAC.
(2) Full range axial tensile load (𝑁t ) versus average axial strain (𝜀)
response
Fig. 21(b1) presented the 𝑁t −𝜀 curve of RAC-FHST. The proportion
of tensile load carried by high-strength steel tube (𝑁s ∕𝑁t ) and core
RAC (𝑁c ∕𝑁t ) were shown in Fig. 21(b2). Where 𝑁t was the tensile
load of the composite specimen, while 𝑁s and 𝑁c were those resisted
by the steel and the core RAC, respectively. It can be concluded that
proportion of tensile load carried by core RAC was quite low because
of the cracking of core RAC, and most of the tensile load was carried
by the high-strength steel tube.
(3) Stress analysis of high-strength steel tube
As shown in Fig. 22(b), for the RAC-FHST specimen under axial
tension, the high-strength steel tube was expected to work under longi-
tudinal tensile stress 𝜎l , transverse tensile stress 𝜎t and contact pressure
stress p. The core RAC was in the longitudinal tensile stress and biaxial
compressive stress condition. Fig. 23(a2) and (b2) presented the stress
of steel 𝜎 − 𝜀 response for examples under axial tension with different
steel yield strengths. For the given examples, 𝑓y = 345 and 513 MPa,
𝐷 = 203 mm, 𝑡 = 3.00 mm, 𝐿 = 609 mm, 𝑓cu = 60 MPa, 𝑟 = 100%. It can
be seen that the longitudinal stress 𝜎l was higher than the Mises stress
𝜎Mises during the loading process. And for RAC-FHST with high-strength
steel tube, no obvious yielding plateau of 𝜎Mises was observed.
Fig. 24(b) presented the Mises yield criterions and developments
of steel tube stress for both RAC-FST (𝑓y = 345 MPa) and RAC-FHST
(𝑓y = 513 MPa). The developments of steel tube stress can be generally
divided into three stages: elastic stage (O–A or O–A’), elastic–plastic
stage (A–B or A’–B’) and plastic stage (B–C or B’–C’). Before the steel
yielding at point A(A’), the values of 𝜎l ∕𝜎t generally remained the same
for both mild and high-strength steel tube. For the mild steel tube,
𝜎l was 388.0 MPa at point A’, 12.5% higher than 𝑓y . For the high-
strength steel tube, 𝜎l was 546.4 MPa at point A, 6.5% higher than 𝑓y . It
was found that the tensile strength improvement proportion decreased
when the yield strength of steel increased, which was owing to the fact
that the support of core concrete was weakened when 𝑓y increased.
4.3.3. Type III: Torsional behaviour
(1) Failure modes of torsional specimens
Fig. 13 illustrated the comparisons of typical failure modes of RAC-
FHST and HSS under pure torsion, where significant differences can
be seen. For HSS, it can be seen that the failure mode was inclined
outward buckling of high-strength steel tube along 45◦ to the axial line.
However, for RAC-FHST, there was no obvious local buckling and the
specimens had good plastic behaviour and bearing capacity, showing
good composite behaviour.
(2) Full range torsional moment (T ) versus torsional rotation (𝜃)
response
Fig. 21(c1) presented the T -𝜃 curve of both the RAC-FHST specimen
and the corresponding HSS. It can be seen that the torsional moment
of steel tube in RAC-FHST was higher than that of the corresponding
HSS at yielding, with an increase of about 10% due to the support
of RAC. The proportion of torsional moment carried by steel (𝑇s ∕𝑇t )
and RAC (𝑇c ∕𝑇t ) were shown in Fig. 21(c2), where 𝑇t was the torsional
moment of the composite specimen, while 𝑇s and 𝑇c were those of the
steel and the core RAC, respectively. It was found that the specimens
had good plastic behaviour and bearing capacity due to the composite
20
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
effect between steel tube and core RAC.
(3) Mechanical state of RAC-FHST specimen under pure torsion
Fig. 22(c) presented the mechanical state of RAC-FHST specimen
under pure torsion. The spiral diagonal crack of core RAC along 45◦
to the axial line occurred when the principal tensile stress reached the
tensile strength of core RAC. However, the cracking of core RAC would
be delayed because of the confinement effect provided by the steel
tube and the steel–concrete bonding. After the cracking of concrete, the
core RAC was regarded as diagonal compressive struts [32], which the
tangential components of the force resisted the torsion of RAC-FHST
specimen and the axial components of the force resulted in the axial
tension of the steel tube. Therefore, when the RAC-FHST was under
pure torsion, the core RAC was actually in the compression–torsion
state and the high-strength steel tube was in the tension–torsion state.
The strain state of both cracking core RAC and high-strength steel
tube were shown in Fig. 25. Where, 𝛾 was the shear strain, 𝜀l was the
longitudinal strain, 𝜀t was the transverse strain, 𝜀pt was the principal
tensile strain, 𝜀pc was the principal compressive strain, 𝛼 was the angle
between the principal tensile strain and the direction of the axial line.
During the torsional loading process, the core RAC was in the shear
strain state and the angle between the principal tensile strain and
the direction of the axial line was 45◦ . The high-strength steel tube
was in the tension–torsion state, and Fig. 25(b) presented the general
and principal strain state. For the high-strength steel tube, the angle
between the principal tensile strain and the direction of the axial line
was smaller than 45◦ . It can be predicted that the fracture of the high-
strength steel tube would occur along the direction of the principal
tensile strain as the torsion moment increased.
(4) Stress analysis of high-strength steel tube
As the core RAC cracked and increased in volume, the contact stress
p developed that restrained further expansion of the core RAC. The
value of contact stress p was much lower than that of the principal
tensile stress 𝜎pt and the principal compressive stress 𝜎pc , thus the Mises
stress of high-strength steel can be expressed as Eq. (4) by neglecting
p.
√[ ]
( )2 2 + 𝜎 2 ∕2
𝜎Mises = 𝜎pt − 𝜎pc + 𝜎pt pc (4)
Fig. 23(a3) and (b3) presented the stress of steel 𝜎 − 𝛾 response for
examples under pure torsion with different steel yield strengths. For
the given examples, 𝑓y = 345 and 513 MPa, 𝐷 = 203 mm, 𝑡 = 4.00 mm,
𝐿 = 609 mm, 𝑓cu = 60 MPa, 𝑟 = 100%. It can be seen that the value of
the principal tensile stress 𝜎pt was higher than the value of the principal
compressive stress 𝜎pc , and the Mises stress 𝜎Mises was higher than the
value of the principal tensile stress 𝜎pt during the loading process.
Fig. 24(c) presented the Mises yield criterions and developments
of steel tube stress for both RAC-FST (𝑓y = 345 MPa) and RAC-FHST
(𝑓y = 513 MPa). The developments of steel tube stress can be generally
divided into three stages: elastic stage (O–A or O–A’), elastic–plastic
stage (A–B or A’–B’) and plastic stage (B–C or B’–C’). Before the steel
yielding at point A(A’), the values of 𝜎pt ∕𝜎pc generally remained the
same for both mild and high-strength steel tube. For the mild steel tube,
𝜎pt was 233.6 MPa at point A’, 32.3% lower than 𝑓y . For the high-
strength steel tube, 𝜎l was 334.5 MPa at point A, 34.8% lower than
𝑓y .
(5) Axial force resisted by high-strength steel tube and core RAC
The axial force (N ) resisted by the high-strength steel tube and the
core RAC versus 𝜃 response was shown in Fig. 26. It can be seen that
the axial force resisted by the high-strength steel tube was tensile force,
while the axial force resisted by the core RAC was compressive force.
Both of the absolute values of the axial forces increased as the rotation
angle increased. This proved that the core RAC was in the compression–
torsion state and the high-strength steel tube was in the tension–torsion
state.
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 25. Strain state of RAC-FHST specimen under pure torsion.
Fig. 26. Rotation angle (𝜃) versus axial force (N ) resisted by steel and concrete response of torsional specimens.
5. Simplified calculation models
5.1. Parametric analysis
5.1.1. Type I: Parametric analysis for compressive specimens
It was found that the use of high-strength steel would result in the
decrease of thickness, thus the local buckling was more likely to occur.
Therefore, six typical compression examples of circular (specimens
C1–C3) and square (specimens S1–S3) sections with different steel
yield strengths but the same confinement factor (𝜉) were calculated.
A summary of the examples was listed in Table 7.
Fig. 27(a) presented the effect of 𝑓y on the 𝑁c − 𝜀 curves of
circular and square compressive examples, respectively. The effects
of 𝑓y on the ultimate compressive strength and initial axial stiffness
𝐾sc (= 𝐴sc 𝐸sc ) [18] were shown in Fig. 27(b) as well. It was found that,
although 𝜉 of the specimens were the same, the ultimate compressive
strength increased with the increment of the steel yield strength. This
may attribute to the fact that the yield strain of high-strength steel
was higher than that of mild steel, and the high-strength steel tube
could provide more confinement effect than the mild steel tube within
the parameter limitations of this analysis. It is worth noting that, for
the square ones, local buckling of steel tube occurred in the specimen
S3 with 𝑓y = 721 MPa. Then the axial compressive load of specimen
S3 decreased significantly compared with other specimens with 𝑓y =
345 or 513 MPa. From the comparison of 𝐾sc , it was found that 𝐾sc
decreased with the increment of the steel yield strength. This was owing
21
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
to the fact that the sectional areas of the steel tube decreased and those
of the core RAC increased. Since the elastic modulus of RAC was lower
than that of steel, the initial axial stiffness decreased as the steel yield
strength increased.
5.1.2. Type II: Parametric analysis for tensile specimens
Based on the analytical behaviour of tensile specimens, it was found
that the steel yield strength significantly determined the performance
of RAC-FHST under axial tension, while the effects of concrete strength
and the replacement ratio of RAC were not significant. The effect of
𝛼 was investigated to present the effect of 𝜉 on the 𝑁t − 𝜀 curves of
specimens under axial tension, as shown in Fig. 28(a1) and (b1). For the
given circular examples, 𝐷 = 203 mm, 𝑡 = 3.00–8.00 mm, 𝐿 = 609 mm,
𝑓y = 500 MPa, 𝑓cu = 60 MPa, 𝑟 = RC1%–100%, 𝛼 = 0.06–0.18, 𝜉 = 0.77–
2.22. For the given square examples, 𝐵 = 159 mm, 𝑡 = 2.00–6.00 mm,
𝐿 = 477 mm, 𝑓y = 500 MPa, 𝑓cu = 60 MPa, 𝑟 = RC1%–100%, 𝛼 = 0.05–
0.17, 𝜉 = 0.67–2.17. It was found that with the increment of 𝜉, the
ultimate tensile strength and the initial axial tensile stiffness increased.
Besides, strain hardening phase was observed in all the 𝑁t − 𝜀 curves
of the tensile examples in this parametric analysis.
5.1.3. Type III: Parametric analysis for torsional specimens
The main parametric analysis of 𝜉 was conducted, and the effect
of 𝛼 was investigated to present the effect of 𝜉 on the T -𝛾 curves of
specimens under pure torsion, as shown in Fig. 28(a2) and (b2). It was
found that the ultimate torsional strength and the elastic rigidity of the
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 27. Effect of 𝑓y on the compressive behaviour with the same confinement factor.

T -𝛾 curve increased with the increment of 𝜉. Besides, strain hardening 5.2.2. Type II: Ultimate tensile strength
phase was observed in all the T -𝛾 curves of the torsional examples in The simplified model of the calculation of the axial tensile strength
this parametric analysis. (𝑁tu ) for CFST was proposed by Han et al. [3], as shown in Eq. (6).

5.2. Simplified calculation model of ultimate strength 𝑁tu = 𝑘t ⋅ 𝑓y ⋅ 𝐴s (6)

Where, 𝑘t was the tensile strength factor, 𝑓y was the steel yield strength
5.2.1. Type I: Ultimate compressive strength and 𝐴s was the area of the steel section. Within the parameter limita-
Since the same cubic compressive concrete strength (𝑓cu ) for the tions: 𝛼 = 0.04–2, 𝑓y = 235–420 MPa, 𝑓cu = 30–80 MPa, 𝑘t can be
natural aggregate concrete (NAC), 1st and 2nd generation RAC can be calculated as follows:
achieved by adjusting the water ratio, the characteristic compressive
strength 𝑓ck could reflect the strength index for both NAC and RAC. 𝑘t = 1.1 − 0.4𝛼 (7)
Therefore, it was considered that the simplified model of the calculation
To investigate the accuracy of the simplified model for high-strength
of the axial compressive strength index (𝑓scy ) proposed by Han [18] was
steel, Fig. 30 presented the 𝑘t − 𝛼 curve with different steel yield
also suitable for RAC-FHST, as shown in Eq. (5).
strengths (𝑓y = 345, 500 and 720 MPa) for circular specimens. It was
{
(1.14 + 1.02 ⋅ 𝜉) ⋅ 𝑓ck (Circular section) also found that 𝑘t decreased with the increment of 𝑓y , and the rigidity
𝑓scy = (5) of the curve decreased and tended to be flat. The reason is that as 𝑓y
(1.18 + 0.85 ⋅ 𝜉) ⋅ 𝑓ck (Square section)
increased, the support provided by the core RAC was relatively reduced
Where, 𝑓scy was calculated as 𝑁u divided by the area of the cross and the effect of 𝛼 on 𝑘t was also reduced. Within the parameter
section (𝐴sc ), and the range of the adaptability of the parameters in the limitations of 𝛼 = 0.04–0.2 and 𝑓y = 345–720 MPa, the value of 𝑘t
equation were: 𝑓cu = 30–120 MPa, 𝑓y = 200–700 MPa, 𝛼 = 0.03–0.2. tended to stabilize at 1.11.
The comparison between the measured (𝑁ue ) and the calculated From the above discussion, the further simplified model of the
(𝑁uc ) ultimate compressive strength by using the simplified model was calculation of the axial tensile strength (𝑁tu ) for CFST proposed by
presented in Fig. 29(a1) and (b1). It was found that, the mean values Han [18] was adopted, as shown in Eq. (8).
of 𝑁uc ∕𝑁ue and the standard deviations were 0.91, 0.090 for circular
⎧
specimens, and 0.99, 0.088 for square ones. In general, the calculated ⎪1.1𝑓y ⋅ 𝐴s (Circular section)
result by using the simplified model gave an acceptable prediction for 𝑁tu = ⎨ (8)
RAC-FHST specimens. ⎪1.05𝑓y ⋅ 𝐴s (Square section)
⎩

22
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 28. Effect of confinement factor (𝜉) on the 𝑁t -𝜀 curves of tensile specimens and T -𝛾 curves of torsional specimens.

Fig. 29(a2) and (b2) presented the comparison between the mea- in Fig. 29(a3) and (b3). It was found that, the mean values of 𝑇uc∕ 𝑇ue
sured (𝑁ue ) and the calculated (𝑁uc ) ultimate tensile strength by using and the standard deviations were 0.84, 0.150 for circular specimens,
the simplified model. It was found that, the mean values of 𝑁uc ∕𝑁ue and 0.93, 0.023 for square ones. In general, the calculated result by
and the standard deviations were 1.02, 0.062 for circular specimens, using the simplified model gave an acceptable prediction for RAC-FHST
and 0.93, 0.023 for square ones. In general, the calculated result by specimens.
using the simplified model gave an acceptable prediction for RAC-FHST
specimens.
5.3. Reliability analysis
5.2.3. Type III: Ultimate torsional strength
According to the study of the ultimate torsional strength (𝑇u ) for 5.3.1. Methods for reliability analysis
CFST, the simplified model of the calculation of 𝑇u was proposed by The accuracy of the simplified models for RAC-FHST under axial
Han et al. [18], as shown in Eq. (9). compression, tension and torsion had been discussed. However, it is
necessary to consider the uncertainties of the loading conditions and
𝑇u = 𝛾t ⋅ 𝑊sct ⋅ 𝜏scy (9)
the resistance of RAC-FHST members. Therefore, reliability analysis
Where, 𝛾t was the torsional strength factor which was calculated by was carried out according to GB 50068 [34] using the method of
Eq. (10) within the parameter limitations: 𝛼 = 0.04–0.2, 𝑓y = 235–420 the first-order second-moment (FOSM), which was recommended by
MPa, 𝑓cu = 30–90 MPa, 𝑊sct was the torsional modulus of inertia of Han et al. [35] and had good accuracy and efficiency. When the
the cross section, 𝜏scy was the nominal yield strength of the composite resistance (R), the dead load (𝑆D ) and the live load (𝑆L ) subjected to
sections subjected to pure torsion which was calculated by Eq. (11). the distribution that can be normalized by the equivalent normalization
{ method, the reliability index (𝛽) was calculated by Eq. (12).
1.294 + 0.267 ln(𝜉) (Circular section)
𝛾t = (10) 𝜇R∗ − 𝜇S∗ − 𝜇S∗
1.431 + 0.242 ln(𝜉) (Square section) D L
𝛽= √ (12)
⎧ 2.33 0.134 𝜎R + 𝜎S + 𝜎S∗
∗ 2 ∗ 2 2
⎪(0.422 + 0.313𝛼 ) ⋅ 𝜉 ⋅ 𝑓scy (Circular section) D L
𝜏scy =⎨ (11)
2.33
⎪(0.455 + 0.313𝛼 ) ⋅ 𝜉 0.25
⋅ 𝑓scy (Square section) Where, R was subjected to the lognormal distribution, 𝑆D and 𝑆L
⎩ were subjected to the normal and Gumbel distribution, respectively.
The comparison between the measured (𝑇ue ) and the calculated (𝑇uc ) 𝜇 ∗ and 𝜎 ∗ represented the mean value and standard deviation of the
ultimate torsional strength by using the simplified model was shown corresponding variables, respectively.

23
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 29. Comparison between measured and calculated ultimate strengths (see references [3,6,7,23–30,33]).
The uncertainties of the loading conditions and the resistance in-
cluding the material properties, the geometric parameters, the load
parameters and the calculation modes were considered in the following
parts.
(1) Uncertainties of concrete and high-strength steel strengths
For the uncertainty of the steel strength, Chinese standard GB
50017 [36] provided the statistical parameters of steel with the grade
Q235 to Q460. For the high-strength steel with the yield strength
higher than 460 MPa, the statistical parameters studied by Zhu [37]
24
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
were adopted in this reliability analysis, as shown in Table 8. For
the uncertainty of concrete, the statistical parameters of concrete were
given in Chinese standard GB 50010 [38]. According to the reliability
analysis of RAC-FST [5], 𝛽 was slightly higher when the statistical
parameters of RAC was replaced by that of NAC since the coefficient of
variation of RAC was larger than that of NAC. Due to the lack of reliable
stochastic studies on the uncertainty of RAC, the statistical parameters
of NAC were tentatively adopted in this parametric analysis.
(2) Uncertainties of geometric dimension of concrete and steel tube
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 30. Tensile strength factor (𝑘t ) versus steel ratio (𝛼) response with different steel
yield strength.
Table 8
Statistical parameters of high-strength steel tube.
Grade Thickness (mm) 𝜇0
≤ 16 1.103
Q500
>16∼40 1.148
≤ 16 1.155
Q550 >16∼40 1.216
>63∼80 1.308
≤ 16 1.103
Q690
>16∼40 1.121
The uncertainties of geometric dimension of concrete and steel tube
in CFST studied by An et al. [39] were adopted in this analysis for the
area of steel tube (𝐴s ) and the area of core concrete (𝐴c ). The mean
value (𝜇0 )and the coefficient of variation (𝛿) were both 1.00 and 0.05,
respectively.
(3) Uncertainties of load variable
For building structures, the statistical parameters of the dead load
(𝑆D ) and the live load (𝑆L ) had been suggested in GB 50068 [34]. The
partial factors of 𝑆D , 𝑆L , 𝑓y and 𝑓ck were taken as 1.3, 1.5, 1.1 and
1.4, respectively. The ratio of 𝑆L to 𝑆D was taken as 3 according to An
et al. [39]. Considering that most of the composite members were set to
be utilized in general industry and civil building structures, the second
safety level of general industry and civil buildings was chosen in this
reliability analysis. Therefore, the target 𝛽 was 3.2 and the structural
importance factor (𝛾0 ) was 1.0.
5.3.2. Type I: Reliability analysis for compressive specimens
The ratio (𝐾p ) of the ultimate compressive strength obtained from
the experiments to that predicted by the simplified model was calcu-
lated. The mean values (𝜇Kp ) and the standard deviations (𝛿Kp ) were
1.15, 0.042 for circular specimens, and 1.04, 0.074 for square ones.
Based on the method of reliability analysis suggested in Eq. (12), 𝛽
was calculated to calibrate the simplified model. The ranges of the
parameters of the examples were: 𝐷 = 400 mm, 𝐵 = 400 mm, 𝜉 =
0.5∼4.0, 𝑓y = 345–720 MPa, 𝑓cu = 40−60 MPa.
Fig. 31(a1) to (b2) presented the effects of 𝑓y , 𝑓cu and 𝜉 on 𝛽 for
specimens under axial compression. It can be seen that the influence
of 𝑓y on 𝛽 was not significant. However, 𝛽 increased with the incre-
ment of 𝑓cu . The mean values of 𝛽 for circular and square specimens
were 3.45 and 3.58, respectively. And the lowest 𝛽 value for circular
and square specimens were 3.22 and 3.41, respectively, which were
larger than the target reliability index (𝛽 = 3.2). It can be concluded
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
that, within the parameter limitations of this analysis, the simplified
model for RAC-FHST under axial compression satisfied the reliability
requirements.
5.3.3. Type II: Reliability analysis for tensile specimens
The ratio (𝐾p ) of the ultimate tensile strength obtained from the
experiments to that predicted by the simplified model was calculated.
𝜇Kp and 𝛿Kp were 1.10, 0.123 for circular specimens, and 1.02, 0.103
for square ones. Fig. 31(a3) to (b4) presented the effects of 𝑓y , 𝑓cu and 𝜉
on 𝛽 for specimens under axial tension. It can be seen that the influence
of 𝑓cu and 𝜉 on 𝛽 was not significant. However, 𝛽 increased with the
increment of 𝑓y . The reason is that the simplified model for RAC-FHST
under axial tension was greatly determined by 𝑓y . The mean values of
𝛽 for circular and square specimens were 3.39 and 3.37, respectively.
And the lowest 𝛽 value for circular and square specimens were 3.30 and
3.27, respectively, which were larger than the target reliability index
(𝛽 = 3.2). It can be concluded that, within the parameter limitations of
this analysis, the simplified model for RAC-FHST under axial tension
satisfied the reliability requirements.
5.3.4. Type III: Reliability analysis for torsional specimens
The ratio (𝐾p ) of the ultimate torsional strength obtained from the
experiments to that predicted by the simplified model was calculated.
𝜇Kp and 𝛿Kp were 1.23, 0.125 for circular specimens, and 1.07, 0.069
for square ones. The effects of 𝑓y , 𝑓cu and 𝜉 on 𝛽 for specimens under
𝛿
pure torsion were shown in Fig. 31(a5) to (b6). It was found that 𝛽
0.047 decreased as 𝜉 increased. The influence of 𝑓cu on 𝛽 was not significant,
0.064
however, 𝛽 increased with the increment of 𝑓y . The mean values of
0.059 𝛽 for circular and square specimens were 3.71 and 4.17, respectively.
0.061
And the lowest 𝛽 value for circular and square specimens were 3.21 and
0.066
3.26, respectively, which were larger than the target reliability index
0.044
(𝛽 = 3.2). It can be concluded that, within the parameter limitations
0.044
of this analysis, the simplified model for RAC-FHST under pure torsion
satisfied the reliability requirements.
6. Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn within the limitation of the
current study:
(1) Axial compressive, tensile and torsional tests of RAC-FHST were
conducted. The confinement factor (𝜉) was identified as the key
parameter that affected the failure modes, the load–deformation
curves and the ultimate strength of the RAC-FHST specimens.
The passive confinement effect as well as the influence of RCA
replacement ratio and steel yield strength were analysed and
compared with those of CFST members. It was found that the
high-strength steel tube worked well together with the core RAC.
This study also provided a basis for further investigation on the
shrinkage and creep behaviour of RAC-FHST under sustained
loading, which is expected to be affected by the long-term
behaviour of RAC and needs specific research efforts.
(2) The incorporation of the 1st and 2nd generation RCA affected
the failure modes especially when subjected to tension or tor-
sion, because the surface of RCA was attached with old mortar
and micro-cracks were more likely to develop in RAC than
that in NAC. The influence of different types of concrete on
the ultimate compressive strength was not significant when the
designed concrete strength was similar. The high-strength steel
tube provided excellent confinement effect to the core RAC,
while the local buckling of the former was prevented by the lat-
ter and thus the stability was significantly improved, especially
when subjected to axial compression or torsion.
(3) A finite element modelling (FEM) was established to simulate the
performance of RAC-FHST to conduct parametric analysis. It was
found that the high-strength steel tube significantly improved
the performance of RAC-FHST considering the developments of
steel tube stress.
25
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al. Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478

Fig. 31. Effect of different parameters on 𝛽 for compressive, tensile and torsional specimens.

26
H.-Y. Zhao, L.-H. Han, C. Hou et al.
Fig. 31. (continued).
(4) Simplified models for the calculation of ultimate compressive,
tensile and torsional strengths were proposed for RAC-FHST.
Reliability analysis including the effects of 𝑓y , 𝑓cu and 𝜉 on the
reliability index were conducted. The results showed that, within
the ranges of parameters in this study, the simplified models
satisfied the reliability requirements.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hua-Yang Zhao: Writing – original draft, Investigation. Lin-Hai
Han: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Methodology, Con-
ceptualization. Chao Hou: Writing – review & editing, Validation,
Methodology. Wan-Qing Lyu: Validation, Investigation.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
Data will be made available on request.
Acknowledgements
This work is part of the Project 51838008 supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC). The financial support is
gratefully acknowledged.
27
Thin-Walled Structures 184 (2023) 110478
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