Bluman Chapter9

Testing the Difference
9
Between Two Means,
Two Proportions, and
Two Variances
STATISTICS TODAY
To Vaccinate or Not to Vaccinate? © Fuse/Corbis/Getty Images RF
Small versus Large Nursing Homes
OUTLINE
Influenza is a serious disease among the elderly, especially those Introduction
living in nursing homes. Those residents are more susceptible to 9–1 Testing the Difference Between
Two Means: Using the z Test
influenza than elderly persons living in the community because

9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means
the former are usually older and more debilitated, and they live in of Independent S amples: Using the t Test
a closed environment where they are exposed more so than com- 9–3 Testing the Difference Between
munity residents to the virus if it is introduced into the home. Three Two Means: Dependent Samples
researchers decided to investigate the use of vaccine and its value 9–4 Testing the Difference Between Proportions
9–5 Testing the Difference Between
in determining outbreaks of influenza in small nursing homes. Two Variances
These researchers surveyed 83 randomly selected licensed Summary
homes in seven counties in Michigan. Part of the study consisted of
comparing the number of people being vaccinated in small n
ursing OBJECTIVES
homes (100 or fewer beds) with the number in larger nursing homes After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
(more than 100 beds). Unlike the statistical methods presented in 1 Test the difference between two means,
using the z test.
Chapter 8, these researchers used the techniques explained in this
chapter to compare two sample proportions to see if there was a sig- 2 Test the difference between two means for
independent samples, using the t test.
nificant difference in the vaccination rates of patients in small nurs-
3 Test the difference between two means for
ing homes compared to those in large nursing homes. See Statistics dependent samples.
Today—Revisited at the end of the chapter.
4 Test the difference between two
Source: Nancy Arden, Arnold S. Monto, and Suzanne E. Ohmit, “Vaccine Use and the Risk of
proportions.
Outbreaks in a Sample of Nursing Homes During an Influenza Epidemic,” American Journal of
Public Health 85, no. 3, pp. 399–401. Copyright by the American Public Health Association. 5 Test the difference between two variances
or standard deviations.
9–1
488 Chapter 9 Testing the Difference Between Two Means, Two Proportions, and Two Variances
Introduction
𝜒 2 tests, a sample mean, variance, or proportion can be compared to a specific popula-
The basic concepts of hypothesis testing were explained in Chapter 8. With the z, t, and
tion mean, variance, or proportion to determine whether the null hypothesis should be
rejected.
There are, however, many instances when researchers wish to compare two sample
means, using experimental and control groups. For example, the average lifetimes of two
different brands of bus tires might be compared to see whether there is any difference in
tread wear. Two different brands of fertilizer might be tested to see whether one is better
than the other for growing plants. Or two brands of cough syrup might be tested to see
whether one brand is more effective than the other.
In the comparison of two means, the same basic steps for hypothesis testing shown
in Chapter 8 are used, and the z and t tests are also used. When comparing two means
by using the t test, the researcher must decide if the two samples are independent or
dependent. The concepts of independent and dependent samples will be explained in
Sections 9–2 and 9–3.
The z test can be used to compare two proportions, as shown in Section 9–4. Finally,
two variances can be compared by using an F test as shown in Section 9–5.
9–1 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Using the z Test
OBJECTIVE 1 Suppose a researcher wishes to determine whether there is a difference in the average
age of nursing students who enroll in a nursing program at a community college and
Test the difference between
those who enroll in a nursing program at a university. In this case, the researcher is not
two means, using the z test.
interested in the average age of all beginning nursing students; instead, he is interested in
comparing the means of the two groups. His research question is, Does the mean age of
nursing students who enroll at a community college differ from the mean age of nursing
students who enroll at a university? Here, the hypotheses are
H0: μ1 = μ2
H1: μ1 ≠ μ2
μ1 = mean age of all beginning nursing students at a community college

where
μ2 = mean age of all beginning nursing students at a university
Another way of stating the hypotheses for this situation is
H0: μ1 − μ2 = 0
H1: μ1 − μ2 ≠ 0
If there is no difference in population means, subtracting them will give a difference of
zero. If they are different, subtracting will give a number other than zero. Both methods
of stating hypotheses are correct; however, the first method will be used in this text.
If two samples are independent of each other, the subjects selected for the first sample
in no way influence the way the subjects are selected in the second sample. For example,
if a group of 50 people were randomly divided into two groups of 25 people each in order
to test the effectiveness of a new drug, where one group gets the drug and the other group
gets a placebo, the samples would be independent of each other.
On the other hand, two samples would be dependent if the selection of subjects for
the first group in some way influenced the selection of subjects for the other group. For
example, suppose you wanted to determine if a person’s right foot was slightly larger than
his or her left foot. In this case, the samples are dependent because once you selected a
9–2
Section 9–1 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Using the z Test 489
– –
F I G U R E 9 – 1 Distribution of X 1 − X 2
Differences of Means of Pairs
of Samples
– –
X1 − X2
0
person’s right foot for sample 1, you must select his or her left foot for sample 2 because
you are using the same person for both feet.
Before you can use the z test to test the difference between two independent sample
means, you must make sure that the following assumptions are met.
Assumptions for the z Test to Determine the Difference Between Two Means
1. Both samples are random samples.

2. The samples must be independent of each other. That is, there can be no relationship
between the subjects in each sample.
3. The standard deviations of both populations must be known; and if the sample sizes are
less than 30, the populations must be normally or approximately normally distributed.
In this book, the assumptions will be stated in the exercises; however, when encountering
statistics in other situations, you must check to see that these assumptions have been met
before proceeding.
The theory behind testing the difference between two means is based on selecting
pairs of samples and comparing the means of the pairs. The population means need not
be known.
All possible pairs of samples are taken from populations. The means for each pair of
samples are computed and then subtracted, and the differences are plotted. If both popu-
lations have the same mean, then most of the differences will be zero or close to zero.
Occasionally, there will be a few large differences due to chance alone, some positive
U n u s u a l Stats and others negative. If the differences are plotted, the curve will be shaped like a normal
Adult children who distribution and have a mean of zero, __ as__shown in Figure 9–1.
live with their parents __ The variance
__ of the difference
X1  – X2  is equal to the sum of the individual variances
of X
1  and X
2  . That is,
σ 2__X  2 = σ X
   1 + σ  
spend more than
__
2 hours a day doing 2 2
   1 X X   2
__ __
σ 2  σ 2 
household chores.
σ 2__X
  1 = ___ σ  2__X   2 = ___
According to a study,
daughters contribute where     n1  and
    n 2  
1 2
about 17 hours a __ __
week and sons about So the standard deviation of X
1  – X
2  is
σ 2  σ 22 
________
  n1  + ___
14.4 hours.
√
___
1
  n     
2
Formula for the z Test for Comparing Two Means from Independent Populations
2  ) – (μ1 − μ2)
(X 1 − X
z = _________________
__ __
σ 21   ___ σ 22 

       ________ 
 ___ +
√
n1 n2    
     
9–3
F I G U R E 9 – 2 Hypothesis-Testing Situations in the Comparison of Means
Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 1 Sample 2

– – – –
X1 X2 X1 X2
Population Population 1 Population 2

μ1 = μ2 μ1 μ2
(a) Difference is not significant. The means of the populations are the same. (b) Difference is significant. The means of the populations are different.
– – – –
Do not reject H 0: μ1 = μ2 since X 1 − X 2 is not significant. Reject H 0: μ1 = μ2 since X 1 − X 2 is significant.
This formula is based on the general format of
value) − (expected value)

Test value =      
(observed
_____________________________
    
standard error
 2 is the observed difference, and the expected difference μ1 − μ2 is zero when

__ __
the null hypothesis is μ1 = μ2, since that is equivalent to μ1 − μ2 = 0. Finally, the standard
where X
 1 – X
error of the difference is
σ 2  σ 22 
________
√   n1  + ___
___   n     
1 2
In the comparison of two sample means, the difference may be due to chance, in
which case the null hypothesis will not be rejected and the researcher can assume that
the means of the populations are basically the same. The difference in this case is not
significant. See Figure 9–2(a). On the other hand, if the difference is significant, the null
hypothesis is rejected and the researcher can conclude that the population means are
different. See Figure 9–2(b).
These tests can also be one-tailed, using the following hypotheses:
H0: μ1 = μ2 H0: μ1 − μ2 = 0 H0: μ1 = μ2 H0: μ1 − μ2 = 0

Right-tailed Left-tailed
H1: μ1 > μ2 H1: μ1 − μ2 > 0 H1: μ1 < μ2 H1: μ1 − μ2 < 0

or or

The same critical values used in Section 8 –2 are used here. They can be obtained
from Table E in Appendix A.
The basic format for hypothesis testing using the traditional method is reviewed here.
Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
Step 2 Find the critical value(s).
Step 3 Compute the test value.
Step 4 Make the decision.
Step 5 Summarize the results.
9–4
EXAMPLE 9–1 Leisure Time

A study using two random samples of 35 people each found that the average amount of
time those in the age group of 26–35 years spent per week on leisure activities was
39.6 hours, and those in the age group of 46–55 years spent 35.4 hours. Assume that
the population standard deviation for those in the first age group found by previous
found by previous studies was 5.8 hours. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a
studies is 6.3 hours, and the population standard deviation of those in the second group
significant difference in the average times each group spends on leisure activities?
SOLUTION
H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 ≠ μ2 (claim)

Step 2 Find the critical values. Since α = 0.05, the critical values are +1.96 and −1.96.
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2) ______________

Step 3 Compute__the test value.
z =      ________  =    __________   =  

__
(_________________
X1  – X (39.6 – 35.4) – 0 _____
σ 1  ___σ 2 
        4.2   
= 2.90
  n   +   n     
2 2 1.447
√ √ 6.3 2 5.8 2
___ ____ ____
    +       
Make the decision. Reject the null hypothesis at α = 0.05 since 2.90 > 1.96.
1 2 35 35
Step 4
See Figure 9–3.
F I G U R E 9 – 3 Critical and Test Values for Example 9–1
z
−1.96 0 +1.96 +2.90
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to support the claim that
the means are not equal. That is, the average of the times spent on leisure
activities is different for the groups.
The P-values for this test can be determined by using the same procedure shown in
obtained from Table E is 0.0038. This value is obtained by looking up the area for z = 2.90,
Section 8 –2. For example, if the test value for a two-tailed test is 2.90, then the P-value
is doubled to get 0.0038 since the test is two-tailed. If α = 0.05, the decision would be to
which is 0.9981. Then 0.9981 is subtracted from 1.0000 to get 0.0019. Finally, this value
reject the null hypothesis, since P-value < α (that is, 0.0038 < 0.05). Note: The P-value
obtained on the TI-84 is 0.0037.
The P-value method for hypothesis testing for this chapter also follows the same for-
mat as stated in Chapter 8. The steps are reviewed here.
Step 3 Find the P-value.
9–5
Example 9–2 illustrates these steps.
EXAMPLE 9–2 College Sports Offerings

A researcher hypothesizes that the average number of sports that colleges offer for males
is greater than the average number of sports that colleges offer for females. A random
α = 0.10, is there enough evidence to support the claim? Assume σ1 and σ2 = 3.3.
sample of the number of sports offered by colleges for males and females is shown. At
Males Females
6 11 11 8 15 6 8 11 13 8
6 14 8 12 18 7 5 13 14 6
6 9 5 6 9 6 5 5 7 6
6 9 18 7 6 10 7 6 5 5
15 6 11 5 5 16 10 7 8 5
9 9 5 5 8 7 5 5 6 5
8 9 6 11 6 9 18 13 7 10
9 5 11 5 8 7 8 5 7 6
7 7 5 10 7 11 4 6 8 7
10 7 10 8 11 14 12 5 8 5
Source: USA TODAY.
SOLUTION
H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 > μ2 (claim)

Step 2 Compute the test value. Using a calculator or the formula in Chapter 3, find the
For the males X 1 = 8.6 and σ1 = 3.3

mean for each data set.
__

For the females X2  = 7.9 and σ2 = 3.3
__

Substitute in the formula.
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2) ____________
(8.6 − 7.9) − 0
z = _________________
________  =   
__ __
(X  – X
σ 1  ___ σ 2 
  1   
     __________    = 1.06*
  n   +   n        3.3   +  ____
2 2
√ ___
√
2 2
3.3      
____
50 50
Find the P-value from Table E. For z = 1.06, the area is 0.8554, and
1 2
1.0000 − 0.8554 = 0.1446, or a P-value of 0.1446.

Step 3
Step 4 Make the decision. Since the P-value is larger than α (that is, 0.1446 > 0.10),
the decision is to not reject the null hypothesis. See Figure 9–4.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to support the claim that
colleges offer more sports for males than they do for females at the 0.10 level
of significance.
F I G U R E 9 – 4 P-Value and α Value for Example 9–2
0.1446
0.10
z
0
*Note: Calculator results may differ due to rounding.
9–6
Sometimes, the researcher is interested in testing a specific difference in means

other than zero. For example, he or she might hypothesize that the nursing students at a
community college are, on average, 3.2 years older than those at a university. In this case,
H0: μ1 − μ2 = 3.2 and H1: μ1 − μ2 > 3.2

the hypotheses are
The formula for the z test is still
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2)
z = _________________
__ __
(X1  – X
σ 2  σ 22 
       ________ 
√   n1  + ___
___   n     
where μ1 − μ2 is the hypothesized difference or expected value. In this case, μ1 − μ2 = 3.2.

1 2
Confidence intervals for the difference between two means can also be found. When
you are hypothesizing a difference of zero, if the confidence interval contains zero, the
null hypothesis is not rejected. If the confidence interval does not contain zero, the null
hypothesis is rejected.
Confidence intervals for the difference between two means can be found by using
this formula:
Formula for the z Confidence Interval for Difference Between Two Means
σ σ 22  σ σ 22 
< μ μ <
________ ________
(X 1 − X
 2) − zα∕2  ___ + −  1 − X 2) + zα∕2 ___ +
21  ___ 21  ___
√ √
__ __ __ __
n1 n2         
    1 2 (
X   n1 n2    
     
EXAMPLE 9–3 Leisure Time

Find the 95% confidence interval for the difference between the means in Example 9–1.
Substitute in the formula, using zα∕2 = 1.96.

SOLUTION
σ 21  σ 2  σ 2  σ 22 

________ ________
 2) − zα∕2   n   +

√ < μ1 − μ2 < (X 1 – X
 2) + zα∕2 ___
  n1  + ___
√
__ __ __ __
(X 1 – X ___ ___
  n 2       n     
1 2 1 2
(39.6 − 35.4) − 1.96  ____ < μ1 − μ2 < (39.6 − 35.4) + 1.96 ____
__________ __________
√
6.32  +  ____
5.82    
√
2 5.82    
  6.3   +  ____
35 35 35 35
4.2 − 2.8 < μ1 − μ2 < 4.2 + 2.8
1.4 < μ1 − μ2 < 7.0
(The confidence interval obtained from the TI-84 is 1.363 < μ1 − μ2 < 7.037.)
Since the confidence interval does not contain zero, the decision is to reject the
null hypothesis, which agrees with the previous result.
Applying the Concepts 9–1

Home Runs
For a sports radio talk show, you are asked to research the question whether more home runs are
hit by players in the National League or by players in the American League. You decide to use
the home run leaders from each league for a 40-year period as your data. The numbers are shown.
9–7
National League
47 49 73 50 65 70 49 47 40 43
46 35 38 40 47 39 49 37 37 36
40 37 31 48 48 45 52 38 38 36
44 40 48 45 45 36 39 44 52 47
American League
47 57 52 47 48 56 56 52 50 40
46 43 44 51 36 42 49 49 40 43
39 39 22 41 45 46 39 32 36 32
32 32 37 33 44 49 44 44 49 32
Using the data given, answer the following questions.

1. Define a population.
2. What kind of sample was used?
3. Do you feel that the samples are representative?
4. What are your hypotheses?
5. What significance level will you use?
6. What statistical test will you use?
7. What are the test results? (Assume σ1 = 8.8 and σ2 = 7.8.)
8. What is your decision?
9. What can you conclude?
10. Do you feel that using the data given really answers the original question asked?
11. What other data might be used to answer the question?
See page 544 for the answers.
Exercises 9–1
1. Explain the difference between testing a single mean c. Compute the test value.
and testing the difference between two means. d. Make the decision.
2. When a researcher selects all possible pairs of samples e. Summarize the results.
from a population in order to find the difference be-
tween the means of each pair, what will be the shape Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless
of the distribution of the differences when the original otherwise specified.
distributions are normally distributed? What will be
5. Recreational Time A researcher wishes to see if there
the mean of the distribution? What will be the standard
is a difference between the mean number of hours per
deviation of the distribution?
week that a family with no children participates in
3. What three assumptions must be met when you are recreational activities and a family with children partici-
when σ1 and σ2 are known? samples and the data are shown. At α = 0.10, is there a
using the z test to test differences between two means pates in recreational activities. She selects two random
4. Show two different ways to state that the means of two difference between the means?
𝝈
populations are equal. __
X   n
For Exercises 5 through 16, perform each of the following No children 8.6 2.1 36
steps. Children 10.6 2.7 36
a. State the hypotheses and identify the claim. 6. Teachers’ Salaries Teachers’ Salaries New York and
b. Find the critical value(s). Massachusetts lead the list of average teacher’s salaries.
9–8
The New York average is $76,409 while teachers enough evidence to reject the claim that the average
α = 0.01.
in Massachusetts make an average annual salary of cost of a home in both locations is the same? Use
$73,195. Random samples of 45 teachers from each
state yielded the following.
Scott Ligonier
X1  = $93,430* X2  = $98,043*

Massachusetts New York __ __
Sample means $73,195 $76,409 σ 1 = $5602 σ 2 = $4731

Population standard deviation 8,200 7,800
At α = 0.10, is there a difference in means of the salaries?
n1 = 35 n2 = 40
*Based on information from RealSTATs.
Source: World Almanac.
11. Manual Dexterity Differences A researcher wishes
7. Commuting Times The U.S. Census Bureau re- to see if there is a difference in the manual dexterity
ports that the average commuting time for citizens of athletes and that of band members. Two random
of both Baltimore, Maryland, and Miami, Florida, is samples of 30 are selected from each group and are
approximately 29 minutes. To see if their commut- given a manual dexterity test. The mean of the athletes’
ing times appear to be any different in the winter, test was 87, and the mean of the band members’ test
is 7.2. At α = 0.01, is there a significant difference in

random samples of 40 drivers were surveyed in each was 92. The population standard deviation for the test
city and the average commuting time for the month
of January was calculated for both cities. The results the mean scores?
are shown. At the 0.05 level of significance, can it be
concluded that the commuting times are different in 12. ACT Scores A random survey of 1000 students nation-
the winter? wide showed a mean ACT score of 21.4. Ohio was not
used. A survey of 500 randomly selected Ohio scores
Miami Baltimore
showed a mean of 20.8. If the population standard
national average? Use α = 0.05.

Sample size 40 40 deviation is 3, can we conclude that Ohio is below the
Sample mean 28.5 min 35.2 min
Population standard deviation 7.2 min 9.1 min Source: Report of WFIN radio.
Source: www.census.gov
13. Per Capita Income The average per capita income
8. Heights of 9-Year-Olds At age 9 the average weight for Wisconsin is reported to be $37,314, and for South
(21.3 kg) and the average height (124.5 cm) for both Dakota it is $37,375—almost the same thing. A random
of 9-year-olds yielded these results. At α = 0.05, do the

boys and girls are exactly the same. A random sample sample of 50 workers from each state indicated the
following sample statistics.
data support the given claim that there is a difference in
heights? South
Wisconsin Dakota
Boys Girls
Size 50 50
Sample size 60 50 Mean $40,275 $38,750
Mean height, cm 123.5 126.2 Population standard deviation $10,500 $12,500
At α = 0.05, can we conclude a difference in means of

Population variance 98 120
Source: www.healthepic.com
the personal incomes?
9. Length of Hospital Stays The average length of “short Source: New York Times Almanac.
hospital stays” for men is slightly longer than that for
women, 5.2 days versus 4.5 days. A random sample of 14. Monthly Social Security Benefits The average
the following. At α = 0.01, is there sufficient evidence

recent hospital stays for both men and women revealed monthly Social Security benefit for a specific year for
retired workers was $954.90 and for disabled workers
to conclude that the average hospital stay for men is was $894.10. Researchers used data from the Social
longer than the average hospital stay for women? Security records to test the claim that the difference in
Men Women monthly benefits between the two groups was greater
than $30. Based on the following information, can the
Sample size 32 30 researchers’ claim be supported at the 0.05 level of
Sample mean 5.5 days 4.2 days significance?
Population standard deviation 1.2 days 1.5 days
Source: www.cdc.gov/nchs Retired Disabled
10. Home Prices A real estate agent compares the selling Sample size 60 60
prices of randomly selected homes in two municipali- Mean benefit $960.50 $902.89
ties in southwestern Pennsylvania to see if there is a Population standard deviation $98 $101
difference. The results of the study are shown. Is there Source: New York Times Almanac.
9–9
𝝈
__
15. Self-Esteem Scores In a study of a group of women X   n
science majors who remained in their profession and Day students 4.7 1.5 40
a group who left their profession within a few months Evening Students 6.2 1.7 40
here on a self-esteem questionnaire. At α = 0.05, can

of graduation, the researchers collected the data shown
19. Literacy Scores Adults aged 16 or older were assessed
it be concluded that there is a difference in the self- in three types of literacy: prose, document, and quanti-
esteem scores of the two groups? Use the P-value tative. The scores in document literacy were the same
method. for 19- to 24-year-olds and for 40- to 49-year-olds. A
random sample of scores from a later year showed the
Leavers Stayers following statistics.
X 1 = 3.05 X 2 = 2.96
__ __
σ1 = 0.75 σ2 = 0.75

Population
n1 = 103 n2 = 225

Mean standard Sample
Age group score deviation size
Source: Paula Rayman and Belle Brett, “Women Science
Majors: What Makes a Difference in Persistence after 19–24 280 56.2 40
Graduation?” The Journal of Higher Education. 40–49 315 52.1 35
16. Ages of College Students The dean of students wants Construct a 95% confidence interval for the true differ-
to see whether there is a significant difference in ages of ence in mean scores for these two groups. What does
resident students and commuting students. She selects a your interval say about the claim that there is no differ-
are shown here. At α = 0.05, decide if there is enough

random sample of 50 students from each group. The ages ence in mean scores?
Source: www.nces.ed.gov
evidence to reject the claim of no difference in the ages
σ1 = 3.68 and σ2 = 4.7.

of the two groups. Use the P-value method. Assume 20. Age Differences In a large hospital, a nursing direc-
tor selected a random sample of 30 registered nurses
and found that the mean of their ages was 30.2. The
Resident students population standard deviation for the ages is 5.6. She
selected a random sample of 40 nursing assistants and
22 25 27 23 26 28 26 24 found the mean of their ages was 31.7. The population
25 20 26 24 27 26 18 19 standard deviation of the ages for the assistants is 4.3.
18 30 26 18 18 19 32 23 Find the 99% confidence interval of the differences in
19 19 18 29 19 22 18 22 the ages.
26 19 19 21 23 18 20 18
22 21 19 21 21 22 18 20 21. Television Watching The average number of hours
of television watched per week by women over age
19 23
55 is 48 hours. Men over age 55 watch an average
Commuter students of 43 hours of television per week. Random samples
of 40 men and 40 women from a large retirement
18 20 19 18 22 25 24 35
community yielded the following results. At the
23 18 23 22 28 25 20 24
0.01 level of significance, can it be concluded
26 30 22 22 22 21 18 20
that women watch more television per week than
19 26 35 19 19 18 19 32
men?
29 23 21 19 36 27 27 20
20 21 18 19 23 20 19 19 Population
20 25 Sample standard
size Mean deviation
17. Working Breath Rate Two random samples of 32
Women 40 48.2 5.6
individuals were selected. One sample participated in an
Men 40 44.3 4.5
activity which simulates hard work. The average breath
Source: World Almanac 2012.
rate of these individuals was 21 breaths per minute.
The other sample did some normal walking. The mean 22. Commuting Times for College Students The mean
breath rate of these individuals was 14. Find the 90% travel time to work for Americans is 25.3 minutes. An
confidence interval of the difference in the breath rates employment agency wanted to test the mean commuting
if the population standard deviation was 4.2 for breath times for college graduates and those with only some col-
rate per minute. lege. Thirty-five college graduates spent a mean time of
18. Traveling Distances Find the 95% confidence interval 40.5 minutes commuting to work with a population vari-
of the difference in the distance that day students travel ance of 67.24. Thirty workers who had completed some
to school and the distance evening students travel to college had a mean commuting time of 34.8 minutes with
school. Two random samples of 40 students are taken, a population variance of 39.69. At the 0.05 level of sig-
and the data are shown. Find the 95% confidence inter- nificance, can a difference in means be c oncluded?
val of the difference in the means. Source: World Almanac 2012.
9–10
23. Store Sales A company owned two small Bath and 24. Home Prices According to the almanac, the average
Body Goods stores in different cities. It was desired to sales price of a single-family home in the metropolitan
see if there was a difference in their mean daily sales. Dallas/Ft. Worth/Irving, Texas, area is $215,200. The
The following results were obtained from a random average home price in Orlando, Florida, is $198,000.
α = 0.01, can a difference in sales be concluded? Use

sample of daily sales over a six-week period. At The mean of a random sample of 45 homes in the Texas
metroplex was $216,000 with a population standard
the P-value method. deviation of $30,000. In the Orlando, Florida, area a
sample of 40 homes had a mean price of $203,000 with
Population a population standard deviation of $32,500. At the 0.05
standard Sample level of significance, can it be concluded that the mean
Store Mean deviation size price in Dallas exceeds the mean price in Orlando? Use
A $995 $120 30 the P-value method.
B 1120 250 30 Source: World Almanac.
Extending the Concepts

25. Exam Scores at Private and Public Schools A re
South Midwest
searcher claims that students in a private school have
exam scores that are at most 8 points higher than those Sample size 40 40
of students in public schools. Random samples of 60 stu- Sample mean $261,500 $248,200
exam. The results are shown. At α = 0.05, test the claim.

dents from each type of school are selected and given an Population standard deviation $10,500 $12,000
Source: New York Times Almanac.
Private school Public school

X1  = 110 X2  = 104
27. Average Earnings for College Graduates The aver-
__ __
σ1 = 15 σ2 = 15
age earnings of year-round full-time workers with bach-
n1 = 60 n2 = 60
elor’s degrees or more is $88,641 for men and $58,000
for women—a difference of slightly over $30,000 a
year. One hundred of each were randomly sampled,
26. Sale Prices for Houses The average sales price of new resulting in a sample mean of $90,200 for men, and the
one-family houses in the Midwest is $250,000 and in population standard deviation is $15,000; and a mean
the South is $253,400. A random sample of 40 houses of $57,800 for women, and the population standard
in each region was examined with the following results. deviation is $12,800. At the 0.01 level of significance,
At the 0.05 level of significance, can it be concluded can it be concluded that the difference in means is not
that the difference in mean sales price for the two re- $30,000?
gions is greater than $3400? Source: New York Times Almanac.
Technology Step by Step

TI-84 Plus Hypothesis Test for the Difference Between This refers to Example 9–2 in the text.
Two Means and z Distribution (Data)
Step by Step
Example TI9–1
1. Enter the data values into L1 and L2.
2. Press STAT and move the cursor to TESTS.
3. Press 3 for 2-SampZTest.
4. Move the cursor to Data and press ENTER.
5. Type in the appropriate values.
6. Move the cursor to the appropriate alternative hypothesis and
press ENTER.
7. Move the cursor to Calculate and press ENTER.
9–11
Hypothesis Test for the Difference Between This refers to Example 9–1 in the text.
Two Means and z Distribution (Statistics)
Example TI9–2
2. Press 3 for 2-SampZTest.
3. Move the cursor to Stats and press ENTER.
5. Move the cursor to the appropriate alternative hypothesis
and press ENTER.
Confidence Interval for the Difference Between

Two Means and z Distribution (Data)
3. Press 9 for 2-SampZInt.
6. Move the cursor to Calculate and press ENTER. This refers to Example 9–3 in the text.
Two Means and z Distribution (Statistics)
Example TI9–3
2. Press 9 for 2-SampZInt.
z Test for the Difference Between Two Means

EXCEL Excel has a two-sample z test included in the Data Analysis Add-in. To perform a z test for the
Step by Step difference between the means of two populations, given two independent samples, do this:
1. Enter the first sample data set into column A.
2. Enter the second sample data set into column B.
3. Select the Data tab from the toolbar. Then select Data Analysis.
4. In the Analysis Tools box, select z test: Two Sample for Means.
5. Type the ranges for the data in columns A and B and type a value (usually 0) for the
Hypothesized Mean Difference.
6. Type the known population variances in for Variable 1 Variance (known) and Variable 2
Variance (known).
7. Specify the confidence level Alpha.
8. Specify a location for the output, and click [OK].
Example XL9–1
α = 0.05. Assume the population variances are σ

2A   = 10.067 and σ
2B   = 7.067.
Test the claim that the two population means are equal, using the sample data provided here, at
Set A 10 2 15 18 13 15 16 14 18 12 15 15 14 18 16
Set B 5 8 10 9 9 11 12 16 8 8 9 10 11 7 6
The two-sample z test dialog box is shown (before the variances are entered); the results appear
in the table that Excel generates. Note that the P-value and critical z value are provided for
9–12
Section 9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means of Independent Samples: Using the t Test 499
tation: 7.09045E-06 = 7.09045 × 10−6 = 0.00000709045. Because this value is less than 0.05,
both the one-tailed test and the two-tailed test. The P-values here are expressed in scientific no-
we reject the null hypothesis and conclude that the population means are not equal.
Two-Sample z Test Dialog Box
9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means

of Independent Samples: Using the t Test
OBJECTIVE 2 In Section 9–1, the z test was used to test the difference between two means when the popu-
lation standard deviations were known and the variables were normally or approximately
Test the difference
normally distributed, or when both sample sizes were greater than or equal to 30. In many
between two means for
situations, however, these conditions cannot be met—that is, the population standard de-
independent samples,
viations are not known. In these cases, a t test is used to test the difference between means
using the t test.
when the two samples are independent and when the samples are taken from two normally or
approximately normally distributed populations. Samples are independent samples when
they are not related. Also it will be assumed that the variances are not equal.
Formula for the t Test for Testing the Difference

Between Two Means, Independent Samples
Variances are assumed to be unequal:
2  ) – (μ1 − μ2)
(X  − X
t =   
__ __
_________________
  1    ________ 
  n1   + ___
s2   s22 
√
___   n      
where the degrees of freedom are equal to the smaller of n1 − 1 or n2 − 1.

1 2
9–13
The formula
 2) − (μ1 − μ2)
t = _________________
__ __
(X  – X
  1   
   ________ 
  n1    + ___

s2   s22 
√
___
1
  n      
2
(observed value) − (expected value)

follows the format of
Test value =   _____________________________

        
standard error
1  − X2  is the observed difference between sample means and where the e xpected
__ __
value μ1 − μ2 is equal to zero

where X
s1 ∕
  n1 + s22 ∕
when no difference between population means is hypothe
_____________
two means. This formula is similar to the one used when σ1 and σ2 are known; but when
2
sized. The denominator    √   n2 is the standard error of the difference between
we use this t test, σ1 and σ2 are unknown, so s1 and s2 are used in the formula in place of
σ1 and σ2. Since mathematical derivation of the standard error is somewhat complicated,
it will be omitted here.
means differ when σ1 and σ2 are unknown, the following assumptions must be met.
Before you can use the testing methods to determine whether two independent s ample
Assumptions for the t Test for Two Independent Means When σ1 and σ2
Are Unknown
1. The samples are random samples.
2. The sample data are independent of one another.
3. When the sample sizes are less than 30, the populations must be normally or
approximately normally distributed.
before proceeding.
Again the hypothesis test here follows the same steps as those in Section 9–1; how-
ever, the formula uses s1 and s2 and Table F to get the critical values.
EXAMPLE 9–4 Work Absences

A study was done to see if there is a difference between the number of sick days men
take and the number of sick days women take. A random sample of 9 men found that
the mean of the number of sick days taken was 5.5. The standard deviation of the
and a standard deviation of 1.19 days. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a
sample was 1.23. A random sample of 7 women found that the mean was 4.3 days
difference in the means?
SOLUTION
H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 ≠ μ2 (claim)
Find the critical values. Since the test is two-tailed and α = 0.05, the degrees of
freedom are the smaller of n1 − 1 and n2 − 1. In this case, n1 − 1 = 9 − 1 = 8
Step 2
and n2 − 1 = 7 − 1 = 6. So d.f. = 6. From Table F, the critical values are

+2.447 and −2.447.
9–14
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2)
(X1  − X (5.5 − 4.3) − 0 
t =    _______  =      = 1.972

__ __
_________________
     _____________
  
  n    +   n        +       
___________
2 2
√ s1   __s2  

√
1.23 2 1.19 2
__ _____
       ____  
1 2 9 7
Step 4 Make the decision. Do not reject the null hypothesis since 1.972 < 2.447.
See Figure 9–5.
t
−2.447 0 1.972 2.447
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to support the claim
that the means are different.
When raw data are given in the exercises, use your calculator or the formulas in
Chapter 3 to find the means and variances for the data sets. Then follow the procedures
shown in this section to test the hypotheses.
Confidence intervals can also be found for the difference of two means with this
formula:
Confidence Intervals for the Difference of Two Means: Independent Samples

Variances assumed to be unequal:
< μ1 − μ2 < (X1  − X

________ ________
(X1  − X
2  ) − tα∕2 ___
 n1  + ___ 2  ) + tα∕2 ___
  n1  + ___
s 2  s 22  s 2  s 22 
√ √
__ __ __ __
 n        n     
d.f. = smaller value of n1 − 1 or n2 − 1

1 2 1 2
EXAMPLE 9–5
Find the 95% confidence interval for the data in Example 9–4.
SOLUTION
Substitute in the formula. _______ _______
(X 1 − X   n1   + __ < μ1 − μ2 < (X 1 – X

 2) + tα∕2 __
  n1   + __
s 2   s22  s 2   s22 
√
 2) –tα∕2 __ √
__ __ __ __
  n         n      
1 2 1 2
 < μ1 − μ2 < (5.5 − 4.3) + 2.447   

____________ ____________
(5.5 − 4.3) − 2.447    √  +  _____

1.19  2   + _____ √
1.23 2  2 2
 _____   1.23  
_____   1.19   
 
1.2 – 1.489 < μ1 − μ2 < 1.2 + 1.489

9 7 9 7
−0.289 < μ1 − μ2 < 2.689

Since 0 is contained in the interval, there is not enough evidence to support the claim that
the means are different.
9–15
In many statistical software packages, a different method is used to compute the de-
(s 21∕
  n1 + s 22∕
grees of freedom for this t test. They are determined by the formula
d.f. =    
  n2)2
(s 21∕
  n1)2∕(n1 − 1) + (s 22∕   n2)2∕(n2 − 1)
______________________________
       
This formula will not be used in this textbook.

There are actually two different options for the use of t tests. One option is used when
the variances of the populations are not equal, and the other option is used when the vari
ances are equal. To determine whether two sample variances are equal, the researcher can
use an F test, as shown in Section 9–5.
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2)
When the variances are assumed__to be__equal, this formula is used and
t =    
(X1  – X
_____________________________
(n1 − 1)s21   + (n2 − 1)s22   __
     
__________________ _______ 
√ n1 + n2 − 2 √
__________________
   
           n1   +  __
1
n2     
1

follows the format of
Test value =   _____________________________
        
standard error
For the numerator, the terms are the same as in the previously given formula. However, a
note of explanation is needed for the denominator of the second test statistic. Since both
populations are assumed to have the same variance, the standard error is computed with
what is called a pooled estimate of the variance. A pooled estimate of the variance is
a weighted average of the variance using the two sample variances and the degrees of
freedom of each variance as the weights. Again, since the algebraic derivation of the
standard error is somewhat complicated, it is omitted.
Note, however, that not all statisticians are in agreement about using the F test before
using the t test. Some believe that conducting the F and t tests at the same level of signifi-
scope of this text. Because of this, we will assume that σ1 ≠ σ2 in this text.
cance will change the overall level of significance of the t test. Their reasons are beyond the

Too Long on the Telephone
A company collects data on the lengths of telephone calls made by employees in two different
divisions. The sample mean and the sample standard deviation for the sales division are 10.26 and
8.56, respectively. The sample mean and sample standard deviation for the shipping and receiving
Degrees of freedom = 56
division are 6.93 and 4.93, respectively. A hypothesis test was run, and the computer output follows.
Confidence interval limits = −0.18979, 6.84979

Test statistic t = 1.89566
Critical value t = −2.0037, 2.0037
P-value = 0.06317
Significance level = 0.05
1. Are the samples independent or dependent?
2. Which number from the output is compared to the significance level to check if the null
hypothesis should be rejected?
3. Which number from the output gives the probability of a type I error that is calculated from
the sample data?
4. Was a right-, left-, or two-tailed test done? Why?
5. What are your conclusions?
6. What would your conclusions be if the level of significance were initially set at 0.10?
See pages 544–545 for the answers.
9–16
Exercises 9–2
Use α = 0.10.
For these exercises, perform each of these steps. Assume the difference in the means is statistically significant?
that all variables are normally or approximately normally
distributed.
Chocolate: 29 25 17 36 41 25 32 29
a. State the hypotheses and identify the claim. 38 34 24 27 29
b. Find the critical value(s).
Nonchocolate: 41 41 37 29 30 38 39 10
c. Compute the test value.
29 55 29
d. Make the decision. Source: The Doctor’s Pocket Calorie, Fat, and Carbohydrate Counter.
e. Summarize the results.
6. Weights of Vacuum Cleaners Upright vacuum clean-
Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless ers have either a hard body type or a soft body type.
of each type. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that the

otherwise specified and assume the variances are unequal. Shown are the weights in pounds of a random sample
at α = 0.10 in the mean heights in feet of waterfalls in

1. Waterfall Heights Is there a significant difference
means of the weights are different?
Europe and the ones in Asia? The data are shown.
Hard body types Soft body types
Europe Asia 21 17 17 20 24 13 11 13
487 1246 1385 614 722 964 16 17 15 20 12 15
470 1312 984 1137 320 830 23 16 17 17
900 345 820 350 722 1904 13 15 16 18
Source: World Almanac and Book of Facts. 18
2. Tax-Exempt Properties A tax collector wishes to see 7. Weights of Running Shoes The weights in ounces of a
if the mean values of the tax-exempt properties are dif- sample of running shoes for men and women are shown.
P‑value method with α = 0.05.

ferent for two cities. The values of the tax-exempt prop- Test the claim that the means are different. Use the
are given in millions of dollars. At α = 0.05, is there

erties for the two random samples are shown. The data
Men Women
enough evidence to support the tax collector’s claim
that the means are different? 10.4 12.6 10.6 10.2 8.8
11.1 14.7 9.6 9.5 9.5
City A City B 10.8 12.9 10.1 11.2 9.3
113 22 14 8 82 11 5 15 11.7 13.3 9.4 10.3 9.5
25 23 23 30 295 50 12 9 12.8 14.5 9.8 10.3 11.0
44 11 19 7 12 68 81 2
8. Teacher Salaries A researcher claims that the mean
31 19 5 2 20 16 4 5
of the salaries of elementary school teachers is greater
3. Noise Levels in Hospitals The mean noise level of 20 than the mean of the salaries of secondary school teach-
randomly selected areas designated as “casualty doors” ers in a large school district. The mean of the salaries
was 63.1 dBA, and the sample standard deviation is of a r andom sample of 26 elementary school teachers is
4.1 dBA. The mean noise level for 24 randomly selected $48,256, and the sample standard deviation is $3,912.40.
areas designated as operating theaters was 56.3 dBA, The mean of the salaries of a random sample of 24 sec-
α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a difference deviation is $5533. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that
and the sample standard deviation was 7.5 dBA. At ondary school teachers is $45,633. The sample standard
in the means? the mean of the salaries of the elementary school teachers
is greater than the mean of the salaries of the secondary
4. Ages of Gamblers The mean age of a random sample school teachers? Use the P‑value method.
of 25 people who were playing the slot machines is
48.7 years, and the standard deviation is 6.8 years. The 9. Find the 90% confidence for the difference of the means
mean age of a random sample of 35 people who were in Exercise 1 of this section.
3.2 years. Can it be concluded at α = 0.05 that the mean

playing roulette is 55.3 with a standard deviation of 10. Find the 95% confidence interval for the difference of the
means in Exercise 6 of this section.
age of those playing the slot machines is less than those
11. Hours Spent Watching Television According to
playing roulette?
Nielsen Media Research, children (ages 2–11) spend
5. Carbohydrates in Candies The number of grams of an average of 21 hours 30 minutes watching television
carbohydrates contained in 1-ounce servings of ran- per week while teens (ages 12–17) spend an average
domly selected chocolate and nonchocolate candy is of 20 hours 40 minutes. Based on the sample statis-
listed here. Is there sufficient evidence to conclude that tics shown, is there sufficient evidence to conclude a
9–17
the two groups? Use α = 0.01.

difference in average television watching times between interval for the differences of the means. Use the P-value
method.
Source: Michael D. Shook and Robert L. Shook, The Book of Odds.
Children Teens
16. Ages of Homes Whiting, Indiana, leads the “Top
Sample mean 22.45 18.50 100 Cities with the Oldest Houses” list with the average
Sample variance 16.4 18.2 age of houses being 66.4 years. Farther down the list re-
Sample size 15 15 sides Franklin, Pennsylvania, with an average house age
Source: Time Almanac. of 59.4 years. Researchers selected a random sample of
tics. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that the houses in

20 houses in each city and obtained the following statis-
12. Professional Golfers’ Earnings Two random samples
of earnings of professional golfers were selected. One Whiting are older? Use the P-value method.
sample was taken from the Professional Golfers Associa-
Whiting Franklin
Golfers Association. At α = 0.05, is there a difference in
tion, and the other was taken from the Ladies Professional
Mean age 62.1 years 55.6 years
the means? The data are in thousands of dollars. Standard deviation 5.4 years 3.9 years
Source: www.city-data.com
PGA
17. Medical School Enrollments A random sample of
446 1147 1344 9188 5687 enrollments from medical schools that specialize in
10,508 4910 8553 7573 375 research and from those that are noted for primary
LPGA care is listed. Find the 90% confidence interval for the
difference in the means.
48 76 122 466 863
100 1876 2029 4364 2921 Research Primary care
13. Cyber School Enrollment The data show the number 474 577 605 663 783 605 427 728
of students attending cyber charter schools in Allegheny 783 467 670 414 546 474 371 107
County and the number of students attending cyber 813 443 565 696 442 587 293 277
692 694 277 419 662 555 527 320
α = 0.01, is there enough evidence to support the claim
schools in counties surrounding Allegheny County. At
884
that the average number of students in school districts in Source: U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate Schools.
Allegheny County who attend cyber schools is greater 18. Out-of-State Tuitions The out-of-state tuitions (in dollars)
than those who attend cyber schools in school districts for random samples of both public and private four-year
outside Allegheny County? Give a factor that should be colleges in a New England state are listed. Find the 95%
considered in interpreting this answer. confidence interval for the difference in the means.
Allegheny County Outside Allegheny County Private Public
25 75 38 41 27 32 57 25 38 14 10 29 13,600 13,495 7,050 9,000
Source: Pittsburgh Tribune-Review. 16,590 17,300 6,450 9,758
23,400 12,500 7,050 7,871
14. Hockey’s Highest Scorers The number of points held
by random samples of the NHL’s highest scorers for 16,100
ence is shown. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that

both the Eastern Conference and the Western Confer- Source: New York Times Almanac.
19. Gasoline Prices A random sample of monthly
The samples are shown. Using α = 0.01, can it be

there is a difference in means based on these data? gasoline prices was taken from 2011 and from 2015.
Eastern Conference Western Conference
concluded that gasoline cost more in 2015? Use the
83 60 75 58 77 59 72 58 P-value method.
78 59 70 58 37 57 66 55
2011 2.02 2.47 2.50 2.70 3.13 2.56
62 61 59 61
Source: www.foxsports.com 2015 2.36 2.46 2.63 2.76 3.00
2.85 2.77
15. Hospital Stays for Maternity Patients Health Care 20. Miniature Golf Scores A large group of friends went
Knowledge Systems reported that an insured woman miniature golfing together at a par 54 course and de-
from each of the two teams is shown. At α = 0.05,

spends on average 2.3 days in the hospital for a routine cided to play on two teams. A random sample of scores
childbirth, while an uninsured woman spends on average
1.9 days. Assume two random samples of 16 women each is there a difference in mean scores between the two
were used in both samples. The standard deviation of the teams? Use the P-value method.
tion of the second sample is 0.3 day. At α = 0.01, test the

first sample is equal to 0.6 day, and the standard devia-
Team 1 61 44 52 47 56 63 62 55
claim that the means are equal. Find the 99% confidence Team 2 56 40 42 58 48 52 51
9–18
21. Home Runs Two random samples of professional base- 22. Batting Averages Random samples of batting averages
ball players were selected and the number of home runs hit from the leaders in both leagues prior to the All-Star
were recorded. One sample was obtained from the National break are shown. At the 0.05 level of significance, can a
can League. At α = 0.10, is there a difference in the means?

League, and the other sample was obtained from the Ameri- difference be concluded?
National League American League National .360 .654 .652 .338 .313 .309

American .340 .332 .317 .316 .314 .306
18 4 8 2 6 11 18 11
9 2 6 5 3 12 25 4
6 8 29 25 24 9 12 5

Two Means and t Distribution (Statistics)
Step by Step
Example TI9–4
2. Press 4 for 2-SampTTest.
5. Move the cursor to the appropriate alternative hypothesis and press ENTER.
6. On the line for Pooled, move the cursor to No (standard deviations
are assumed not equal) and press ENTER.

Two Means and t Distribution (Data)
3. Press 0 for 2-SampTInt.
6. On the line for Pooled, move the cursor to No (standard deviations are assumed not equal)
and press ENTER.

Two Means and t Distribution (Statistics) This refers to Example 9–5 in the text.
Example TI9–5
2. Press 0 for 2-SampTInt.
5. On the line for Pooled, move the cursor to No (standard deviations
are assumed not equal) and press ENTER.
Testing the Difference Between Two Means:

EXCEL Independent Samples
Step by Step Excel has a two-sample t test included in the Data Analysis Add-in. The following example
shows how to perform a t test for the difference between two means.
9–19
Example XL9–2
data. Assume the population variances are not equal. Use α = 0.05.
Test the claim that there is no difference between population means based on these sample
Set A 32 38 37 36 36 34 39 36 37 42
Set B 30 36 35 36 31 34 37 33 32
2. Under the Home tab, select Format > enter the 9-number data set B into column B.
1. Enter the 10-number data set A into column A.
4. In the Data Analysis box, under Analysis Tools select t-test: Two-Sample Assuming Unequal
Variances, and click [OK].
5. In Input, type in the Variable 1 Range: A1:A10 and the Variable 2 Range: B1:B9.
6. Type 0 for the Hypothesized Mean Difference.
7. Type 0.05 for Alpha.
8. In Output options, type D7 for the Output Range, then click [OK].
Two-Sample t Test in Excel
Note: You may need to increase the column width to see all the results. To do this:
1. Highlight the columns D, E, and F.
2. Select Format>AutoFit Column Width.
The output reports both one- and two-tailed P-values.
Test the Difference Between Two Means: Independent Samples*

MINITAB MINITAB will calculate the test statistic and P-value for differences between the means for
Step by Step two populations when the population standard deviations are unknown.
For Example 9–2, is the average number of sports for men higher than the average number
for women?
1. Enter the data for Example 9–2 into C1 and C2. Name the columns MaleS and FemaleS.
2. Select Stat>Basic Statistics>2-Sample t.
3. Select Each sample is in its own column from the drop down menu.
*MINITAB does not calculate a z test statistic. This statistic can be used instead.
9–20
Section 9–3 Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Dependent Samples 507
There is one sample in each column.

4. Click in the box for Sample 1. Double-
click C1 MaleS in the list.
5. Click in the box for Sample 2, then
double-click C2 FemaleS in the list. Do
not check the box for Assume equal
variances. MINITAB will use the large
sample formula. The completed dialog
box is shown.
6. Click [Options].
a) Type in 90 for the Confidence
level and 0 for the Hypothesized
b) Select Difference > hypothesized

difference.
difference for the Alternative hypoth-

esis. Make sure that Assume equal
variances is not checked.
greater than the significance level, 0.172 >

7. Click [OK] twice. Since the P‑value is
0.1, do not reject the null hypothesis.

Two-Sample T-Test and CI: MaleS, FemaleS
Two–sample T for MaleS vs FemaleS
N Mean StDev SE Mean
MaleS 50 8.56 3.26 0.46
Difference = μ (MaleS) − μ (FemaleS)

FemaleS 50 7.94 3.27 0.46
95% lower bound for difference: −0.464

Estimate for difference: 0.620
T-Test of difference = 0 (vs >): T–Value = 0.95 P-Value = 0.172 DF = 97
9–3 Testing the Difference Between Two Means:

Dependent Samples
independent and σ1 and σ2 were known. In Section 9–2, the t test was used to compare
OBJECTIVE 3 In Section 9–1, the z test was used to compare two sample means when the samples were
Test the difference
between two means for two sample means when the samples were independent. In this section, a different version
dependent samples. of the t test is explained. This version is used when the samples are dependent. Samples
are considered to be dependent samples when the subjects are paired or matched in some
way. Dependent samples are sometimes called matched-pair samples.
For example, suppose a medical researcher wants to see whether a drug will affect the
reaction time of its users. To test this hypothesis, the researcher must pretest the s ubjects
in the sample. That is, they are given a test to ascertain their normal reaction times. Then
after taking the drug, the subjects are tested again, using a posttest. Finally, the means of
the two tests are compared to see whether there is a difference. Since the same subjects are
used in both cases, the samples are related; subjects scoring high on the pretest will gen-
erally score high on the posttest, even after consuming the drug. Likewise, those scoring
lower on the pretest will tend to score lower on the posttest. To take this effect into account,
the researcher employs a t test, using the differences between the pretest values and the
posttest values. Thus, only the gain or loss in values is compared.
Here are some other examples of dependent samples. A researcher may want to de-
sign an SAT preparation course to help students raise their test scores the second time
they take the SAT. Hence, the differences between the two exams are compared. A medi-
cal specialist may want to see whether a new counseling program will help subjects lose
weight. Therefore, the preweights of the subjects will be compared with the postweights.
9–21
Besides samples in which the same subjects are used in a pre-post situation, there are
other cases where the samples are considered dependent. For example, students might
be matched or paired according to some variable that is pertinent to the study; then one
student is assigned to one group, and the other student is assigned to a second group. For
instance, in a study involving learning, students can be selected and paired according
to their IQs. That is, two students with the same IQ will be paired. Then one will be as-
signed to one sample group (which might receive instruction by computers), and the other
student will be assigned to another sample group (which might receive instruction by the
lecture discussion method). These assignments will be done randomly. Since a student’s
IQ is important to learning, it is a variable that should be controlled. By matching subjects
on IQ, the researcher can eliminate the variable’s influence, for the most part. Matching,
then, helps to reduce type II error by eliminating extraneous variables.
Two notes of caution should be mentioned. First, when subjects are matched according
to one variable, the matching process does not eliminate the influence of other variables.
Matching students according to IQ does not account for their mathematical ability or their
familiarity with computers. Since not all variables influencing a study can be controlled, it
is up to the researcher to determine which variables should be used in matching. Second,
when the same subjects are used for a pre-post study, sometimes the knowledge that they
are participating in a study can influence the results. For example, if people are placed in
a special program, they may be more highly motivated to succeed simply because they
have been selected to participate; the program itself may have little effect on their success.
When the samples are dependent, a special t test for dependent means is used. This
test employs the difference in values of the matched pairs. The hypotheses are as follows:
H 0: μD = 0 H 0: μD = 0 H 0: μD = 0
Two-tailed Left-tailed Right-tailed
H 1: μD ≠ 0 H 1: μD < 0 H 1: μD > 0
Here, μD is the symbol for the expected mean of the difference of the matched pairs. The
general procedure for finding the test value involves several steps.
D = X 1 − X2
First, find the differences of the values of the pairs of data.
__
  ΣD
Second, find the mean D
 of the differences, using the formula
 = ___
__
D n   
√
where n is the number of data pairs. Third, find the standard deviation sD of the differ-
____________
ences, using the formula
nΣD2 − (ΣD)2
sD =   
   
n(n − 1)
____________
   
Fourth, find the estimated standard error s__ D of the differences, which is
D  =   √
sD
____
s__ __   
n  
 − μD
Finally, find the test value, using the formula
t = ______ with d.f. = n − 1

__
sD∕√
D
   
__  
n  

The formula in the final step follows the basic format of
Test value =   _____________________________

        
where the observed value is the mean of the differences. The expected value μD is zero if
standard error
the hypothesis is μD = 0. The standard error of the difference is the standard deviation of
9–22
the difference, divided by the square root of the sample size. Both populations must be
normally or approximately normally distributed.
Before you can use the testing method presented in this section, the following
assumptions must be met.
Assumptions for the t Test for Two Means When the Samples Are Dependent
1. The sample or samples are random.

2. The sample data are dependent.
3. When the sample size or sample sizes are less than 30, the population or populations must
be normally or approximately normally distributed.
before proceeding.
The formulas for this t test are given next.
Formulas for the t Test for Dependent Samples
− μD
t = _______
__
sD∕√n  

D
 
    
__ 
with d.f. = n − 1 and where
nΣD2 − (ΣD)2
  ΣD
____________
 = D =    
√ n(n − 1)
__
D ___    ____________
      
n  and s
The steps for this t test are summarized in the Procedure Table.
Procedure Table
Testing the Difference Between Means for Dependent Samples
Step 2 Find the critical value(s).
a. Make a table, as shown.
A B
⋮ ⋮ ΣD =
D = X1 – X2
ΣD2 =
X1 X2 D2 = ( X1 – X2)2
b. Find the differences and place the results in column A.

D = X1 − X2
U n u s u a l Stat
About 4% of Americans
  ΣD
spend at least one night c. Find the mean of the differences.
 =
__
in jail each year. ___
Dn   
D2 = (X1 − X2)2
d. Square the differences and place the results in column B. Complete the table.
e. Find the standard deviation of the differences.
nΣD2 − (ΣD)2
____________
sD = ____________
√ n(n − 1)
   
      
 − μD
f. Find the test value.
t = _______   with d.f. = n − 1
__
sD∕√n  
D
   
__  

9–23
EXAMPLE 9–6 Bank Deposits
ago and their deposits (in billions of dollars) today. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded
A random sample of nine local banks shows their deposits (in billions of dollars) 3 years
Use α = 0.05. Assume the variable is normally distributed.

that the average in deposits for the banks is greater today than it was 3 years ago?
Source: SNL Financial.
Bank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
3 years ago 11.42 8.41 3.98 7.37 2.28 1.10 1.00 0.9 1.35
Today 16.69 9.44 6.53 5.58 2.92 1.88 1.78 1.5 1.22
SOLUTION
Step 1 State the hypothesis and identify the claim. Since we are interested to see if
there has been an increase in deposits, the deposits 3 years ago must be less
than the deposits today; hence, the deposits must be significantly less 3 years
ago than they are today. Hence, the mean of the differences must be less
than zero.
H0: μD = 0 and H1: μD < 0 (claim)
Step 2 Find the critical value. The degrees of freedom are n − 1, or 9 − 1 = 8.

Using Table F, the critical value for a left-tailed test with α = 0.05 is −1.860.
a. Make a table.
3 years A B
ago (X1) Today (X2) D = X1 – X2 D2 = (X1 – X2)2
11.42 16.69
8.41 9.44
3.98 6.53
7.37 5.58
2.28 2.92
1.10 1.88
1.00 1.78
0.90 1.50
1.35 1.22
11.42 − 16.69 = −5.27

8.41 − 9.44 = −1.03
3.98 − 6.53 = −2.55
7.37 − 5.58 = +1.79
2.28 − 2.92 = −0.64
1.10 − 1.88 = −0.78
1.00 − 1.78 = −0.78
0.9 − 1.50 = −0.60
1.35 − 1.22 = +0.13
ΣD = −9.73
  ΣD −9.73  = −1.081

c. Find the means of the differences.
 = ___
__
_____
D n   =   9  
9–24
(−5.27)2 = 27.7729
d. Square the differences and place the results in column B.
(−1.03)2 = 1.0609
(−2.55)2 = 6.5025
(+1.79)2 = 3.2041
(−0.64)2 = 0.4096
(−0.78)2 = 0.6084
(−0.78)2 = 0.6084
(−0.60)2 = 0.3600
(+0.13)2 = 0.0169
ΣD2 = 40.5437
The completed table is shown next.
3 years A B
−5.27
ago (X1) Today (X2) D = X1 – X2 D2 = (X1 – X2)2
−1.03
11.42 16.69 27.7729
−2.55
8.41 9.44 1.0609
+1.79
3.98 6.53 6.5025
−0.64
7.37 5.58 3.2041
−0.78
2.28 2.92 0.4096
−0.78
1.10 1.88 0.6084
−0.60
1.00 1.78 0.6084
+0.13
0.90 1.50 0.3600
ΣD = −9.73 ΣD2 = 40.5437

1.35 1.22 0.0169
nΣD2 − (ΣD)2
____________
sD = ____________
√ n(n − 1)
   
      
9(40.5437) − (−9.73)
__________________
= √  
2
__________________
         
9(9 – 1)
= ________
________
√   270.2204
   
 
 
= 1.937
72

 − μD _________
t = _______ =   –1.081 – __   = −1.674
__
__ 
sD∕√n   1.937∕√9  
D 0 
    
−1.674, is greater than the critical value, −1.860. See Figure 9–6.
Step 4 Make the decision. Do not reject the null hypothesis since the test value,
t
−1.860 −1.674 0
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to show that the
deposits have increased over the last 3 years.
9–25
EXAMPLE 9–7 Cholesterol Levels

A dietitian wishes to see if a person’s cholesterol level will change if the diet is supple-
mented by a certain mineral. Six randomly selected subjects were pretested, and then
they took the mineral supplement for a 6-week period. The results are shown in the
that the cholesterol level has been changed at α = 0.10? Assume the variable is approxi-
table. (Cholesterol level is measured in milligrams per deciliter.) Can it be concluded
mately normally distributed.
Subject 1 2 3 4 5 6
Before (X1) 210 235 208 190 172 244
After (X2) 190 170 210 188 173 228
SOLUTION
Step 1 State the hypotheses and identify the claim. If the diet is effective, the
before cholesterol levels should be different from the after levels.
H0: μD = 0 and H1: μD ≠ 0 (claim)
Find the critical value. The degrees of freedom are 6 − 1 = 5. At α = 0.10,
the critical values are ±2.015.
Step 2

a. Make a table.
A B
Before (X1) After (X2) D = X1 – X2 D2 = (X1 – X2)2
210 190
235 170
208 210
190 188
172 173
244 228

210 − 190 = 20
235 − 170 = 65
208 − 210 = −2
190 − 188 = 2
172 − 173 = −1
244 − 228 = 16
ΣD = 100
c. Find the mean of the differences.
  ΣD
 = ___ n   =   6    = 16.7
__
D 100
_____
d. Square the differences and place the results in column B.

(20)2 = 400
(65)2 = 4225
(−2)2 = 4
(2)2 = 4
(−1)2 = 1

(16)2 = 256
ΣD2 = 4890
9–26
Then complete the table as shown.
A B
Before (X1) After (X2) D = X1 – X2 D2 = (X1 – X2)2
210 190 20 400
235 170 65 4225
208 210 –2 4
190 188 2 4
172 173 –1 1
ΣD = 100 ΣD2 = 4890

244 228 16 256
nΣD2 − (ΣD)2
____________
sD =   
√ n(n − 1)
____________
  
     
6 · 4890 − 100
__________________
= __________________
√
2
   
      
6(6 – 1)
= ________
________
29,340 − 10,000
√
   
      
= 25.4
30
 − μD _________
t = _______ =   16.7 – 0__ 
__
__ 
sD∕√n   25.4∕√6  
D
       
= 1.610
Step 4 Make the decision. The decision is to not reject the null hypothesis, since the
test value 1.610 is in the noncritical region, as shown in Figure 9–7.
t
−2.015 0 1.610 2.015
that the mineral changes a person’s cholesterol level.
The P-values for the t test are found in Table F. For a two-tailed test with d.f. = 5 and
t = 1.610, the P-value is found between 1.476 and 2.015; hence, 0.10 < P-value < 0.20.
Thus, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at α = 0.10.
If a specific difference is hypothesized, this formula should be used
 − μD
t = ______
__
sD∕√
D
   
__  
n  
where μD is the hypothesized difference.
9–27
SPEAKING OF STATISTICS Can Video Games Save Lives?
Can playing video games help doctors perform surgery?
The answer is yes. A study showed that surgeons who
played video games for at least 3 hours each week made
about 37% fewer mistakes and finished operations 27%
faster than those who did not play video games.
The type of surgery that they performed is called
laparoscopic surgery, where the surgeon inserts a
tiny video camera into the body and uses a joystick to
maneuver the surgical instruments while watching the
results on a television monitor. This study compares two
groups and uses proportions. What statistical test do
you think was used to compare the percentages? (See
Section 9–4.)
© Antonia Reeve/Science Source
For example, if a dietitian claims that people on a specific diet will lose an average of
3 pounds in a week, the hypotheses are
H0: μD = 3 and H1: μD ≠ 3
The value 3 will be substituted in the test statistic formula for μD.
Confidence intervals can be found for the mean differences with this formula.
Confidence Interval for the Mean Difference
  D__   < μD < D

 − tα∕2 ____  + tα∕2____
__ s __ s
D   D__   
d.f. = n − 1
n  
√ √ n  
EXAMPLE 9–8
Find the 90% confidence interval for the data in Example 9–7.
SOLUTION

  D__   < μD < D
 – tα∕2____   + tα∕2____
__ s __ s
D   D__   
n   √n  
16.7 − 2.015 · ____ __  < μD < 16.7 + 2.015 · ____
√
  25.4   25.4

__  
16.7 − 20.89 < μD < 16.7 + 20.89

6  
√ 6  
√
−4.19 < μD < 37.59

−4.2 < μD < 37.6
H0: μD = 0. Hence, there is not enough evidence to support the claim that the mineral
Since 0 is contained in the interval, the decision is to not reject the null hypothesis
changes a person’s cholesterol, as previously shown.
9–28

Air Quality
As a researcher for the EPA, you have been asked to determine if the air quality in the United States
has changed over the past 2 years. You select a random sample of 10 metropolitan areas and find
the number of days each year that the areas failed to meet acceptable air quality standards. The
data are shown.
Year 1 18 125 9 22 138 29 1 19 17 31

Year 2 24 152 13 21 152 23 6 31 34 20
Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts.
Based on the data, answer the following questions.

1. What is the purpose of the study?
2. Are the samples independent or dependent?
3. What hypotheses would you use?
4. What is (are) the critical value(s) that you would use?
5. What statistical test would you use?
6. How many degrees of freedom are there?
7. What is your conclusion?
8. Could an independent means test have been used?
9. Do you think this was a good way to answer the original question?
Exercises 9–3
1. Classify each as independent or dependent samples. Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless
a. Heights of identical twins otherwise specified.
b. Test scores of the same students in English and psy- 2. Retention Test Scores A random sample of non-
cholog English majors at a selected college was used in a
c. The effectiveness of two different brands of aspirin study to see if the student retained more from reading
on two different groups of people a 19th-century novel or by watching it in DVD form.
d. Effects of a drug on reaction time of two different Each student was assigned one novel to read and a
groups of people, measured by a before-and-after test different one to watch, and then they were given a
sults are shown. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded

100-point written quiz on each novel. The test re-
e. The effectiveness of two different diets on two
different groups of individuals that the book scores are higher than the DVD
scores?
For Exercises 2 through 12, perform each of these steps.
Assume that all variables are normally or approximately Book 90 80 90 75 80 90 84
normally distributed. DVD 85 72 80 80 70 75 80
a. State the hypotheses and identify the claim.
3. Improving Study Habits As an aid for improving
students’ study habits, nine students were randomly
c. Compute the test value. selected to attend a seminar on the importance of
d. Make the decision. education in life. The table shows the number of
e. Summarize the results. hours each student studied per week before and after
9–29
the seminar. At α = 0.10, did attending the seminar canned green beans. Six overweight dogs were ran-
increase the number of hours the students studied domly selected from her practice and were put on this
per week? program. Their initial weights were recorded, and they
were weighed again after 4 weeks. At the 0.05 level
Before 9 12 6 15 3 18 10 13 7
of significance, can it be concluded that the dogs lost
After 9 17 9 20 2 21 15 22 6 weight?
4. Obstacle Course Times An obstacle course was set Before 42 53 48 65 40 52
up on a campus, and 8 randomly selected volunteers
After 39 45 40 58 42 47
were given a chance to complete it while they were
being timed. They then sampled a new energy drink 9. Pulse Rates of Identical Twins A researcher wanted to
and were given the opportunity to run the course again. compare the pulse rates of identical twins to see whether
there sufficient evidence at α = 0.05 to conclude that the
The “before” and “after” times in seconds are shown. Is there was any difference. Eight sets of twins were ran-
ber of beats per minute. At α = 0.01, is there a signifi-

domly selected. The rates are given in the table as num-
students did better the second time? Discuss possible
reasons for your results. cant difference in the average pulse rates of twins? Use
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 the P-value method. Find the 99% confidence interval
Before 67 72 80 70 78 82 69 75 for the difference of the two.
After 68 70 76 65 75 78 65 68 Twin A 87 92 78 83 88 90 84 93
5. Cholesterol Levels A medical researcher wishes Twin B 83 95 79 83 86 93 80 86

to see if he can lower the cholesterol levels
10. Toy Assembly Test An educational researcher de-
through diet in 6 people by showing a film about vised a wooden toy assembly project to test learning
are shown. At α = 0.05, did the cholesterol level

the effects of high cholesterol levels. The data in 6-year-olds. The time in seconds to assemble the
project was noted, and the toy was disassembled out
decrease on average? of the child’s sight. Then the child was given the task
to repeat. The researcher would conclude that learn-
Patient 1 2 3 4 5 6 ing occurred if the mean of the second assembly times
α = 0.01, can it be concluded that learning took place?

Before 243 216 214 222 206 219 was less than the mean of the first assembly times. At
After 215 202 198 195 204 213
Use the P-value method, and find the 99% confidence
6. PGA Golf Scores At a recent PGA tournament interval of the difference in means.
(the Honda Classic at Palm Beach Gardens, Florida)
selected golfers for two consecutive days. At α = 0.05,

the following scores were posted for eight randomly Child 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Trial 1 100 150 150 110 130 120 118
is there evidence of a difference in mean scores for the Trial 2 90 130 150 90 105 110 120
two days?
11. Reducing Errors in Spelling A ninth-grade teacher
Golfer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
wishes to see if a new spelling program will reduce the
Thursday 67 65 68 68 68 70 69 70 spelling errors in his students’ writing. The number of
Friday 68 70 69 71 72 69 70 70 spelling errors made by the students in a five-page report
before the program is shown. Then the number of spell-
program is shown. At α = 0.05, did the program work?

Source: Washington Observer-Reporter.
ing errors made by students in a five-page report after the
7. Reducing Errors in Grammar A composition teacher
wishes to see whether a new smartphone app will re-
duce the number of grammatical errors her students Before 8 3 10 5 9 11 12
lects six students, and the data are shown. At α = 0.025,

make when writing a two-page essay. She randomly se- After 6 4 8 1 4 7 11
can it be concluded that the number of errors has been 12. Mistakes in a Song A random sample of six music stu-
reduced? dents played a short song, and the number of mistakes
in music each student made was recorded. After they
Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 practiced the song 5 times, the number of mistakes each
α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there was a decrease

Errors before 12 9 0 5 4 3 student made was recorded. The data are shown. At
Errors after 9 6 1 3 2 3
in the mean number of mistakes?
8. Overweight Dogs A veterinary nutritionist developed
a diet for overweight dogs. The total volume of food Student A B C D E F
consumed remains the same, but one-half of the dog Before 10 6 8 8 13 8
food is replaced with a low-calorie “filler” such as After 4 2 2 7 8 9
9–30
X1 and X2 by subtracting X1 − X2, you can find it by

13. Instead of finding the mean of the differences between means. Show that these two procedures will yield the
same results.
finding the means of X1 and X2 and then subtracting the

Two Means: Dependent Samples
Step by Step
Example TI9–6
2. Move the cursor to the top of the L3 column so that
L3 is highlighted.
3. Type L1 – L2, then press ENTER.
5. Press 2 for TTest.
7. Type in the appropriate values, using 0 for μ0 and L3 for the list.
8. Move the cursor to the appropriate alternative hypothesis and

press ENTER.

Two Means: Dependent Samples This refers to
Example 9–8 in
Example TI9–7 the text.
2. Move the cursor to the top of the L3 column so that L3 is highlighted.
3. Type L1 – L2, then press ENTER.
5. Press 8 for TInterval.
7. Type in the appropriate values, using L3 for the list.
Testing the Difference Between Two Means: Dependent Samples

EXCEL Example XL9–3
Step by Step
data. Use α = 0.05.
Test the claim that there is no difference between population means based on these sample paired
Set A 33 35 28 29 32 34 30 34
Set B 27 29 36 34 30 29 28 24
1. Enter the 8-number data set A into column A.

2. Enter the 8-number data set B into column B.
4. In the Data Analysis box, under Analysis Tools select t-test: Paired Two Sample for Means,
and click [OK].
9–31
5. In Input, type in the Variable 1 Range: A1:A8 and the Variable 2 Range: B1:B8.
6. Type 0 for the Hypothesized Mean Difference.
7. Type 0.05 for Alpha.
8. In Output options, type D5 for the Output Range, then click [OK].
Note: You may need to increase the column width to see all the results. To do this:
1. Highlight the columns D, E, and F.
2. Under the Home tab, select Format>AutoFit Column Width.
The output shows a P-value of 0.3253988 for the two-tailed case. This value is greater than the
alpha level of 0.05, so we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
Test the Difference Between Two Means:

MINITAB Dependent Samples
Step by Step A sports fitness trainer claims by taking a special vitamin, a weight lifter can increase his
strength. Eight athletes are selected and given a test of strength, using the standard bench press.
the effectiveness of the vitamin regimen at α = 0.05. Each value in these data represents the
After 2 weeks of regular training, supplemented with the vitamin, they are tested again. Test
maximum number of pounds the athlete can bench-press. Assume that the variable is approxi-
mately normally distributed.
Athlete 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Before (X1) 210 230 182 205 262 253 219 216
After (X2) 219 236 179 204 270 250 222 216
9–32
Section 9–4 Testing the Difference Between Proportions 519
1. Enter the data into C1 and C2. Name

the columns Before and After.
2. Select Stat>Basic Statistics>Paired t.
3. Select Each sample is in a column
from the drop down menu.
4. Double click C1 Before for Sample 1.
5. Double click C2 After for Sample 2.
The second sample will be subtracted
from the first. The differences are not
stored or displayed.
6. Click [Options].
Difference < hypothesized difference.

7. Change Alternative hypothesis to
8. Click [OK] twice.
Paired T-Test and CI: Before, After

Paired T for Before – After
N Mean StDev SE Mean
Before 8 222.13 25.92 9.16
Difference 8 −2.38
After 8 224.50 27.9 1 9.87
4.84 1.71
T-Test of mean difference = 0 (vs < 0) : T–Value = −1.39 P–Value = 0.104.

95% upper bound for mean difference: 0.87
Since the P-value is 0.104, do not reject the null hypothesis. The sample difference of −2.38 in
the strength measurement is not statistically significant.
9–4 Testing the Difference Between Proportions

OBJECTIVE 4 In Chapter 8, an inference about a single proportion was explained. In this section, testing
the difference between two sample proportions will be explained.
Test the difference
The z test with some modifications can be used to test the equality of two proportions.
between two proportions.
For example, a researcher might ask, Is the proportion of men who exercise regularly
less than the proportion of women who exercise regularly? Is there a difference in the
percentage of students who own a mobile device and the percentage of nonstudents who
own one? Is there a difference in the proportion of college graduates who pay cash for
purchases and the proportion of non-college graduates who pay cash?

Recall from Chapter 7 that the symbol  pˆ   (“p hat”) is the sample proportion used to es-
students, 9 are on probation, then the sample proportion is  pˆ   =  _

timate the population proportion, denoted by p. For example, if in a sample of 30 college
9
30  ,  or 0.3. The population
proportion p is the number of all students who are on probation, divided by the number of

students who attend the college. The formula for the sample proportion  pˆ   is
  pˆ   = __
X
  n   
X = number of units that possess the characteristic of interest

where
n = sample size
When you are testing the difference between two population proportions p1 and p2, the hy-
H0: p1 = p2 H0: p1 − p2 = 0

potheses can be stated thus, if no specific difference between the proportions is hypothesized.
H1: p1 ≠ p2 H1: p1 − p2 ≠ 0
or
Similar statements using < or > in the alternate hypothesis can be formed for one-tailed
tests.
9–33
For two proportions,  pˆ  1 = X1∕n1 is used to estimate p1 and   pˆ  2 = X2∕n2 is used to

estimate p2. The standard error of the difference is
σ  p ˆ  −  pˆ   = √σ 2p 1  + σ 2p  2   

= ____
  n1  1 +  ____
________ __________
pq p2q2
√ n2    
where σ 2p 1  and σ 2p 
2  are the variances of the proportions, q1 = 1 − p1, q2 = 1 − p2, and n1
1 2 1
and n2 are the respective sample sizes.

Since p1 and p2 are unknown, a weighted estimate of p can be computed by using the
n   pˆ   + n2  pˆ  2

formula
 =   1 1

n1 + n2
__ __________
p     
and q = 1 − p.  This weighted estimate is based on the hypothesis that p1 = p2. Hence, p is
_ __ __
Since   pˆ  1 = X1∕n1 and   pˆ  2 = X2∕n2, p

a better estimate than either  pˆ  1 or   pˆ  2, since
__
it is a combined average using both  pˆ  1 and   pˆ  2.

X + X2
 can be simplified to
 =
n1 + n2
_______ __
  1    p
Finally, the standard error of the difference in terms of the weighted estimate is
σ  p ˆ  −  pˆ   =    ( 

____________
1 2 √
__ _ __
p  q    n1   +  __
1
1
)
n        
2
The formula for the test value is shown next.
Formula for the z Test Value for Comparing Two Proportions

(  pˆ  1 −   pˆ  2) − (p1 – p2)
z =   

 ________________
   ____________ 
__ _ __
√
p (
 q      n1   + __
  n1        
1 2 )
X + X2 ˆ ___
where
  p  1 =   n 1  
n1 + n2
X
 = _______
__
p   1    
    pˆ  2 =   n 2  

1
_ __
X
___
q  = 1 – p
2
This formula follows the format

Test value =   _____________________________
        
standard error
Before you can test the difference between two sample proportions, the following
assumptions must be met.
Assumptions for the z Test for Two Proportions

1. The samples must be random samples.
3. For both samples np ≥ 5 and nq ≥ 5.

2. The sample data are independent of one another.
before proceeding.
The hypothesis-testing procedure used here follows the five-step procedure presented
__ _
previously except that  pˆ  1,   pˆ  2, p
 , and q  must be computed.
9–34
EXAMPLE 9–9 Vaccination Rates in Nursing Homes

In the nursing home study mentioned in the chapter-opening Statistics Today, the re-
searchers found that 12 out of 34 randomly selected small nursing homes had a resident
homes had a vaccination rate of less than 80%. At α = 0.05, test the claim that there is
vaccination rate of less than 80%, while 17 out of 24 randomly selected large nursing
no difference in the proportions of the small and large nursing homes with a resident
vaccination rate of less than 80%.
Source: Nancy Arden, Arnold S. Monto, and Suzanne E. Ohmit, “Vaccine Use and the Risk of Outbreaks in a Sample of Nursing
Homes During an Influenza Epidemic,” American Journal of Public Health.
SOLUTION
State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: p1 = p2 (claim) and H1: p1 ≠ p2
Step 1
Step 2 Find the critical values. Since α = 0.05, the critical values are +1.96 and −1.96.
__ _
Step 3 Compute the test value. First compute  p  1,   p  2, p
ˆ ˆ  , and q .  Then substitute in the
formula.

Let   pˆ  1 be the proportion of the small nursing homes with a vaccination rate of less

than 80% and  pˆ  2 be the proportion of the large nursing homes with a vaccination rate of
less than 80%. Then
  n 1  = ___

  12   = 0.35 and   pˆ  2 = ___   17  = 0.71
X X
  pˆ  1 = ___   n 2  = ___

1 34 2 24
=   12 + 17 
  = ___
  29  = 0.5
n1 + n2 34 + 24 58
__ X + X2 _______
_______
 =
p   1   
q  = 1 − p
 = 1 − 0.5 = 0.5
_ __
pˆ  1 –  pˆ  2) − (p1 – p2)

( ________________
z =         ____________ 
√
p
__ _ __
   (
  q      n1   +  __
1
)
n        
(0.35 − 0.71) − 0
  −0.36 
1 2
=    _________________  = ______
___________________ = −2.70
       +         
       
√
(0.5)(0.5)
   1
___ 1
___
( 0.1333
)
Make the decision. Reject the null hypothesis, since −2.70 < −1.96.
34 24
Step 4
See Figure 9–8.
z
−2.70 −1.96 0 +1.96
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to reject the claim that
there is no difference in the proportions of small and large nursing homes
with a resident vaccination rate of less than 80%.
9–35
EXAMPLE 9–10 Criminal Arrests

A study found that in a random sample of 50 burglaries, 16% of the criminals were ar-
α = 0.10, can it be concluded that the percentages of people who committed burglaries
rested. In a random sample of 50 car thefts, 12% of the criminals were arrested. At
and were arrested was greater than the percentages of people who committed car thefts
and were arrested.
SOLUTION
H0: p1 = p2 and H1: p1 > p2 (claim)
Step 2 Find the critical value, using Table E. At α = 0.10 the critical value is 1.28.
__
Step 3 Compute
_
the test value. Since percentages are given, you need to compare p
 
and q  .

X1 =   pˆ  1n1 = 0.16(50) = 8

X2 =   pˆ  2n2 = 0.12(50) = 6
=   8 + 6   
= ____
  14   = 0.14
n1 + n2 50 + 50 100
__ X + X2 _______
 = _______
p   1   
1 − p
 = 1 − 0.14 = 0.86
_ __
q  =
(   pˆ  1 –  pˆ  2) − (p1 – p2) (0.16 − 0.12) − 0

___________  =     
z =   _________________ ___________________  = _____

_____________________   0.04   
  q         + __
         = 0.58
√ ( ) (0.14)(0.86)      +         

( 
__ _ __ 1   1      0.069
p    n1 n2 √    1
___
50 50
1
)
___
Step 4 Make the decision. Do not reject the null hypothesis since 0.58 < 1.28.
That is, 0.58 falls in the noncritical region. See Figure 9–9.
F I G U R E 9 – 9 Critical and Test Value for Example 9–10
z
0 0.58 1.28
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is not enough evidence to support the
claim that the percentage of people who are arrested for burglaries is
greater than the percentage of people who are arrested who committed
car thefts.
9–36
blu55339_ch09_487-546.indd 522 5/21/18 6:15 PM

SPEAKING OF STATISTICS Is More Expensive Better?
An article in the Journal of the American Medical
Association explained a study done on placebo pain
pills. Researchers randomly assigned 82 healthy peo-
ple to two groups. The individuals in the first group
were given sugar pills, but they were told that the pills
were a new, fast-acting opioid pain reliever similar to
codeine and that they were listed at $2.50 each. The
individuals in the other group received the same sugar
pills but were told that the pills had been marked down
to 10¢ each.
Each group received electrical shocks before and
after taking the pills. They were then asked if the pills
reduced the pain. Eighty-five percent of the group who
were told that the pain pills cost $2.50 said that they
© Comstock/PictureQuest RF
were effective, while 61% of the group who received the
supposedly discounted pills said that they were effective.
State possible null and alternative hypotheses in this study? What might be the conclusion of the
for this study. What statistical test could be used study?
in Section 9–1. In Example 9–10, the table value for 0.58 is 0.7190, and 1 − 0.7190 =
The P-value for the difference of proportions can be found from Table E as shown
0.2810. Hence, 0.2810 > 0.01; thus the decision is to not reject the null hypothesis.
The sampling distribution of the difference of two proportions can be used to
construct a confidence interval for the difference of two proportions. The formula for the
confidence interval for the difference between two proportions is shown next.
Confidence Interval for the Difference Between Two Proportions
(  pˆ  1 –   pˆ  2) − zα∕2  ____ + < −   2) + zα∕2   +

___________
___________

  pˆ  1  qˆ  1 ____   pˆ  2  qˆ  2   pˆ  1  qˆ  1 ____   pˆ  2  qˆ  2

√ n1    
    n2    
 
  p1 p 2 < (  p
ˆ
ˆ   –   p
1 √
____
n1    
    n2      
Here, the confidence interval uses a standard deviation based on estimated values
of the population proportions, but the hypothesis test uses a standard deviation based
on the assumption that the two population proportions are equal. As a result, you may
obtain different conclusions when using a confidence interval or a hypothesis test. So
when testing for a difference of two proportions, you use the z test rather than the
confidence interval.
EXAMPLE 9–11
Find the 95% confidence interval for the difference of proportions for the data in
Example 9–9.
SOLUTION
  pˆ  1 = ___   12  = 0.35   qˆ  1 = 0.65

  p  2 =   17  = 0.71   qˆ  2 = 0.29

34
ˆ
___
24
9–37
−  + ____ < p1 – p2
___________

– zα∕2 ____
  pˆ     qˆ     pˆ     qˆ  

(  pˆ  1

  pˆ  2) √
  n1  1 
1
  n2   2 
2
  
< −  +  ____
___________

+ zα∕2 ____
  pˆ     qˆ     pˆ  2  qˆ  2

(  pˆ  1

  pˆ  2) √
  n1  1 
1 n2      
(0.35 − 0.71) − 1.96 __________ +  

_______________________
(0.35)(0.65) __________
(0.71)(0.29)
    
34
    
24 √
   
 
< p1 − p2 < (0.35 − 0.71) + 1.96 __________ +  

_______________________
(0.35)(0.65) __________
(0.71)(0.29)
    
34
    
24
   
  √
− 0.36 − 0.242 < p1 − p2 < – 0.36 + 0.242
− 0.602 < p1 – p2 < − 0.118

Smoking and Education
You are researching the hypothesis that there is no difference in the percent of public school stu-
dents who smoke and the percent of private school students who smoke. You find these results
from a recent survey.
School Percent who smoke

Public 32.3
Private 14.5
Based on these figures, answer the following questions.

1. What hypotheses would you use if you wanted to compare percentages of the public school
students who smoke with the private school students who smoke?
2. What critical value(s) would you use?
3. What statistical test would you use to compare the two percentages?
4. What information would you need to complete the statistical test?
5. Suppose you found that 1000 randomly selected individuals in each group were surveyed.
Could you perform the statistical test?
6. If so, complete the test and summarize the results.
Exercises 9–4

a. n = 52, X = 32 a. n = 36, X = 20
1. Find the proportions  pˆ   and  qˆ  for each. 2. Find   pˆ   and   qˆ   for each.
b. n = 80, X = 66 b. n = 50, X = 35
c. n = 36, X = 12 c. n = 64, X = 16
d. n = 42, X = 7 d. n = 200, X = 175
e. n = 160, X = 50 e. n = 148, X = 16
9–38

At α = 0.10, is there a difference in the proportions?
a.   pˆ   = 0.60, n = 240
3. Find each X, given  pˆ  .

Find the 90% confidence interval for the difference of the
  pˆ  = 0.20, n = 320 two proportions. Does the confidence interval contain 0?

c.   pˆ  = 0.60, n = 520

b.
Give a reason why this information would be of interest
d.   pˆ   = 0.80, n = 50

to a researcher.
e.   pˆ   = 0.35, n = 200

Source: Based on statistics from Market Directory.

9. Desire to Be Rich In a random sample of 80 Americans,

  pˆ   = 0.24, n = 300

4. Find each X, given   pˆ  . 44 wished that they were rich. In a random sample of
α = 0.01, is there a difference in the proportions? Find

90 Europeans, 41 wished that they were rich. At
b.   pˆ   = 0.09, n = 200
a.

  pˆ   = 88%, n = 500

the 99% confidence interval for the difference of the
  pˆ   = 40%, n = 480

c.
two proportions.
  pˆ   = 32%, n = 700

d.

e. 10. Animal Bites of Postal Workers In Cleveland, a
random sample of 73 mail carriers showed that 10 had

a. X1 = 25, n1 = 75, X2 = 40, n2 = 90

5. Find   pˆ   and   qˆ   for each. been bitten by an animal during one week. In
b. X1 = 9, n1 = 15, X2 = 7, n2 = 20
Philadelphia, in a random sample of 80 mail carriers,
ference in the proportions? Use α = 0.05. Find the 95%

16 had received animal bites. Is there a significant dif-
c. X1 = 3, n1 = 20, X2 = 5, n2 = 40
d. X1 = 21, n1 = 50, X2 = 32, n2 = 50
confidence interval for the difference of the two
e. X1 = 20, n1 = 150, X2 = 30, n2 = 50

proportions.
_ _ 11. Pet Ownership A recent random survey of households
a. X1 = 6, n1 = 15, X2 = 9, n2 = 15 21 out of 60 householders had a dog. At α = 0.05, test

6. Find p
 and q .  found that 14 out of 50 householders had a cat and
b. X1 = 21, n1 = 100, X2 = 43, n2 = 150 the claim that fewer household owners have cats than
c. X1 = 20, n1 = 80, X2 = 65, n2 = 120 household owners who have dogs as pets.
d. X1 = 15, n1 = 50, X2 = 3, n2 = 12
e. X1 = 24, n1 = 40, X2 = 18, n2 = 36
12. Seat Belt Use In a random sample of 200 men,
130 said they used seat belts. In a random sample of
300 women, 63 said they used seat belts. Test the claim
α = 0.01. Use the P-value method.

For Exercises 7 through 27, perform these steps. that men are more safety-conscious than women, at
b. Find the critical value(s). 13. Victims of Violence A random survey of 80 women
c. Compute the test value. who were victims of violence found that 24 were at-
that 6 were attacked by relatives. At α = 0.10, can it be

d. Make the decision. tacked by relatives. A random survey of 50 men found
shown that the percentage of women who were attacked
Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless by relatives is greater than the percentage of men who
otherwise specified. were attacked by relatives?
7. Lecture versus Computer-Assisted Instruction A 14. Hypertension It has been found that 26% of men
survey found that 83% of the men questioned pre 20 years and older suffer from hypertension (high
ferred computer-assisted instruction to lecture and blood pressure) and 31.5% of women are hypertensive.
75% of the women preferred computer-assisted A random sample of 150 of each gender was selected
selected individuals in each sample. At α = 0.05,

instruction to lecture. There were 100 randomly from recent hospital records, and the following
results were obtained. Can you conclude that a higher
α = 0.05.
test the claim that there is no difference in the pro- percentage of women have high blood pressure? Use
portion of men and the proportion of women who
favor computer-assisted instruction over lecture. Find
the 95% confidence interval for the difference of the Men 43 patients had high blood pressure
two proportions. Women 52 patients had high blood pressure
Source: www.nchs.gov
8. Leisure Time In a sample of 150 men, 132 said that they
had less leisure time today than they had 10 years ago. 15. Commuters A recent random survey of
In a random sample of 250 women, 240 women said that 100 individuals in Michigan found that 80 drove to
they had less leisure time than they had 10 years ago. work alone. A similar survey of 120 commuters in
9–39
these results. At α = 0.01, is there significant evidence

New York found that 62 drivers drove alone to work. school. A random sample of undergraduates revealed
Find the 95% confidence interval for the difference in
proportions. to reject the null hypothesis?
Women Men
16. Smoking Survey National statistics show that 23%
of men smoke and 18.5% of women smoke. A random Sample size 250 300
sample of 180 men indicated that 50 were smokers, and Number receiving aid 200 180
a random sample of 150 women surveyed indicated that
Source: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education
39 smoked. Construct a 98% confidence interval for
Statistics.
the true difference in proportions of male and female
smokers. Comment on your interval—does it support the 22. High School Graduation Rates The overall U.S.
claim that there is a difference? public high school graduation rate is 73.4%. For
Source: www.nchs.gov Pennsylvania it is 83.5% and for Idaho 80.5%—a
difference of 3%. Random samples of 1200 stu-
17. Senior Workers It seems that people are choosing dents from each state indicated that 980 graduated
or finding it necessary to work later in life. Random in Pennsylvania and 940 graduated in Idaho. At the
samples of 200 men and 200 women age 65 or older 0.05 level of significance, can it be concluded that
to be working. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded that the
were selected, and 80 men and 59 women were found there is a difference in the proportions of graduating
students between the states?
proportions are different?
Source: World Almanac.
Source: Based on www.census.gov
23. Interview Errors It has been found that many first-
18. Airlines On-Time Arrivals The percentages of on- time interviewees commit errors that could very well
time arrivals for major U.S. airlines range from 68.6 affect the outcome of the interview. An astounding 77%
following results. At α = 0.01, is there a difference in
to 91.1. Two regional airlines were surveyed with the are guilty of using their cell phones or texting during the
interview! A researcher wanted to see if the proportion
proportions? of male offenders differed from the proportion of female
Airline A Airline B ones. Out of 120 males, 72 used their cell phone and 80
of 150 females did so. At the 0.01 level of significance
No. of flights 300 250 is there a difference?
No. of on-time flights 213 185 Source: Careerbuilder.com
24. Medical Supply Sales According to the U.S. Bureau
19. College Education The percentages of adults 25 years of Labor Statistics, approximately equal numbers of
of age and older who have completed 4 or more years of men and women are engaged in sales and related oc-
college are 23.6% for females and 27.8% for males. A cupations. Although that may be true for total numbers,
random sample of women and men who were 25 years perhaps the proportions differ by industry. A random
old or older was surveyed with these results. Estimate sample of 200 salespersons from the industrial sector
the true difference in proportions with 95% confidence, indicated that 114 were men, and in the medical sup-
and compare your interval with the ply sector, 80 of 200 were men. At the 0.05 level of
Almanac statistics. significance, can we conclude that the proportion of
Women Men men in industrial sales differs from the proportion of
men in medical supply sales?
Sample size 350 400
No. who completed 4 or more years 100 115 25. Coupon Use In today’s economy, everyone has be-
Source: New York Times Almanac. come savings savvy. It is still believed, though, that a
higher percentage of women than men clip coupons. A
20. Married People In a specific year 53.7% of men in the random survey of 180 female shoppers indicated that
α = 0.01, is there sufficient evidence that the proportion

United States were married and 50.3% of women were 132 clipped coupons while 56 out of 100 men did so. At
married. Two independent random samples of 300 men
and 300 women found that 178 men and 139 women of couponing women is higher than the proportion of
were married (not to each other). At the 0.05 level of couponing men? Use the P-value method.
significance, can it be concluded that the proportion of
men who were married is greater than the proportion of 26. Never Married People The percentage of males
women who were married? 18 years and older who have never married is 30.4. For
Source: New York Times Almanac. females the percentage is 23.6. Looking at the records
in a particular populous county, a random sample of
21. Undergraduate Financial Aid A study is conducted to 250 men showed that 78 had never married and 58 of
determine if the percent of women who receive financial 200 women had never married. At the 0.05 level of
aid in undergraduate school is different from the per- significance, is the proportion of men greater than the
cent of men who receive financial aid in undergraduate proportion of women? Use the P-value method.
9–40
27. Bullying Bullying is a problem at any age but espe- randomly selected from each. At the 0.05 level of sig-
cially for students aged 12 to 18. A study showed that nificance, can a difference be concluded?
7.2% of all students in this age bracket reported being Private Public
bullied at school during the past six months with 6th
grade having the highest incidence at 13.9% and 12th Sample size 200 200
grade the lowest at 2.2%. To see if there is a difference No. bullied 13 16
between public and private schools, 200 students were Source: www.nces.ed.gov

28. If there is a significant difference between p1 and p2 there is a significant difference between
and between p2 and p3, can you conclude that p1 and p3?

TI-84 Plus Hypothesis Test for the Difference Between Two Proportions
Example TI9–8
Step by Step This refers to Example 9–9 in the text.
2. Press 6 for 2-PropZTEST.
4. Move the cursor to the appropriate alternative
hypothesis and press ENTER.
Confidence Interval for the Difference Between Two Proportions
Example TI9–9 This refers to Example 9–11 in the text.
2. Press B (ALPHA APPS) for 2-PropZInt.
Testing the Difference Between Two Proportions

EXCEL Excel does not have a procedure to test the difference between two population proportions.
Step by Step However, you may conduct this test using the MegaStat Add-in available in your online
resources. If you have not installed this add-in, do so, following the instructions from the
Chapter 1 Excel Step by Step.
We will use the summary information from Example 9–9.
1. From the toolbar, select Add-Ins, MegaStat>Hypothesis Tests>Compare Two Independ-
ent Proportions. Note: You may need to open MegaStat from the MegaStat.xls file on your
computer’s hard drive.
2. Under Group 1, type 12 for p and 34 for n. Under Group 2, type 17 for p and 24 for n.
MegaStat automatically changes p to X unless a decimal value less than 1 is typed in for these.
3. Type 0 for the Hypothesized difference, select the not equal Alternative, and click [OK].
Hypothesis Test for Two Independent Proportions
p1 p2 pc
0.3529 0.7083 0.5 p (as decimal)
12/34 17/24 29/58 p (as fraction)
12. 17. 29. X
−0.3554 Difference
34 24 58 n

0. Hypothesized difference
0.1333 Standard error
−2.67 z
0.0077 P-value (two-tailed)
9–41
Test the Difference Between Two Proportions

MINITAB For Example 9–9, test for a difference in the resident vaccination rates between small and large
Step by Step nursing homes.
1. This test does not require data. It doesn’t matter what is in the worksheet.
2. Select Summarized data from the drop down menu.
3. Click the button for Summarized data.
4. Press TAB to move cursor to the Sample 1 box for Number of events.
a) Enter 12, TAB, then enter 34.
b) Press TAB or click in the Sample 2 text box for Number of events.
c) Enter 17, TAB, then enter 24.
5. Click on [Options]. The Confidence level should be 95%, and the Hypothesized difference
a) For the Alternative hypothesis, select Difference ≠ hypothesized difference.

should be 0.
b) For the Test method, select Use the pooled estimate of the proportion.
6. Click [OK] twice. The results are shown in the session window.
Test and CI for Two Proportions

Sample X N Sample p
1 12 34 0.352941
2 17 24 0.708333
Difference = p (1) – p (2)
Estimate for difference: −0.355392
95% CI for difference: (−0.598025, −0.112759)
Test for difference = 0 (vs ≠ 0): Z = −2.67 P–Value = 0.008
The P-value of the test is 0.008. Reject the null hypothesis. The difference is statistically sig-
nificant. Of all small nursing homes 35%, compared to 71% of all large nursing homes, have an
immunization rate of less than 80%. We can’t tell why, only that there is a difference.
9–5 Testing the Difference Between Two Variances

OBJECTIVE 5 In addition to comparing two means, statisticians are interested in comparing two
variances or standard deviations. For example, is the variation in the temperatures for a
Test the difference
certain month for two cities different?
between two variances or
In another situation, a researcher may be interested in comparing the variance of the
standard deviations.
cholesterol of men with the variance of the cholesterol of women. For the comparison of
two variances or standard deviations, an F test is used. The F test should not be confused
with the chi-square test, which compares a single sample variance to a specific population
variance, as shown in Chapter 8.
9–42
Section 9–5 Testing the Difference Between Two Variances 529
Figure 9–10 shows the shapes of several curves for the F distribution.
F I G U R E 9 – 1 0
The F Family of Curves
variances are equal (𝜎 21  = 𝜎 22)  and if the sample variances s

If two independent samples are selected from two normally distributed populations in
which the population 21  and s 22 
are compared as _
2
s  
 s21    ,  the sampling distribution of the variances is called the F distribution.
2
Characteristics of the F Distribution
1. The values of F cannot be negative, because variances are always positive or zero.
2. The distribution is positively skewed.
3. The mean value of F is approximately equal to 1.
4. The F distribution is a family of curves based on the degrees of freedom of the variance
of the numerator and the degrees of freedom of the variance of the denominator.
Formula for the F Test
F = __
s2  
  1  
s22 
where the larger of the two variances is placed in the numerator regardless of the subscripts.
The F test has two values for the degrees of freedom: that of the numerator, n1 − 1, and
(See note on page 534.)
that of the denominator, n2 − 1, where n1 is the sample size from which the larger variance
was obtained.
When you are finding the F test value, the larger of the variances is placed in the
n umerator of the F formula; this is not necessarily the variance of the larger of the two
Table H in Appendix A gives the F critical values for α = 0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, and
sample sizes.
0.10 (each α value involves a separate table in Table H). These are one-tailed v alues; if a
two-tailed test is being conducted, then the α∕2 value must be used. For example, if a two-
tailed test with α = 0.05 is being conducted, then the 0.05∕2 = 0.025 table of Table H
should be used.
EXAMPLE 9–12
Find the critical value for a right-tailed F test when α = 0.05, the degrees of free-
dom for the numerator (abbreviated d.f.N.) are 15, and the degrees of freedom for the
denominator (d.f.D.) are 21.
9–43
Since this test is right-tailed with α = 0.05, use the 0.05 table. The d.f.N. is listed across
SOLUTION
the top, and the d.f.D. is listed in the left column. The critical value is found where the
row and column intersect in the table. In this case, it is 2.18. See Figure 9–11.
F I G U R E 9 – 1 1 Finding the Critical Value in Table H for Example 9–12
α = 0.05
d.f.N.
d.f.D. 1 2 ... 14 15
...
20
21 2.18
22
...
the numerator of the formula. When you are conducting a two-tailed test, α is split; and
As noted previously, when the F test is used, the larger variance is always placed in
even though there are two values, only the right tail is used. The reason is that the F test
value is always greater than or equal to 1.
EXAMPLE 9–13
Find the critical value for a two-tailed F test with α = 0.05 when the sample size from
which the variance for the numerator was obtained was 21 and the sample size from which
the variance for the denominator was obtained was 12.
Since this is a two-tailed test with α = 0.05, the 0.05∕2 = 0.025 table must be used.
SOLUTION
Here, d.f.N. = 21 − 1 = 20, and d.f.D. = 12 − 1 = 11; hence, the critical value is 3.23.
See Figure 9–12.
F I G U R E 9 – 1 2 Finding the Critical Value in Table H for Example 9–13
α = 0.025
d.f.N.
d.f.D. 1 2 ... 20
2
...
10
11 3.23
12
...
9–44
should be used. For example, if α = 0.05 (right-tailed test), d.f.N. = 18, and d.f.D. = 20,
If the exact degrees of freedom are not specified in Table H, the closest smaller value
use the column d.f.N. = 15 and the row d.f.D. = 20 to get F = 2.20. Using the smaller
value is the more conservative approach.
When you are testing the equality of two variances, these hypotheses are used:
H0: 𝜎
21   = 𝜎 22   H0: 𝜎 21   = 𝜎 22   H0: 𝜎
21   = 𝜎 22  
Right-tailed Left-tailed Two-tailed
H1: 𝜎
21   > 𝜎 22   H1: 𝜎 21   < 𝜎 22   H1: 𝜎
21   ≠ 𝜎
22  
There are four key points to keep in mind when you are using the F test.
Notes for the Use of the F Test
1. The larger variance should always be placed in the numerator of the formula regardless of
U n u s u a l Stat the subscripts. (See note on page 534.)
F = __
Of all U.S. births, 2% are s2  
twins.   1  
s22  
2. For a two-tailed test, the α value must be divided by 2 and the critical value placed on the
right side of the F curve.
3. If the standard deviations instead of the variances are given in the problem, they must be
squared for the formula for the F test.
4. When the degrees of freedom cannot be found in Table H, the closest value on the
smaller side should be used.
Before you can use the testing method to determine the difference between two vari-
ances, the following assumptions must be met.
Assumptions for Testing the Difference Between Two Variances
1. The samples must be random samples.

2. The populations from which the samples were obtained must be normally distributed.
(Note: The test should not be used when the distributions depart from normality.)
3. The samples must be independent of one another.
before proceeding.
Remember also that in tests of hypotheses using the traditional method, these five
steps should be taken:
Step 2 Find the critical value.
This procedure is not robust, so minor departures from normality will affect the
results of the test. So this test should not be used when the distributions depart from
normality because standard deviations are not a good measure of the spread in nonsym-
metrical distributions. The reason is that the standard deviation is not resistant to outliers
or extreme values. These values increase the value of the standard deviation when the
distribution is skewed.
9–45
EXAMPLE 9–14 Heart Rates of Smokers

A medical researcher wishes to see whether the variance of the heart rates (in beats
not smoke. Two samples are selected, and the data are shown. Using α = 0.05, is there
per minute) of smokers is different from the variance of heart rates of people who do
enough evidence to support the claim? Assume the variable is normally distributed.
n1 = 26 n2 = 18
Smokers Nonsmokers
s21  = 36 s22   = 10
SOLUTION

H0: 𝜎 21  = 𝜎 22
  and H1: 𝜎 21  ≠ 𝜎 22  (claim)
Find the critical value. Use the 0.025 table in Table H since α = 0.05 and this
is a two-tailed test. Here, d.f.N. = 26 − 1 = 25, and d.f.D. = 18 − 1 = 17. The
Step 2
critical value is 2.56 (d.f.N. = 24 was used). See Figure 9–13.

F I G U R E 9 – 1 3 Critical Value for Example 9–14
0.025 0.025
F
2.56
  1   = ___

F = __     = 3.6
2
s   36
s22  10
Step 4 Make the decision. Reject the null hypothesis, since 3.6 > 2.56.
Step 5 Summarize the results. There is enough evidence to support the claim that
the variance of the heart rates of smokers and nonsmokers is different.
EXAMPLE 9–15 Grade Point Averages

A researcher selected a random sample of 10 psychology graduates and found the stan-
dard deviation of their grade point average was 0.72. Then she selected a random sam-
average was 0.51. At α = 0.01, can we conclude that the variance of the grade point
ple of 14 engineering students and found that the standard deviation of their grade point
averages of the psychology graduates is greater than the variance of the grade point av-
erages of the engineering graduates?
SOLUTION
State the hypotheses and identify the claim.

H0: 𝜎 21  = 𝜎 22
  and H1: 𝜎 21  > 𝜎 22  (claim)
Step 1
Find the critical value. Hence, d.f.N. = 10 − 1 = 9 and d.f.D = 14 − 1 = 13.

From Table H at α = 0.01 the critical value is 4.19.
Step 2
9–46
F = __
  1   = ___ = 1.99
s2   0.722
  2
   
 
s22  0.51
Step 4 Make the decision. Do not reject the null hypothesis since 1.99 < 4.19. That
is, 1.99 does not fall in the critical region. See Figure 9–14.
F I G U R E 9 – 1 4 Critical and Test Value for Example 9–15
F
0 1.99 4.19
that the variance in the grade point average of psychology graduates is greater
than the variance in the grade point average of the engineering graduates.
Finding P-values for the F test statistic is somewhat more complicated since it requires
d.f.D. values. For example, suppose that a certain test has F = 3.58, d.f.N. = 5, and d.f.D.
looking through all the F tables (Table H in Appendix A) using the specific d.f.N. and
= 10. To find the P-value interval for F = 3.58, you must first find the corresponding F
values for d.f.N. = 5 and d.f.D. = 10 for α equal to 0.005, 0.01, 0.025, 0.05, and 0.10 in
Table H. Then make a table as shown.
𝛂 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005
F 2.52 3.33 4.24 5.64 6.87
Now locate the two F values that the test value 3.58 falls between. In this case, 3.58 falls
tailed test for F = 3.58 falls between 0.025 and 0.05 (that is, 0.025 < P-value < 0.05).
between 3.33 and 4.24, corresponding to 0.05 and 0.025. Hence, the P-value for a right-
For a right-tailed test, then, you would reject the null hypothesis at α = 0.05, but not at
α = 0.01. The P-value obtained from a calculator is 0.0408. Remember that for a two‑tailed
test the values found in Table H for α must be doubled. In this case, 0.05 < P‑value <
0.10 for F = 3.58. Once again, if the P-value is less than α, we reject the null hypothesis.
Once you understand the concept, you can dispense with making a table as shown
and find the P-value directly from Table H.
EXAMPLE 9–16 Airport Passengers

The CEO of an airport hypothesizes that the variance in the number of passengers for
airports. At α = 0.10, is there enough evidence to support the hypothesis? The data in
American airports is greater than the variance in the number of passengers for foreign
millions of passengers per year are shown for selected airports. Use the P-value method.
Assume the variable is normally distributed and the samples are random and independent.
American airports Foreign airports
36.8 73.5 60.7 51.2
72.4 61.2 42.7 38.6
60.5 40.1
Source: Airports Council International.
9–47
SOLUTION

H0: 𝜎 21  = 𝜎 22
  and H1: 𝜎 21  > 𝜎 22  (claim)
Step 2 Compute the test value. Using the formula in Chapter 3 or a calculator, find
the variance for each group.
s21  = 246.38 and
s 22  = 95.87
Substitute in the formula and solve.
F = __
  1   = ___ = 2.57
s2   246.38
    
s22  95.87
Step 3 Find the P-value in Table H, using d.f.N. = 6 − 1 = 5 and d.f.D. = 4 − 1 = 3.
𝛂 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005
F 5.31 9.01 14.88 28.24 45.39
Since 2.57 is less than 5.31, the P-value is greater than 0.10. (The P-value
obtained from a calculator is 0.234.)
P‑value > 0.10.

Step 4 Make the decision. The decision is to not reject the null hypothesis since
that the variance in the number of passengers for American airports is
greater than the variance in the number of passengers for foreign airports.
Note: It is not absolutely necessary to place the larger variance in the numerator when
you are performing the F test. Critical values for left-tailed hypotheses tests can be found
by interchanging the degrees of freedom and taking the reciprocal of the value found in
Table H.
Also, you should use caution when performing the F test since the data can run
H0: 𝜎 21   ≤ 𝜎

22   (written H0: 𝜎
21   = 𝜎
22)  and H1: 𝜎
21   > 𝜎
22 ,  but if s21   < s 22 ,  then the F test should
contrary to the hypotheses on rare occasions. For example, if the hypotheses are

not be performed and you would not reject the null hypothesis.

Automatic Transmissions
Assume the following data values are from a 2016 Auto Guide. The guide compared various pa-
rameters of U.S.- and foreign-made cars. This report centers on the price of an optional automatic
transmission. Which country has the greater variability in the price of automatic transmissions?
Answer the following questions.
Germany (2016) U.S. Cars (2016)

BMW 6 Series $77,300 Ford Mustang $47,795
Audi TT $46,400 Chevrolet Corvette $55,400
Porsche Boxster $82,100 Dodge Challenger $62,495
BMW 2 Series $50,750 Dodge Viper $87,895
1. What is the null hypothesis?

2. What test statistic is used to test for any significant differences in the variances?
9–48
3. Is there a significant difference in the variability in the prices between the German cars and
the U.S. cars?
4. What effect does a small sample size have on the standard deviations?
5. What degrees of freedom are used for the statistical test?
6. Could two sets of data have significantly different variances without having significantly dif-
ferent means?
Exercises 9–5
1. When one is computing the F test value, what condi- 8. Using Table H, find the P-value interval for each F test
a. F = 4.07, d.f.N. = 6, d.f.D. = 10, two-tailed

tion is placed on the variance that is in the numerator? value.
b. F = 1.65, d.f.N. = 19, d.f.D. = 28, right-tailed

c. F = 1.77, d.f.N. = 28, d.f.D. = 28, right-tailed
d. F = 7.29, d.f.N. = 5, d.f.D. = 8, two-tailed
2. Why is the critical region always on the right side in the
use of the F test?
3. What are the two different degrees of freedom associ- For Exercises 9 through 24, perform the following steps.
ated with the F distribution? Assume that all variables are normally distributed.
4. What are the characteristics of the F distribution?
b. Find the critical value.
a. Sample 1: s21  = 140, n1 = 25

5. Using Table H, find the critical value for each. c. Compute the test value.
Sample 2: s22   = 125, n2 = 14

d. Make the decision.
Two-tailed α = 0.05
b. Sample 1: s21  = 43, n1 = 12

Sample 2: s22  = 56, n2 = 16
Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless
otherwise specified.
Right-tailed α = 0.10
c. Sample 1: s21   = 516, n1 = 21
9. Wolf Pack Pups Does the variance in the number of
Sample 2: s22  = 472, n2 = 18

pups per pack differ between Montana and Idaho wolf
Right-tailed α = 0.01
packs? Random samples of packs were selected for each
area, and the numbers of pups per pack were recorded.
At the 0.05 level of significance, can a difference in
21  = 27.3, n1 = 5
6. Using Table H, find the critical value for each. variances be concluded?
Sample 2: s22  = 38.6, n2 = 9

a. Sample 1: s
Montana 4 3 5 6 1 2 8 2
Right-tailed, α = 0.01
wolf packs 3 1 7 6 5
21  = 164, n1 = 21
Idaho 2 4 5 4 2 4 6 3
Sample 2: s22  = 53, n2 = 17

b. Sample 1: s wolf packs 1 4 2 1
Two-tailed, α = 0.10
Source: www.fws.gov
21  = 92.8, n1 = 11
Sample 2: s22  = 43.6, n2 = 11
c. Sample 1: s 10. Noise Levels in Hospitals In a hospital study, it was
Right-tailed, α = 0.05
found that the standard deviation of the sound levels
from 20 randomly selected areas designated as “casualty
doors” was 4.1 dBA and the standard deviation of 24
theaters was 7.5 dBA. At α = 0.05, can you substanti-

7. Using Table H, find the P-value interval for each F test randomly selected areas designated as operating
a. F = 2.97, d.f.N. = 9, d.f.D. = 14, right-tailed

value.
b. F = 3.32, d.f.N. = 6, d.f.D. = 12, two-tailed

ate the claim that there is a difference in the standard
deviations?
c. F = 2.28, d.f.N. = 12, d.f.D. = 20, right-tailed
d. F = 3.51, d.f.N. = 12, d.f.D. = 21, right-tailed
Source: M. Bayo, A. Garcia, and A. Garcia, “Noise Levels in an
Urban Hospital and Workers’ Subjective Responses,” Archives of
Environmental Health.
9–49
11. Calories in Ice Cream The numbers of calories con- a difference between the variances of the two groups
tained in _  12 -cup
  servings of randomly selected flavors exists?
of ice cream from two national brands are listed. At the Research Primary care
0.05 level of significance, is there sufficient evidence
to conclude that the variance in the number of calories 30,897 34,280 31,943 26,068 21,044 30,897
differs between the two brands? 34,294 31,275 29,590 34,208 20,877 29,691
20,618 20,500 29,310 33,783 33,065 35,000
Brand A Brand B 21,274 27,297
Source: U.S. News & World Report Best Graduate Schools.
330 300 280 310
310 350 300 370 16. County Size in Indiana and Iowa A researcher wishes
270 380 250 300 to see if the variance of the areas in square miles for
310 300 290 310 counties in Indiana is less than the variance of the areas
selected, and the data are shown. At α = 0.01, can it be

Source: The Doctor’s Pocket Calorie, Fat and Carbohydrate Counter. for counties in Iowa. A random sample of counties is
12. Winter Temperatures A random sample of daily high concluded that the variance of the areas for counties in
α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a differ-

temperatures in January and February is listed. At Indiana is less than the variance of the areas for counties
in Iowa?
ence in variances in high temperature between the two Indiana Iowa
months?
406 393 396 485 640 580 431 416
Jan. 31 31 38 24 24 42 22 43 35 42 431 430 369 408 443 569 779 381
Feb. 31 29 24 30 28 24 27 34 27 305 215 489 293 717 568 714 731
373 148 306 509 571 577 503 501
13. Population and Area Cities were randomly selected 560 384 320 407 568 434 615 402
from the list of the 50 largest cities in the United Source: The World Almanac and Book of Facts.
States (based on population). The areas of each in 17. Heights of Tall Buildings Test the claim that the vari-
square miles are shown. Is there sufficient evidence ance of heights of randomly selected tall buildings in
eastern cities than for western cities at α = 0.05? selected tall buildings in Nashville at α = 0.10. The data
to conclude that the variance in area is greater for Denver is equal to the variance in heights of randomly
At α = 0.01? are given in feet.
Eastern Western Denver Nashville
Atlanta, GA 132 Albuquerque, NM 181 714 698 544 617 524 489
Columbus, OH 210 Denver, CO 155 504 438 408 459 453 417
Louisville, KY 385 Fresno, CA 104 404 410 404
New York, NY 303 Las Vegas, NV 113 Source: SkyscraperCenter.com
Philadelphia, PA 135 Portland, OR 134
Washington, DC 61 Seattle, WA 84 18. Reading Program Summer reading programs are very
Charlotte, NC 242 popular with children. At the Citizens Library, Team
Ramona read an average of 23.2 books with a standard de-
viation of 6.1. There were 21 members on this team. Team
14. Carbohydrates in Candy The number of grams of Beezus read an average of 26.1 books with a standard de-
the variances of the two teams differ? Use α = 0.05.

carbohydrates contained in 1‑ounce servings of ran- viation of 2.3. There were 23 members on this team. Did
domly selected chocolate and nonchocolate candy
is shown. Is there sufficient evidence to conclude that 19. Weights of Running Shoes The weights in ounces of
there is a difference between the variation in carbohy- a random sample of running shoes for men and women
Use α = 0.10. test the claim that the variances are equal at α = 0.05.
drate content for chocolate and nonchocolate candy? are shown. Calculate the variances for each sample, and
Use the P-value method.

Chocolate 29 25 17 36 41 25 32 29
38 34 24 27 29 Men Women
Nonchocolate 41 41 37 29 30 38 39 10 11.9 10.4 12.6 10.6 10.2 8.8
29 55 29 12.3 11.1 14.7 9.6 9.5 9.5
Source: The Doctor’s Pocket Calorie, Fat and Carbohydrate Counter. 9.2 10.8 12.9 10.1 11.2 9.3
11.2 11.7 13.3 9.4 10.3 9.5
15. Tuition Costs for Medical School The yearly tuition
13.8 12.8 14.5 9.8 10.3 11.0
costs in dollars for random samples of medical
are listed. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that

schools that specialize in research and in primary care 20. School Teachers’ Salaries A researcher claims that the
variation in the salaries of elementary school teachers
9–50
is greater than the variation in the salaries of secondary 23. Test Scores An instructor who taught an online sta‑
school teachers. A random sample of the salaries of tistics course and a classroom course feels that the
30 elementary school teachers has a variance of 8324, variance of the final exam scores for the students
school teachers has a variance of 2862. At α = 0.05,

and a random sample of the salaries of 30 secondary who took the online course is greater than the vari‑
ance of the final exam scores of the students who took
obtained. At α = 0.05 is there enough evidence to sup‑

can the researcher conclude that the variation in the the classroom final exam. The following data were
elementary school teachers’ salaries is greater than the
variation in the secondary school teachers’ salaries? port the claim?
Use the P‑value method.
Online Course Classroom Course
s1 = 3.2 s2 = 2.8
21. Ages of Dogs The average age of pet dogs is 4.3 years.
n1 = 11 n2 = 16
Two random samples of pet owners who own dogs are
selected. Sample 1 of 13 dog owners was selected from
owners who live in Miami. The standard deviation of
the ages of the dogs in this sample is 1.3 years. Sample 24. Museum Attendance A metropolitan children’s
2 of 8 dog owners was selected from dog owners who museum open year-round wants to see if the variance
0.7 year. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that there is a

live in Boston. The standard deviation of these dogs was in daily attendance differs between the summer and
winter months. Random samples of 30 days each were
difference in the variances? selected and showed that in the winter months, the
22. Daily Stock Prices Two portfolios were randomly sample mean daily attendance was 300 with a standard
assembled from the New York Stock Exchange, and deviation of 52, and the sample mean daily attendance
tion of 65. At α = 0.05, can we conclude a difference in

the daily stock prices are shown. At the 0.05, level of for the summer months was 280 with a standard devia‑
significance, can it be concluded that a difference in
variance in price exists between the two portfolios? variances?
Portfolio A 36.44 44.21 12.21 59.60 55.44 39.42 51.29 48.68 41.59 19.49
Portfolio B 32.69 47.25 49.35 36.17 63.04 17.74 4.23 34.98 37.02 31.48
Source: Washington Observer-Reporter.

TI-84 Plus Hypothesis Test for the Difference Between Two
Variances (Data)
Step by Step
3. Press E (ALPHA SIN) for 2-SampFTest.
6. Move the cursor to the appropriate Alternative hypothesis and press ENTER.
Hypothesis Test for the Difference Between Two

Variances (Statistics)
Example TI9–10 This refers to Example 9–14 in the text.
2. Press E (ALPHA SIN) for 2-SampFTest.
5. Move the cursor to the appropriate Alternative hypothesis and press ENTER.
9–51
blu55339_ch09_487-546.indd 537 5/21/18 6:02 PM

EXCEL F Test for the Difference Between Two Variances

Excel has a two-sample F test included in the Data Analysis Add-in. To perform an F test
Step by Step for the difference between the variances of two populations, given two independent samples,
do this:
1. Enter the first sample data set into column A.
2. Enter the second sample data set into column B.
4. In the Analysis Tools box, select F-test Two-sample for Variances.
5. Type the ranges for the data in columns A and B.
6. Specify the confidence level Alpha.
7. Specify a location for the output, and click [OK].
At α = 0.05, test the hypothesis that the two population variances are equal, using the sample
Example XL9–4
data provided here.
Set A 63 73 80 60 86 83 70 72 82
Set B 86 93 64 82 81 75 88 63 63
shows that the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at an α level of 0.05.

The results appear in the table that Excel generates, shown here. For this example, the output
Test for the Difference Between Two Variances

MINITAB For Example 9–16, test the hypothesis that the variance in the number of passengers for
Step by Step American and foreign airports is different. Use the P-value approach.
American airports Foreign airports

36.8 60.7
72.4 42.7
60.5 51.2
73.5 38.6
61.2
40.1
9–52
Important Terms 539
1. Enter the data into two columns of MINITAB.

2. Name the columns American and Foreign.
a) Select Stat>Basic Statistics>2-Variances.
b) Select Each sample is in its own column from the drop down menu.
c) Click in the text box for Sample 1, then double-click C1 American.
d) Double-click C2 Foreign, then click on [Options]. The dialog box is shown. For ratio,
hypothesized ratio should be 1. For the Alternative hypothesis, select Ratio > hypothesized
select (sample 1 variance) / (sample 2 variance) and change the confidence level to 90. The
ratio. Check the box for Use test and confidence intervals based on normal distribution.
3. Click [OK] twice. A graph window will open that includes a small window that says
variances = 2.570. You can view the session window by closing the graph or clicking and
the P-value is 0.234. In the session window, the F-test statistic is shown as the Ratio of
dragging it to the right hand part of your screen.

There is not enough evidence in the sample to conclude there is greater variance in the number of
passengers in American airports compared to foreign airports.
Summary
Many times researchers are interested in comparing two • When the two samples are dependent or related, such
parameters such as two means, two proportions, or two
as using the same subjects and comparing the means
variances. These measures are obtained from two samples, of before-and-after tests, then the t test for dependent
then compared using a z test, t test, or an F test. samples is used. (9–3)
• If two sample means are compared, when the samples are • Two proportions can be compared by using the z test for
independent and the population standard deviations are proportions. In this case, each of n1p1, n1q1, n2 p2, and
known, a z test is used. If the sample sizes are less than n2q2 must all be 5 or more. (9–4)
30, the populations should be normally distributed. (9–1) • Two variances can be compared by using an F test. The
• If two means are compared when the samples are inde- critical values for the F test are obtained from the F
pendent and the sample standard deviations are used, distribution. (9–5)
then a t test is used. The two variances are assumed to • Confidence intervals for differences between two
be unequal. (9–2) parameters can also be found.
Important Terms
dependent F distribution 529 independent pooled estimate of the
samples 507 F test 528 samples 499 variance 502
9–53
Important Formulas
__
pendent populations; σ1 and σ2 are known: ΣD   

Formula for the z test for comparing two means from inde- where D  is the mean of the differences
__
 =  ___
2  ) – ( 𝛍1 – 𝛍2)
D
z = __________________
__ __ n
(X1  – X
𝛔 2   𝛔 22 
       ________  and sD is the standard deviation of the differences
____________
√
 ___1  +  ___
n1 n2
    
√
nΣD2 – (ΣD)2
____________
sD =    
  
n(n – 1)
   
means when σ1 and σ2 are known:

Formula for the confidence interval for difference of two
Formula for confidence interval for the mean of the differ-
𝛔 2   𝛔 22 

________ ence for dependent samples:
√ < 𝛍1 – 𝛍2 __   < 𝛍D < D + t𝛂∕2 ____

 – t𝛂∕2  ____   D__   
__ __
2  ) – z𝛂∕2 ___
  1  + ___
__ sD __ s
(X1  – X        D
n1 n2
𝛔 2   𝛔 22 
n   √n  
and d.f. = n − 1.
________ √
< (X1  – √
__ __
2  )
X + z𝛂∕2 ___
  1  + ___       
n1 n2
Formula for the z test for comparing two proportions:
dent samples, variances not equal), σ1 and σ2 unknown:

Formula for the t test for comparing two means (indepen-
(   pˆ   –   pˆ  2) – ( p1 – p2)
_________________
  1  
z =    ___________  
2  ) – (𝛍1 – 𝛍2) (  )
_ _ __
 q    1   + __
  1       
__ __
(X1  – X √   
p
s 2   s 22 

t = _________________
       ________ 
n1 n2
√
___
  1   + ___
      
where
and d.f. = the smaller of n1 − 1 or n2 − 1.

n1 n2 _ X1 + X2 X
p  =  _______   pˆ  1 = ___
     1  
n1 + n2 n1
means (independent samples, variances unequal), σ1 and σ2

Formula for the confidence interval for the difference of two _ _ X
pˆ  2 = ___

q  = 1 – p  
    2  
n2
s 2   s 22 

unknown: ________
< 𝛍1 – 𝛍2
Formula for confidence interval for the difference of two
√
__ __
 2) – t𝛂∕2  ___1   + ___
(X 1 – X        proportions:
 < p1 – p2
n1 n2
s 2   s 22 
____________

________
< (X 1 – X

(  pˆ  1 –   pˆ  2) – z𝛂∕2  _____
  pˆ  1   qˆ  1 _____
  pˆ     qˆ  
__ __
√
 2) + t𝛂∕2  ___1   + ___
      

√   
n1
   +   2   2 
 
n2
and d.f. = smaller of n1 − 1 and n2 − 1. < (  p  1 –   p  2) + z𝛂∕2 _____
n1 n2 ____________

  pˆ     qˆ  1 _____
  pˆ     qˆ  
ˆ
ˆ

√
  1  
  
n1
 +   2   2 
 
n2
 
Formula for the t test for comparing two means from depen- Formula for the F test for comparing two variances:
 – 𝛍D
dent samples:
__ s2  
F = __
  1    d.f.N. = n1 – 1
sD∕√n  
D
_______
t =     
__  s22  
d.f.D. = n2 – 1
d.f. = n − 1 The larger variance is placed in the numerator.
Review Exercises
are shown. At α = 0.01, can it be concluded that

For each exercise, perform these steps. Assume that all vari per week they drive for pleasure trips. The data
ables are normally or approximately normally distributed.
erage than married drivers? Assume σ1 = 16.7 and

a. State the hypotheses and identify the claim. single drivers do more driving for pleasure trips on av-
σ2 = 16.1.
c. Compute the test value.
Single drivers Married drivers
106 110 115 121 132 97 104 138 102 115
Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless 119 97 118 122 135 133 120 119 136 96
otherwise specified. 110 117 116 138 142 139 108 117 145 114
115 114 103 98 99 140 136 113 113 150
Section 9–1 108 117 152 147 117 101 114 116 113 135
1. Driving for Pleasure Two groups of randomly 154 86 115 116 104 115 109 147 106 88
selected drivers are surveyed to see how many miles 107 133 138 142 140 113 119 99 108 105
9–54
Review Exercises 541
2. Average Earnings of College Graduates The average records of the actual high and low temperatures for a
yearly earnings of male college graduates (with at least a selection of days in March from the weather report for
bachelor’s degree) are $58,500 for men aged 25 to 34. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. At the 0.01 level of signifi-
The average yearly earnings of female college graduates cance, is there sufficient evidence to conclude that there
with the same qualifications are $49,339. Based on the is more than a 10° difference between average highs
results below, can it be concluded that there is a differ- and lows?
ence in mean earnings between male and female college
graduates? Use the 0.01 level of significance. Maximum 44 46 46 36 34 36 57 62 73 53
Minimum 27 34 24 19 19 26 33 57 46 26
Male Female Source: www.wunderground.com
Sample mean $59,235 $52,487
Population standard deviation $8,945 $10,125 8. Testing After Review A statistics class was given
Sample size 40 35 a pretest on probability (since many had previous
experience in some other class). Then the class was
given a six-page review handout to study for two
Section 9–2 days. At the next class they were given another test.
Use α = 0.05.
Is there sufficient evidence that the scores improved?
3. Physical Therapy A recent study of 20 individuals
found that the average number of therapy sessions
a person takes for a shoulder problem is 9.6. The Student 1 2 3 4 5 6
standard deviation of the sample was 2.8. A study Pretest 52 50 40 58 60 52
of 25 individuals with a hip problem found that Posttest 62 65 50 65 68 63
viation for this sample was 2.3. At α = 0.01, is there

they had a mean of 10.3 sessions. The standard de-
Section 9–4
a significant difference in the means? 9. Lay Teachers in Religious Schools A study found
4. Average Temperatures The average temperatures for a a slightly lower percentage of lay teachers in reli-
Illinois, are shown. Based on the samples, at α = 0.10,

25-day period for Birmingham, Alabama, and Chicago, gious secondary schools than in elementary schools.
A random sample of 200 elementary school and 200
can it be concluded that it is warmer in Birmingham? secondary school teachers from religious schools in a
Birmingham Chicago large diocese found the following. At the 0.05 level of
significance, is there sufficient evidence to conclude a
78 82 68 67 68 70 74 73 60 77 difference in proportions?
75 73 75 64 68 71 72 71 74 76
62 73 77 78 79 71 80 65 70 83 Elementary Secondary
74 72 73 78 68 67 76 75 62 65
Sample size 200 200
73 79 82 71 66 66 65 77 66 64
Lay teachers 49 62
5. Teachers’ Salaries A random sample of 15 teachers Source: New York Times Almanac.
from Rhode Island has an average salary of $35,270,
10. Gambling A survey of 60 men found that 36 gamble.
with a standard deviation of $3256. A random sample
At α = 0.01, is there a difference in the proportions?
Another survey of 50 women found that 28 gamble.
of 30 teachers from New York has an average salary of
$29,512, with a standard deviation of $1432. Is there
the two states? Use α = 0.02. Find the 98% confidence

a significant difference in teachers’ salaries between
Section 9–5
interval for the difference of the two means. 11. Noise Levels in Hospitals In the hospital study cited
6. Soft Drinks in School The data show the amounts previously, the standard deviation of the noise levels
in randomly selected local school districts. At α = 0.10,

(in thousands of dollars) of the contracts for soft drinks of the 11 intensive care units was 4.1 dBA, and the
standard deviation of the noise levels of 24 nonmedi-
was 13.2 dBA. At α = 0.10, is there a significant

can it be concluded that there is a difference in the aver- cal care areas, such as kitchens and machine rooms,
ages? Use the P‑value method. Give a reason why the
result would be of concern to a cafeteria manager. difference between the standard deviations of these
two areas?
Pepsi Coca-Cola Source: M. Bayo, A. Garcia, and A. Garcia, “Noise Levels in an
Urban Hospital and Workers’ Subjective Responses,” Archives of
46 120 80 500 100 59 420 285 57 Environmental Health.
Source: Local school districts.
12. Heights of World Famous Cathedrals The heights (in
Section 9–3
feet) for a random sample of world famous cathedrals are
7. High and Low Temperatures March is a month listed. In addition, the heights for a random sample of the
of variable weather in the Northeast. The chart shows tallest buildings in the world are listed. Is there sufficient
9–55
evidence at α = 0.05 to conclude that there is a differ- manufacturers is shown. At α = 0.01, is there a sig-
ence in the variances in height between the two groups? nificant difference in the variances?
Cathedrals 72 114 157 56 83 108 90 151 Manufacturer 1 Manufacturer 2
Tallest buildings 452 442 415 391 355 344 310 302 209
87 92 96 87 92 93
Source: www.infoplease.com
100 94 94 91 100 94
13. Sodium Content of Cereals The sodium content 101 103 98 103 96 98
of brands of cereal produced by two major 91 92 96 87 92 91
STATISTICS TODAY
To Vaccinate Using a z test to compare two proportions, the researchers found that the proportion
of residents in smaller nursing homes who were vaccinated (80.8%) was statistically
or Not to greater than that of residents in large nursing homes who were vaccinated (68.7%).
Using statistical methods presented in later chapters, they also found that the larger
Vaccinate? size of the nursing home and the lower frequency of vaccination were significant
Small or Large? predictions of influenza outbreaks in nursing homes.
—Revisited
Data Analysis
The Data Bank is found in Appendix B, or on the 3. Compare the proportion of men who are smokers with
World Wide Web by following links from the proportion of women who are smokers. Use the data
www.mhhe.com/math/stat/bluman/ in the Data Bank. Choose random samples of size 30 or
1. From the Data Bank, select a variable and compare the more. Use the z test for proportions.
mean of the variable for a random sample of at least 4. Select two samples of 20 values from the data in Data
30 men with the mean of the variable for the random Set IV in Appendix B. Test the hypothesis that the mean
sample of at least 30 women. Use a z test. heights of the buildings are equal.
2. Repeat the experiment in Exercise 1, using a differ- 5. Using the same data obtained in Exercise 4, test the hy-
ent variable and two samples of size 15. Compare the pothesis that the variances are equal.
means by using a t test.
Chapter Quiz
Determine whether each statement is true or false. If the 6. To test the equality of two proportions, you would use
statement is false, explain why. a(n) _______ test.
1. When you are testing the difference between two a. z c. Chi-square
means, it is not important to distinguish whether the b. t d. F
samples are independent of each other.
7. The mean value of F is approximately equal to
2. If the same diet is given to two groups of randomly
selected individuals, the samples are considered to be a. 0 c. 1
dependent. b. 0.5 d. It cannot be determined.
3. When computing the F test value, you should place the 8. What test can be used to test the difference between two
larger variance in the numerator of the fraction. sample means when the population variances are
known?
4. Tests for variances are always two-tailed.
a. z c. Chi-square
Select the best answer.
b. t d. F
5. To test the equality of two variances, you would use
a(n) _______ test. Complete these statements with the best answer.
a. z c. Chi-square 9. If you hypothesize that there is no difference between
b. t d. F means, this is represented as H0: _______.
9–56
Chapter Quiz 543
10. When you are testing the difference between two concluded that the average number of accidents per year
means, the _______ test is used when the population has increased from one period to the next?
variances are not known.
Earlier period Later period
11. When the t test is used for testing the equality of two
means, the populations must be _______. 376 650 844 1650 2236 3002
1162 1513 4028 4010
12. The values of F cannot be _______. Source: USA TODAY.

13. The formula for the F test for variances is _______.   18. Salaries of Chemists A random sample of 12 chem-
ists from Washington state shows an average salary of
For each of these problems, perform the following steps. $39,420 with a standard deviation of $1659, while a
a. State the hypotheses and identify the claim. random sample of 26 chemists from New Mexico has
b. Find the critical value(s). an average salary of $30,215 with a standard deviation
two states in chemists’ salaries at α = 0.02? Find

c. Compute the test value. of $4116. Is there a significant difference between the
the 98% confidence interval of the difference in the
e. Summarize the results. means.
Use the traditional method of hypothesis testing unless 19. Family Incomes The average income of 15 randomly
otherwise specified. selected families who reside in a large metropolitan East
Coast city is $62,456. The standard deviation is $9652.
14. Cholesterol Levels A researcher wishes to see if there The average income of 11 randomly selected families
with a standard deviation of $2009. At α = 0.05, can

is a difference in the cholesterol levels of two groups who reside in a rural area of the Midwest is $60,213,
of men. A random sample of 30 men between the ages
of 25 and 40 is selected and tested. The average level is it be concluded that the families who live in the cities
223. A second random sample of 25 men between the have a higher income than those who live in the rural
ages of 41 and 56 is selected and tested. The average of areas? Use the P-value method.
both groups is 6. At α = 0.01, is there a difference in the

this group is 229. The population standard deviation for
20. Mathematical Skills In an effort to improve the
cholesterol levels between the two groups? Find the 99% mathematical skills of 10 students, a teacher provides
confidence interval for the difference of the two means. a weekly 1-hour tutoring session for the students. A pre-
after. The results are shown here. At α = 0.01, can it

test is given before the sessions, and a posttest is given
15. Apartment Rental Fees The data shown are the rental
in a large city. At α = 0.10, can it be concluded that the

fees (in dollars) for two random samples of apartments be concluded that the sessions help to improve the stu-
dents’ mathematical skills?
than the average rental fee in the west? Assume σ1 =

average rental fee for apartments in the east is greater
119 and σ2 = 103.

Student 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Pretest 82 76 91 62 81 67 71 69 80 85
East West Posttest 88 80 98 80 80 73 74 78 85 93
495 390 540 445 420 525 400 310 375 750 21. Egg Production To increase egg production, a farmer
410 550 499 500 550 390 795 554 450 370 decided to increase the amount of time the lights in his
389 350 450 530 350 385 395 425 500 550 hen house were on. Ten hens were randomly selected,
375 690 325 350 799 380 400 450 365 425 and the number of eggs each produced was recorded.
475 295 350 485 625 375 360 425 400 475 After one week of lengthened light time, the same hens
α = 0.05, can it be concluded that the increased light

275 450 440 425 675 400 475 430 410 450 were monitored again. The data are given here. At
625 390 485 550 650 425 450 620 500 400
685 385 450 550 425 295 350 300 360 400 time increased egg production?
Source: Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
Hen 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
16. Prices of Low-Calorie Foods The average price of a Before 4 3 8 7 6 4 9 7 6 5
random sample of 12 bottles of diet salad dressing taken
from different stores is $1.43. The standard deviation is After 6 5 9 7 4 5 10 6 9 6
$0.09. The average price of a random sample of 16 low-
22. Factory Worker Literacy Rates In a random sample
is $0.10. At α = 0.01, is there a significant difference
calorie frozen desserts is $1.03. The standard deviation
of 80 workers from a factory in city A, it was found
that 5% were unable to read, while in a random sample
in price? Find the 99% confidence interval of the differ-
of 50 workers in city B, 8% were unable to read. Can
ence in the means.
tions of nonreaders in the two cities? Use α = 0.10. Find
it be concluded that there is a difference in the propor-
17. Jet Ski Accidents The data shown represent the
and other types of wet bikes. At α = 0.05, can it be

number of accidents people had when using jet skis the 90% confidence interval for the difference of the
two proportions.
9–57
23. Male Head of Household A recent survey of 200 variances of the amounts spent in the two counties? Use
randomly selected households showed that 8 had a the P-value method.
single male as the head of household. Forty years
County A County B
s1 = $11,596 s2 = $14,837
ago, a survey of 200 randomly selected households
hold. At α = 0.05, can it be concluded that the pro- n1 = 15 n2 = 18

showed that 6 had a single male as the head of house-

portion has changed? Find the 95% confidence inter-
25. Heights of Basketball Players A researcher wants
val of the difference of the two proportions. Does the
to compare the variances of the heights (in inches)
confidence interval contain 0? Why is this important
of four-year college basketball players with those
to know?
of players in junior colleges. A random sample of
Source: Based on data from the U.S. Census Bureau.
30 players from each type of school is selected, and
and 3.15, respectively. At α = 0.10, is there a signifi-

24. Money Spent on Road Repair A politician wishes to the variances of the heights for each type are 2.43
compare the variances of the amount of money spent for
here. At α = 0.05, is there a significant difference in the

road repair in two different counties. The data are given cant difference between the variances of the heights
in the two types of schools?
Data Projects
Use a significance level of 0.05 for all tests below. 4. Health and Wellness Use the data regarding BMI
that were collected in data project 6 of Chapter 7 to
1. Business and Finance Use the data collected in data
complete this problem. Test the claim that the mean
project 1 of Chapter 2 to complete this problem. Test
BMI for males is the same as that for females. Test the
the claim that the mean earnings per share for Dow
claim that the standard deviation for males is the same
Jones stocks are greater than for NASDAQ stocks.
as that for females.
2. Sports and Leisure Use the data collected in data proj-
5. Politics and Economics Using data from the Internet
ect 2 of Chapter 7 regarding home runs for this problem.
for the last Presidential election to categorize the 50
Test the claim that the mean number of home runs hit
states as “red” or “blue” based on who was supported
by the American League sluggers is the same as the
for President in that state, the Democratic or Republican
mean for the National League.
candidate, test the claim that the mean incomes for red
3. Technology Use the cell phone data collected for data states and blue states are equal.
project 2 in Chapter 8 to complete this problem. Test
6. Your Class Use the data collected in data project 6
the claim that the mean length for outgoing calls is the
of Chapter 2 regarding heart rates. Test the claim that
same as that for incoming calls. Test the claim that the
the heart rates after exercise are more variable than the
standard deviation for outgoing calls is more than that
heart rates before exercise.
for incoming calls.
Answers to Applying the Concepts

Section 9–1 Home Runs 8. We fail to reject the null hypothesis.
1. The population of all home runs hit by major league 9. There is not enough evidence to conclude that there is a
baseball players. difference in the number of home runs hit by National
League versus American League baseball players.
2. A cluster sample was used.
10. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that
3. Answers will vary. While this sample is not representa
since we do not have a random sample of data from
tive of all major league baseball players per se, it does
each league, we cannot answer the original question
allow us to compare the leaders in each league.
4. H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 ≠ μ2
asked.
11. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that we could
5. Answers will vary. Possible answers include the 0.05 get a random sample of data from each league from a
and 0.01 significance levels. recent season.
6. We will use the z test for the difference in means. Section 9–2 Too Long on the Telephone
7. Our test statistic is z = ____________
   
  __________  = 1.01, and our
44.75 – 42.88
1. These samples are independent.
2 2
√ 8.8   7.8    
 ____  + ____
40 40 2. We compare the P-value of 0.06317 to the significance
P-value is 0.3124. level to check if the null hypothesis should be rejected.
9–58
Hypothesis-Testing Summary 1 545
3. The P-value of 0.06317 also gives the probability of a Section 9–4 Smoking and Education
1. Our hypotheses are H0: p1 = p2 and H1: p1 ≠ p2.
type I error.
4. Since two critical values are shown, we know that a
z = ±1.96.
two-tailed test was done. 2. At the 0.05 significance level, our critical values are
5. Since the P-value of 0.06317 is greater than the signifi-

cance value of 0.05, we fail to reject the null hypothesis 3. We will use the z test for the difference between
and find that we do not have enough evidence to con- proportions.
clude that there is a difference in the lengths of tele- 4. To complete the statistical test, we would need the
phone calls made by employees in the two divisions of sample sizes.
the company.
5. Knowing the sample sizes were 1000, we can now
6. If the significance level had been 0.10, we would have complete the test.
rejected the null hypothesis, since the P-value would
0.323 − 0.145
6. Our test statistic is
z =   __________________________
________________________  = 9.40,
have been less than the significance level.
  1    + _____
  
   
( 
Section 9–3 Air Quality
1. The purpose of the study is to determine if the air
√ (0.234)(0.766)_____
   
1000 1000
  1       )
quality in the United States has changed over the past and our P-value is very close to zero. We reject the null
2 years. hypothesis and find that there is enough evidence to
conclude that there is a difference in the proportions of
2. These are dependent samples, since we have two
public school students and private school students who
readings from each of 10 metropolitan areas.
3. The hypotheses we will test are H0: μD = 0 and
smoke.
H1: μD ≠ 0.
Section 9–5 Variability and Automatic
Transmissions
values of t = ±2.262.
4. We will use the 0.05 significance level and critical
same: H0: σ 21  = σ 22  (H1: σ 21  ≠ σ 22)  .
1. The null hypothesis is that the variances are the
5. We will use the t test for dependent samples.

6. There are 10 − 1 = 9 degrees of freedom.
2. We will use an F test.
3. The value of the test statistic is F = __
  1   = _________ =
  −6.7 – 0___
2
s  
= −1.879. We fail
18,163.582
    
7. Our test statistic is t = __________
1.090 and the P-value > 0.05. There is not a significant
     s22   17,400.572
11.27∕√10  
to reject the null hypothesis and find that there is not difference in the variability of the prices between the
enough evidence to conclude that the air quality in the two countries.
United States has changed over the past 2 years.
4. Small sample sizes are highly impacted by outliers.
8. No, we could not use an independent means test since
we have two readings from each metropolitan area. 5. The degrees of freedom for the numerator and denomi-
nator are both 3.
9. Answers will vary. One possible answer is that there
are other measures of air quality that we could have 6. Yes, two sets of data can center on the same mean but
examined to answer the question. have very different standard deviations.
Hypothesis-Testing Summary 1
1. Comparison of a sample mean with a specific popula- Example: H0: σ2 = 225
Example: H0: μ = 100
tion mean. Use the chi-square test:
(n − 1)s2
the z test when σ is known: 𝜒2 = _______   with d.f. = n − 1
𝜎2
 − 𝜇
a. Use __     
z =   __ 
𝜎∕√n  
______
X
  
Example: H0: μ1 = μ2
3. Comparison of two sample means.
b. Use the t test when σ is unknown:
 − 𝜇
t =   __ 
   with d.f. = n − 1
__ a. Use the z test when the population variances are
X
______
(X1  − X 2  ) − (μ1 − μ2)
known:__ __
s∕√n  
𝜎 2  𝜎 22 

z =  _________________
      _______ 
  n 1  + ___
2. Comparison of a sample variance or standard devia-
tion with a specific population variance or standard
deviation.
√ ___
1
  n     
2
9–59
b. Use the t test for independent samples when the 5. Comparison of two sample proportions.
Example: H0: p1 = p2
population variances are unknown and assume
the sample variances are unequal:
2  ) − (μ1 − μ2)
(X1  − X
(  pˆ   –  pˆ  2) − (p1 − p2)
__ __ Use the z test:

s 21  ___ s 22 

t = _________________
       _______  ________________
+
  1  
z =    ____________ 
√
 ___
n1 n2    
      √
__ _ __
p (
 q      n1   + __ )
  n1        
with d.f. = the smaller of n1 − 1 or n2 − 1.

1 2
X + X2
where
  pˆ  1 = ___
__ _______ X
Example: H0: μD = 0
c. Use the t test for means for dependent samples:  =   1
p       n 1  
n1 + n2
q  = 1 − p
    pˆ  2 =   n 2  
1
 – 𝜇D
_ __
X
___
t =  _______ with d.f. = n − 1
__
sD∕√n  
D 2
  
__ 
6. Comparison of two sample variances or standard
where n = number of pairs.
Example: H0: 𝜎 21  = 𝜎 22 
deviations.
4. Comparison of a sample proportion with a specific

population proportion. Use the F test:
Example: H0: p = 0.32 F = __
s2  
  1  
s22  
Use the z test:
X−𝜇   pˆ   − p s 21  = larger variance d.f.N. = n1 − 1
where
z = _____
  𝜎   
  or z = _______

s 22   = smaller variance d.f.D. = n2 − 1

  _____   
√p q∕n  
9–60

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Testing the Difference

μ1 = mean age of all beginning nursing students at a community college

μ2 = mean age of all beginning nursing students at a university

Another way of stating the hypotheses for this situation is

1. Both samples are random samples.

​σ 21​ ​​ ___ ​σ ​22​​

F I G U R E 9 – 2 Hypothesis-Testing Situations in the Comparison of Means

Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 1 Sample 2

Population Population 1 Population 2

This formula is based on the general format of

value) − (expected value)

​​ 2 is the observed difference, and the expected difference μ1 − μ2 is zero when

error of the difference is

H0: μ1 = μ2 H0: μ1 − μ2 = 0 H0: μ1 = μ2 H0: μ1 − μ2 = 0

H1: μ1 > μ2 H1: μ1 − μ2 > 0 H1: μ1 < μ2 H1: μ1 − μ2 < 0

EXAMPLE 9–1 Leisure Time

H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 ≠ μ2 (claim)

​ 2 ) − (μ1 − μ2) ______________

z = ​​ ________ ​​ = __________ ​​ = ​​

Example 9–2 illustrates these steps.

EXAMPLE 9–2 College Sports Offerings

Source: USA TODAY.

H0: μ1 = μ2 and H1: μ1 > μ2 (claim)

For the males ​​X​​ 1 = 8.6 and σ1 = 3.3

1.0000 − 0.8554 = 0.1446, or a P-value of 0.1446.

Sometimes, the researcher is interested in testing a specific difference in means

H0: μ1 − μ2 = 3.2 and H1: μ1 − μ2 > 3.2

The formula for the z test is still

where μ1 − μ2 is the hypothesized difference or expected value. In this case, μ1 − μ2 = 3.2.

EXAMPLE 9–3 Leisure Time

Substitute in the formula, using zα∕2 = 1.96.

​σ ​21​​ ​σ ​2​​ ​σ ​2​​ ​σ ​22​​

​​ 2) − zα∕2​​ ​ ​n​ ​​ +

Applying the Concepts 9–1

Using the data given, answer the following questions.

​​X​​1 = $93,430* ​​X​​2 = $98,043*

Sample means $73,195 $76,409 σ 1 = $5602 σ 2 = $4731

is 7.2. At α = 0.01, is there a significant difference in

national average? Use α = 0.05.

of 9-year-olds yielded these results. At α = 0.05, do the

At α = 0.05, can we conclude a difference in means of

the following. At α = 0.01, is there sufficient evidence

here on a self-esteem questionnaire. At α = 0.05, can

σ1 = 0.75 σ2 = 0.75

n1 = 103 n2 = 225

are shown here. At α = 0.05, decide if there is enough

σ1 = 3.68 and σ2 = 4.7.

α = 0.01, can a difference in sales be concluded? Use

Extending the Concepts

exam. The results are shown. At α = 0.05, test the claim.

Private school Public school

Technology Step by Step

Confidence Interval for the Difference Between

z Test for the Difference Between Two Means

α = 0.05. Assume the population variances are σ ​

Two-Sample z Test Dialog Box

9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means

Formula for the t Test for Testing the Difference

where the degrees of freedom are equal to the smaller of n1 − 1 or n2 − 1.

​ ​n1​ ​​ + ___

(observed value) − (expected value)

Test value = ​​ _____________________________

value μ1 − μ2 is equal to zero

σ 21   ___ σ 22 

 2 is the observed difference, and the expected difference μ1 − μ2 is zero when

2  ) − (μ1 − μ2) ______________

z =        =    __   =  

For the males X 1 = 8.6 and σ1 = 3.3

σ 21  σ 2  σ 2  σ 22 

 2) − zα∕2   n   +

X1  = $93,430* X2  = $98,043*

α = 0.05. Assume the population variances are σ

9–2 Testing the Difference Between Two Means

  n1    + ___

Test value =   _____________________________

t =    _______  =      = 1.972

√ s1   __s2  

< μ1 − μ2 < (X1  − X

Substitute in the formula. _ _

(X 1 − X   n1   + __ < μ1 − μ2 < (X 1 – X

 < μ1 − μ2 < (5.5 − 4.3) + 2.447   

(5.5 − 4.3) − 2.447    √  +  _____

9–3 Testing the Difference Between Two Means:

Test value =   _____________________________

Step 2 Find the critical value. The degrees of freedom are n − 1, or 9 − 1 = 8.

  ΣD −9.73  = −1.081