MANUFACTURING

ENGINEERING - II
Chapter – 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF METAL
CUTTING PROCESS
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lecturer.
METTU UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 Material Removal Processes
A family of shaping operations, the common
feature of which is removal of material from a
work piece so the remaining part has the desired
geometry
 Machining – Material removal by a sharp cutting
tool, e.g., turning, milling, drilling
 Abrasive processes – Material removal by hard,
abrasive particles, e.g., grinding
 Non-Traditional processes - Various energy forms
other than sharp cutting tool to remove material
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University 2
Machining Operations
 Most important machining
operations:
 Turning
 Milling
 Drilling
 Other machining operations:
 Shaping and planing
 Broaching
 Sawing
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Machining Operations

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 Cutting Tool Classification

1.Single-Point Tools
 One dominant cutting edge
 Eg.: Turning, shaping, planing, etc.,
2.Multiple Cutting Edge Tools
 More than one cutting edge
 Eg.: Milling, drilling, grinding, etc.,

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 Machining
Cutting action involves shear deformation of work material
to form a chip
 As chip is removed, new surface is exposed

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Speed and Feed
 Speed is rotational motion of spindle which allows
the tools to produce cut into blank
OR
The relative movement between tool and w/p, which
produces a cut

 Feed is linear motion of tool which spreads cut on the

blank
OR
The relative movement between tool and w/p, which
spreads the cut
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 Turning
Single point cutting tool removes material from a
rotating workpiece to form a cylindrical shape

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Drilling
Used to create a round hole, usually by means of a
rotating tool (drill bit) with two cutting edges

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 Milling
Rotating multiple-cutting-edge tool is moved
across work to cut a plane or straight
surface

Peripheral Milling Face Milling.

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 Cutting Parameters in Machining
 Three dimensions of a machining process:
 Cutting speed (v) – primary motion
 Feed (f) – secondary motion
 Depth of cut (d) – penetration of tool
into work piece
 Material Removal Rate can be computed as

MRR = v f d
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Cutting Conditions for Turning

Speed, feed, and depth of cut in turning.

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Chip Formation

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 Chip Thickness Ratio
to Where,
r r = chip thickness ratio;
tc to = thickness of the chip
prior to chip formation;
and
tc= chip thickness after
separation
 Chip thickness after cut is
always greater than before.
 So chip ratio always less
than 1.0
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University 16
 Types of Chip in Machining
1.Discontinuous chip
2.Continuous chip
3.Continuous chip with Built-up Edge (BUE)
4.Serrated chip

Type of chip depends on material type and

cutting conditions

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Discontinuous Chip
 Brittle work materials
 Low cutting speeds
 Large feed and depth of cut
 High tool-chip friction

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 Continuous Chip
 Ductile work materials
 High cutting speeds
 Small feeds and depths
 Sharp cutting edge
 Low tool-chip friction

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Continuous With BUE
 Ductile materials
 Low - to - medium
cutting speeds
 Tool-chip friction causes
portions of chip to
adhere to rake face
 BUE forms, then breaks
off, cyclically

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Serrated Chip
 Semi continuous - saw-
tooth appearance
 Cyclical chip forms with
alternating high shear
strain then low shear
strain
 Associated with difficult-
to-machine metals at
high cutting speeds

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 Types of Metal Cutting Process

 Orthogonal cutting is also known as two dimensional metal cutting in which

the cutting edge is normal to the work piece. (angle = 90o)

 Oblique cutting is also known as three dimensional cutting in which the

cutting action is inclined with the job by a certain angle called the inclination
angle. (angle ≠ 90o)
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Orthogonal & Oblique Cutting

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TOOL GEOMETRY

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Tool Geometry – Single Point Cutting Tool

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Back rake angle (αb)
 It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line
parallel with base of the tool measured in a
perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge.
 This angle helps in removing the chips away from the
work piece.
Side rake angle (αs)
 It is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined side
ways.
 This angle of tool determines the thickness of the tool
behind the cutting edge.
 It is provided on tool to provide clearance between
work piece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing of
work- piece with end flank of tool.

29 S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

End Relief Angle (ERA)
 It is defined as the angle between the portion of the end
flank immediately below
 the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of
the tool, measured at right angles to the flank.
 It is the angle that allows the tool to cut without rubbing
on the work- piece.
Side Relief Angle (SRA)
 It is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool
enters the material.
 It is the angle between the portion of the side flank
immediately below the side edge and a line
perpendicular to the base of the tool measured at right
angles to the side.
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End Cutting Edge Angle (ECEA)
 It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a
line perpendicular to the shank of the tool.
 It provides clearance between tool cutting edge
and work piece.
Side Cutting Edge Angle (SCEA)
 It is the angle between straight cutting edge on the side
of tool and the side of the shank.
 It is also known as lead angle.
 It is responsible for turning the chip away from the
finished surface.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University 31

 Tool Signature
Convenient way to specify tool angles by use of a standardized
abbreviated system is known as tool signature or tool
nomenclature.
The seven elements that comprise the signature of a single point
cutting tool can be stated in the following order:

Tool signature 0-7-6-8-15-16-0.8

1. Back rake angle (0°)

2. Side rake angle (7°)
3. End relief angle (6°)
4. Side relief angle (8°)
5. End cutting edge angle (15°)
6. Side cutting edge angle (16°)
7. Nose radius (0.8 mm)
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Tool Geometry - Multi-Point Cutting Tool

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Power and Energy Relationships

 A machining operation requires power

 The power to perform machining can be

Pc = F c v
computed from:

Where,
Pc = cutting power;
Fc = cutting force; and
v = cutting speed
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TOOL FAILURE

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 Three Modes of Tool Failure
1. Fracture failure
 Cutting force becomes excessive at the tool
point, leading to brittle fracture
2. Temperature failure
 Cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material causing softening of tool point. This
leads to plastic deformation and loss of sharp
edge.
3. Gradual wear
 Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss
of tool shape, reduction in cutting efficiency.
Finally tool fails in a manner similar to temp
failure
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Preferred Mode: Gradual Wear
 Fracture & Temperature failures are
premature failures.
 Gradual wear is preferred because it leads
to the longest possible use of the tool
 Gradual wear occurs at two locations on a
tool:
 Crater wear – occurs on top rake face
 Flank wear – occurs on flank (side of tool)

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Tool Wear
• Crater wear occurs • Notch wear occurs because of tool
because of tool chip flow rubbing against original work surface,
on top rake face. High which is harder than machined one
friction, temp and
stresses at the face/chip
interface are responsible.
Measured as area or
depth of dip
• Flank wear results from
rubbing of flank (& or
relief) face to the newly
generated surface.
Measured by width of
wear band called wear
land.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Flank wear

Crater wear

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

Tool Wear Vs Time

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

Effect of Cutting Speed on Wear

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

Tool Life vs. Cutting Speed

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Taylor Tool Life Equation
vT  C n where
• v = cutting speed;
• T = tool life;
C • n is the slope of the
plot;
• C is the intercept on the
n speed axis at one
minute tool life

n and C are parameters that depend on feed, depth of cut, work material, tooling
material, and the tool life criterion used
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 TOOL
MATERIALS

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 Tool Materials
 Tool failure modes identify the important
properties that a tool material should
possess:
 Toughness - to avoid fracture failure
 Hot hardness - ability to retain hardness
at high temperatures
 Wear resistance - hardness is the most
important property to resist abrasion

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 High Speed Steel (HSS)
 Highly alloyed tool steel capable of maintaining
hardness at elevated temperatures better than
high carbon and low alloy steels
 One of the most important cutting tool materials
 Especially suited to applications involving
complicated tool geometries, such as drills, taps,
milling cutters, and broaches
 Two basic types (AISI)
1. Tungsten-type, designated T- grades
2. Molybdenum-type, designated M-grades
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 High Speed Steel Composition
 Typical alloying ingredients:
 Tungsten and/or Molybdenum
 Chromium and Vanadium
 Carbon, of course
 Cobalt in some grades

 Typical composition (Grade T1):

 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, and 0.9% C
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Cemented Carbides
 Class of hard tool material based on
Tungsten Carbide (WC) using powder
metallurgy techniques with Cobalt (Co) as
the binder
 Two basic types:
1.Non-steel cutting grades - only WC-Co
2.Steel cutting grades - TiC and TaC added
to WC-Co
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Cemented Carbides – General
Properties
 High compressive strength but
low - to - moderate tensile strength
 High hardness (90 to 95 HRc)
 Good hot hardness
 Good wear resistance
 High thermal conductivity
 High elastic modulus - 600 x 103 MPa
 Toughness lower than high speed steel
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Cermets
 Ceramic - Metal Composite
 Cemented carbide is a kind of cermet
 Combinations of TiC, TiN, and Titanium Carbo Nitride
(TiCN), with Nickel and/or Molybdenum as binders.
 Some chemistries are more complex
Applications:
 High speed finishing and semi finishing of steels,
stainless steels, and cast irons
 Higher speeds and lower feeds than steel-cutting
carbide grades
 Better finish achieved, often eliminating need for
grinding S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Coated Carbides
 Cemented carbide insert coated with one or more
thin layers of wear resistant materials, such as TiC,
TiN, and/or Al2O3
 Coating applied by chemical vapor deposition or
physical vapor deposition
 Coating thickness = 2.5 - 13 m (0.0001 to 0.0005 in)
 Applications: cast irons and steels in turning and
milling operations
 Best applied at high speeds where dynamic force and
thermal shock are minimal

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Ceramics
 Primarily fine-grained Al2O3, pressed and
sintered at high pressures and temperatures
into insert form with no binder
 Applications: high speed turning of cast iron
and steel
 Not recommended for heavy interrupted
cuts (e.g. rough milling) due to low
toughness
 Al2O3 also widely used as an abrasive in
grinding
S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University
 Synthetic Diamonds
 Sintered Polycrystalline Diamond (SPD) - fabricated
by sintering very fine-grained diamond crystals
under high temperatures and pressures into desired
shape with little or no binder
 Usually applied as coating (0.5 mm thick) on WC-Co
insert
 Applications
 High speed machining of nonferrous metals and
abrasive nonmetals such as fiberglass, graphite,
and wood.

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Cubic Boron Nitride (cBN)
 Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride
(cBN) is hardest material known
 Fabrication into cutting tool inserts
same as SPD: coatings on WC-Co inserts
 Applications: machining steel and
nickel-based alloys
 SPD and cBN tools are expensive

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Tool-life Curves

Manufacturing, Engineering & Technology, S. Venkatesh

Fifth Kumar,
Edition, by SeropeLect. / Mechanical
Kalpakjian Engg.,
and Steven R. Mettu University
Schmid.
ISBN 0-13-148965-8. © 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ. All rights reserved.
Inserts and Toolholders

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

 Cubic Boron Nitride Inserts

An insert of polycrystalline
cubic boron nitride or a
diamond layer on tungsten
carbide.

Inserts with polycrystalline cubic

boron nitride tips (top row), and
solid-polycrystalline cBN inserts
(bottom row).

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

TOOL CUTTING
TEMPERATURES

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 CUTTING TEMPERATURE
 Approximately 98% of the energy in
machining is converted into heat
 This can cause temperatures to be
very high at the tool-chip interface
 The remaining energy (about 2%) is
retained as elastic energy in the chip

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Cutting Temperatures are Important
 High cutting temperatures
 Reduce tool life.
 Produce hot chips that pose safety
hazards to the machine operator.
 Can cause inaccuracies in part
dimensions due to thermal expansion of
work material.

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Temperature Distribution

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CUTTING FLUIDS

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 Cutting Fluids
 Cutting fluid is a type of coolant and lubricant
designed specifically for metalworking and machining
processes.

 There are various kinds of cutting fluids, which include

oils, oil-water emulsions, pastes, gels and other gases.

 They may be made from petroleum distillates, animal

fats, plant oils, water and other raw ingredients.

 Depending on context, type of cutting fluid is being

considered, it may be referred to as cutting fluid,
cutting oil, cutting compound, coolant, or lubricant.
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 Economic Advantages to Using Cutting Fluids
Reduction of tool costs
 Reduce tool wear, tools life longer.
Increased speed of production
 Reduce heat and friction so higher cutting
speeds.
Reduction of labor costs
 Tools life longer and require less regrinding,
less downtime, reducing cost per part.
Reduction of power costs
 Friction reduced so less power required by
machining.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD CUTTING FLUID
 Good cooling capacity
 Good lubricating qualities
 Relatively low viscosity
 Stability (long life)
 Rust resistance
 Nontoxic
 Transparent
 Nonflammable

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 TYPES OF CUTTING FLUIDS
• Most commonly used cutting fluids
• Either aqueous based solutions or
cutting oils
• Three categories
• Cutting oils
• Emulsifiable oils
• Chemical (synthetic) cutting fluids
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Proper Methods of Applying Cutting Fluids

S. Venkatesh Kumar, Lect. / Mechanical Engg., Mettu University

CALCULATING FC – MERCHANT’S THEORY

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Merchant’s Theory

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