Adhesion and Friction in Rail Traction

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL
TRACTION
Paper read before the Institution by J U R Y K O F F M A N ,
Associate Member, in London, 20th October 1948 ;
Repeated in Darlington 24th November 1948.
PAPER No. 479

The Koran begins with the words " No doubts are permitted
in this book; it contains the teaching," a statement which cannot
apply t o the present Paper, for the information available on the all
important subject of adhesion and friction as encountered in rail
transportation is both scarce and not always conclusive. Apart from
this the Author holds the opinion that unless a Paper is a specific
recital of experimental or research work its principal value will, more
often than not, lie in the discussion t o which it gives rise rather than
in its actual content, and he has endeavoured t o frame this Paper
from that point of view. The Paper is limited to the presentation
of data on adhesion and friction as encountered between steel wheels
and rails, and cast iron brake blocks pressed against the treads of
steel wheels, since this is of utmost importance for raii transportation
at present, and also since, a s f a r as can be foreseen, cast iron brake
blocks applied upon wheel treads will be used for a long time to
come.
In the followihg, " adhesion " refers to rolling friction, whilst
" friction '' signifies sliding friction only.
T h e coefficient of adhesion p and the coefficient of friction p1

are given by
T=pP
where T = F o r c e necessary t o start or t o maintain movement.
P = N o r m a l Pressure.
If T is taken as the force required t o start the movement, p o is
called the coefficient of static friction or adhesion. If l' is taken as
the force necessary t o maintain the motion, once it has been started,
p is called the coefficient of kinetic friction or adhesion.
Leonaido d a Vinci (1452-1519) seems to have been the first to
deal with the phenomenon of friction in a concrete way (I). His
observations carried out on a rope both stretched on thc ground and
tightly coiled, led to the discovery that the force required t o over-
come friction depends only upon the weight of the object (normql
pressure) and not upon the magnitude of the bearing area.
The need for data on the magnitude of the coefficient of friction
(1) Numbers in parenthesis refer t o the Bibliography at the end of the Paper.
Downloaded from jil.sagepub.com at Monash University on June 5, 2016

594 JOURNAL OF THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGISEERS
were responsible for a number of experimental investigations carried

out by Amontons in 1679 (2). At about the same time Parant ( 3 )
used a rig incorporating an inclined surface with the help of which
he recorded p,-values of 0-25 to 0.33.
A theoretical treatise dealing with this subject was published
in 1748 by Euler (4), whilst Segner in his thesis published in 1758 (5)
for the first time distinguishes between static and kinetic friction.
The well-known dependencies ultimately stated by Coulomb were
already predicted by Bossut in 1775 (6). However, the lack of basic
information required to facilitate the development of the rapidly
expanding industries led the French Academy of Science to entrust
Coulomb to carry out extensive experimental investigations (7) which
led to the formulation of his laws of friction. Further tests were
carried out by Rennie in 1829 (8) whilst in 1831-32 Morin (9) carried
out extensive tests for the purpose of checking Coulomb’s results.
Apart from some rudimentary experiments carried out by Hedley
in 1812 ( ~ o ) . a n dWood in 1812-1825 (11) it was not until 1851 that
extensive tests were carried out by Poirek (12) to determine the values
of the coefficient of adhesion between wheels and rail. PoireC was
thus the first to determine the basic dependence between p and
velocity his results being substantially confirmed by tests carried
out by Bochet in 1858( 1 3 ) . Extensive tests on the values of friction
between brake blocks and wheels were carried out by Galton in
1878-79 (14).
T h e information thus made available on the subject of sliding
friction and adhesion was quite sufficient for the needs of designers
and operators for many years to borne, for the power developed per
unit adhesive weight was not sufficient to cause wheel spinning at
any but very low speeds, neither were difficulties encountered when
braking from the moderate speeds maintained up to the “ nineteen-
twenties. ” The necessity for additional adhesion and friction data
became apparent in the late ‘‘ twenties ” with the appearance of
electric locomotives capable of developing a tractive effort which
taxed adhesion right up to its limits, and that up to speeds of
j o mph. The introduction of fast Diesel-electric railcars in the
“ thirties ” posed the question of braking from I O O mph within an
unaltered signal distance.
Subsequent introduction of fast, locomotive-hauled, trains
further accentuated the necessity for adequate knowledge o n the
twin subjects of adhesion and friction, particularly in the electric
locomotixe field where a considerable number of engines capable of
working a t fairly high speeds closely to the vaguely-sensed limits of
adhesion, were introduced from about 1925 onwards (Fig. I ) . W h a t
can already be achieved in this direction by a n electric locomotive
will be gathered from the performance curves of the E.19.11 and I P
engines (Fig. 2) developed before the war for the German State
Railways (DRB). I t will be noted that to make full use of the power
available for acceleration, p-values of about 0.24 and 0.18 are
required at about 50 and IOO mph ‘respectively. A few recent

ADHESION AND FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION 595
"E' Oirect-Currenk Locomotives

0 Single-Phase Locomotives
0 Converfoor-TypeLocomotives
.I928
a1925
01445
01980 *I9@
*I9% *I926
0.20 01932 01921
a:T8000 -
Speed-Mpn.
FIG.2.
OF E . I ~LOCOMOTIVES
PERFORMANCE
electric locomotives such as the I Bo I BOI + I Bo I BOI, type Ae8/14

No. 11852, introduced by the Swiss Federal Railways (SBB) for
hauling heavy express trains over the St. Gotthard route, the
I Bo-Bo I type Ae4/6 No. 10801 locomotive as well as the DRB
Co-Co type E.94 locomotive, all appear to be capable of developing
a tractive effort in excess of that set by the limits of adhesion
and this over a very wide speed range.

596 JOURNAL OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGISEERS
The trend towards higher speeds was, fortunately for all

concerned, coupled with a marked tendency towards the use of
lighter rolling stock which, particularly in the case of electric
locomotives, will present problems not so much as to the power that
can be packed into one axle, but a s to the limits of tractive effort
that this axle will be capable of developing a t high speeds.
Adhesion
Once its values are determined it is extremely easy to make
use of the coefficient of adhesion a s the link between wheel and rail,
but it is difficult to measure its magnitude, particularly a t high
speeds. However, designers and operators require data of immediate
practical value-not abstract discourses illuminating some obscure
corners of the science of friction aqd adhesion-and to meet this
demand (admittedly in a limited way), a s well as to facilitate a
discussion, is the purpose of this Paper.
Before dealing with the latest data available it is of interest to
review briefly the information designers and operators are able t o
glean from some representative and widely-used books published on
railway engineering within the last 25 years.
Ritchey in the " Electric Railway Handbook " (IS) states:-
" I t is common in steam locomotive practice t o assume 0.22 to 0 - 2 5
a s the coefficient of adhesion with clean very dry rails. When the
wheels are slipping the coefficient of kinetic friction between driving
wheel tread and rail is less than 0.10." H e then quotes the
following approximate values :-
Clean dry rail 0.25 t o 0.30; with sand 0.35 to 0.40
Clean thoroughly wet rail 0.18 to 0-20; with sand 0.22 to 0.25
Greasy and moist rail 0 . 1 5 to 0.18;with sand 0 - 2 2 to 0.25
Sleet on rail 0.15 with sand 0 . 2 0
Light snow on rail 0'10 with sand 0 . 1j
Seefehlner in his book on " Electric Traction " (16) gives the
value of the coefficient as usually varying between 0.18 and 0 - 2 0
though under favourable conditions it may reach 0.30. He states
that for steam locomotives operating on level track a value of 0.19
is mostly assumed, whilst on Austrian mountain routes, where
double heading has to be resorted to, an adhesion value of 0.16 is
assumed. Furthermore whilst a ,value of 0 . 2 0 may be encountered
a t starting this will drop to 0.133 a t speeds in excess of 30 to 40 mph.
Muhachev in a book on " Locomotives ',' (17) quotes the tests
carried Out by Coulomb and Morin on sliding friction and gives
some test results due t o Galton. Without stating their limitations
he quotes several values for sliding friction terminating with 0.027
for a speed of 60 mph.
Sachs in his monumental volume " Electric Main Line
Locomotives '' (18) considers that whilst values of 0.20 to 0.25 can
be encountered a t start on dry rails these may be increased up to
0.50 by the use of sand. H e also states that ,LA cannot be regarded
a s constant over speed and is of the opinion that its value also

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 597
depends on the axle load. H e quotes brake tests carried out by
PoireC ahd the equation deduced from these by Zuidweig in 1920,
and also depicts the adhesion versus speed curves obtained by A.
Wichert for the I Do I locomotive of the DRB.
In his excellent treatise on “ Electric Traction ” (19) Dover
gives average adhesion values for speeds of up to 69 mph and
states : - I ‘ Under normal starting conditions, with clean, dry rails,
a value of 0 - 2 5 may be assumed for the coefficient, and a maximum
value of 0.3 when sand is used. If the rails are wet or greasy, the
coefficient of adhesion will be much lower; for example, with a
thoroughly wet rail a value of 0-18 to 0 . 2 is usually assumed, whilst
for a moist or greasy rail the coefficient is of the order of 0.15. But
with the application of sand these values may be increased to about
0 . 2 5 . ” A close resemblance to the values mentioned by Ritchey will
be noted.
Gruenholz in a volume on “ Electric Main Line Locomotives ”
( 2 0 ) states that the maximum value for the coefficient of adhesion
used for calculation should on the average be limited to 0.20 though
this may be increased t o about 0 . 3 0 when using sand, both values
being attainable a t the start only. For continuous output and
reasonably high speeds the coefficient of adhesion should be assumed
to 0 ’ 1 2 to 0.15.
In his “ Short Textbook of Locomotive Design ” (21) Meineke
asserts that the coefficient of adhesion a t standstill does not exceed
0.333 and that this value is reduced a s speeds increase. There is no
theoretical foundation for this, the reason being probably due to
vibrations encountered a t high speeds. Based on the results of
tests carried out by A. E. Miiller and A. Wichert he proposes an
equation for the coefficient of friction in accordance with which p
becomes zero a t a speed of about 81 mph.
Judtman gives the following adhesion values in his book on
“ Motor Traction on Rails ” (23).
Maximum values for dry sanded
rails, and low speeds 0.30 t o 0-35
Normal values for dry rails 0.18t o 0.25
Normal values for moist rails 0-16 to 0-24
Dew on rails 0.09 to 0.15
As average values he recommends 0-25 when starting and 0.20
for road runs.
In a book on “ Vibration of Rail and Road Vehicles ” (24) Cain
makes the following statement :-
‘‘ If a wheel slips considerably, as when going around a sharp
curve, the coefficient of friction is generally assumed t o be 0.25,
which has become a conventiona! figure. The actual value varies
with conditions of rail, etc. It may reach 0.35 or even higher on
good dry rail and may drop to 0 . 1 5 or less on a wet slippery rail.
However, 0 . 2 5 represents a very fair average condition.”

598 JOURNAL OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
In this he is joined by Sillcox who in his book on " Mastering

Momentum " (2j) states :-
" First, the coefficient of wheel-rail adhesion remains constant
a t its static value a t all speeds.

Second, the value of p = o - z 5 may be obtained reliably with a
dry rail or upon a n adequately and positively sanded moist rail.
Third, ample security against wheel sliding is reasonably
assured provided the braking force is not such as to require a
coefficient of adhesion in excess of 0 . 2 0 , taking into account:-
( I ) The oscillation of a car body in motion upon its truck springs
alternately increasing and decreasing equivalent weight, and
(2) The tendency towards weight transfer from truck t o truck
with a centre of gravity of car weight located approximately
j z inches above the rails, and from axle to axle, the latter
changes being variable with truck centre-plate height and
truck wheel-base. "
However, it must be mentioned that Sillcox bases hi5 conclusions
on the maximum values of the coefficient of adhesion ascertained
whilst bringing a three-car four-bogie train to a standstill from a
specified initial speed. T h e maximum values of AI, were calculated
from the value of maximum retardation, and the speeds a t which
these were encountered might not have necessarily been identical
with the initial speeds.
Johnson in " The Steam Locomotive " (26) is of the opinion
that :-
" The amount of adhesive weight that can be utilised a s tractivy
force under various rail conditions is:-

Clean dry rail, well sanded, with rolled steel wheels 0.30
Clean dry rail with rolled steel wheels or well sanded
rail with chilled iron wheels 0'2j
Clean dry rails with chilled iron wheels 0'20
Greasy, moist rail 0.15 "
Furthermore he contends that whilst for steam locomotives a
coefficient of adhesion of 0 - 2 5 is generally used, 0.30 is permissible
for electric and Diesel-electric locomotives since here the torque a t
the wheels is more uniform than with a reciprocating engine. T h e
effect of speed upon p is not dealt with.
O n the basis of American experience Karvatzki in his book o n
" Theory of Automatic Brakes " (27) suggests a constant value of
the coefficient of adhesion of 0.24 for speeds of up t o 10mph. Abole

this the value is linearly reduced to 0.14a t a speed of about go mph.
The relevant values should be reuuced by 20 per cent. to 30 per cent.
in case of fog, light rain or dew on the rails.
T h e most exhaustive treatment as yet found in a textbook is
due t o Parodi and TCtrel who devote to it some 2 2 pages of their
volume on " Electric Traction on Railways " (28). In addition to
suggesting two equations the Authors mention the following values

.4DHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 599
for the coefficient of adhesion, so far as electric locomotives running

on dry rails are concerned:-
Speeds not exceeding 19 mph 0’22
Speeds between 19 and 3 7 5 mph 0.185
Speeds between 37.5 and 50 mph 0.16
In Dunod’s “ Railway Handbook ” edited by Bohl and now in
its 61st edition (29) we find the following information :-
Dry rail with sand 0 . 2 5 t o 0.33
Very dry weather 0’20
Dry weather 0.16
Heavy rain 0.14
Foggy, damp weather 0.12
Sleet and snow 0’1I
Greasy rails (in tunnels) 0.10
Leaves on rails 0.07
In addition we also find here the following values due t o
Molesworth and quoted by Phillipson in “ Steam Locomotive
Design, Data and Formulae,” i.e.,
Dry rails 0.268
Thoroughly wet rails 0.245
Average English climate 0’200
Greasy rails 0.130
F o g or snow 0.090
General engineering handbooks simplify the matter still further.
So in the “ Mechanical Engineer’s Handbook ” (30) edited by Marks
we find the statement that :-
“ T h e apparent (average) value of p rarely exceeds 0 . 2 5 , for
yard engines it is 0 . 2 2 or less. F o r three-cylinder locomotives
apparent values of p of 0.28 have been used ; for electric locomotives
values a s great as 0.33 have been used.”
The well-known German Handbook “ Hiitte ” (31) now in its
27th edition, and translated both into Russian and French, quotes
results of tests carried out with rolling and sliding wheels between
1851 and 1894, though all data is given under the heading of sliding
friction.
Yet Galton already found that :-(14)
“ On dry rails it was found that the coefficient of adhesion of
the wheels was generally over 0-20. I n some cases it rose t o 0.25
or even higher. O n wet or greasy rails, without sand, it fell as low
as 0.15 in one experiment, but averaged 0.18. W i t h the use of
sand on wet rails, it was about 0 . 2 0 a t all times ; and when the sand
was applied a t the moment of starting, so that the wind of the
rotating wheels did not tend to blow it away, it rose up to 0.35, and
even above 0.40.’’
The general impression one is thus liable to get from the perusaI
of contemporary textbooks is that a t start we may expect the value
of the coefficient of adhesion to be in the order t o 0.25 and that
this may drop t o something like 0.14 a t speeds of about 50 mph. W e
are left in doubt a s t o the actual nature of the adhesion/speed
dependence and have not obtained any indication as t o the magnitude

600 JOURNAL OF THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
of adhesion we may expect a t high speeds. I n addition we can

scarcely escape the feeling that m'any of the statements made.are not
sufficiently reinforced by experimental data, and some were merely
taken over from book to book and thus acquire a flavour of hearsay.
Furthermore-and this is no less important-the distinction between
rolling and sliding friction is not always made as clear as is desirable.
Quite a few misunderstandings were caused in the past by the
somewhat muddled vocabulary used by various Authors.
Let u s now examine some of the experimental evidence available
and the equations which have been deduced from this.
already mentioned the first fairly extensive tests carried out
to ascertain the value of the coefficient of adhesion were due to
PoireC (12) of the P L M Railway. T h e tests were carried out a t
speeds ranging from about 1 1 t o 50 mph, the weight of the four-
wheeled carriage used being maintained at 3.4 and 8-4 tons. The
wheels were braked until they barely rotated and the force required
4
s
to pull the vehicle was then recorded. T h e results thus obtained
are indicated in Fig. 3. PoireC summarised this data in a formula
0.2
0.I Speed-M.p.H.
FIG.3 .
ADHESIONVALUES DUE TO POIREE
which in a somewhat modified form was used by Zuidweg (32) and

subsequently quoted by Sachs (IS). This formula is given in Table
I from which it will be noted that we a r e dealing here with the
equation of a parabola which, when plotted a s a function of speed,
has a minimum value after which the value of j~ would rise again.
This fact was recognized by the originators who limited its validity
to a speed range of 11 to 50 mph. But irrespective of this the
equation can scarcely be regarded as a reliable one since according
t o it the value of p depends to a very marked degree upon G. The
values of p are plotted in Fig. 4 for G = 2 t , (Curve 2) and !or G = ~ o t
(Curve 2 . 1 ) and it will be noted that it should be possible t o increase
u more than twice by increasing the axle load from say 2 t o 10 tons,
the p-value for the latter being obviously far too high. I t should be
mentioned that the constant factor of 0.3 applies for dry rails only,
a constant of, 0.13 being recommended for wet rails.
O n the basis of PoireC's tests, H . Bochet, of the Eastern Railway
of France, proposed a n equation representing a hyperbola with two
constants (13), which hereafter we shall meet quite frequently, and in
accordance with which p approaches the abscissa asymptotically and

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 60 I
tends to become zero at infinitely great velocities. However the

resultant values plotted in Fig. 4 seem to be decidedly on the low
side.
Extensive brake tests were conducted by Galton on the LB & SC
Railway (14) but mainly on the friction between brake block and
wheel. Galton did however carry out some tests on the friction
between rail and locked sliding wheels and the results obtained are
I Note: ~ - k r n / h;v-m/sec.;G - ~ Q/Aii;0(=3.0to4.7I

TABLE
I.
plotted in Fig. 5. Although Galton himself made it clear that the

results refer to “ a condition whereby the rotation of wheels was
arrested by pressure of brake blocks and the wheel slides on the
rail” these values have not always been used in that sense. In
view of Galton’s recognition of the fact that the values of $I are
higher for rolling than for sliding friction it is disappointing that he
has limited himself to publishing the results of tests dealing with
friction only.

602 JOURNAL OF T H E INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
I t was not until 1927 that further data became available as the
results of tests carried out by A. Wichert (33),on a I Do I electric
express locomotive. This machine had an adhesive weight of 78.4
tons, the one-hour rating being 2,900 h p whilst the maximum speed
was limited t o 75 mph. The results of these tests, mostly carried
out in the level, are shown in Fig. 6. I t will be noted that the curves
FIG.4.
ADHESIONVALUES CALCULATED IN ACCORDANCE WITH TABLEI
I
FIG.5.
FRICTION
OF LOCKED WHEELS

ADHESION A N D FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION 603
could, on first glance, be considered as reasonably reliable u p to

speeds of 50 mph, but even so the points given were very few.
About a year later the results of tests carried out by A. E.
Illiiller were made public (34). This time the tests were carried out
on three types of electric locomotives, all provided with the
Sechernn quill drive and operating on the mountain sections of the
SBB and the Lotschberg (BLS) Railway. T h e SBB locomotives
FIG.6.
ADHESIONVALUES-I Do I LOCOMOTIVE
FIG.7.
ADHESION
VALUES-SWISS
LOCOMOTIVES
concerned were Series 12501, type I Bo I + BOI, with an adhesive

weight of 71.8 tons, one-hour rating of 2,400 hp and a maximum
speed of 47 mph, and Series 10203, type I Co I with an adhesive
weight of 55.8 tons, one-hour rating of 2,000 hp, and a maximum
speed of 56 mph. T h e BLS machine was a Series 201, type I C o +
COI unit with an adhesive weight of 114.6 tons, one-hour rating of
4,500 hp and a maximum speed of 47 mph. Since here the tests were

604 JOURNAL OF T H E I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
carried out over grades of up t o I in 40 the resultant weight transfer

would have a bearing upon the results shown on Fig. 7. T h e points
shown correspond t o the maximum values ascertained. Again the
range actually determined by tests does not extend beyond 50 mph bqt
even so the curves plotted by Muller are more representative of tbe
general trend of adhesion values than those due to Wichert with their
peculiar convex portion, the shape of which seems to have been
responsible for some not altogether rational proposals for adhesion
formulae.
As was t o be expected the publication of this data fostered the
derivation of a number of speed-adhesion formulae. Already in 1928
Dobrovolsky (35) of the Russian Commissariat of Transportation
(NKPS) proposed, on the basis of the Miiller-Wichert tests, the use
of equation 3 of Table I for electric and Diesel-electric, and equation
3-1for Diesel-mechanical locomotives. H e was of the opinion that
whilst the velocity multiplication factor might vary for different
locomotives, the constant value of 0 . 2 , i . e . , the value of adhesion at
start, applied to all locomotives with the exception of electric or
Diesel-electric ones for which it can be assumed as 0.22. These
proposals were followed by two almost identical ones published in
1930and 1931by Quirchmeyer (36)and Meineke (21) respectively.
Whilst in the case of Dobrovolsky's proposals p becomes zero
a t a speed of IOO and 114 mph respectively, Quirchmeyer reaches
this goal already a t 83 mph, closely followed by Meineke who
crosses the zero line a t about 81 mph and then in common with the
other two proceeds t o develop negative adhesion values as the speeds
increase. I t seems that both the last named Authors were unduly
influenced by the convex portion of Wichert's curve.
A more intelligent proposal based on the identical test results
was published in 1934 (37) and this is also shown in Table I and
plotted in Fig. 4, whilst Parodi (28) proposed equation 8 of Table I.
I n the meantime the power output developed by locomotives a t
high speeds reached values bordering on the limits set by adhesion
and thus additional experimental data became available although
this was of a somewhat indirect nature and was derived mainly from
road tests of two D R B electric locomotives, the I Co I Series E04
and I D o I Series E I developing
~ 3,800 and 4,220 h p (continuous
rating) and attaining maximum speeds of 81 and 93 mph respectively,
the weight on the driving axles being 20 tons in either case. A number
of road tests were carried out with these machines and from the
tractive effort-speed data published (38) a s well a s from statements
such a s that with the E18 engine " it was shown to be possible to
develop 5,000 hp at a speed of 62.5 mph without wheel spinning "
(39) it was possible t o add a few more points to the somewhat scanty
knowledge of the value of adhesion, particularly a t higher speeds.
Based on the information mainly accumulated in the ten years
following the publication of Wichert's data, Kother (40) proposed
equation 10 for electric vehicles which again represents a hyperbola
in accordance with which the values for p will be 0.116as the

ADHESION A N D FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION
605
velocity reaches infinity. The graphic presentation of this equation
in Fig. 4 shows how with more information becoming available
the views on p were getting more optimistic an'd as a result the
prospects of handling appreciable trailing loads a t high speeds
became far more encouraging than the gloomy forecasts shown by
a number of formulae published only a few years earlier. Yet as
early as 1904 (41) a coefficient of adhesion of about 0.08 was recorded
a t a speed of 130 mph.
At about the same time as Kother, Babichkov and Egorchenko
(42) published the hyperbolic equation 11 (Table I) which they
considered as applicable to bofh steam and Diesel locomotives, the
factor a varying between 3.8 and 4.7 depending upon a number of
variables. T w o curves 11 and 11.1 based on the lower and higher
values of a respectively, a r e plotted in Fig. 4 the resultant values
of p falling well below those obtained in accordance with Kother,
particularly a t higher speeds.
FIG.8.
ADHESION
VALUES-BURLINGTON
ZEPHYRTRAIN
As mentioned, Sillcox ( 2 5 ) gives the results of retardation tests

carried out in 1934 by the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad
with the three-car Diesel trains of the Zephyr type. T h e results
shown in Fig. 8 and line 15 of Fig. 4 give the average values for the
train a s a whole and therefore the data affected by a considerable
number of variables must be treated with reserve, particularly since
the values concerned a r e the maximum encountered whilst bringing
the train to a stop from a certain initial speed.
Shortly before the war tests were carried out by the Swedish
State Railways (43) to determine whether the performance of electric
locomotives with individual axle drives would be as good a s that
obtained with locomotives having connecting-rod drives. T w o types
of engines were used, a Bo-Bo weighing 68 tons and a I-C-I weighing
So tons and having a n adhesive weight of 51 tons. T h e reduction
of the effective adhesive weight of the bogie machine amounted up
to 8 tons whilst developing the maximum tractive effort and this
was taken into account in the determination of p-values, Fig. 9.

606 JOURXAL OF THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGIYEERS
The values shown are generally those encountered immediate11 before

wheel spin, but since no spin-indicator was available they must be
treated with some reserve, particularly so far a s the values
ascertained a t higher speeds are concerned.
During the war extensive tests were carried out by the D R B
to determine the values of adhesion a t high speeds with the help of
I Do I Series Erg electric locomotives. These engines (44) were
built for a maximum speed of 112.5 mph, the adhesive weight being
80 tons. The performance curves are very similar to those shown
in Fig. 2 , and considering the maximum capacity of the motors it
is clear that the limits of adhesion could be explored over a very
wide range of speeds, particularly since the axle load of the axle
concerned was reduced to 16 tons, by unloading its springs and
distributing the weight thus removed amongst the other driving
axles. The tests were carried o u t with the help of a dynamometer-
car and four bogie carriages. T h e locomotive accelerated the train
FIG.9.
A'DHESION VALUES-SWEDISH ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES
to a predetermined speed a t which three out of the four motors were

cut out from the dynamometer-car and the run continued on the
remaining motor driving the test axle. The brakes wei-e then
gradually applied on the carriages only until the load was such
a s to cause the driving axle t o spin, the point of incipient spin
denoting the maximum p-value (46). The results of some 260 tests
are shown in Fig. 10. T h e tests were carried o u t by recording the
motor current, tractive effort and rpm of the axle concerned. T h e
points signifying " first signs of spinning " refer to the start of a
condition whereby the wheel rpm remained constant although the
load increased and the locomotive speed dropped in consequence,
Le., the wheels begin to spin. This was followed by a rapid rise of
wheel speed (spinning) and current consumption. T h e points
signified by an upwards-pointing arrow indicate that no spinning
was encountered although the tractive effort was on the increase,
i . e . , the maximum adhesion values were actually above the points
thus marked.
T h e effect of weather and operating conditions upon the value
of p ascertained during some of the tests are indicated in Fig. 1 1 .


I t is obvious from this that n o narrow defined values for p can be

allocated for different speed values even for dry rails. F o r example,
much higher values were obtained during tests carried out first thing
in the morning than later on in the day, though the weather remained
unchanged. This seems t o be due to the effect of dampness, aided
by dew, which by causing a certain amount of rail corrosion
" roughed up " the rails and thus increasing JL, a n effect later
eliminated by the polishing action of the vehicles passing in the
course of the day. I t will be noted from Fig. 1 1 that though the
/*-.values are maintained quite steady for a certain run, they vary
widely from one run to another. It is also of interest t o note that
values ascertained immediately after heavy but short thunderstorms,
during which the rails were generously washed down, were well
below those found for dry rails. But if ascertained after rains of
considerable duration the p-values approached those for dry rails,
presumably due t o the corrosive effect of the rain on the rail surface.
FIG. 1 1 .
ADHESIONVALUES-I Do I LOCOMOTIVE
These investigations lead to the proposal of equation 1.2 of

Table I . The resultant values (Fig. 4) though representing the mean
of the values of Fig. 10 are well above the values of any previous
proposal at speeds in excess of 70 mph and give a value of 0.161
a t infinitely high speeds.
Finally, we have proposal 14 of Table I due t o Karvatzk-i. This
has been adopted in recent Russian literature (47), although in
accordance with it p becomes zero at a vehicle speed of 2 1 4 mph.
Thus we have before us a very wide range of curves all of which
-with the exception of curves I and 2-were published within the
last twenty years, and most of which a r e being used a t the present
time in different countries. By choosing one or the other of these
curves the designer can obtain a reasonable, or unduly gloomy picture
of the performance of a projected vehicle. In fact some of the
proposed equations, if in any way representing actual conditions,
would not hold much promise for economic train operation at high
speeds. T o illustrate the point, consider the performance of a 40

ADHESIOX AND FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION 609
tons Bo-Bo locomotive the only limit to the performance of which

shall be set by adhesion. The locomotive is to haul a trailing load
of 360 tons. The performance of each axle of this engine, as
determined in accordance with three equations of Table I, is plotted
in Fig. 12, whilst the resultant acceleration curves are shown in
Fig. 13.
In view of such widely divergent results and the obvious
uncertainties attached to some of the proposals made, be it because
FIG. 1 2 .
EFFECTOF ADHESION VALUES ON POWER OUTPUT
of insufficient evidence available to substantiate them, or because

the Authors have not stated that they had in mind definite limits set
by the speed range within which they could be used, an attempt is
made to put forward a proposal for the value of p for speed of up
to IOO mph, based on reliable and extensive tests.
It is her6 that the results of a comprehensive investigation
carried out by Metzkow (48) and analysed by Pflanz (49) should be

inni I I I
------ Diska nce

Time
I I I I I I I I I l l 1 I I I I I l , l l l l l l l l l I l l I ~I 1~ I I I I
100 I50 200 2 d 300 350 400 450 501
Time Seconds
0 5000 ioooo 15000 moos 25 10 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000
OistL ice- Feet
FIG. 13.
EFFECTOF ADHESION VALUES ON PERFORMANCE
ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRAGTION 61 I
considered, so far as speeds of up to 50 mph are concerned. The

tests due to Metzkow were carried out primarily with the object of
obtaining reliable data on the braking of vehicles. The vehicle used
for the tests was a four-wheeled covered wagon with a wheelbase of
24 ft. 7 in., carrying a load of 8.2 tons on one and 9-9 tons on the
0.
ta
FIG. 14.
AXLE LOAD 8.2 TO 9-9 TONS. DRYRAILS
'azuml
a/
0 o 60
Speed - km/k
-70 60 9a ioa
FIG. 15.
AXLE LOAD 8 - 2 TONS. DRY,SANDED RAILS
-
-
Sliding W h e e l s
I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 0 60 70 0
5 peed- k m15.
FIG. 16.
AXLE LOAD 15.5 TONS. DRYRAILS.
other axle, The wheels were 1,000 mm. in diameter. A limited
number of tests were carried out with a four-wheeled wagon having
an axle load of 15-5 tons. Each axle was equipped with a wheel
revolution indicator incorporating detachable contact discs. These
were selected so as to ensure the making of about 30 contacts per
second at the various test speeds. The equipment included

drawbar-pull recording apparatus and two recording speedometers.

The vehicle was coupled to the end of the test train consisting of a
locomotive and several closely-coupled bogie carriages employed
to dampen the oscillating tractive effort developed by the locomotive.
To eliminate the possible effect of the proceeding carriages upon the
test vehicle, the latter was loosely coupled to ensure adequate distance
between the buffers. During tests, all of which were carried out
on level tangent tracks, the brakes on the rear axle of the vehicle
were gradually applied until the wheels ceased to rotate. As soon
as the wheels stopped the brakes were released with the help of
special quick-acting valves provided in order to prevent the develop-
ment of flat spots on the treads. The train speed was maintained
constant throughout the test. In evaluating the results the weight
transfer due to the tractive effort was neglected,
The results of some of the tests are shown in Figs. 14 to 16,
indicating the extensive nature of these investigations. Whilst the
friqtion values obtained for sliding wheels are very similar to those
recorded by Galton, the trend of the values of adhesion is funda-
mentally different from those established by all other investigators,
the value of p remaining constant, or almost so, irrespective of speed.
Metzkow did not go into this matter further, limiting himself to a
recommendation that to be on the safe side the value of the
coefficient of adhesion should not be called to exceed 0.15 when
braking (Curve 16, Fig. 4), but in view of the fundamental
discrepancy between his results and those of most other investigators,
and also because of the fact that his tests are the most thorough
ones to date, the matter merits further consideration.
I t will be noted from three typical test records (Fig. 17) that as
long as the brakes are not applied to the wheels concerned the
drawbar pull remains constant, being equal to the tractive resistance
of the vehicle. As soon as the brakes are applied the drawbar pull
begins to increase along an almost straight line proportional to the
brake pressure. The degree of accuracy of the equipment used
prevented the exact determination of the wheel slip values, the
beginning of the wheel slip (point z ) being determined by Metzkow
as a point beyond which there was a noticeable increase of distance
between the wheel revolution marks, although, strictly speaking,
slip is present from point I onwards. The drawbar pull reaches its
highest value at point 3 and from there drops rapidly to point 4. At
this point the pull represents the resistance due to the locked wheels
plus the rolling resistance of the other wheels and the air resistance
of the vehicle. As will be noted from the record obtained at a speed
of 10 km./h. the drawbar pull rises slightly between point z and 3
whilst the amount of sliding increases until it is almost equal to the
velocity of the vehicle, without a decrease of friction values, the
region of gradually increasing slip being indicated by the distance
X. The point a t which the wheels are completely locked is at 4.
Referring to the records obtained at higher speeds attention is drawn
to the fact that whilst a t 30 km./h. point 3 is found to be in advance
of the point a t which the axle is locked, at 100 km./h. points 2 and 3

-Direcrion of Notion
Res i s t m c e
-- ---- -----
. Rolling Resisrmce
Rolling Resistance
7iinEim
- . 4 ,
_- - _- - - - - --- --- - ---------- ----- ----- --- -- - -- --- - - - ,

Angular Velociky - o T
Twchve Effort- T 1
Sliding Velocity-~ r , 1
w =0,Wheels Loctte First- Brdke Phase _To=consk
K
FIG. 17.
EFFECTOF SPEED ON ADHESION wnm BRAKIN(:
coincide, L e . , here the wheels appear t o be incapable of dealing with
slip without immediately becoming locked, with consequent 1 0 6 of
adhesion values. Or, t o put it differently, a relatively slow-rolling
wheel is capable of maintaining a n originally high value of adhesion
even in the face of appreciable slip. At a speed of, say, 60 mph a
small amount of slip is sufficient to cause an appreciable reduction of
adhesion.
zot
Time-s
FIG. 18.
FIG. 19.
The adhesion values plotted in Fig. 14 to 16 refer t o the draw-
bar pull values ascertained for point 2 , whilst the friction values for
locked wheels are based on the values for point 4.
The ideal diagram for a speed of IOO km./h. is also plotted in
Fig. 17. Here to start with the wheels revolve with w=const. As
soon a s the brakes are applied a t point I , w begins to decrease and
the velocity of sliding to increase until a t point 2/3 the drawbar pull
reaches its maximum value. From here on the drawbar pull is.

reduced rapidly together with w whilst the velocity of sliding increases

until a t 4 it becomes equal to the vehicle speed, whilst W = O , i.e.,
the wheels a r e locked.
From a n evaluation of the curves, Fig. 17, between point 2,
3 and 4, it is possible to plot the values of the mean angular velocity
of the wheels together with the velocity of sliding, whilst the value
of angular retardation y can be obtained by plotting tangents to a
number of points on the curve of angular velocity and determining
the angles a, p, etc. These plots permit the determination of the
velocity with which the wheels may slide without loss of
adhesion a s indicated in Figs. 18 to 2 0 which show that
with increased speeds point 3 moves towards the point marked by
Metzkow as the beginning of slip. A general evaluation of
Metzkow's records along these lines permits the plotting of curves,
Fig. 2 1 . The value of 0.2445 was obtained by Pflanz as the mean
of 2 1 points ascertained under identical test conditions and varying
between 0.2939 and 0.2068.
An extrapolation of the adhesion-slip curves to higher speeds

indicates that had Metzkow extended his tests he would have probably
found that the values of p are reduced with increased speeds.
The values of the adhesion vs. slip curves shown in Fig. 2 1 must
however be treated with caution. F o r example, during tests the axle
passed through the various states of motion, which formed the basis
for these curves, in about 0.6 seconds, and this may well cause
uncertainties in evaluation.
Supported by his extensive evaluation of Metzkow's tests Pflanz
suggests that up t o speeds of about 50 mph the value of the
coefficient of adhesion remains constant at 0.2445 for dry rails.
Following a gradual drop up t o a speed of about 62 mph the value
of p drops more rapidly, finally to join the p-values as estimated by
Kother, the suggested curve being shown in Fig. 4 (Curve 14).
In the preceding we have dealt with adhesion values ascertained
whilst driving or braking. I t is possible that the application of brake
blocks might influence the values of p because of the '' roughening "
up of the tyre and because of higher tyre temperatures. However

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 615.
practical experience does not suggest that considerably different

values are experienced for driving and braking. Because of this it
is assumed here that adhesion values do not depend upon the mode
of wheel utilisation.
The information available a s t o the effect of tyre profiles upon
adhesion is meagre in the extreme. T h e only indications so f a r
available (so) show that the use of cylindrical tyres on canted rails
would reduce the coefficient of adhesion, probably due to consider-
ably reduced bearing area, particularly so in curves with even
slightly worn rails. O n the other hand the use of coned tyres causes
lateral and longitudinal slip and this may t o a certain extent be
responsible for the drop of p-values a t high speeds.
FIG. 2 1 .
ADHESIONVERSUS WHEEL SLIP
The effects of wheel diameters and loads upon the values of fi

are also investigated but little. Fowler has demonstrated (51) that
the load had very little influence over p (Fig. 22). These values
were obtained by rig tests and refer t o a tread movement of only
about 1/32 in. Metzkow (48) investigated the effect of wheel
diameter and loads on contact area and stress, Fig. 23, the results
showing an almost linear increase of specific stress with increased

load a t constant wheel diameter, whilst an increase of diameter will

reduce the stress. The fact that increasing the load does not reduce
p, i.e., higher stresses are not causing disadvantage, suggests that
reducing the stresses by using larger wheels will scarcely improve
the values of the coefficient of adhesion.
To the Author’s knowledge, only one attempt (52) was made
so far to introduce the wheel diameter and the curvature of the rail
P
i0.2
0. /
Wheel Load- t:
FIG. 2 2 .
EFFECTOF WHEEL LOAD ON ADHESION
FIG.23.
EFFECTOF WHEEL DIAMETER ON SPECIFIC PRESSURE
head into an equation proposed for the determination of pu. This

reads :-
+ 0 . 1I 17J?. t 3 . r + O ~ Z ~I F Y
p.,, = { 0.138P
[ I / (0-3191d / R / J P - 0.0509 J R/ */ } /P(I + k) q]
ADHESION AXD FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTIOX 61;
where :
P =Wheel load [kg.]
R =Wheel diameter [cm.]
r =Radius of curvature of rail head [cm.]
k =Coefficient of tractive effort steadiness
Needless to say apart from being cumbersome this equation
is of very limited practical value.
T h e values dealt with were, with the exception of Fig. 9, all
estimated on the assumption that the axle loads remained equal to
their static values, which was scarcely the case because of 'the
adverse effect of both the tractive effort and the dynamic loads.
All the same they a r e representative of actual conditions as
encountered in practice.
FIG. 24.
CURVEOF AVERAGE ADHESION VALUES
The values for the coefficient of adhesion thus ascertained

during the last twenty years by a number of authorities, for both
driving and braking, a r e plotted in Fig. 24 for dry rails and speeds
of up up t o IOO mph. Based on these the Author suggests the use
of average values a s indicated by the line shown, according to which
for speeds of up t o 40 mph the value of p may be assumed as

618 JOURNAL OF THE INST.. OF LOCO. E&GINEERS
constant and equal to 0.25. Above this speed the values follow the
equation :
.-
which is valid for speeds of up to about 150 mph. F o r wet rails, i . e . ,
during or after a n occasional rain p’=0.6p.
“ Dry rails ” are here understood as being completely dry with
polished running surface, as encountered on lines with fairly dense

traffic, ensuring that there is not sufficient time between trains for
3000
-
8000 -
-
7000 -
6000 -
FIG. 25.
POWEROUTPUT OF I Do I LOCOMOTIVE

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION
Speed-M.p,H.
FIG. 26.
PERFORMANCE
OF I Do I LOCOMOTIVE

620 JOURNAL O F THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
FIG.27.
PERFORMANCE
OF I Do I LOCOMOTIVE

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTIOX 62 1
corrosive action to set in. The rails are considered “ wet ” when
subjected to intense rain of short duration by which they are washed
clean. Operating conditions as for “ dry ” rails.
These values apply to electric and Diesel-electric locomotives and
must be corrected when used for steam locomotives with their less
steady tractive effort, the necessary reduction depending upon the
type of engine concerned and amounting to about 10to 25 per cent.
The performance of a I Do I or I Bo-Bo I locomotive weighing
a total of 1 1 2 tons, having an adhesive weight of 80 tons and
developing a tractive effort of up to the limits set by the coefficient
of adhesion as stated above is plotted in Fig. 25.
The resultant tractive effort curve is plotted in Fig. 26 together
with the locomotive and train resistance curves, the locomotive
resistance R, being estimated in accordance with
where :
W’,=Trailing weight of locomotive (tons]
Wd =Adhesive weight [tons]
F =Frontal area [ft.]
V =Speed [mph]
The tractive resistance of the bogie carriages was estimated
from :-
where :
< .
W=(4-2+0*0088V)W,+o.ogg ( n + 2 . 7 ) ( V + IO)* [Ib.] (3)
W,=Weight of all carriages in the train [tons]
n = Number of carriages
The constant value of 2 - 7 is introduced to cover the resistance
caused by vacuum and eddies at the rear of the train (53).
The curves are valid for 40-ton carriages. T h e ability of the
locomotive to handle trains composed of such carriages over grades
is shown in Fig. 27 and the Author hopes that this will serve as an
encouragement to use electric and Diesel locomotives more readily
for the purpose of braking trains when descending grades.
Friction
So far as knowledge of friction values between brake block
and wheel is concerned we have for a long time enjoyed the benefit
of Galton’s masterly investigations (14). The main data then
obtained is shown in Fig. 28, whilst Fig-. 29 indicates that the value
of friction between brake block and wheel depend to a certain
extent upon the duration of application. This tendency was con-
firmed by rig tests carried out in 1937 a t the University of Illinois
(67). Although Galton himself did not summarise the results of his
tests in terms of an equation there was no shortage of equations
based on the data made available by him.
In addition to an equation originally proposed by Westinghouse,
a number of equations were proposed by Bochet, Seguela and
Soulerin (28, 54), Table 11 and Fig. 30. Additional tests carried

6 22 JOURNAL OF THE I N S T . C F 'LOCO. ENGINEERS
FIG.29.
FRICTION
VALUES AS FUNCTION OF SPEED

ADHESION AND FRICTION IS h A I L TRACTION 62 3
out in Germany led F r a n k (55) t o propose an equation giving

lower frictional values than Galton’s mean values since he con-
sidered that this was justified in order t o be on the safe side.
Following this further equations were put forward by Fliegner (j6),
Doyen (57) and Petrov (58), this time mainly based on the results
of Galton tests.
One shudders to think of the dangers which would face u s if
adhesion and friction would, a t high speeds extend into the “ nop ”

land a s predicated for example by Quirchmeyer and Doyen though

it should then be equally doubtful whether trains could
reach such speeds, except when going downhill. Yet as late a s
April 1948 Doyen’s equation was used a s the basis for the calculation
of stopping distances of goods trains (59).
TABLE
11.
In 1894 Wichert (60) published the results of rig tests carried

out in Berlin and these a r e still widely quoted in German text and
handbooks. As the result of his investigations he proposed equation
8 of Table 11, the constant of 0.45 being applicable for dry rails
only. F o r wet rails Wichert suggests the value of 0.25. The
equations due to Petrov and Wichert are similar in so far as both
represent the equation of hyperbolas with three constants

~ + b u ab ,(~-b/c)
p l = a ___ = - + a ____
I+CV c I +cv
so that the equation 8 of Table I1 can be written a s : -
0.366
p, = 0.084 f . (4)
I +0.06V.
From this pr~ 0 . 0 8 4at infinitely high speeds as-compared with
0.104given by Petrov.
Opperman (61) proposes an equation in accordance with which
is almost identical t o that obtained by Bouchet and exactly
rientical with that suggested by Fliegner, whilst the equation due
to Egorchenko gives somewhat higher values in the 30-70 mph range.
Some 3,000 tests, carried out by Metzkow (61) on a rig-driven
300 mm. diameter model carriage wheel and using model brake
blocks, provided not only additional information on the values of
p,, but have also shown its dependence upon pressure. T h e values
shown in Fig. 31 were ascertained for blocks having a Brinell
hardness of 195, those in Fig. 32 for a Brinell hardness of 2 5 5 ,
the hardness specified by D R B being 1gs+25.
Metzkow stated that in service ‘ I the intense vibrations together
with the effects of dust and dirt, and especially the lateral displace-
ment of the brake blocks on the treads, might result in very small
areas of contact and cause a substantial reduction of the magnitude
of friction values a s compared with those ascertained by rig tests.

To ensure the necessary degree of safety the values found by means

of rig tests should be reduced by 2 0 per cent.”
Lubimoff (63) suggests equation 11 of Table I1 a s representing
the friction values obtained by Metzkow for a specific pressure of
57 lb./sq. in.
Reduced by 2 0 per cent. this equation’would read:
- v_- + ,
3
+0.108
IU
the resultant values being similar to those obtained in accordance
with the equations due to Fleigner, Petrov and Wichert.
FIG.32.
FRICTION VALUES, BRINELL HARDNESS OF 255
The dependence of p1 on the specific pressure p (kg./cm.z) and

velocity V (km./h.) as found by Metzkow may be generally expressed
as :-
(07+0.14I’) (I +o.rp)
,Pl= ( I + O . I V ) (1+0.2p) . i5J
The results obtained here whilst suggesting the advisability
of aiming at lower specific pressures in order to ensure high
p,-values, show relatively high friction values due probably to the
“ roughing up ” of the wheels by the brake blocks not alleviated

by the subsequent rolling down encountered in service. This in

turn suggests that the use of disc brakes might result in lower
rates of retardation because of lower p-values obtained with smooth
wheels.
Another point suggested by Figs. 31 and 32 is that in order to
achieve greater accuracy retardation of vehicles should be calculated
on the basis of p,=f(p) values. F o r this purpose it is advisable
to plot a family of retardation curves, but for one different curves
will be required for different conditions, for another their
calculation is laborious.
Galton’s observations about the effect of the time factor upon
p1 prompted the publication of a number of equations according
to which p 1 is function of t . For example, Seguela multiplied his
equation with (I - t/4o) whilst Soulerin introduced a multiplication
factor of (I - 0.032t). Based on their analysis of the results of
brake tests carried out in 1931, Parodi and TCtrel proposed
equations 1 2 and 13 of Table 11. T h e value of p1 is plotted in Fig.
30 for t = 2 0 seconds in accordance with equation 13. I t does
seem, however, that factors such as speed, pressure and duration
of application, which are considered t o cause variations in brake-
block performance, are effective mainly as they affect the
temperature of the working metal of the brake block and wheel.
T h e general dependence of p1 on p was observed during train
tests carried out in 1930 when it was noted that the braking
distance of long trains of empty carriages was shorter than that of
short trains of loaded vehicles. T h e speeds and total train weights
as well as the total brake block pressure was the same in either
case. At first the different behaviour of the brake blocks was
attributed solely to the differences of the specific pressures and tests
with longer brake blocks were carried out t o check this, only to show
that the length of brake blocks was of minor importance so far as
braking distance was concerned. The explanation was found in
the thermal expansion of the brake blocks resulting in a reduction
of bearing area, since the edges of the blocks leave the wheels when
heated up. Conversely the cooled blocks distort in such a way
that when first applied the highest pressures are encountered a t the
ends, the pressure distribution being more unfavourable with long
brake blocks. I t was due to this, that double brake blocks were
introduced with many high-speed trains.
The evaluation of the results of tests carried out with the
high-speed Zephyr train already referred to a r e shown in Fig. 33.
Although these again are mean values for all brake blocks of the
train and for the entire speed range from initial speed to standstill,
they confirm the general dependencies exhibited by the curves, Fig.
31 and 32.
Tests carried out in 1936 on the experimental track of the
Central Scientific Research Institute (CNII) or the N K P S (64) have
shown that :-
(I) T h e braking distance depends on the size of the brake
blocks and the materials used.

628 J O U R N A L OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
Generally increase in hardness of cast iron brake blocks

reduces both p 1 and brake block wear.
Increased brake block sizes reduce wear but increase p l .
T h e use of brake blocks extending over the wheel flange
increase the values of ,u, bv about 2 to G Der cent.
, I i “ I
The results of a few representative tests carried out on wagons

fitted with diamond-type bogies incorporating standard, Russian
brake blocks (430 mrn. x 80 mm.), with a Brine11 hardness of 150
to 180, are shown in Fig. 34 together with an experimental curve
obtained in service by D R B (65). From the former data Babichkov
0.05
FIG. 3 3 .
FRICTION
VALUES-BURLINGTONZEPHYRTRAIN
and Egorchenko deduce equation 14, of Table 11, whilst Karvatzki
proposed equation 15. T h e values obtained in accordance with
these equations a r e plotted in Fig. 30 for a pressure of P of 2 , 3,
4, and 5 tons per block in the case of equation 14, and p of 2 , 7
and IZ kg./cm.2 in the case of equation 15.
The Author considers that it would be unwise to propose yet
another equation purporting to embrace the coefficient of friction
values in all their dependencies, for the information available is too
meagre to permit this. The many equations mentioned here should
rather serve t o indicate the general trend of earlier thoughts and
act as a deterrent-already there are at least a s many equations

as can be justified (with some goodwill) from the few road tests
carried out so far,
The data plotted in Fig. 34 indicates the general dependence
of p1 on V and p . By plotting from this p 1 as a function of V it
can be shown that there is an approximate and reasonably reliable
exponential relationship between the coefficient of brake block
friction and velocity, the former being proportional to ( I / V ) 0 . 3 6
whilst by plotting p, against p we find that p = f so that
It is of interest to note that according to tests carried out by

the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1913 (66) the coefficient of friction is
proportional to ( I fp)".""
A set of values plotted in conformity with the above dependence
is shown in Fig. 35 t9gether with the values for the coefficient of
adhesion on dry and wet rails.
The point of origin for the friction curves is the value of ,ula s
given by the uppermost curve of Fig. 34 for a speed of 25 mph.
The reason for selecting this particular point is that at low pressure
the possibility of brake rigging distortion, and particularly the
distortion of the cross-beams resulting in uneven load distribution,
is reduced and the data obtained more reliable. I t will be noted

6.30 JOURXAL OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. E N G I S E E R S

A D H E S I O N A N D FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 63 I
that the data plotted in Fig. 35 does not extend beyond a pressure
of 400 lb./sq. in., since it must be expected that a limit will be set
to the maximum brake block pressure by the temperatures
encountered as the .result of the work done and the consequent
amount of heat generated. Just where this limit lies was indicated
by rig tests carried out by the University of Illinois (67). T h e rig
consisted essentially of a 33 in. rolled-steel carriage wheel keyed to
a shaft which carried also a heavy flywheel. The kinetic energy
of the shaft, flywheel and carriage wheel a t any given rim speed
was equal to one-eighth of the kinetic energy of a car of 45.5 tons
gross weight moving a t the same speed. The brake blocks used
were all unflanged reinforced steel-back blocks with chilled ends.
Embedded within t h e cast iron body of thC block were mild steel
plates which were slotted and expanded to form a mesh with a
diamona-shaped opening, the face area of the blocks being 46.3
Speed Interva I-M.p.H.

FIG. 36.
EFFECTO F HIGH PRESSURES ON FRICTION
sq. in. T h e tests consisted in bringing the rotating elements up to

a speed slightly in excess of the desired test speed, disengaging
the clutch, and allowing the rotating parts to run free until the
speed falls to the desired level. At this instant the brake block
is applied and the wheel and other rotating parts gradually brought
to rest, the brake block pressure remaining constant throughout.
During tests a t lower pressures and speeds only a small amount
of brake block material was deposited on the wheel tread. This
was not removed. During other tests a large amount of malerial
was deposited and this was removed by subjecting the wheel to a
brake application with a sand-filled brake block. In addition the
tread was polished by means of a n abrasive block held against the
revolving wheel.

632 JOURNAL OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
This procedure, together with the inferior ventilating conditions

constitute a considerable divergence from actual operating
conditions.
,The tests confirm the general decrease of the coefficient of
friction a s the pressure is increased up to about 300 lb./sq. in. At
values above this the characteristic alters markedly (Fig. 36), the
coefficient of friction values being now not only higher than recorded
with lower pressures but also practically constant over the entire
speed range. T h e reason for this is probably accounted for by
FIG. 37.
EFFECTOF PRESSURE ON WEAR

ADHESION AND F R I C T I O N I N R A I L T R A C T I O N 633
the fact that under the high combinations of speed and pressure
the rate of heat generation is sufficiently high for the brake block
material in contact with {he wheel to begin to soften. This in turn
would result in more intimate contact and in both, increased wear
and increased p*-values. This view is supported by observations
recording a rise of brake block temperature of up to 1,150' F. some
0.25 in. below the surface, by the fact that a continuous stream of
particles of molten metal issued from under the brake blocks during
most of the period of application, and by the very marked increase
in brake block wear. The latter is plotted per stop as a function
FIG. 38.
EFFECTOF WORK ON WEAR
of pressure in Fig. 37. I t will be noted that with speeds of 60 and

80 rnph the wear is tolerable over the entire pressure range, though
somewhat @gh a t 80 mph and pressures in excess of 250 lb./sq. in.
It is, however, with stops from IOO mph that a radical change in the
rate of wear begins a t point " a " corresponding to a pressure of
about 260 Ib./sq. in. N o t only were the blocks rapidly worn away
at pressures above this point but even new blocks were sometimes
so badly cracked after one or two applications as to make them
unfit for furtherservice. I t is of interest to note that a brake block

634 JOURNAL OF T H E I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
weighing say 2 0 lb. when new and discarded a t 1 1 lb. would be,
at the rate of wear prevailing during a stop from IOO mph and a
pressure about 300 lb./sq. in., rejected from service after 6 to g
stops. There are, thus, limits to the pressures if a general break-
down of brake block material is to be avoided. However, in setting
such a limit due regard must be paid not only to the work done, but
to the time during which the brakes were applied as well, i.e., the
time-rate of work performance. The relations between work
performed and dissipated and brake block wear are plotted in Fig.
38 for a number of combinations of pressure and speed, the IOO mph
Y
-0
V
c9
x
a,
line shown on Fig. 37 being indicated from point ‘‘ a ” onwards

For the type of brake block used the limiting rates of work
performance should not be greater than 70,000 to go,ooo ft. lb./sec.
or about 1 , 5 0 0 to 1,750 ft. lb./(sec.) (sq. in.). Thermal stresses in
wheels should be also considered here.
It should be mentioned that the average bearing area of the
brake blocks used for the above tests was ascertained immediately
upon termination of a number of tests and found to vary between
10 and 95 per cent. of the total area.
The general effect of brake block hardness upon wear is
indicated by Fig. 39 plotted from test, data obtained by C N I I .
The increase in the value of pl with increased brake block
temperatures was also confirmed by the DRB rig tests (62). Train
tests carried out in France (68) confirm that high brake block
temperatures do not adversely affect p l .
Contrary to the results obtained by Wichert, Metzkow’s rig
tests have shown that with dampened brake blocks the values of

.\I>ITRSIOS ;\XI> F K I C l I O S IR’ RAIL TRACTIOS 63 5
coefficient of friction, though reduced a t lower speeds, are increased

at higher speeds. In the following table the plus values indicate
the percentile increase of p,-values a s compared with those obtained
for dry blocks.
Speed (m.p.h.)
Specific Pressure ___
lb./sq. inch. 13.6 1 37‘5 I 62.5
I -- I-- I .- 1
Both the coeficient of friction and wear are found to be lower

with heavy brake blocks than with light ones and this would make
heavier blocks preferable except in cases where a minimum stopping
distance is of paramount importance. The reason for obtaining
better pu,-values with thinner blocks is due to their increased
flexibility and consequently larger bearing area.
ft
FIG. 40.
STOPPING
TIME AND DISTANCE
(ienerally it can be stated that :-

{I) Brake block pressures should be determined by the work
they are called t o perform.
(2) T o ensure reasonable wear a Brine11 hardness of 2 2 0 to 240
should be aimed a t for brake blocks and 240 to 300 for the
wheels.

636 JOURNAL O F T H E INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
T o indicate the retardations possible on the basis of the values,

Fig. 35, consider the case of the I Do I or I Bo-Bo I locomotive
drawing twelve 40 ton carriages (tare weight 34 tons), Fig 26,
being brought to standstill from a speed of 1 2 0 mph. The ratio of
0.10
FIG.41.
BRAKEPERFORMANCE
the total inertia to the linear inertia of the locomotive is assumed
to be 1-135, that of the coaches 1.05 (based on tare weight). The
braking ratio of the driving axles shall be 230 per cent. and that
of the trailing pony truck 190 per cent., whilst the braking ratio
of the leading pony truck shall be limited to j 5 per cent. due to.

safety considerations. At a speed below 40 mph the braking ratio
of the driving wheels and rear pony wheels is reduced to 80 per
cent. Double brake blocks a r e used on all axles, the size of the
individual blocks being limited t o 3.5 in. x 1 2 in. In addition to
the air brakes use shall be made of the motors for the purpose of
retardation, the brake force due to the motors being adjusted so a s
to ensure, in combination with the air brakes, the utilisation of
~ ‘ 0 . 1 7 down to about 60 mph. T h e brake ratio for the carriages
shall be 2 5 0 per cent., reduced t o 80 per cent. for speeds below
40 mph. Here again double brake blocks shall be used, the area of
each block being 2 5 sq. in.
The resultant retardation characteristics do not include a n
allowance for the “ lost second,” nor has a n allowance been made
either for the speed with which the brakes are applied throughout
the train nor for the effect of weight transfer. It will be noted
from Fig. 40 that it is desirable to make use of the high braking
ratios down to speeds of about 20 to 25 mph. This is confirmed
by the curves, Fig. 41,which also indicate that failing a continuous
adjustment of the braking ratios required to make best use of ,ul
it will be advisable-so far a s the carriages are concerned-to
arrange for the braking ratios to be reduced in two steps (at about
75 and 25 mph), although t o make full use of p limited t o 0.17 would
mean to increase the braking ratio in the 7 j to 1 2 0 mph range to
about 320 per cent. and the specific brake block pressure to about
280 lb./sq. in. As shown on Fig. 41 the work performed by the
brake blocks is, even with a braking ratio of 250 per cent., in
excess of 1,750 ft. lb./(sec.) (sq. in.), another reminder of the
desirability of reducing the weight of rolling stock in order to ensure
satisfactory operating results.
Conclusions
The Author hopes that the data presented in this Paper indicate
in a general manner the present state of our knowledge of adhesion
as encountered with electric vehicles and vehicles developing a
similarly steady torque a t the wheels.
T h e firmament of available adhesion values presented, together
with the analysis of the more thorough investigations indicates that
up to a speed of 40 to 50 mph the coefficient of adhesion is 0 . 2 5
for dry rails. True, higher values were ascertained a t low speeds
but as a representative value 0.25 is a fair average.
’The information available on the value of adhesion a t speeds
in excess of 50 mph is less extensive and in view of the nature of
the data published so far reduces the choice of representative,
average p values to the “ your guess is a s good a s mine ” level.
The Author has put forward his views in the form of a curve (Fig.
q),but others no doubt will have different views as to the values
concerned. All the same, the development of power a t high speeds
appears to be possible with a much smaller adhesive weight than
was anticipated only a short time ago.

W i t h regard to the values of brake block friction, here again

the Author endeavoured to present data (Fig. 35) of practical value
for operators and designers alike. Whilst the values given cannot
be regarded as “ absolute ” (for that matter there never will be
available “ absolute ” values of friction or adhesion coefficients-
the variables are too many and scarcely can be controlled) they do
indicate the average values and the dependence of friction upon
speed and pressure, and it is with p l = f ( V ) that the most undesirable
features of cast iron brake blocks come to light. I t is here that
the development of more suitable materials should be pressed
forward since the need for this will be most urgent a s the speeds
will continue to increase and the requirements for more tfficient
braking become acute.
The use of brake materials ensuring not only p,-values less
dependable of V , but also higher than those obtained with cast
iron brake blocks would improve the operating efficiency, since
acceptable braking distances could be ensured wthout having to
resort to high braking ratios which in turn would reduce the weight
of the brake gear employed.
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33. A. Wichert, “ Die 1 Do 1 Lokomotive der Deutschen Reichbahn-
Gesellschaft,” Elektrische Rahnen (E.B.) 1927, No. 3 pp. 90-92.
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E.T.Z., 1928, NO. . I , pp. 17-19.
” Beitrage zur Kentnis der Reibungsverhaltnisse zwischen Rad und
Schiene ’ bei Gross-Elektrohokomotiven, insbesondere solchen mit
Einzelachsantrieb,” E.B., 1928, No. 2, pp. 63-86.
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Fahrgeschwindigkeit und der Reibungsleistung bei Lokomotiven,”
Zeitschrift d. Oester. Ing. und Archit. Vereins, Nr.9/10, 1930.
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NO. 2, pp. 25-3,;.
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1936, No. 11, p. 279.
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der Fahrmotoren und des Transformatiors elektrix%er Triebfahrzeuge,”
E.B., 1937, No. 12, p. 305.

640 JOCRKAL O F T H E IhST. OF LOCO. EXGIXEI5RS
41. von Borries, “ S’chnellbetrieb auf Hauptbahnen,” Elektrische Kraft-

betriebe und Bahnen, July 1904, No. 15, p ~ , .237-243.
42. A. M. Babichkov and V . F. Egorchenko, Tiaga Poesdov,” p. 59,
Transzheldorisdat, Moscow, 1938.
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43. H. Bager und J . Ottoson, Beitrag zur Frage des Adhasionsverhaltnisses
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bei elektrischen Locomotiven,” E.B., 1939, No. 1 1 , pp. 248-250.

44. W. Kleinow, “ 1 Do 1 Reichbahn-Schnellzuglokomotive Reihe E . 1 9 fur
180 km.!h. Geschwindigkeit,” E.B., 1939, No. 4 , pp. 92-98.
45. H. Niordmann, ”Die Reibung zwischen Rad und Smchiene bei der
Locomotive,” Glasers Annalen, 1941, pp. 289-298, 309-315.
46. E . W. Curtius and A. Kniffler:,“ Neue Erkentnisse uber die’ Haftung
zwischen Treibrad und Schiene, E.B., 1944, No. 1 / 2 , pp. 25-29, No.
314, pp. 51-57.
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Moscow, 1947.
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Schiene beim Bremsvorgang,” Organ, Vol. 89 ( 1 9 3 4 ) , No. 13, pp.
247-254.
49. K. Pflanz, “ Rad und Schiene als Reibungsgetriebe,” E.B., 1944, No.
112, pp. 1-24.
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No. 1, pp. 29-33.,,
51. Geo. L. Fowler, Coefficient of Friction between Wheels and Rails,”
Bulletin of the International Railway Congress Association, June 1908,
pp. 664-670.
52. A. G. Nikolaenko, “ Issledovanie voprosa o coefficiente sceplenia pri
troganie s mesta,” Thesis, Moscow, 1939.
53. Sauthoff, ” Die Bewegungswiderstande der Eisenbahnwagen unter
besonderen Berucksichtigung der neueren Versuche der Deutschen
Reichsbahn,” Thesis, Berlin, 1933.
54. M. Lecorn et M. L. Bochet, “ Notice Historique sur la DBcouverte des
lois du frottement de glissement,” Revue General des Chemin de Fer,
Viol. 42 ( 1 9 2 3 ) , pp. 244-252.
55. Franke, Civilingeneur. 1881, p. 211.
56. Fliegner, Schweizerische Bauzeitung, 1885, p. 19.
57. Doyen, Revue Industrielle, 1893.
58. N. P. Petrov, “ 0 Neprierivinih Tormosnih Systemah,” Isvestia S.P.B.
Technolog, Inst., 1878.
59. E. Hennig, ‘‘ Research into a method of calculating the stopping
distance. in the case of goods trains retarded by continuous brakes, with
progressive charging of the brake cylinders,” Bulletin cf the
International Railway Congress Association, March 1948, pp. 139-158,
April 1948, pp. 201-220.
60. Wichert, “ Versuche zur Ermittlung der Reibungskoeffizienten zwischen
Rad und Schiene,” Kongl. Eisenb. Direktion, Berlin, 1888, Zentralbl.
Bauv., 1 8 9 4 , ‘ ~ .73.
61. Oppermann, Waggon-und Lokomotivbau.” 1921. p. 366.
62. Metzkow, ‘ I Ergebnisse der Versuche ,f,”r die Ermittlung cles Reibungs-
wertes zwischen Rad und Bremsklotz, Glasers Annalen, Vol. 99, No. 1
(December 1 9 2 6 ) , pp. 149-159.
63 W. Lubimoff, “ Uber rechnerische und zeichnerische Ermittlung der
Fahrzeiten von Eisenbahnziigen,” p. 7 6 , Thesis, Berlin, 1932.
64. V. F. EgorFhenko, C.N.I.I. Report No. 5 9 , Mosqow, 1938.
65. F. Recbl, Verbesserunp an der Klotzbremmse fur Schnellfahrende
Eisenbahnfahrzeuge,” 2 . des V.D.I., Vol. 79, No. 41 (October 1935).
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Passenger Trains,” Journal A.S.M.E., Vol. 36 ( 1 9 1 4 ) , pp. 373-441.
67. H. G. Schrader, “ The Friction of Railway Brake Shoes a t High Speed
and High F s s u r e , ” Univ. of Illinois Bulletin No. 301, May 1938.
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Sabots, Revue Gen. des. C. de F., July 1938, pp. 16-22.

DISCUSSION
The President, in opening the discussion, agreed with the
Author’s statement, in the conclusions to the Paper, that the
development of suitable materials other than cast iron for brake
blocks should be pressed forward.
As regards the references to brake blocks extending over the
wheel flange, although some people liked them, a number did not
like them, because of the wear that took place and because of the
risk of the part over the flange breaking off while running or shunt-
ing, getting into the points and causing a derailment. H e had read
that in some countries the potential risk was regarded as being too
great to permit the fitting of brake blocks extending over the flanges.
Mr. E. S. COX (M.) hoped the Author would forgive him for
saying that the Paper was one of the most difficult t o discuss that
had been presented to the Institution for some time. T h e Author
summarised the work of very many investigators, he made a
summary of all the summaries, and then recommended a certain
mean value for general use for the ratio of adhesion which, strangely
enough, turned out to be the number one first thought of, because
the factor of 0.25 for the ratio of adhesion was one that had been
commonly used in drawing offices in this country for a very long
time. H e did not know of any recent experimental work in this
country on the subject under discussion, and he was sure t h a t if
there had been any the Author would have included it in his very
comprehensive bibliography.
There were very few locomotives in this country, either steam,
diesel or electric, which a t the higher speeds developed a tractive
effort which was likely to reach anywhere near the limits of
adhesion. Slipping a t high speed did occur, but only a s a very
rare phenomenon. F o r these reasons, he would confine his remarks
to a very few random comments on different aspects of the Paper.
First, with regard to the Author’s statement that the ratio of
0.25, o r a n adhesion factor of 4, was the most representative figure
applicable to an electric locomotive with individual drive, this ratio
of adhesion was in use on certain new Swiss locomotive designs
with a very high power-weight ratio, but it was noticeable that
those locomotives were confined in their duties t o passenger trains,
very often relatively light ones. Would not the Author agree that
for a n electric locomotive not having individual drive, for general
mixed traffic, a factor of 5 would be a more reasonable one to assume
than the 4 mentioned in the Paper?
Such a factor, if applied to conditions in this country, where
45,000. lb. tractive effort covered practically every duty, and
assuming that the adhesion ratio of j would call for a n adhesion
weight of 100 ton and relating this t o a 17 ton axle load, which
was about the greatest weight permissible for a locomotive for
general running over British lines, produced almost automatically
a Co-Co type for a general-purpose electric locomotive.

642 JOURNAL OF T H E , I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGIN'EERS
Turning t o steam locomotives, the Author mentioned on p. 621

of the Paper that there should be a reduction in the value of some
10 to 2 5 per cent. for steam locomotives compared with individual
drive electric and diesel-electric locomotives because of their less
steady tractive effort; but as against that, Fig. g in the Paper
indicated that where wheels were coupled, as distinct from individual
drive, it was possible t o obtain something like a 2 0 per cent. increase
in the adhesion value. Did not these two factors cancel out and was
it not a fact that a steam engine was not really a t a disadvantage
compared with a n individual axle electric locomotive?
I n this country the factors of adhesion were practically as varied
as the points on the various curves in the figures in the Paper, but
generally speaking, in British practice, the factors of adhesion ran
roughly between 4 and 5, covering a very wide number of
locomotives.
I t was clear, however, that there were other factors which
entered into the choice in a design of a particular factor of adhesion
besides the pure conditions of friction, because from common
observation of the performance of well-known types of locomotives
it was possible t o see very considerable differences in their behaviour.
F o r example, two well known locomotive types which were relatively
prone to slipping had ratios of adhesion of 4.5 and 4-06; yet there
were two other types of modern locomotives having ratios of 3.6 and
4.2 respectively which were exceptionally surefooted. I t was clear
that other factors entered into the picture and had a n important
bearing on the choice, such as area of steam passages, xalve events,
sensitivity of regulator and weight distribution.
There was one aspect of adhesion between wheel and rail which
was not mentioned in the Paper. In connection with flange investiga-
tion$, the value of the actual force of the flange agains: the wheel
rim was very important to any study. The only means by which
so far it had been possible to try to measure this force was by
measuring the pressure between the wheel boss and the frame of
the locomotive. The question that was unsolved was whether the
force that was measured was a true reproduction of the flange
force itself, which would mean that the lateral sliding friction of the
rotating wheel over the rail was negligible, or conversely whether
the force which was measured was almost entirely sliding friction
and in actual practice the flange did not reach the rail in the side-
to-side oscillations of the locomotive along the track. Had the
Author any information on that point, or had he seen any
experiments made which covered that aspect?
Mr. J. S. Tritton thought that the Paper, which was very
abstruse, contained two very good lessons for practical men. The
value of such research work, for which the Author was to be thanked,
was generally obvious to operating men and designers when they had
to deal with starting and stopping their trains. As Mr. Cox had
said, these coeflicients of friction, although quite good theoretically,
were upset in practice by other factors, such a s the impact effect on
coupled wheels caused by looseness in axle box wedges, boxes

knocking and slackness in big ends. These could largely vitiate the
advantage of coupled axles over the individual drive of the electric
locomotive. I n practice, as often a s not the start was made on one
axle, and if slackness permitted this to slip, the resultant shock to
the remaining coupled axles resulted in the whole lot slipping,
Theoretical calculations of coefficients were then of little value.
The other lesson which should be taken to heart was the effect of
variations of brake block pressure in the braking of long trains.
There was a very important time factor in the application of brakes.
It was very easy for the sudden or heavy application of brakes a t
the front end of a long through-braked train to produce first a bunch-
ing effect, and then heavy surging as the rear brakes took hold.
The careless driver could upset theoretical calculations of stopping
distances however carefully made. I t was therefore necessary to
provide a generous margin in practice to allow for extraneous
variable factors which in his experience could produce disastrous
effects.
Mr. W. F. McDermid (M.) said that the subject was one t o
which he himself had given quite a lot of study.
He was rather sorry that in compiling the Paper the Author
had mixed adhesion for tractive purposes with the rolling resistance
termed adhesion for braking purposes.
For a given set of conditions, the coefficient of adhesion ,U was
evidently something very definite.
If one were trying t o find the maximum adhesion of a locomotive
just starting under its own power, as any practical railwayman
knows, owing to too much cylinder-power applied, a s often a s not
the wheels may make two revolutions t o roll the distance which they
should travel in one revolution; thus, owing to “ slip,” adhesion
values recorded under such conditions are misleading.
Evidently the Author’s Search for the truth about the subject had
been almost worldwide, and certainly i t had been very thorough, but
even so, he admitted that the information available on the subject
of adhesion and friction was both scarce and not always conclusive.
Friction tests which were apparently identical in all respects but
carried out a t places a s far apart a s Moscow and the United States,
were practically cerfain to give results differing from the results
of similar tests made in this country. Apart from differences in the
materials to hand, the weather conditions prevailing a t each place
would account for variations in the coefficients recorded.
A heavy braking duty imposed generates so much heat a t the
rubbing surfaces that the coefficient of friction is lowered throughout
the test. Ordinarily the coefficient varies inversely with the speed,
i.e., as the speed of the rubbing decreased the coefficient of friction
increases; but the duty imposed may be heavy enough for the
resultant temperature to lower the resistance to perhaps half that
usually associated with the speed of rubbing. On the other hand,
if it could be provided for, a rapid dissipation of the heat generated
would enable the coefficient associated with any one speed to change,

644 JOURXAL OF THE I K S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
up or down, in approximate agreement with, for instance, a chart

of Galton’s instantaneous coefficients of friction.
Broadly speaking, although there were differences, a11 the
coefficients of friction arrived a t by the many experimenters whose
records were reviewed in the Paper appeared to have a strong family
likeness when assembled in their speed-groups.
The Author only briefly referred to the useful work which Captain
Douglas Galton had carried out in this country in the matter of
establishing frictional resistance coefficients, and expressed regret
that Galton had not published all the information which might have
been handed down ; but the information which Galton had published
was comprehensive, mechanically reliable, and comparable with that
done by any other searcher in the same field.
Galton was acting on behalf of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers when he conducted his tests, the main purposes of which
appears to have been to determine the average coefficient of friction
of cast iron brake blocks pressed into contact with steel tyres, when
using a wide range of pressures at each rubbing-speed; and also to
define the coefficient of adhesion between the wheels and the rail.
Particulars of the whole series of Galton’s tests were published
in the Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Enginceers for
the years 1878 and 1879.
Incidentally, Galton had made many emergency brake stops with
his test van, a t rates varying between 3 and 5 miles per hour per
second. The best of recent emergency stops, made when using
modern quick service valves and slack adjusters, etc., had been
made a t the rate of only z miles per hour per second, which was
not quite 40 per cent. of the best that could be done and had been
d<emonstrated.
Galton’s brake was quickly applied to full power and there was
a controlled “ blow-down ” for the brake cylinder pressure a s the
speed was reduced.
aGalton’s coefficients of resistance were obtained by introducing
water-filled pads a t suitable points in the brake rigging. These
pads acted as dynamometers in such a manner that gauge readings
of the internal pressur’es disclosed the forces which were acting on
the pads, and thus one could find : ( I ) The total pressure thrusting
the brake blocks into contact with the tyres when the brake was
applied; (2) The tangential resistance of the brake blocks due to
each increment of their loading by brake action ; (3) The total sliding
resistance a t rail level, when the wheels wermeactually skidding, due
to brake action,
With regard to adhesion, the tangential resistance of the brake
blocks a t the instant immtediately before the wheels began to skid by
brake action was, of course, a measure of the maximum rolling
resistance between the wheels and the rail. Galton had found that
a t all velocities the rolling resistance, or adhesion coefficient, between
wheel and rail was practically constant during a given state of rail

condition, but varied with the rail condition. T h e nominal limits of
adhesion, without using sand on the rails, were found to be:-
For dry rails 0.25 Average, about 0.24
F o r wet rails 0.15 Average, about 0.18
4
*
. . .
4
'
CoefFicienis cf FricXon.
FIG.A
One would hardly expect to record the same degree of rolling

resistance or adhesion for wheels of greatly differing diameter, even
when the wheel loading was the same in each case. Could the
Author give any definite information about railway wheels of extreme
diameters, in relation t a resistances actually recorded, when such
wheels were rolling on the rail? The wheels of Galton's test van

6.16 JOURNAL OF THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
were 3 ft. 6 in. diameter, and the lowest coefficient of adhesion on a

wet rail was 0 . 1 5 .
Did the Author agree that, if the brakes used had the necessary
power, which power could be quickly applied to full force and then
controlled, a 15 per cent. stop-which meant a stop made a t the rate
of 3.293 miles per hour per second-could be made without any risk
of developing a skid?
H e called attention t o a graph, Fig. A, and some descriptive
matter which had already been published in the Institution’s Journal,
a s part of Paper No. 337, entitled “ Brakes for Streamlined Railway
Vehicles. ” T h e graph showed Galton’s instantaneous coefficients
of friction of brake blocks a s recorded in his Table I S , and also
other supporting information which was superimposed.
GRAPH
TABLEI S (*l)
Number of
Exoeriments Velocity of Rubbing Coefficients of Friction
from which the
Mean is Taken MPH FPS Extremes Observed Mean
12 60 88 .123 .058 ,074
67 55 81 ,136 .060 ,111
55 50 73 ,153 .050 ,116
77 45 66 .179 ,083 ,127
70 40 59 .194 .088 ,140
80 35 51 .197 ,087 ,142
94 30 44 ,196 .098 .I64
70
69
78
25
20
15 22
3 ,205
,240
‘280
.lo8
.133
.131
,166
.192
,223
54 10 141 .281 ,161 ,242
28 74 11’ ,325 .123 ,244
Under Under
20 5 7 .340 -156 .273
Just moving ,330
(*’) From page 172 of the Proceedings of 1.Mech.Engineers for April 1879
One item, which had been stumbled across many years ago and
yet fitted into its place on the graph very neatly, would, he hoped,
attract the interest of the Author, or someone else who would be
able to explain just why it fitted. I t was clear that there was a
link of some sort between the initial coefficient of friction and the
temperature of brake blocks which had been working continuously
for about half a minute. T h e brake block temperatures after use,
which had been adopted when this particular item on the graph was
prepared, were recorded in America about 30 years after Galton’s
experiments had ended. Galton had made no records of temperature
changes.
Mr. McDermid then showed Fig. 2%of the graph, and explained
that the open rings adjacent to curve A showed the position of 1 3
*Published on p. 335, Journal 125, May-June 1935.

ADHESION AND FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION 64i
coefficients which were recorded between zero speed and a speed
of 60 miles per hour. T h e records were taken a t speed intervals
of about 5 miles per hour. Each coefficient shown was the mean
reading of many taken within each speed group of tests. The
braking pressure thrusting the brake blocks on t o the tyres ranged
between 87 and 162 per cent. of the weight of the test van, plus that
of the travelling personnel. All coeficient readings were taken
at the moment that the brake pressure reached the intended maximum
for each particular test. From 2 t o 3 seconds after the application
of the brake was initiated was mentioned as the reading time.
Running speeds in miles per hour were indicated on the left-hand side
of the graph and coefficients were marked along the base. In all,
774 tests had been made, th:e average number made per speed group
being just over jj tests. T h e curve A which passed approximately
through Galton's rings was calculated to a formula shown on the
graph; which was evolved by the Westinghouse Air Brake Co., of
the U.S.A.
Curve B indicated the reduction of the initial or instantaneous
coefficient value, due to the heating which took place during the
time that the brake blocks traversed a distance of 2 0 0 ft. a t each
speed of rubbing.
Curve C was drawn t o the same formula a s curve A, except
that the value of the constant had been altered to pick up the three
mean coefficient readings marked by squares, which readings were
obtained when testing a cast iron brake block (Brine11 No. 191) a t
Altoona, U.S.A. T h e pressure on this block was maintained a t
I j o per cent. of the wh'eel load throughout the testing. A line on
the chart (located on the right-hand side of another temperature line,
D) indicated the temperature changes in this block after 30 seconds
working a t each speed of rubbing. This line had no reference
letter, but could be identified by its " squares " markings.
Curve D showed the average temperature of brake blocks after
30 seconds braking, a t the several speeds, with 1 5 0 per cent. of the
wheel load applied all the while, and line E indicated by scale the
distance in feet which the blocks traversed in that time. T h e tem-
perature changes in degrees F and the distance traversed in feet
could be measured on the horizontal scale of the graph.
The item of information to which he had previously referred as
likely to be of special interest concerned the formula shown at the
bottom left-hand corner of the graph. . This reads
F=vz.83/T°Fah.
On the graph, " F " denoted the coefficient of friction. The constant
(2.83) amounted to practically the fourth root of (64.4 or 2 g ) , and
" To " was the appropriate tfemperature reading to be taken from
curve D.
Small black dots, shown in practical agreement with the cal-
culated curve A, marked positions on the graph found by using the
specially mentioned formula.
S.O.S.

648 JOURNAL OF T H E IXST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
W h a t was the connection between this brake block temperature

after it had been working for 30 seconds and the initial coefficient
of friction which was to be expected at the instant that the blocks
started to do their work?
Unfortunat,ely, the temperature records used to construct curve
D were no longer available. With a view to making it easier for
anyone disposed to answer the S.O.S. the graph in 'Journal No. 1 2 5
had been measured. Horizontally the graph, 3.7 in. wide, repre-
sented 8oo°F., therefore one inch equalled 216-2'F. :-
By measurement, "F" Coefficients declared by

MPH. Graph-edge to "D' 2.83 /To Curve Galton, per Table IX
Inches T' =FZ F "A" (for comparison)
80 1.78=385' .00735 ,086 .085
70 1.44 = 311.4' .00909 .095 .094 Mean: Max: Min:
60 1.17 =253' .01119 .lo5 .lo5 ,074 .123.....:058
50 .92= 199' .0142:! .119 a118 .116 *153.. .....050
40 .73= 157.8' ,01794 .134 *135 .140 .194.....:088
30 .55= 118.90 ,02380 .155 .158 .164 -196.....:098
20 .37= 800 -03538 -188 *191 -192 -240.....:133
10 .23=47.9' .05694 ,239 -241 -242 .281......-161
Mr. D. C. Brown (M.) observed that the curve in Fig. 10,

showing a constellation of dots with a line judiciously steered through
the middle, not only illustrated a point made by the Author, but was
representative of quite a lot of the knowledge on which locomotive
engineers had to work. Many of their most careful calculations had
consequently to be based on a nice mixture of scientific principles,
hard-bought experience and intelligent anticipation. This had been
brought home t o him in dealing with tractive resistance where, if
one works out a given problem by three very well-known and well-
used methods, one obtained widely different results, and the fact
that locomotive engineering had been developed so successfully under
these conditions was due largely t o the fact that in many cases one
had a good deal in hand. As one approached the limits of a problem,
however, it was all the more necessary t o have a n accurate basis
on which to work.'
Locomotive engineers should therefore be very grateful to
Authors who presented Papers which dealt with fundamental data.
These Papers, he felt, could be divided into two main classes.
There were those which wer'e based on the " Three E's "-to
experiment, to establish and to examine. If, however, the Papers
presented to the Institution were confined merely t o those that dealt
with problems of fundamental railway research, they would not meet
nearly so often. There were, however, Papers belonging to another
class which were equally valuable and he classified these as coming
under the " Thr,ee C's "-to collect, t o collate and to criticise. The
present Paper belonged to that class. Everyone knew of Papers in
which the " Three C's " were not balanced, in which the Authors
collected but neither collated nor criticised. T h e Paper, however,
measured up well on all counts.

ADHESIOX AND FRICTION I N R A I L TRACTION 649
He would like to make one or two remarks regarding adhesion.

The experiments quoted were mainly carried out under practical con-
ditions, and whilst this type of experiment had many advantages, the
results were bound to be affected by a number of variables and
unknowns. As the Author had pointed out, uncontrollable factors
would always be present in railway problems of the type under con-
sideration, but there did appear to be a danger in evolving data
solely on a n empirical basis. This was brought out very
clearly in connection with dynamic tests on bridges. Over a period
of years committees in various countries had carried out experiments
on the vibration of bridges, plotted the results and translated the
curves into formulze, but the real facts were not discovered until the
British Bridge Stress Committee’s research by a team of experimental
engineers working in close collaboration with a team of
mathematicians.
If experimental results of adhesion coefficients at various
speeds, taken under laboratory conditions, were available, it would
be interesting and probably instructiv’e to compare them with the
values obtained in the practical experiments quoted in the Paper and
it might be possible to make some assessment of the effect of the
variable factors.
A point which ought perhaps to be mentioned, concerned the
translation of adhesion coefficients into adhesion factors. W h e n
deciding on an adhesion factor for use in designing a locomotive, it
was, of course, essential to consider such variables as climatic
conditions and cyclic variation of torque. If it was necessary to
consider adhesion a t speed, the dynamic behaviour of the wheels and
the conditions of the track would also be involved.
Finally, he suggested that the Author should expand the last
paragraph entitled “ Conclusions,” since it was this paragraph
which would be most consulted by those using the Paper. H e felt
that the matter in this paragraph had been over-simplified and that it
would be a n advantage t o set out a little more amply the fruit of so
much labour and so much research.
Mr. N. (i. Cadman (A.M.) expressed gratitude t o the Author
for having collected together so much information on a subject on
which the available information was very meagre.
I t was suggested in the Paper that a coefficient of adhesion of
0 . 2 5 was a fair average for dry rails. This was probably true, but
unfortunately when making calculations of probable stopping
distances one was quite unable t o use this figure much as we would
like t o do so.
I t had been found in practice that 0.16 was a very fair figure
to use in order t o cover the worst conditions and one assumed this
figure to remain constant a t all speeds because one did not know any
better.
T h e use of this figure had been confirmed in practice by the
experifence gained using retardation controlled braking with cast iron
brake blocks. In this case the retardation controller was set to
maintain a retardation rate of 0.15 g and during braking it was

6j o JOURNAL OF THE INST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
found that with this setting some of the wheels would occasionally
slide under the very worst conditions, thus indicating that the
coefficient of adhesion was approximately 0-1 5.
The choice of 0.16as a general figure for bad conditions appears,
therefore, t o be borne out in practice for use with cast iron brake
blocks.
The Author showed some very interesting curves of coefficients
of friction of cast iron blocks, but in general these figures apply
a t the commencement of the brake application only and did not show
what happened to the coefficient of friction during the time the brake
was applied.
In making any sort of forecast of stopping distance it was
necessary to decide first what coefficient of friction may be assumed
for the commencement of braking when the blocks and tyres were
cold, and then t o know the shape of the curve of coefficient of friction
against speed during the stop.
For the first figure the most reliable information was probably
Galton’s test, and a curve t o a formula already mentioned b y Mr.
McDermid has been found to lie satisfactorily through his mean
points. This curve has been extended to cover higher speeds than
those a t which Galton made his tests. One has had to assume that
this is correct and experience has shown that some reliance may be
placed on it.
F o r the coefficient during braking a number of curves had been
worked out based on the curves of retardation taken with a Wimperis
Recording Accelerometer during brake tests.
If the brake force remained constant during the stop then the
retardation curve which was recorded was also the coefficient of
friction curve t o a difference scale. If this curve of the coefficient
of friction were drawn starting from the appropriate figure for the
commencement of braking a s given by Galton’s mean curve the result
was a very useful curve of coefficient of friction against speed during
a stop. A family of such r:urves had been collected and from these
it was possible to make calculations of probable stopping distances
a n d timces.
Examining the curve for a stop from 92 m.p.h. the coefficient
instead of rising all the time as the speed drops, first decreases
slightly-one assumed that this was due to the temperature effect,
so to speak, beating the speed effect-it then remained almost level
for a time and then rose again. T h e block pressure in this case was
between 1 5 0 and 2 0 0 pounds per sq. in.
Towards the end of the Paper, the Author mentioned high speed
braking in steps of brake force. Experience gained with high speed
braking having one step has shown that 28 miles per hour is a good
speed a t which to drop the brake force from the high value used
for high speeds to the lower value. This had been determined by
trial and error. The Author suggested 2 5 miles per hour and it was
a point of interest that only that afternoon it had been mentioned
that the railway concerned were considering dropping the changeover

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 65 1
from 28 to 2 5 miles per hour, which really confirmed the Author's
argument on the subject.
T h e whole problem was one in which a good deal of trial and
error was inevitable and there were so many variables that any
forecast of braking must be of a very approximate nature.
Mr. A. W. Simmons (A.), who said that he had been searching
the will-o'-the-wisp of friction for many years, although not over the
vast field covered by the Author in the Paper, endorsed the Xuthor"s
conclusion that it was far from an exact science; in fact, one had
to be very careful in using any figures, even those given by very
well-known people, and one must know the exact conditions in
which the tests were taken before utilising any figures.
For instance, adhesion must be affected to a large extent by the
state of the wheel, and the state of the wheel would be affected by
whether thkre was a brake block on that wheel or not. A cast iron
brake block would roughen up the wheel. Again, the kind of
material of the brake block would surely have an effect on the state
of the wheel and consequently a n effect on the coefficient of adhesion.
In America quite a number of tests had been carried out, but a
large number of the brake blocks used in America were of the
diamond-S pattern which had an inserted steel mesh ; he suggested
that in such cases the coefficient of friction would be somewhat
different from what it was for the plain cast iron.
Another point to be,noted in regard to braking was that when
the stage of slipping or locking of the wheels was almost reached,
a jolt or a movement over rail joints which relieved the pressure of
the wheel on the rail often caused that wheel to lock, and once the
wheel had locked it took a considerable reduction in braking force
on that wheel t o start it revolving again-i.e. the coefficient of
friction when a wheel was rolling was considerably higher than the
coefficient of friction when the wheel was sliding.
H e very much hesitated t o mention one other set of tests because
the Author had gone into the matter so well, but he did not recognisz
in the list a t the end of the Paper any mention of the Marienfelde-
Zoseen trials in Germany. H e wondered whether any of those tests
which were mentioned included the MarienfeldeZossen trials. H e
could recollect some very interesting curves in those trials giving the
coefficients of friction during braking.
Mr. T. Henry Turner, M.Sc. (M.) said that the Paper was of
the sort which it was always worth having in the library, because
it saved one a great deal of time in finding out what had been done.
When one recalls that some of the early measurements of
friction and adhesion were made on wrought iron and the later ones
on high carbon steels one could not help being surprised a t the
relative uniformity of the figures, rather than a t their variations.
The rail section and composition had changed, the composition of
the tyre and its caning had changed, and yet one still obtained very
similar adhesion figures.
I t was in the special extreme case, a t the point where adhesion
ceased, that railwaymen became most interested. T h e Author's

division of adhesion and friction, rolling and sliding, was a good

one. Our trouble nearly always occurred when trying t o start a
train ; when its wheels had not yet started to roll, the driving wheels
started t o slide and the wheel spin burned the rail. T h e rail was
pressed against the tyre in much the same way as the brake block
was pressed against the tyre. But what happened was not the same,
because the materials were different. T h e steel rail had the same
melting point as the tyre, and the heat generated by the friction
made it plastic and even melt, so that one could see little waves of
metal on the top of wheel burnt rails. Cracks were then produced
as the overheated piece of the rail chilled. One did not g e t in the
rail the effect of the latent heating fusion of cast iron, which one did
with brake blocks. T h e energy of the slowing train melted the
rubbing surface of the cast iron which had a lower melting point than
the steel of the tyre.
One could understand how cracks were formed both by the
over-heating of the rail, where it was burnt, and of the cast iron
brake block when friction melted its surface, but there was this
difference, that in the latter case heat was removed by the latent heat
of fusion of the cast iron, the difference between raising it to melting
temperature and changing it t o molten cast iron.
Another extreme case, that of the roaring rail, should also be
studied and he would like t o ask the Author whether he had con-
sidered what was the adhesion of a tyre on a roaring rail. Such
rails were so corrugated that the wheels jumped quite appreciable
lengths a s they rolled along. O n the electrified Brighton line, for
instance, one seemed to hear roaring rails for miles on end. The
vehicle was at high speed and its wheels could not be getting normal
adhesion. One might indeed wonder whether it was not corrosion
alone, through water lodging in the hollows in the rail top, which
caused these corrugations. Some initial wheel spin may actually
cause the abnormal up and down movement which made the wheels
jump from crest t o crest as they rolled along the corrugated rail
surface.
Such corrugation could be seen on rails where locomotives pulled
up before a signal and also where they accelerated from water
pick-up troughs. In the latter case there was admittedly added
corrosion through splash. In both these cases the normal adhesion
was strained by a change of speed, in the one case slowing down and
in the other case accelerating.
Another point of interest in regard t o adhesion and friction
was that some locomotive motions were losing so much oil that it
flowed right across the driving wheel and across the brake block.
W h a t was the effect of such oil on the tyre tread or brake block? He
had been rather alarmed on going out of Paddington once or twice
to see that the brake blocks were so arranged that the oil stream
reached down to the brake block-but the train seemed to pull up all
right. Quotations were given in the Paper concerning greasy rails,
but he had not noted any about the effect of a good lubricant like
engine motion oil!

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN R A I L TRACTION 653
The overheating of the tyre by friction was a matter that very
much concerned designers, because the rail was damaged by
unsprung weight. To cut down the unsprung weight, a sprung
wheel centre was needed, but a metal sprung wheel centre seemed
to be impracticable, and rubber which tramway wheel designers used
wodld not stand brake block generated heat. Had the Author's
studies suggested a way in which an ordinary type brake could be
used without raising the temperature of the wheel centre too much?
He regarded that as a point which should be studied.
There was now in this country, in the L.M.S. mobile test plant,
a tool which seemed to him to be ideal for testing the adhesion of a
wheel under different conditions, when running over a roaring rail
or a good length of continuously welded track, to take the two
extremes. I t would be a good thing if the Railway Executive could
add a brake testing department to its new locomotive testing station.
A dozen years ago, when going round Grunewald, it had seemed to
him that a considerable part of the locomotive testing station there
was devoted to brake testing. I t would be very useful if there
could be something of the same sort in this country.
WRITTEN CONTRIBUTIONS
Mr. W. A. Agnew (P.P.) wrote that the information given by
the Author and his comments would be of great interest t o railway
students and operators.
His statement that we must for a long time expect t o see cast
iron brake blocks applied t o wheel treads is no doubt true but makes
very depressing reading.
Railway engineers can obtain rapid acceleration and high speeds
with comparatively little wear and tear. 'But can they remain
satisfied with present methods of braking so destructive in action?
The Author rightly draws attention to the need for the further
development of materials suitable for brake blocks. He also
emphasises the value of utilising-in certain circumstances-the
driving axles of electric and diesel vehicles for braking purposes and,
in this connection, he has described a n engine-exhaust brake for
railcars in the Bulletin of the International Railway Congress
Association (79).
Many systems of non-frictional braking have been developed
for electric trains and I venture to suggest that a Paper describing
this and reviewing the possibilities of non-frictional braking for other
types of railway vehicles would be a useful contribution to our
Journal.
Mr. W . A. Nightingale (M.) wrote that a s one who had given
some thought to problems in the design of steam locomotives, he
appreciated the help it would be when fixing cyclinder and coupled
wheel dimensions to know with greater certainty the maximum
torque which could be transmitted both a t starting and a t various
speeds of running and to have data to indicate the extent t o which,

if a t all, the friction coefficient between tyre and rail was influenced
by wheel diameter and the deflection of the rail under the load. A
particular case which the writer had in mind was one where the
requirements of the service demanded the development of maximum
horse power a t comparatively low speeds. T h e cylinder dimensions
best suited to provide the required output a t the desired speed would
for starting from rest give a factor of adhesion as generally under-
stood with a value below the normally accepted limit. In such a
case it was necessary to decide how much of the desired performance
a t the speed where most of the work was to be done must be
sacrificed in order to g e t an engine that would start reasonably well.
More precise information about the friction coefficient between tyre
and rail wouid possibly allow of a reduced margin of safety,
permitting cylinder diameters to be increased to those more suited
to maximum power output a t speeds in the normal operating range.
Designers might then perhaps be encouraged to base cyclinder and
wheel dimensions on considerations of torque variation throughout
each revolution of the wheels rather than by the use of a somewhat
arbitrar? ratio of the average starting tractive effort to the adhesive
weight.
In practice the maximum force a t the wheel rim may, unless
slipping supervenes, increase by as much as 2 5 per cent. on account
of bored out cylinders and turned down tyres so that a decision
had to be made whether new or condemning conditions were to be
considered when checking a design for adequacy against slipping
tendencies. I t was almost certain to be found that under some
conditions of departure from nominal sizes the potential torque would
exceed the value that adhesion permited to be transmitted. It was
therefore desirable that in the detail design of the locomotive special
attention be given t o those features which might have a controlling
influence on the tendency to slip when the critical torque was
approached. One of the most obvious needs was to have a sensitive
regulator, but observation of locomotives built as lately as during
the recent war showed that that requirement was not invariably
met and that where slide valve regulators were adopted proper
provision for lubrication of the valve faces had not always been made.
Refinement in the detail design of springing was another step in the
right direction likely to result in the designed loads on coupled axles
being maintained at their correct value. .A case could be called to
mind where the provision o i more flexible springs reduced a readiness
to slip. Lastly observation of engines built with carrying axles at
both ends indicated that types with this class of wheel arrangement
exhibit in a number oi cases an exaggerated tendency to slip and
suggests the desirability of providing a sensitive system of spring
equalisation in all such cases. These points will certainly not be
new to locomotive designers who, it is to be hoped, will be
encouraged as more exact data regarding friction coefficients become
available t o give these details of design the close attention they
deserve.

ADHESION AND FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION
AUTHOR’S REPLY
The Author, in his reply, said the President raised the question
of the desirability of using brake blocks extending over the wheel
flange. The Author agreed that blocks of this type were generally
undesirable, but sometimes-particularly in the case of tramway
bogies-they were used since it was not possible to provide the cross
connecting rods.
The Author was indebted to MY. C o x for raising a number of
interesting points. The coefficient of adhesion of 0.25 was mentioned
as a representative mean value applicable for speeds of up to
40 m.p.h. only. The Author was glad to note that this value
happened t o be the one Mr. Cox first thought of, but he would like
to point out that the various equations mentioned in Table I (and
some of these were somewhat misleading) of the Paper a r e still .being
used elsewhere, and also that when he wrote the Paper he did not
have in mind drawing offices “ in this country ” only. In matters
so fundamental as adhesion it is scarcely justified to fix one’s horizon.
The Paper was written t o foster the design and operation of high-
speed trains running behind locomotives capable of developing a
tractive effort up to the limits of adhesion and that a t maximum
speeds-a feat which the conventional steam locomotive seems to be
quite incapable of fulfilling. Apart from p=o.z5 the Author also
mentioned that higher values were ascertained a t low speeds, a fact
clearly shown in Figs. 6, 7 , 8, 9, 10 and 15 of the Paper. Whilst
thus Mr. Cox’s ready acceptance of the value of 0 . 2 5 is justified from
the operator’s point of tiew-and it is from that point of view that
it was put forward by the Author-it is submitted that the designer
must be more cautious. When designing a diesel-mechanical railcar
some 1 2 years ago, the Author basced the proportions of the springs
interposed between the torque reaction arm and the adjoining bogie
member on p = o . 2 5 , with the result that before long the springs
went home (presumably when starting or changing from first to
second gear on dry rails) and the final drive housing split. Similarly
high stresses must be expected with the gears and suspension of
axle-hung motors and because of this the Author considers that
p = o . y j should be used in drawing offices when dealing with this
aspect of vehicle design.
With regard to the Swiss electric locomotives the trains they
are called t o handle were often relatively light, but the grades dealt
with were not. T h e 80 ton Bo-Bo series 251 locomotive of the
Liitschberg Railway is called for to accelerate a 400 ton train on a
grade of I in 37 from standstill to 47 m.p.h. in j minutes. T h e
one-hour rating of the three types I Bo I Bo I + I Bo I Bo I
locomotives built for the Gotthard route in 1931, 1932 and 1939 is
based on p-values of 0 . 2 1 2 , 0.234 and 0.239 respectively. The one-
hour rating of the I Co-Co I machines acquired by the Ldtschberg
Railway in 1939 requires a p of 0 . 2 5 , whilst the I Bo-€30 I machines
placed in service by the Federal Railways, 1941 to 1945, call for p of
0.22. All these machines have individual drives, the speed a t the

one-hour rating varying between 35 to 54 m.p.h. These machines

were built not solely in order to meet present-day requirements, but
also with an eye on the future, particularly so far a s increasing the
speeds of goods trains was concerned. But even today the highly
improved performance-bought at the addition expense of a few tons
of weight-was most welcome to the operating department,
permitting increased train loads, or better accelerations or both. The
ability of rapidly accelerating heavy trains was particularly
appreciated on mountain routes, whilst on the other hand it was
of n o less importance on heavily trafficed (tramatised) suburban lines.
T h e coefficient of adhesion of 0.25 is one we could safely expect on
dry rails, but whether one was prepared to make full use of it for
calculating train performance is a different matter, particularly since
we had t o balance the tractive effort with the tractive resistance
which was not always precisely known. I t was because of this
that a somewhat different method of approach might be attractive
whereby the widely varying tractive resistance a t start-the “ stiction
resistance ” which depends on a great number of variables-is neg-
lected, together with the resistance offered to acceleration by the
rotating components, and account is only taken of the rolling
resistanoe a t low speeds together with an allowance for curve
resistance, say 5 . 5 and 2.5 lb./ton respectively, and a safety factor
introduced into the value of p. The latter is then assumed to 0.1;
t o 0 . 2 , the low values being valid for short electric locomotives
handling long (empty) trains, the latter for long electric locomotives
and short (laden) trains.
Whilst with a IOO ton Co-Co locomotive a tractive effort of
55,000 lb. can be expected, an increase of the permissible axle load
t o 2 0 ton would permit the use of Bo-Bo engines capable of develop-
ing a tractive effort of 44,000 lb.
W i t h regard to the comparison of the steadiness of tractive
effort developed by electric or Diesel-electric locomotives as com-
pared with steam locomotives, it is well known that the ratios Z of
maximum to mean tractive effort of steam locomotives are approxi-
mately as follows:-
Electric Locomotive z=1
2 and 3 cyl.steam z=1.1 t o 1.2
3 cyl. compound, steam 2=1.5
4 cyl. compound, steam Z=1.2
Consequently pst=p / Z.
T h e Author considers that the data shown on Fig. 9 does not
justify the generalised conclusions made by Mr. Cox. As pointed
out in the Paper the individual drive locomotive concerned was of
the Bo-Bo type which is particularly prone to suffer from the
consequences of weight transfer (which can be overcome by the use
of air controlled load transfer equalisers), a tendency which is not
unknown with steam locomotives of the Mallet type. Locomotives
of the I Do I or I Bo-Bo I types with frame mounted motors can be
designed, by paying due attention to wheel springs and coupling
springs, and by using equalisers, to ensure a weight utilisation factor

ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 6.57
F, of O ’ g j to I . This together with Z = I makes the elmectric and

diesel electric locomotive superior t o the steam engine.
It is of course quite obvious that the available factor of adhesion
depends on a considerable number of factors such as condition of
track (as pointed out in the Paper even the adhesion available on dry
rails varied with the number of trains which passed over it), the
factors mentioned by Mr. Cox for steam locomotives, together with
the arrangement of wheel springs, the degree of balancing achieved,
the possibility of the fluctuating tractive effort causing resonance
vibrations in the drawbar springs and even the possible elasticity
of the spokes of large driving wheels.
A considerable number of very useful Papers were published
on flange forces notably by Baseler (69), Heumann (70) and
Borgeaud (71) and these the Author would commend to Mr. Cox.
M r . Tritton suggests that generous margins of p should be
provided in practice to allow for a number of variables such as
FIG. 42
BRAKEAPPLICATION PHASES
badly maintained steam locomotives and inadequately trained drivers.

Since either of these “ extraneous variables ” could produce
“ disastrous effects ” it might be wiser to improve one and train
the other and thus ensure operation which should be more reliable
than a mere reduction of p. So far as braking was concerned a
,u7of 0 . 1 5 to 0.17 was a generally adopted figure and the latter value
was used for the example worked out in the Paper, and should be
capable of dealing with the contingency of “ train bunching.”

6j8 JOURNAL OF T H E I N S T . OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
The mechanics of train surging are clearly indicated by a

tjpicnl brake application diagram Fig. 42. According to this there
exist four clearly defined phases.
Phase I . This embraces the time from the moment the brake
valve is actuated t o the time the wave reaches the last carriage.
During this time the train is compressed to t h e maximum extend.
Phase 2 . T h e pressure in all brake cylinders is gradually
increased, but the pressure difference between first and last cylinder
remains constant. The train remains compressed.
Phase 3. The pressure in all brake cylinders is gradually
increased until it becomes a maximum. The train, compressed at
the beginning of this phase, will a t the end of it reach a state of
equilibrium with the consequent return of buffer or coupling springs
into the original condition under the influence of the recoil forces.
Phase 4. N o reaction in couplers or buffers is encountered
here provided the brake forces are evenly distributed throughout the
train.
So far as coupling stresses are concerned the most dangerous
train speed a t which brakes are applied appears t o be 1 2 to 2 0 1n.p.h.
At higher speeds the effect of buffer recoil is less pronounced since
the difference in relative speed of the individual vehicles is smaller
compared with the train speed, whilst a t lower speeds the train
might be brought to a standstill before the brakes are full) applied
throughout its entire length.
T h e designer is thus called for to ensure a judicious combination
of buffer or coupler spring characteristics and brake cylinder charge
control, rather than to provide a ‘‘ generous margin ” in the value
of p.
The Author was grateful t o M r . IV. F . McDermid for his most
interesting contribution. H e felt justified in not making a rigid
distinction between adhesion for braking and driving, for so far
there was n o practical evidence that there was such a distinction.
Galton’s tests were only briefly dealt with since they were assumed
t o be well known to engineers in this country and the values given
in Mr. McDermid’s first table were the identical ones to those
plotted in Fig. 28 of the Paper. T h e fact that Galton was able to
achieve good emergency stops is probably in n o small measure due
to the use of short and light test trains (in this case 16 four-wheel
carriages weighing some 175 tons). T h e Author had no definite
information on the effect of wheel diameter upon rolling resistance.
H e agreed that a 15 per cent. stop (p=o.15) could be made without
any risk of skidding. T h e nature of the dependence of p upon
temperature has not been so far precisely established. \Yhilst the
data quoted by Mr. McDermid indicates a certain dependence, other
investigations (67, 72) indicate that up to temperatures of 680”F.,
p does not depend upon time. Because of this, t h e limited data
available and the number, of assumptions that would have t o be
made, it would be scarcely justifiable t o attempt to deduce a mathe-
matical explanation for the dependence mentioned.

ADHESION AND FRICTION I N R A I L TRACTION 6.59
i l l v . D . C. B r o w n raised the questiqn of controlled i.e. rig

tests ~ e r s u stests carried out under actual operating conditions. So
far as adhesion was concerned it was extremely difficult, if not
altogether impossible, t o obtain reliable results by rig tests alone.
In practice the wheels and rails were polished when driving and
roughened when braking, the profiles of both altered through wear
and the dynamic forces further clouded the picture. Even if it were
possible to isolate and evaluate the influence of the various factors,
designers and operators would still have t o allow for all of these and
then choose the lowest p values for dry rails when dealing with
braking and the mean values for driving. Because of this he
would saj that results obtained under service condition were of
greater practical value,
There were also available the results of purely theoretical
researches, due to Lorenz (73), Fromm (4) and more recently Fiippl
(j). T h e last named investigator shows that on the basis of
theoretical considerations the value for rolling friction cannot exceed
that of sliding friction by more than 13.6 per cent. when driving and
33 per cent. when braking, the greater difference in the latter case
being due to the effect of brake blocks upon the stress distribution
in the wheel rim. A glance on Figs. 14 t o 16 will show that this
difference is far greater than that deduced by theoretical investiga-
tions backed by the results-of rig tests due to Sachs (76).
With regard to Mr. Brown’s final suggestion for amplified
conclusions he felt that the purpose concerned would be better served
bq presenting a synthesis of the relevant information in the form of
graphs, Fig. 43.
M r . A T . G. Cadman confirmed Metzkow’s recommendations to
the effect that for braking p should not exceed 0.15, though 0.16
may be relied upon as a general value. T h e Author used 0 . 1 7
which, although slightly higher, has been maintained when braking-
from 1 0 0 m.p.h., though with locomotives it required a very careful
adjustment of the components involved. Naturally, one had to be
far more cautious when deciding upon the maximum retardation.
I n the case of acceleration an occasional overestimation of ,U may
cause some slight delay in starting or even in reaching destination.
In the case of retardation it can lead to disaster. However, recent
iinprol ements, particularly the possibility of increasing the speed of
propagation up to 4,000 ft./sec. should result in more efficient train
control.
T h e friction values shown in Figs. 31, 32 and 34 were ascer-
tained during constant speed tests. Whilst Galton’s curves are
thoroughly reliable their value is limited because they were ascer-
tained for what nowadays are moderate specific pressures. Also
they give no indication as to the effect of pressure on friction, a
dependence which-as indicated in Fig. 35 of the Paper-is of
utmost importance when braking from high speeds.
Mr. Cadman’s experience that p decreases slightly as the speed
decreases, before rising again confirms the curve shown in Fig. 3’

660 JOURNAL O F T H E I N S T . O F LOCO. ENGINEERS
for a pressure of 170 lb./sq. in. and also some observations recordec
during the Marienfelde-Zossen trials, but in either case the pressure,
i.e., the work done, i.e. the temperature, a r e a n important variable
and must be considered.
-
-
-- l i l t Ill1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1111 IIII 1 1 1 111
0 10 20 30 40' 50 60 70 do &~"'rbo
Speed-M,p.H.
FIG.43
.?\DHESION AND FRICTION CCEFFICIENTS
M r . A . IY. Simmons stressed the necessity of knowing the con-

ditions referring to the various values of p and the Author agreed
with this entirely. But the designer and operator were also in need
of gen,erally applicable values which must be not unduly optimistic,

particularly so far as braking was concerned. And t o meet this need

the Author suggested the values shown in Fig. 35 of the Paper,
but ,U for braking he would limit t o 0 - 1 5 t o 0.17.
W i t h regard to the locking of trailing wheels upon starting he
would refer t o a Paper (77) dealing more fully with this subject.
T h e Marienfelde-Zossen trials were referred to in the Paper
(Ref. 41). H e was glad that Mr. Simmons mentioned these since
he had the privilege to study electric railway engineering under that
great teacher and engineer the late Geheimrat Prof., Dr. Ing.,
Dr. Ing. h.c. Walter Reichel who was in charge of the tests and
who drove the cars when the then unheaid of speeds of over 130
m.p.h. were attained.
M Y . Turner’s comments on the metallurgical aspects of friction
and adhesion are most valuable and it is in this unexplored region
that practical research should be of considerable value. W i t h regard
to the roaring rail and the corrugated rail in general the Author
regretted to be unable to furnish precise information. H e had
experienced some acute trouble due to the latter when dealing with
tramways. A considerable number of theories were advanced all
purporting to explain the cause, and none was altogether convincing.
So far as friction values a s encountered with oil flowing right across
the driving wheels and brake blocks a r e concerned, this appeared
to be a problem coming under the heading of applied hydrodynamics
(bearing lubrication) and there was no shortage of information on
that subject. H e felt that rather than t o endeavour t o ascertain p
under these conditions it would be more rational to prevent the oil
from reaching the wheels and brakes.
The Author has-like most railway engineers-indulged in the
design of rubber insert wheels, but could not.find an effective way of
keeping high temperatures away from the rubber when braking from
high speeds or holding heavy loads down steep grades. W h e n
dealing with the temperature conditions a t the wheel rim he found
t h e following equation of help:-
e-? - e-”y+-r
t, = I - e--y
. t,
where :
p., .R.p.1
t, =
c . y . 8 . m
For 11 = Y
e--r
t , =_ _
I - e-y
t,
Herein :-
t , = Temperature of tyre surface coming into contact with
brake block (after n revolutions of the wheel)

662 JOLiRXAL OF THE I N S T . OF LOCO. E N G I N E E R S
f,= Temperature rise of tyre element emerging from under

the brake block (per revolution)
a= Heat transfer coefficient
A = Thermal conductivity of tyre
d = Wheel diameter
h = Tyre thickness
y = Specific weight of tyre
c = Specific heat of tyre
1% Length of brake block
V = Vehicle speed
m= Mechanical heat equivalent
H = Ratio of heat absorbed by tyre to total heat developed
during braking
t '-
7:
0s - -
-
-
- I I
>
0 P/r o r SJr 5 I(
FIG. 44
EFFICIENCY
O F REGESERATIVE BRAKING
T h e temperature distribution through the tyre can be readily

ascertained with the help of a simple graphic method due to
E. Schmidt (78).
T h e Author hopes wholeheartedly that Mr. Turner's call for a
brake testing (and development) department will lead to the
materialisation of this long overdue branch of planned railway
research in this country.
T h e Author is indebted to M r . ?I-. A . Bgnew for mentioning the
the desirability of utilising the prime movers of locomotives and
railcars for braking. As mentioned by Mr. Agnew many systems
of dynamic braking, both non-regenerative and regenerative, are
already in service on electric railways where they are gaining
popularity both as holding and stopping brakes. T h e reasons for
this popularity a r e obvious. They a r e : Reduced consumption of
brake blocks and consequent reduction of the amount of iron particles
likely to adversely effect the electric gear and particularly the

ADHESION AND FRICTION I X KAIL TKACTIOK 663
insulation in case of a.c. installations ; reduced current consumption

in case of regenerative braking.
In considering the advantages which can be secured with
regenerative braking it should be considered that the amount of
energy gained when running downhill is proportional to s - r where
s is the resistance du.e to gradient and r the rolling resistance of the
vehicle. T h e gradient efficiency of the brake will then be indicated
by 11 (Fig. 44) For a motor and gear efficiency of IOO per cent. For
a gradient of I in 40, a rolling resistance' of 8 lb./ton and a motor
and gear efhciency of 0.85 the amount of current regained will be
20 ' 40, 60 80 10
Engine Speed-%
FIG. 45
BRAKE
PERFORMANCE OF DIESEL-ENGINES AND GAS ENGINES
7.0 x 0.8j x 0.8j= 50 per cent. A similar procedure can be adopted

in the case of stopping assuming that similar values of acceleration
and retardation apply. I n either case the attractiveness is increased
by reduced rolling resistance'values achieved in recent years. Need-
less to say the attractiveness or otherwise of regenerative braking
will be influenced by economic considerations. Non-regenerative
braking is less limited in its application.

In view of the popularity of dynamic braking it is surprising

that no use was made of the engne of I.C. engined vehicles for
braking. The possibilities offered here are indicated in Fig. 4j. The
brake performance curves apply for unsupercharged engines having
a valve overlap of 2 5 " to 30'. Supercharged engines with greater
valve overlap will be less favourable in this respect.
The potentiaiities inherent in g a s turbines so far as braking
is concerned a r e very considerable, even assuming that because of
mechanical and thermal (fuel/air ratio not to fall below a certain
minimum t o prevent flame extinction) considerations, the maximum
power available for braking does not exceed the maximum power
output.
Perhap? the future will bring u s vehicles able to store the energy
released when braking and making it available for driving. Here
the development of a source of power along the lines of the Oerlikon
gyromotor may result in interesting improvements.
In view of these attractive possibilities the Author cannot but
subscribe to Mr. Agnew's timely plea for a Paper dealing with the
subject of non-frictional braking.
M r ; W . A . Nightingale very rightly stressed the necessity for
more careful attention to the design of such important components
a s springs and the possible improvements that can be achieled by
using equalisers. T h e Author agrees with the proposition that the
tractive effort is not only a function of adhesive weight, speed, etc.,
but that it also depends upon the torque variation, or rather the ratio
of maximum to mean torque and in this connection would refer to his
reply to Mr. Cox.
With electric and diesel-electric locomotives incorporating axle-
hung motors it is possible to vary the weight utilisation factor F ,
(F,=Adhesive Weight-Running/Adhesive Weight-Standstill) within
relatively wide limits by the arrangement of motors, equalisers,
springs and-with bogie locomotives-the coupling springs. The
possibilities offered in this direction may be gathered from a study of
the Co-Co arrangement, popular in this country with both diesel-
electric and electric locomotives. In the following :-
C, = Rate of axle springs-identical for all axles
C, = Rate of coupling spring (this transmits vertical loads
only)
c2i5
$J=
Ac = Additional spring load-due to weight transfer
Lo= Axle load a t standstill
AL= Axle load a l t e r a t i o n 4 u e t o weight transfer
6= AL/Lo
p = 0.25
e= r l x = o . 6
T h e spring with the rate C, is provided between the adjoining
bogie ends and is capable of transmitting vertical loads only. If C,
is positive, the bogies are understood t o tend t o approach each
other. If the bogies are not restrained in the vertical direction a t the

A D H E S I O N AND FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION
666 JOVRNAL OF THE INST. O F LOCO. ENGINEERS
inner ends then $=o. If they are rigidly coupled to each other, then
$==. If the coupling between both bogies is in line with the
drawbar, y = o . If the tractive effort is transmitted through the
body frame then y signifies the vertical distance between the
horizontal plane of the centre pin point of force transfer and thr
drawbar. The distance between drawbar and rail level serves a s a
unit of length.
Four conditions were considered for each of the eight arrange-
ments shown in Fig. 46.
(I) T h e bogies are independent of each other in the vertical
direction, q=o. The coupling is in line with the drawbar,
y=o.
( 2 ) As ( I ) , $ = o but y selected to ensure best possible value of
F U .
( 3 ) Coupling without springs, in line with drawbar, $=o, y=o.
(4) Coupling without springs q=o, but y selected to ensure best
possible value of Fu.
No. @ Y A< 6 I:, -%

1.1 0 0 0.275 0.250 75
1.2 0 -0,333 0.233 0.333 83.3
1.3 m 0 0.10b 0.102 89.8
1.4 31 0.154 0.068 0.121 91.8
2.1 0 0 0.400 0.250 75
2.2 0 -0.333 0.483 0.333 83.3
2.3 r 0 0.318 0.168 83.2
2.4 Ji -0.388 0.415 0.265 92.9
3.1 0 0 0.064 0.214 78.6
3.2 0 -0.333 0.136 0.286 85.7
3.3 x 0 0.076 0.226 77.5
3.4 X -0.320 0.144 0.294 84.3
4.1 0 0 0.450 0.300 70
4.2 0 -0,333 0,550 0.400 80
4.3 oc 0 0.100 0.200 80
4.4 5 0.333 0.100 0.250 85
5.1 0 0 0.400 0.250 75
5.2 0 0,333 0.483 0.333 83.3
5.3 a
2 0 0.087 0.121 87.9
5.4 oc 0.154 0.068 0.160 91.7
6.1 0 0 0,275 0.250 75
6.2 0 0.333 0.233 0.333 83.3
6.3 Lx. 0 0.255 0.105 89.5
6.4 Jc -0.048 0.261 0.111 90.1
7.1 0 0 0.064 0,214 78.6
7.2 0 0.333 0.136 0.286 85.7
7.3 W 0 0.049 0.161 83.9
7.4 rx 0.185 0.051 0.20rl 87.9
8.1 0 0 0.450 0.300 70
8.2 0 0.333 0.550 0.400 80
8.3 Jc 0 0,220 0.226 77.5
8.4 00 0.387 0.192 0.342 89
The table indicates that F, can-for these conditions-& varied

between 75 per cent. and about 90 per c,ent. The best possible
values for F, are shown in the following table in accordance with

ADHESIOX A S D FRICTION I N RAIL T R A C T I O S 667.
which up to 95 per cent. can be obtained by careful design

considerations.
No. P’ Fu’- %
1 - 0.21 1 95.5
2 -0.273 95.0
3 - 0.320 95.5
4 -0.167 95.0
5 - 0.21 1 95.5
6 -0.273 95.0
7 - 0.295 95.5
8 -0,182 95.0
BIBLIOGRAPHY
W. Biiseler, Die Ubergangskurven der Strassenbahnen,” Zeitschrift
“
fur Kleinbahnen, Vol. 10, 1913.

’‘ Die Spurkranzreibung,” Organ, 1927, No. 18.
“ Spurerweiterung oder nicht? ” z. Ver. deutscher Eisenb.
Verwaltungen., 1929.
W. Baseler and P. Becker, “ Das Verhalten Langradstandiger
Lokomotiven in Gleiskrummungen mit und ohne Spurerweiterung,”
E.B., July-August 1929.
“ Beitrage zur Lehre von der Spurfuhrung.” Reichsbahn-zentralamt.
Munich, 1934.
Heumann, “ Das Verhalten von Eisenbahnfahrzeugen in Gleisbogen ”
F g a n , 1913.
Grundzuge des Bogenlaufes von Eisenbahnfahrzeugen ” Lokomotive,
1942.
“ Zum Bogenlauf von Gelenkfahrzeugen,” E.B., 1942, No. 5,
pp. 91-102.
G. Borgeaud, “ Betrachtungen uber einzelne Probleme des Kurvenlaufes
der Eisenbahnfahrzeuge,” Schw. Tech. Zeitschrift, 1944, No. 42-45.
E. C. Schmidt and H. J. Schrader, “ Resistance ~ K JHeat Checking of
chilled cast iron Car Wheels,” Univ. of IIlinois Bulletin No. 298
(1937).
R. Lorenz, “ Schiene und Rad,” 2 . V.D.I., vol. 72 ( 1 9 2 8 ) . No. 6,
pp. 173-179.
H. Fromm, ‘‘ Zullasige Belastung von Reibungsgetrieben,” 2. V.D.I.,
vol. 7 3 ( 1 9 2 9 ) , No. 27, pp. 957-962, No. 2 9 , pp. 1,029-1,032,
L. Foppl, “ Die Strenge Losung fur die Rollende Reibung,” Liebnitz
Verlag, Munich, 1947.
G. Sachs. Versuche uber die Reibung fester Korper,” Zeit. fur
Angew. Math. und Mech., vol. 4 (1924), pp. 1-32.
J . Koffman, “ Some Considerations on the Cause of Wheel Sliding,”
Bull. of the Intern. Rly. Congress Assos., Brussels, July 1948,
DD. 393-402.
g.LSchmidt, “ Einfiihrung in die tech. Thermodynamik,” J. Springer,
Berlin, 1944, pp. 280-287.
W. H. McAdams. ‘‘ Heat Transmission,” 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1942, pp. 39-43.
J. Koffrnan, “ Engine Exhaust Brake for Railcars,” Bulletine of the
Intern, Railway Congress Assos., Brussels, Sept. 1948, pp. 561-572.
Selz, ‘‘ Bremsstoffuntersuchungen bei der Deutschen Reichsbahn,”
Organ, vol. 9 8 , No. 13/14 (July 1943), pp. 191-200.

ME-ETING IN DARLINGTON 24th NOVEMBER 1948

T h e Second Ordinary General Meeting of the North Eastern
Centre was held a t the North Easeern Hotel, Darlington, on
Wednesday 24th November 1948 a t 6 p m . , the chair being taken
by Mr. C. C. Jarvis.
The minutes of the meeting held on 13th October 1948 were
read, approved and signed a5 correct.
The Chairman then introduced Mr. J . Koffman who read his
Paper, entitled “ Adhesion and Friction in Rail Traction.”
This was followed by a discussion.
DISCUSSION
Mr. R. W. Taylor said there was one feature he would like to
mention. The Author had told them that some investigators sug-
gested that a t high speeds the coefficient of friction descended to
zero and what happens after that no one quite understood.
He had never experienced it, but he knew engine men who
had experienced it a t high speeds, e.g. 80 miles per hour with old
N.E. type C7 engines. Under certain conditions with the regulator
almost closed slipping was almost uncontrollably succeeded by a
reduction of speed. There may be some here who have knowledge
of the matter.
His reason for quoting the performance of an old locomotive
was that it was one which was not well balanced, and it occurred
t o him that the slipping may have been brought about by that very
reason. I t seemed also that it would be difficult a t a high speed
for a driver t o determine whether the slipping was a t a faster
rate than the engine was travelling o r a t a lesser, i.e. whether the
wheels were going faster or a little slower than th,e locomotive was
actually travelling.
Could the Author give an explanation?
Mr. Westmorland substantiated what Mr. Taylor had
s a i d ; they used t o experience slipping with the Class Dzo and D Z I
engines when going down a I in 94 gradient, and used to prevent
this by touching the wheels with the brake. On the other hand
when on Class 7 engines the wheels slipped with the brakes applied
they used to get o u t of that by a slight opening of the regulator.
With reference to brake blocks, he mentioned that the
L.N.W.R. had a considerable number of their engines fitted with
wooden brake blocks. Had any data been published as to whether
the wooden blocks were better than the cast iron blocks?
Mr. King (M.) said that the Paper compared the power
output of diesel and electric locomotives with steam locomotives.
I t would appear that so far a s adhesion was concerned diesel and
electric locomotives fared better than steani locomotives of the
ADHESION A N D FRICTION I N RAIL TRACTION 669
same power. W i t h equal axle loads one could have a more power-
ful engine in the case of diesel and electric units than with steam.
H e noticed from the recent literatures that the French State
Railways used rolling stock with rubber tyres. Those vehicles
used int‘ernal expanding brakes, the use of which seemed to open
new possibilities.
Mr. S. L. Baister (M.) asked whether there had been experi-
ments on other methods of braking than applying brake blocks on
the tread of the wheel and what results had been obtained.
Mr. Tattersal mentioned that with diesel engined vehicles
incorporating a mechanical or hydraulic transmission there might
be a possibility of assisting braking by reversing the engine and
braking the train by running the engine in the opposite direction.
This method of assisted braking would of course be only feasible
with a suitable fluid flywheel.
Mr. C. C. Jarvis (Chairman) asked if any experiments had been
made with other than cast iron brake blocks. O n long falling
gradients one engine could scarcely handle the train. There were
cases where the brakes were on such a long time that the wheels
were almost blue heat. H e wondered whether there had been
research into anything other than cast iron. Had anyone tried
brake blocks with fins provided to assist the heat dissipation.
I t as hard t o put down instructions in regard to how hard
brakes should b e applied and if men work to rule of thumb they
might not g e t sufficient braking power, resulting in an accident.
AUTHOR’S REPLY
Mr. J. Koffman, in replying, expressed appreciation of the
reception accorded to his Paper and thanked the various speakers
who had touched upon a number of extremely interesting points.
W i t h regard to the points raised by M Y . Taylor, he was grate-
ful to him for mentioning-by implication-the absurdity of many
of the p-curves which have and are still being’ used in practice.
It was, of course, quite irrational to expect p to reach zero and even
attain negative values. One might perhaps visualise the vehicles to
float along but it would seem to him that such conditions will not be
attained, a t least not for a long time to come.
With regard to the question of slipping a t high speeds, the
reasons for this was indicated by the p-curves shown. In accord-
ance with these, p falls a t high speeds and here a small increase of
the relative speed, i.e. wheel slipping, is quite sufficient to reduce
the value of ,u very considerably (Figs. 14-16). Once this condition
was attained the only way to get out of it would be to let the
vehicle roll freely so that the relative speed (slipping) was reduced
and then by gradual brake application slow the vehicle down. This
was of course-as Mr. Taylor mentioned-a condition well known
in practice and its explanation was fully provided by the curves
shown.
This matter was clearly substantiated by M Y . Westmorland’s
comments. In his case wheel slipping or spinning was avoided by

670 JOURNAL OF THE IXST. OF LOCO. ENGINEERS
reducing the relative speed of the wheels with the help of. the
regulator.
The question of brake blocks other than cast iron ones is
dealt with in the reply to the Chairman.
T h e Author would refer M r . King to the answer g i l e n by him
to Mr. E. S. Cox a t the London meeting.
The French State Railways have used internal expanding brakes
with their rubber tyred rolling stock. T h e reasons for this was
that in the first instance they were more or less forced to resort
t o this solution whilst on the other hand the tyre load is severely
limited in the cas,e,of rubber tyres and because of this the area
and mass provided by the internal expanding brakes was sufficient
to deal with the amount of work of necessity limited by the low
wheel loads.
With regard to M r . Baister's query as to experiments with
brakes other than those incorporating brake blocks, such brakes
have been used with a number of railcars both in this country and
abroad. The experience was not a very favourable one mainly
because of the small heat dissipation and heat absorption capacity
of the automotive type of brakes used with these applications, par-
ticularly when holding the vehicles down long gradients.
MY. Tattersul mentioned the possibility of using the engines
of diesel engined vehicles for the purpose of braking. The Author
fully agrees with this contention particularly since the possibility
of diesel engines as a brake have been fully substantiated on road
vehicles. H e doubted, however, whether it would be advisable to
assist the braking by running the engine in reverse. T h e use of the
engine a s a compressor driven from the vehicle wheels was quite
sufficient to meet most brake requirements from this source, i.e.
the engine being used purely a s a holding and slowing down brake,
and he would refer to his reply to Mr. Agnew.
In reply to the Chairman the Author said the suitabiliti of brake
block materials depended on a number of factors:-
( I) Availability.
( 2 ) Rain and snow (particularly snow and ice melting under-
neath the floor) must not cause an undue reduction of p , .
( 3 ) T h e value of pl should be independent of speed. A small
increase or reduction of p l - ~ a l u e swhen coming to standstill
can be accepted.
(4) T h e value of should be affected by temperature only but
little.
(5) I t should ensure suitable mechanical strength.
(6) T h e material should not show undue wear.
( 7 ) T h e material should not emit an unpleasant smell during
prolonged application.
Whilst high p,-values are generally desirable, the consequent
low pressures may be insufficient t o fonce away the layer of snow
or ice between brake blocks and wheel. However, since with some
carriages the brake g e a r weighs up to 3 . 5 tons the desirability of

ADHESION AXD FRICTION IN RAIL TRACTION 67 1
high /*,-values is apparent. Practical expelrience should bring

clarity on this matter.
Brake blocks made from Ferodo o r similar materials were
used on a number of city and suburban railways and extensive tests
were made to ascertain suitable materials and some results were
shown in Fig. 47. T h e tests were carried out under actual operating
conditions and consisted of braking a vehicle from speed as well
as extended runs with the brakes applied with a pressure of 0.6 and
1.2 tons per block.
Po rce /ai n
0 1000 '2000 3000

0.4 Bee chwood(lieated)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 , 1 1 1
0 5 10 15 0 1000 zooa 3000
Carbon
0 5 10 15 0
L
I000
2000 3000
Distance -Miles Distance -Feet
FIG.47
FRICTIOX
VALUES OF SON-METALLIC RKAKE ULOCKS
The use of porcelain proved to be unsatisfactory. The blocks

broke when subject to moderate pressures whilst a t low speeds p ,
rose very rapidly.
Wooden brake blocks appear to be promising provided they
are treated to prevent burning, whilst the fibres must be kept
elastic by soaking in oil. Heavy brake applications result in the
formation of a carbon layer, which however does not affect the

672 JOURXAL OF T H E INST. O F LOCO. ENGINEERS
p*,-values. It will be noted that p l remains practically constant over

the speed. Only shortly before coming to standstill does it drop
slightly-which if anything is an advantage.
The wear was-under identical circumstances-slightly smaller
than with cast iron blocks. However, in common with other
materials the use of wooden blocks ensures well polished wheels
and this in turn can make rapid starting and stopping somewhat
difficult.
The use of carbon brake blocks appears to be promising. The
pl-values can be varied in manufacture, the mean being about 0 . 2 .
The wear of both brake blocks and wheels is smaller than when
using cast iron blocks, whilst p1 appears to be independent of
pressure and temperature.! A train of the Berlin City Railway was
fitted with carbon brake blocks during the war (So).

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Adhesion and Friction in Rail Traction

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ADHESION AND FRICTION IN RAIL

PAPER No. 479

T h e coefficient of adhesion p and the coefficient of friction p1

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were responsible for a number of experimental investigations carried

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"E' Oirect-Currenk Locomotives

electric locomotives such as the I Bo I BOI + I Bo I BOI, type Ae8/14

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The trend towards higher speeds was, fortunately for all

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In this he is joined by Sillcox who in his book on " Mastering

a t its static value a t all speeds.

force under various rail conditions is:-

the coefficient of adhesion of 0.24 for speeds of up t o 10mph. Abole

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for the coefficient of adhesion, so far as electric locomotives running

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of adhesion we may expect a t high speeds. I n addition we can

which in a somewhat modified form was used by Zuidweg (32) and

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tends to become zero at infinitely great velocities. However the

I Note: ~ - k r n / h;v-m/sec.;G - ~ Q/Aii;0(=3.0to4.7I

plotted in Fig. 5. Although Galton himself made it clear that the

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could, on first glance, be considered as reasonably reliable u p to

concerned were Series 12501, type I Bo I + BOI, with an adhesive

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carried out over grades of up t o I in 40 the resultant weight transfer

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As mentioned, Sillcox ( 2 5 ) gives the results of retardation tests

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The values shown are generally those encountered immediate11 before

to a predetermined speed a t which three out of the four motors were

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I t is obvious from this that n o narrow defined values for p can be

These investigations lead to the proposal of equation 1.2 of

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tons Bo-Bo locomotive the only limit to the performance of which

of insufficient evidence available to substantiate them, or because

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------ Diska nce

considered, so far as speeds of up to 50 mph are concerned. The

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drawbar-pull recording apparatus and two recording speedometers.

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_- - _- - - - - --- --- - ---------- ----- ----- --- -- - -- --- - - - ,

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reduced rapidly together with w whilst the velocity of sliding increases

An extrapolation of the adhesion-slip curves to higher speeds

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practical experience does not suggest that considerably different

The effects of wheel diameters and loads upon the values of fi

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load a t constant wheel diameter, whilst an increase of diameter will

head into an equation proposed for the determination of pu. This

The values for the coefficient of adhesion thus ascertained

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polished running surface, as encountered on lines with fairly dense

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