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Abstract: The study focuses on the roles of International Law in responding to the
technological advances, particularly examining the International Law as a regulator on
emerging technology. The technological advances, especially in the means and method of war
and environmental issues, have been contributing to the development of International Law. It
is a normative legal research using the secondary data including primary and secondary legal
materials. While the primary legal materials consist of all the international agreement related
to the development of technology both directly and indirectly, secondary ones included the
references having correlation and support to the issues. The technique of analysis data used
legal interpretation. The study concludes that as a regulator of technological advances,
International Law has a role to play in regulating its development. Many facts showed that
International Law has capability to respond to the challenges. However, the scope and
application of International Law is subject to a number of limitations inherent the nature of
International Law itself.
1
Jeffry D. Sachs, The Age of Sustainable the third one that automated production. For more
Development, (Columbia University Press, 2015), detail, see Julian Hoppit, ‘Understanding the
82. Industrial Revolution’, (1987) 30 1, The Historical
2
Historians recorded that the world has undergone Journal, 211-224; Jan De Vries, ‘The Industrial
various phases of industrial revolution on the Revolution and the Industrious Revolution’,
period of 1760-1830. Starting from the first (1994) 54 2, The Journal of Economic History,
industrial revolution that mechanized production, 249-270.
to the second one that led to mass production, to
3
Klaus Schwab, ‘The Fourth Industrial Revolution: industrial-revolution-what-it-means-and-how-to-
What it means, how to respond’, (2016) January, respond.
World Economic Forum, available at
www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/01/the-fourth-
4 6
Jonathan B. Wiener, ‘The regulation of technology, Ibid.
and the technology of regulation’, (2004) 26, 7
OECD, Innovation and the Environment, OECD
Technology in Society , 483. Proceeding on Workshop of Innovation and the
5
Ibid., p. 484. Environment, 2000, p. 7-9.
edge and competitiveness.8 In this case, regulation. Diversity of regulatory design can
regulation stimulates the firm to conserve hindrance or accelerate technological
resources and switch to cleaner substitutes in change, or shape it in varying ways, favoring
ways that actually save the money of firms. some kinds of technology over others.
Even if such moves are costly to the firm, International Law is the system of rules
regulation enables firms in countries that and principles that regulate behavior between
regulate first to take the lead in selling new international actors. In the context of
technologies to countries that follow.9 technological advance, international law has
The crucial shortcoming over all the the role to regulate either the development or
arguments above is the framing of regulation deployment of emerging technologies in
as a single kind of rule or strategy. responding to the need to protect the
Regulation is treated as if it comes in one international community from excesses of,
type and has only an effect on technology. possibly catastrophic, and even risks posed
Nonetheless in reality, there are many by technology.13 Since science and
different types of technologies likewise there technological research is developing in
are many difference kinds of regulations. power and capacity to transform not only the
Difference regulatory instruments such as global environment, but also humankind
technology requirements, performance itself, on a long term or even permanent
standards, taxes, tradable allowances, and basis, International Law is being called upon
information disclosure, could have very to proactively develop new form of
different effects on technological advance international regulation and governance
and other important consequences.10 capable in anticipating, accessing,
In a broad sense, technology should not minimizing, and mitigating the risks posed
understand as not just hardware or equipment by emerging or novel technologies including
or chips, but as any device or system for the risk of their rogue deployment by a state
converting inputs into outputs for changing or individual acting unilaterally. 14 In other
the production function. In this context, words, International Law is being called
Wiener asserts that regulation is a technology upon to regulate not just the past and present
itself.11 It is since regulation is a set of development and deployment of
techniques for changing production functions technologies, but also the uncertain futures
to produce fewer of some outputs, such as these technologies pose.
pollution, waste, acid rain, or more others. International Law has the role as an
Regulation is technology of governance.12 impartial framework or reference for the
The influence of regulation on technology is process of claim and decision.15 It seeks to
critically depend on the technology of limit the choice of alternative policies and
8
M.E. Porter, ‘America’s Green Strategy’, (1991) 264 Handbook of Law, Regulation, and Technology,
4, Scientific American 264, 168. (Oxford University Press, 2017), 500
9 14
Jonathan B. Wiener, op.cit. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP),
10
Ibid. 21 Issues for the 21st Century: Results of the UNEP
11
Ibid. Foresight Process on Emerging Environmental
12 Issues, (UNEP, 2012), 2-3.
Ibid. 15
13 Tim Hillier, Sourcebook on Public International
Rosemary Rayfuse, “Public International Law and
Law, (Cavendish Publishing Limited, 1998), 14-
the Regulation of Emerging Technologies” in
15.
Roger Brownsword et al (Eds), The Oxford
16 21
Douglas M. Johnston, ‘Law, Technology, and the Adam Roberts and Richard Guelff, Documents on
Sea’, (1967) 55, Cal. L. Rev. 449 Available at: the Laws of War, Third Edition, (Oxford
http://scholarship.law.barkeley.edu/californialawr University Press, Oxford, 2000), 3.
eview/vol55/iss2/5 22
The 1868 St Petersburg Declaration Renouncing the
17
Ibid. Use, In Time of war, of Explosive Projectilles
18
Rosemary Rayfuse, above n.13 502. Under 400 Grammes Weight, 11 December 1868,
19
Ibid. enter into force 11 December 1868, LXVI UKPP
20 (1868) 659.
Gary D. Solis, The Law of Armed Conflict:
International Humanitarian Law in War,
(Cambridge University Press, 2010), 38.
Declaration was followed by the adoption of regulated in such a way as to maintain human
other declarations renouncing specific dignity.30
weapons and means of welfare at the Peace Currently, there is no a single legally
Conference of 1899 and 1907, which binding of international agreement to
eventually led to the international treaties regulate technological advances in order to
prohibiting the development, production, limit their potential risks. Nevertheless, all
stockpiling, and use of poison gas (1925)23, states are bound by general principles of law
bacteriological or biological weapons and international customary laws that are
1972)24, chemical weapons (1993)25, compatible with the development and
blinding laser weapons (1995)26, and other deployment of the technology. General
forms of conventional weapons (1980)27, principles and international customary laws
including certain types of anti-personal land include: the basic norms of international
mines (1996).28 The latest challenge of peace and security law, such as the
international humanitarian law related to prohibition on the use of force and invention
technological advances was the creation of in the domestic affairs of other states;31 the
cyber weapons and other emerging military basic principles of international humanitarian
technologies, such as unmanned aerial law, such as requirements of humanity,
vehicles, directed-energy weapons, and distinction and proportionality; 32 the basic
lethal autonomous robots.29 The challenge principles of human dignity and the right to
faced by International Humanitarian Law is life, liberty and security of the person;33 and
to ensure that technological advances in the the basic principles of international
field of Humanitarian Law (including environmental law including the obligations
methods and means of war) must be to protect vulnerable ecosystems and species,
the precautionary principles, and a range of
23
The 1925 Geneva Protocol for the Prohibition of Effects, 10 October 1980, enter into force 2
Poisonous Gases and Bacteriological Methods of December 1983, 1342 UNTS 3.
Walfare, 17 June 1925, enter into force 8 February 28
The 1996 Amended Protocol II to the United
1928, XCIV LNTS (1929) 65-74. Nations Convention on Prohibition or Restrictions
24
The 1972 United Nations Convention on the on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons
Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Which May Be Deemed to be Excessively
Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects, on
Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction, 10 April Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use of Mines,
1972, enter into force 26 March 1975, 1015 UNTS Booby-Traps and Other Devices, 3 May 1996,
163 (1976). enter into force 3 December 1998, 35 International
25
The 1993 Convention on the Prohibition of the Legal Materials 1206-1217 (1996).
29
Development, Production, Stockpiling, and Use of Braden R. Allenby, ‘Are New Technologies
Chemical Weapons, 3 September 1992, enter into Undermining the Laws of War?’ (2014) 70
force 29 April 1997, 1974 UNTS 317. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 21-31.
26 30
The 1995 Protocol IV to the United Nations Rosemary Rayfuse, above n.13, 502.
Convention on Prohibition or Restrictions on the 31
Christine Gray, International Law and The Use of
Use of Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Force, Third Edition, (Oxford University Press,
Be Deemed to be Excessively Injurious or to Have 2008), 6.
Indiscriminate Effects, on Blinding Laser 32
Jean-Marie Henckaerts and Louise Doswald-Beck,
Weapons 1995, enter into force 30 July 1998, 35 Customary International Humanitarian Law,
International Legal Materials 1218 (1996). Volume 1 Rules, International Committee of the
27
The 1980 United Nations Convention on Red Cross,( Cambridge University Press, 2005), 3.
Prohibition or Restrictions on the Use of Certain 33
Olivier de Schutter, International Human Rights
Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed to Law, Second Editions, (Cambridge University
be Excessively Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Press, 2014), 61-66.
34 39
Philippe Sands and Jacqueline Peel, Principles of Albert C. Lin, “International Legal Regime and
International Environmental Law, Third Editions, Principles Relevant to Geoengineering”, in Wil
(Cambridge University Press, 2012), 117. C.G. Burns and Andrew L. Strauss (Eds), Climate
35
James Crawford, The International Law Change Geoengineering: Philosophical
Commission’s Articles on State Responsibility: Perspective, Legal Issues, and Governance
Introduction, Text, and Commentaries, Frameworks, (Cambridge University Press, 2013),
(Cambridge University Press, 2002), 1. 182-199.
40
36
R. Higgins, Problems and Process: International Paul Oldham, Stephen Hall, Geoff Burton,
Law and How We Use It, (Clarendon Press, 2003), “Synthetic Biology: Mapping the Scientific
10. Landscape”, (2012) 7 4, PLOS Onem, 12-14.
41
37
J.L. Brierly, The Law of the Nations: An Article 8 (g) of the 1992 Convention on Biological
Introduction to the International Law of Peace, Diversity, 5 June 1992, enter into force 29
(Clarendon Press, 1963), 63. December 1993, 1760 UNTS 79.
42
38
M. C. Bassiouni, ‘A Functional Approach to Article 3 (g) of The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on
‘General Principles of International Law’, (1990) Biosafety to the Convention on Biological
11 Minch. J. Int’l L. 775-776. Available at: Diversity, 29 January 2000, enter into force 11
http://repository.law.umich.edu/mjil/vol11/iss3/3 September 20013, 39 International Legal
Materials 1027 (2000).
and viroids’.43 Thus, LMO includes novel furthermore, this Convention governs the
viruses and organisms developed in prohibition of the development, production,
laboratories. Of course, merely stockpiling and acquisition or retention of
bioengineering LMOs in a laboratory does microbial or other biological agents, or toxins
not constitute ‘release’. It does, however, whatever their origin or method of
constitute 'use' under the CBD and the more production, of types and in quantities that
specific definition of 'contained use' in the have no justification for prophylactic,
Cartagena Protocol, which includes “any protective or other peaceful purposes.46
operation, undertaken within a facility ... Moreover, State parties are prohibited from
which involves LMOs that are controlled by transferring “to any recipient whatsoever,
specific measures that limit their contact directly or indirectly and from assisting,
with, and their impact on, the external encouraging, or inducing any stats, group of
environment”.44 These rules describe that states or international organizations to
international law recognized new manufacture or otherwise acquire any of the
technologies in the field of biotechnology. agents, toxins, weapons, equipment, and
These provisions do not prohibit the means of delivery banned under the
development, use or disposal of LMOs, but Convention within their territory,
47
rather, this one seeks to ensure ‘adequate jurisdiction, or control”. However,
protection measures’ against the risk of regardless of the use of terminology
unintentional or potentially harmful of LMO "prohibition", the application of BWC is still
release within the transboundary context. If possible for the purposes of prophylaxis,
‘adequate measures’ are not taken, the States protection, and peaceful purposes as set forth
Parties to the CBD and the Cartagena on Article I and X. Even the deadliest
Protocol will be responsible internationally biological agents can be developed for
for any potentially transboundary damage peaceful purposes, yet still susceptible to
resulting from this LMO release.45 accidental or malicious release. It suggests
International Law has strict rules in that although BWC expressly rejects the use
bioterrorism. The 1972 United Nations of biological agents and toxins as weapons,
Convention on the Prohibition of the the states party recognize and accept the
Development, Production, and Stockpiling of value of biological development for peaceful
Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin purposes.48
Weapons and on their Destruction International Law also pays great
(hereinafter called as Biological Weapons attention to the issue of human dignity in the
Convention/BWC) does not only regulate the development of biotechnology and genetic
use and release of biological weapons, but engineering. The Council of Europe's 1977
43 46
Article 3 (h) of The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on Article I of the 1972 United Nations Convention on
Biosafety to the Convention on Biological the Prohibition of the Development, Production,
Diversity, ibid. and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological)
44
Article 11 of The 2000 Cartagena Protocol on and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction
47
Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Article IV of the 1972 United Nations Convention
Diversity, ibid. on the Prohibition of the Development,
45
Grant Wilson, ‘Minimizing Global Catastrophic and Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological
Existential Risks from Emerging Technologies (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their
through International Law’ (2013) 31 308 Va. Destruction
48
Envtl. L. J. , 338. Rosemary Rayfuse, above n. 13 505.
Convention on Human Rights and they have been further developed and
Biomedicine (CHRB), which prohibits possibly even deployed. Under these
inheritable genetic alterations of humans on circumstances, International Law becomes
the basis of that endangered humanity of all relevant as a regulator for technological
species. Article 13 of the CHRB states that advances. However, many limitations exist
“an intervention seeking to modify the on international law’s capability50 to respond
human genome' is not to say any to these challenges. In particular, the scope
modification in the genome of any and application of International Law to
descendants”. It can be argued that although emerging technologies is subject to a number
CBHR is a regional international agreement, of structural limitations inherent in the
with limited participation in the European consensual nature of International Law. 51
countries, it is seen that International Law has In the framework of technological
taken an important (though limited) role in development, the concern of International
technological advances. Law does not lie in its nature, form,
development or even deployment. An
The Capability of International Law and opinion of the International Court of Justice
Its Limitation on Development of in its Advisory Opinion on the Threat or Use
Technology of Nuclear Weapons (Nuclear Weapons
From the discussion before, it could be Advisory Opinion), stated: “in the absence of
said that technological advances always specific treaty obligations freely acceptance
bring profound implications for human life, by states, the development of nuclear
both positive and negative implications. On weapons is not prohibited by international
the one hand, technological advances have law. Indeed, even their use is not unlawful,
the potential to support innovation in per se; at least in circumstance where the
products, services and processes; and to help state of the art faces an existential threat and
address national and global challenges, otherwise complies with the laws of armed
including climate change, human population conflict”. In the same context, the 1976
explosions, economic growth, and other Convention on the Prohibition of Military or
environmental pressures. On the other hand, Any Other Hostile Use for Environmental
the potential risks posed by technological Modification Techniques governs that the
advances, including misuse of technology, development and use of environmental
can have negative, even catastrophic, impacts modification technologies is neither
on people and the global environment.49 regulated nor prohibited under international
Even, managing and controlling the research law, but only their hostile use in the context
and development of emerging technologies of an international armed conflict.52 In this
would be a daunting task, particularly as, in matter, the principle of state sovereignty
many cases, the risks posed by some of these permits states to utilize their resources,
technologies will not be understood until conduct research, develop and deploy, or
49
Grant Wilson, above n. 45 Center for International Law, University of
50
Catherine Brolmann and Janne Nijman, Legal Amsterdam, 2017, p. 1.
51
Personality as A Fundamental Concept of Rosemary Rayfuse, above n. 13
International Law, Amsterdam Law School Legal 52
Article 1 of The 1976 Convention on the Prohibition
Studies Research Paper No. 2016-43, Amsterdam of Military or Any Other Hostile Use for
Environmental Modification Techniques.
53
Rosemary Rayfuse, above n.13, 505. Environment, Third Edition, (Oxford University
54
Grant Wilson, above n. 45, 340. Press, 2009), 217-218.
58
55
Ibid. E.g., International Law Commission (ILC), Draft
56
Jan Hessbruegge, “The Historical Development of Article on Prevention of Transboundary Harm
the Doctrines of Attribution and Due Diligence in from Hazardous Activities, with Commentaries,
International Law”, (2004) 36 4 New York Doc. A/56/10 (2001), Article 3, paragraph 7.
59
University Journal of International Law and Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle, and Catherine
Politics, 286. Redgwell, above n. 57, 146.
60
57
Patricia Birnie, Alan Boyle, and Catherine Grant Wilson, above n. 45, 342.
Redgwell, International Law and the
and cumbersome exercises, and moreover, what role international law can or should play
the international agreement is generally in the regulation of these private actors.
focused on regulating specific activities, This issue may be displayed by
rather than future one. It means that reference to the issue of the role of
international agreement is limited in its International Law in the regulation of
substantive scope. Besides that, the scientific research. The freedom to pursuit
international agreement is only binding on scientific knowledge is regarded as a
their parties.61 There is no International Law fundamental right. Although the precise
forces a state become a party of the limits of the boundaries remain open to
international agreement. In addition, the debate, ethical limits to scientific enquiry
other problem faced by international law have been identified where the nature of
relating to its role in technological advance is research is such that the process itself will
the absence of law enforcement mechanisms, have potentially adverse impacts on human
even when a state has become a party to subjects and non-human animals.63
international agreement. Increasingly, perceptions as to the limits of
Another problem that equally the right have been influenced by changing
important is the nature of subject involved in conceptions of risks and the increasing
the development and deployment of recognition of the problem of uncertainty.64
technology. The government of a state is not This changing perceptions have given rise to
the only actor involved in the research, legal regulation in some circumstance and, as
development and deployment of technology. analysis of the development of regulation of
These activities were also conducted by nuclear weapons and research on the human
individuals (both natural and corporate). genome demonstrates that the presumption in
However, in order to achieve responsible favour of a freedom of gaining knowledge
research, a “governance” is required. over prohibiting research only operates
Recognizing the influence that private where the research is conducted
individuals can have in the development of “responsibly” and for “legitimate scientific
‘governance’ regimes, ranging anywhere purposes”.65 What constitutes “responsible”
along the spectrum from voluntary ethical and “legitimate scientific research” depend
framework involving self-regulation to not only on an assessment of scientific
formal regulatory of legislative measures plausibility, but also on its desirability within
adopted under national and/or international the larger social development context,66 and
law.62 However, beyond the context of on its compliance with international legal
individual responsibility for international norms. In this respect, international law can
crimes, it may not be immediately apparent play a role in both articulating and in
61 65
Article 34 The 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law Jack Stilgoe, Richard Owen, and Phil Macnaghten,
of Treaties. ‘Developing a Framework for Responsible
62
Andrea Bianchi, Non-State Actors and Innovation’, (2013) 42 9 Research Policy, 1568-
International Law, (Ashgate, New York, 2009), 1580.
66
xi. Adam Corner and Nick Pidgeon, ‘Geoengineering
63
Peter Singer, ‘Ethics and the Limits of Scientific the Climate: The Social and Ethical Implication’,
Freedom’, (1996) 79 2 The Monist, 223. (2010) 52 1 Environment: Science and Policy for
64
Maria Paola Ferretti, ‘Risk and Distributive Justice: Sustainable Development, 26.
The Case of Regulating New Technology’ (2010)
16 3 Science and Engineering Ethics 501-515.
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