109

Thermal analysis and compensation of

a double-column machining centre
Cheng-Hsien Wu* and Yu-Tai Kung
Department of Mechanical and Automation Engineering, Da-Yeh University, Taiwan, People’s Republic of China
The manuscript was received on 17 May 2005 and was accepted after revision for publication on 3 October 2005.

DOI: 10.1243/095440506X77643

Abstract: The objective of this work is to enhance the accuracy of a double-column machining
centre by compensating thermal errors using software. Characteristics of the thermal errors
were analysed by carrying out a sequence of tests. Temperature measurements were carried
out with thermocouples. Capacitance probes were used to measure the thermal errors. A
multiple linear regression-based technique was applied to correlate the thermal errors to the
temperature distribution. The signals of the measured temperatures were sent to a central
processing unit board inside a computer numerical controller. The predicted thermal errors,
based on the regression model, were sent to the controller for real-time error compensation.
Test results show that a 90 per cent reduction in thermal errors has been achieved after
compensation.

Keywords: double-column machining centre, thermal error, thermocouple, compensation

1 INTRODUCTION compensation has received wide attention in order

Continuous operation of a machine tool generates
heat at the moving elements and causes thermal
expansion, which in turn leads to inaccurate posi-
tioning of machines. Among various error sources
of a machine tool, thermally induced errors make
up between 40 and 70 per cent [1]. Therefore, com-
pensation of thermal errors has received significant
attention over the past few years.
Friction caused by spindle bearings is one of the
main heat sources in a machine tool. Such friction
induces thermal errors as well as restricting the
speed limits of the spindle. When the speed is high,
feed rates of the ball screw transmission increase.
Large amounts of heat are produced at the support
bearings and the nut, because of a high rotational
speed of the ball screw. Other heat sources include
gear and hydraulic oil, drives and clutches, pump
and motors, guideways, cutting action and swarf,
and external heat sources.
Recently, because of the development of sensing,
modelling, and computer techniques, real-time error
*Corresponding author: Department of Mechanical and Auto-
mation Engineering, Da-Yeh University, 112 Shan-Jiau Road,
Da Tsuen, Chang-Hua 515, Taiwan, Republic of China,
email: chengwu@mail.dyu.edu.tw
to improve machine accuracy further. Some
research efforts have been dedicated to error com-
pensation for machine tools.
Precise compensation requires an accurate thermal
model which can predict the time-variant thermal
errors during machining. Researchers have employed
various techniques such as finite element methods,
finite difference methods, and coordinate transforma-
tion methods, in modelling the thermal characteristics
[2–4]. However, boundary conditions and heat trans-
fer characteristics of a machine tool contain many
unknown parameters. It is difficult to predict the ther-
mal errors by using the numerical approach only.
In contrast, empirical models developed by
experimental measurements have been demon-
strated to show satisfactory prediction accuracy for
many applications [5–9]. Chen [5] studied the char-
acteristics of thermal errors based on a regression
error model and an error model based on an artificial
neural network. The results were compared for air
cutting and real cutting conditions. Lee and Yang [6]
modelled the thermal error for computer numerical
control (CNC) machine tools based on a correlation
grouping and a successive linear regression analysis.
Pahk and Lee [7] considered both the thermal
spindle error and the thermal feed axis error. Multi-
ple linear regression, neural network, and system

JEM388
IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
110 Cheng-Hsien Wu and Yu-Tai Kung
identification methods were implemented for the
thermal error prediction. Yang and Ni [8] proposed
a new thermal error modelling methodology called
dynamic thermal error modelling. Their experiments
suggested that the thermal error dynamic model has
advantages over the conventional static model in
terms of model accuracy and robustness. Huang [9]
used the multiple-regression method to analyse the
thermal deformation of a ball-screw feed drive
system. Temperature increases in three elements,
namely the front bearing, the nut, and the back
bearing, were selected as independent variables of
the analysis model. The multiple-regression model
may therefore be used to predict the thermal defor-
mation of the ball screw.
Various methods have been implemented to model
the thermal errors of machine tools and most of the
results have shown that the proposed models can
accurately predict the thermal errors. However, little
work has been carried out to investigate thoroughly
the thermal characteristics of a machine tool, espe-
cially at a double-column machining centre.
The objective of this work has been to study the
temperature rise and the thermal deformation of a
double-column machining centre. The temperature
rise was measured with thermocouples while capaci-
tance probes were applied to measure the thermal
errors. The spindle and the feeding systems were
operated in different combinations to study the ther-
mal characteristics of the double-column machining
centre. The measured temperature rise and the ther-
mal errors were used to develop a compensation
model, which was applied to compensate the ther-
mal error in real time. The thermal errors with
compensation were compared with uncompensated
thermal errors to verify the predicted thermal model.
2 EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP AND APPROACH
In this study, the object used to investigate the ther-
mal characteristics is a double-column machining
centre as shown in Fig. 1. The maximum speeds
along the x axis, y axis, and z axis of the machining
centre are 20 m/min, 24 m/min, and 12 m/min,
and the travels are 3.2 m, 1.2 m, and 0.8 m respec-
tively. The double-column machining centre has a
maximum spindle speed of 3000 r/min.
As explained earlier, thermal errors are those
that cause a relative displacement between the
workpiece and the tool on account of thermal defor-
mation of the machine elements. Some of the possi-
ble heat sources are bearings, gear and hydraulic oil,
pumps and motors, slideways, cutting action, and
external environments.
In order to obtain the thermal field of the machin-
ing centre, K-type thermocouples were used to
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
Fig. 1 Photograph of a double-column machining centre
measure the temperature change at certain loca-
tions. Initial tests were operated with a worktable
moving reciprocally along the x axis. The tempera-
ture of the ball screw on the x axis increased. The
temperature change produced thermal errors and
the thermal analysis for the feed drive system has
been reported by Wu and Kung [10]. The tempera-
tures of the two columns were found to be the
same as room temperature. Therefore, heat gener-
ated by the x-axis feed drive system does not seem
to transfer to the columns. Two main motions,
namely the spindle rotation and the spindle
head moving along the bridge, were analysed in
this study.
To improve the accuracy of the predicted model, it
is important to select the effective positions of tem-
perature measurements. From the related literature
[8, 11] and the initial tests, temperatures at 11 points
were measured, as shown in Fig. 2(a). Three thermo-
couples (1–3) were used to measure the surface
temperatures of the spindle. A thermocouple (4)
was used to measure the temperature of coolant for
the spindle. Four thermocouples (5–8) were used to
measure the ball-screw temperatures of the bridge.
Two thermocouples (9 and 10) were used to measure
the surface temperatures of the bearings on both
sides of the ball screw. The thermocouple (11) was
used to indicate room temperature. The recorded
room temperature was required to eliminate the
effects of environmental variation.
Thermal errors were measured with a test bar and
three capacitance probes. A test bar was attached to
the spindle. Three capacitance probes, arranged in
orthogonal directions, were clamped with a jig on
the worktable. The relative positions of the test bar
to these probes were collected with a data acquisi-
tion system.
To obtain the thermal errors, two measuring pro-
cedures are necessary for two different conditions.
JEM388
IMechE 2006
 Thermal analysis and compensation of a double-column machining centre
Fig. 2 Locations of the measured points
temperatures
Position B
Position C Position A
Z est temperature. The value of T1 is lower and the
600m
20mm
Capacitance Probe Jig
Fig. 3 Procedures for measuring the thermal errors
When the spindle rotates, it is assumed that the test
bar does not move and that the jig stays at the fixed
position. The thermal errors are continuously
recorded. However, the approach has to be modified
if the spindle moves along the y axis. The jig and the
test bar have to be moved together to measure the
thermal errors continuously. As a result of this, it is
more difficult and unreliable. Therefore, intermittent
data recording is applied under this condition. The
jig and the worktable are fixed while the spindle is
moving. To prevent collision, a safe path is arranged,
as shown in Fig. 3. Firstly, the test bar is at the mea-
suring position A. After the relative positions are
recorded, the spindle moves to the starting point
of operating stroke, position B (20 mm away from
JEM388
IMechE 2006
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
111
position A). The relative positions cannot be col-
lected when the spindle is away from the probes.
Then, the spindle moves reciprocally at a 600 mm
stroke between B and C. The y-axis feed drive system
generates heat and produces thermal expansion.
After 5 min, the spindle stops at position B and
slowly moves to position A. Thermal errors are
recorded and the procedures are executed cyclically.
3 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
To study the thermal characteristics, a set of experi-
ments are arranged. Detailed procedures and results
are as follows.
3.1 Case 1: with the spindle rotating
The spindle rotates at 1000 r/min for the first 2 h.
for
The rotation speed is increased to 2000 r/min for
another 2 h and to 3000 r/min for the last 2 h.
The temperature variation is measured with
thermocouples and the data are shown in Fig. 4(a).
The temperature distribution of the ball screw on
the y axis changes little during the 6 h period. The
overall temperature of the spindle is increased from
about 30 to about 40
C. The spindle has two heat
sources. One is frictional heat. The other comes
from the motor located near the location of thermo-
couple 3 at temperature T3. Therefore, T3 is the high-
value of T2 is the lowest because the relevant
Y
thermocouples are away from the motor.
The temperatures on the spindle drop abruptly
after operation for 310 min. Then the temperatures
increase again. To explain this phenomenon, the
temperature T4 of the coolant for the spindle, is
recorded and analysed. The coolant temperature
drops sharply at the same time, as shown in
Fig. 4(a). When the coolant temperature exceeds
41
C, the refrigerator starts to work which reduces
the coolant temperature. With decreasing tempera-
ture, the coolant cools the spindle. When the coolant
temperature is lower than 38
C, the refrigerator
stops working. The thermal energy, generated by
the spindle and the motor, continuously heats the
spindle and the temperatures increase again.
Thermal errors are measured simultaneously and
the data are shown in Fig. 4(b). The thermal error
on the z axis increases owing to the temperature
rise of the spindle. The positive thermal error on
the z axis indicates that the test bar moves closer to
the probe on the z axis. The thermal error drops after
operation for 310 min because the refrigerator starts
to operate at that time.
The negative thermal error on the y axis means
that the test bar moves away from the probe on the
y axis. There is a y-axis error as even the spindle
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
112 Cheng-Hsien Wu and Yu-Tai Kung

Fig. 4 (a) Measured temperature and (b) thermal error versus time with the spindle rotating

does not move along the bridge. One possibility is
that the spindle heat is conducted to the ball-screw
feed drive system on the y axis. However, the ball-
screw temperatures on the y axis have been almost
constant. There should be little thermal expansion
of the y-axis ball screw. Another possibility is that
the y-axis error results from thermal distortion of
the spindle. The motor is installed at the lower right
position of the spindle. Generated heat leads to a
non-uniform spindle temperature. The maximum
values of T1, T2, and T3 are 8.5
C, 8.8
C, and
12.8
C respectively. A higher temperature on the
lower right distorts the spindle. As a result of
this, the spindle may bend to the left and create a
negative y-axis thermal error.
3.2 Case 2: with the spindle moving along the
y axis without rotation
The spindle head reciprocates at a speed of 10 m/min
for 2 h. The feed rate is increased to 20 m/min for
another 2 h and to 30 m/min for the last 2 h.
The temperature variation is measured with the
thermocouples and the data are shown in Fig. 5(a).
The heat sources on the ball screw are frictions
caused by the nut and two support bearings of the
y-axis feeding system. The temperatures at two
bearings reach 7.5
C and 12.3
C respectively. The
temperature rise induces thermal expansion of the
feeding system. As the left-hand side of the ball
screw is fixed, the ball screw expands to the right.
This expansion causes a positive thermal error on
the y axis. On the other hand, a 17 mm thermal error
on the z axis also exists. The z-axis thermal error
arises in two possible ways.
1. The heat generated by the feeding system on the y
axis is conducted to the spindle and leads to spin-
dle expansion.
2. The heat source inside the spindle causes the
temperature rise and thermal expansion.
Detailed analytical procedures are carried out as
follows. The spindle temperatures T1, T2, and T3
approach 1.9
C, 0.8
C, and 2.1
C respectively.

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture JEM388
IMechE 2006
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
 Thermal analysis and compensation of a double-column machining centre 113

Fig. 5 (a) Measured temperature and (b) thermal error versus time with the spindle moving along the y axis

The top of the spindle has a lower temperature than
the bottom of the spindle. Therefore, there must be a
heat source inside the spindle. The ball-screw
temperatures T5, T6, T7, and T8 are almost at the
same level as room temperature. Therefore, it is not
possible that the heat comes from the friction of
the y-axis feeding system. However, the spindle
does not rotate in this case. To find the heat source,
a detailed study is conducted as follows.
There is a cooling system inside the machining
centre. When the power of the machining centre is
switched on, the coolant of the cooling system circu-
lates in the spindle. The cooling system serves two
functions. One is as a pump to force the coolant to
flow. The pump works whenever the machining
centre is in the ‘on’ condition. The other is as a
refrigerator. It works only when the coolant tem-
perature exceeds the upper limit. In this case, the
coolant temperature remains at the upper limit,
41
C. The refrigerator never works during the 6 h
period. The pump generates heat and causes
a 2.2
C increase in the coolant temperature.
The temperature rise may have produced a 17 mm
thermal expansion on the z axis. To verify the ther-
mal characteristics of the cooling system, a further
analysis follows in the next case.
3.3 Case 3: with the machining centre turned on
The machining centre is turned on and no further
rotation or movement is executed. The coolant
temperature increases to as high as 5.8
C. The only
heat source is the pump of the coolant system.
When the machining centre is turned on, the coolant
circulates around the spindle and the spindle tem-
perature rises. The spindle temperatures T1, T2, and
T3 are measured and the maximum values are
1.9
C, 0.8
C, and 2.1
C respectively. The z-axis
thermal error reaches as high as 41 mm. This means
that the thermal error is 7.1 mm when there is a 1
C
rise in coolant temperature. The coolant tempera-
ture increases to 2.2
C in the previous case. To
simplify the analysis, the thermal expansion of the
spindle is assumed to be linear with the coolant

JEM388
IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
114 Cheng-Hsien Wu and Yu-Tai Kung

Fig. 6 (a) Measured temperature and (b) thermal error versus time with the spindle reciprocating

temperature rise. Then an increase of 2.2
C in the
temperature of the coolant is assumed to create a
15.6 mm thermal error on the z axis (2.2
C ·
7.1 mm/
C). The result is close to the measured ther-
mal error on the z axis (17 mm). With these results,
the pump is believed to be the only source of the
z-axis thermal error. The heat transfer from the feed-
ing system of the y axis to the spindle can therefore
be neglected.
3.4 Case 4: with the spindle rotating and the
y-axis feeding system running simultaneously
In this case, the spindle rotates and the y-axis
feeding system runs simultaneously. One purpose
is to check whether these two thermal errors can
be superposed to obtain the total thermal error.
The other purpose is to develop a mathematical
model for the thermal error by implementing the
experimental data. The whole period lasts for 6 h
and is equally divided into three stages. The rota-
tional speed and y-axis feed rate for the first 2 h are
1000 r/min and 6 m/min respectively. The speed
and feed rate are 2000 r/min and 8 m/min respec-
tively for the second 2 h, and 3000 r/min and
10 m/min respectively for the last 2 h. The tempera-
ture variation and thermal error are shown in Fig. 7.
The temperatures of both spindle and feeding sys-
tem increase during this period. The spindle and the
coolant are subjected to an abrupt temperature
change at 300 min. Obviously, the refrigerator starts
to operate because the coolant temperature exceeds
the upper limit, 41
C. The thermal errors reach
120 mm on the z axis and 6.5 mm on the y axis.
Case 4 can be regarded as a combination of cases
1 and 2. The spindle rotates at 1000, 2000, and
3000 r/min in case 1. The z-axis thermal error is
114 mm and the y axis thermal error is 28 mm. The
feed rates are 6, 8, and 10 m/min in case 2. The
thermal errors are 17 mm on the z axis and 25 mm
on the y axis. The superposition of these two cases
gives thermal errors of 131 mm on the z axis and
3 mm on the y axis. The measured thermal errors

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture JEM388
IMechE 2006
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
 Thermal analysis and compensation of a double-column machining centre 115

Fig. 7 (a) Measured temperature and (b) thermal error versus time with the spindle rotating and the y-axis feeding system
running simultaneously

of case 4 are 120 mm and 5 mm on the z axis and
y axis respectively. They are in good agreement,
which means that the thermal errors of spindle and
feeding system can be superimposed on each other
in this study.
equation that expresses the response as a linear
function of the p predictors is estimated using the
measured data. The model is specified by a linear
equation
Y ¼ b0 þ b1 X1 þ    þ bp Xp þ e ð1Þ

4 ERROR COMPENSATION MODEL Matrix notation will simplify most of the results
used in the multiple-linear-regression analysis. Let
Thermal errors are time variant during machining. Y and e be n · 1 vectors whose elements are given
The machining centre can be compensated on the by the yi and the ei according to
basis of a pre-established empirical model which 2 3 2 3
correlates the thermal errors to the measured tem- y1 e1
6 y2 7 6 e2 7
perature. Various methods have been implemented 6 7 6 7
Y ¼ 6 . 7, e ¼ 6 .. 7 ð2Þ
to model the thermal errors of machine tools. 4 .. 5 4 . 5
A multiple-linear-regression analysis is applied to yn en
develop a thermal error model in this study.
In the multiple-regression analysis, several predic- Also, define b to be the vector parameter of length
tors are used to model a single response variable. For (p þ 1) · 1, including the intercept b0, according to
each of the n cases observed, values for the response 2
3
b1
and for each of the predictors are collected. If the 6 b2 7
response is called Y, and the predictors are called 6 7
b¼6 . 7 ð3Þ
X1, X2,. . ., Xp, then the data will form an n · (p þ 1) 4 .. 5
array. In the multiple-linear-regression analysis, an bn

JEM388
IMechE 2006 Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
116 Cheng-Hsien Wu and Yu-Tai Kung

Next, define X to be an n · (p þ 1) matrix given by Ten running tests have been carried out and the
2 3 measured data collected. The tests include opera-
1 x11 x12 : x1p tions with various spindle speeds and feed rates.
6 1 x21 x22 : x2p 7
6 7 If three predictors are included in the multiple-
X ¼6
6: : : : : 77 ð4Þ
4: : : : : 5 linear-regression model, three temperatures T1, T2,
1 xn1 xn2 : xnp and T3 are found the best choice. The mathematical
equation can be expressed as
Using these quantities, the multiple-linear-
Ez ¼ 5:505 þ 3:388T1 þ 2:238T2 þ 3:97T3 ð7Þ
regression equation can be written in matrix terms
as The coefficient of determination is found to be
Y ¼ Xb þ e ð5Þ 0.997, which means the ability of prediction is
The regression model using the least-squares 99.7 per cent. Using this model gives a high
method is determined by minimizing the residual accuracy; however, it needs three thermal sensors
sum of squares. The coefficient of determination is to compensate errors on line. If fewer sensors are
defined as preferred, simpler models can be derived. If two
thermal sensors are installed in error compensation,
SYY  RSS T2 and T3 are the key temperatures to be measured.
R2 ¼ ð6Þ
SYY The coefficient of determination is found to be
0.996. If only one thermal sensor is set up in error
where SYY is the corrected sum of squares for the
compensation, measuring T2 is found to be the best
yi and RSS is the residual sum of squares. The
choice. The coefficient of determination is found to
coefficient gives the portion of variability in Y
be 0.994. If the number of sensors is larger, the
explained by regression on the X.
prediction ability becomes greater.
In this study, the thermal error modelling is based
on a multiple-linear-regression analysis. The res-
ponse is the thermal error Ez on the z axis, and the 5 REAL-TIME COMPENSATION SCHEME
predictors are the measured temperatures T1, T2,. . ., AND RESULTS
Tk. The procedures can be summarized as follows.
1. Determine the response (z-axis thermal error) In this study, the model in equation (7) is implemen-
and find the adequate predictors; then run the ted for compensating the thermal error on the z axis.
experiments and collect the data. The method used in this study is to shift the origins
2. Derive the multiple-regression equations and cal- of the axes. The compensation method utilizes a
culate the least-squares estimators. central processing unit board inside the computer
3. Validate the estimators. numerical controller. During operation processes,
4. Specify the probability distribution of the random the temperature signal is collected in real time and
error component e and estimate the variance. the errors are estimated with the regression model.
5. Check the estimators and verify the accuracy of Finally, the compensation signals are sent to the
the model. computer numerical controller to shift the origins
6. Apply the multiple-linear-regression model for of the slide axes to adjust the relative position
thermal error compensation. between the spindle tip and the working table.

Fig. 8 Measured thermal errors versus time with and without real-time compensation

Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture JEM388
IMechE 2006
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
 Thermal analysis and compensation of a double-column machining centre
Resultant z-axis thermal errors before and after
compensation are shown in Fig. 8. The thermal
errors of the double-column machining centre are
reduced from 120 to 12 mm.
6. CONCLUSIONS
This paper proposes a systematic method to investi-
gate the thermal characteristics of a double-column
machining centre. The temperature rise and the
thermal deformation are measured under long-time
rotation or movement of the spindle. A thermal error
model is developed with a multiple-linear-regression
method. The model can be implemented using the
controller to compensate the thermal error in real
time. From the results, the following conclusions
can be drawn.
1. The spindle and the feeding system are the two
main heat sources of the thermal errors. The
heat produced from each system is found to be
isolated. The temperature increases of these
systems are independent. The thermal errors pro-
duced by these systems can be superimposed.
2. From the results found in this study, it can be
claimed that another main error source comes
from the cooling system. The coolant is driven
by a pump which produces heat. The heat is
then transferred to the spindle by the coolant.
The operation starts to execute whenever the
machining centre is turned on.
3. Most important positions of the thermal sensors
are located at the spindle. The multiple-linear-
regression model can fit and predict thermal
errors well with an accuracy of more than 99.7
per cent with three thermal sensors.
4. Through a software approach, the regression
model is applied to compensate the thermal error
JEM388
IMechE 2006
Downloaded from pib.sagepub.com at PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIV on March 5, 2016
117
in real time. Tests results show that the z-axis
thermal error of the machining centre has been
reduced from 120 to 12 mm.
REFERENCES
1 Bryan, J. B. International status of thermal error
research. Ann. CIRP, 1990, 39(2), 645–656.
2 Jedrzejewski, J. and Modrzycki, W. A new approach to
modelling thermal behaviour of a machine tool under
service conditions. Ann. CIRP, 1992, 41(1), 455–458.
3 Venugopal, R. and Barash, M. Thermal effects on the
accuracy of numerically controlled machine tools.
Ann. CIRP, 1986, 35(1), 255–258.
4 Chen, J. S., Yuan, J. X., Ni, J., and Wu, S. M. Real-time
compensation for time-variant volumetric errors on a
machining center. Trans. ASME J, Engng Industry,
1993, 115, 472–479.
5 Chen, J.-S. A study of thermally induced machine tool
errors in real cutting conditions. Int. J. Mach. Tools
Mfe, 1996, 36(12), 1401–1411.
6 Lee, J.-H. and Yang, S.-H. Statistical optimization and
assessment of a thermal error model for CNC machine
tools. Int. J. Mach. Tools Mfe, 2002, 42, 147–155.
7 Pahk, H. J. and Lee, S. W. Thermal error measurement
and real time compensation system for the CNC
machine tools incorporating the spindle thermal error
and the feed axis thermal error. Int. J. Advd. Mfg
Technol., 2002, 20, 487–494.
8 Yang, H. and Ni, J. Dynamic modeling for machine tool
thermal error compensation. Trans. ASME, J. Mfg Sci.
Engng, 2003, 125, 245–254.
9 Huang, S.-C. Analysis of a model to forecast thermal
deformation of ballscrew feed drive systems. Int. J.
Mach. Tools Mfe, 1995, 35(8), 1099–1104.
10 Wu, C.-H. and Kung, Y.-T. Thermal analysis for the
feed drive system of a CNC machine center. Int. J.
Mach. Tools Mfe, 2003, 43, 1521–1528.
11 Yuan, J. and Ni, J. The real-time error compensation
technique for CNC machining systems. Mechatronics,
1998, 8, 359–380.
Proc. IMechE Vol. 220 Part B: J. Engineering Manufacture