25/10/2021

Bangladesh University of Engineering and

Technology (BUET)
Institute of Nuclear Power Engineering (INPE)

Term Paper Title: Uranium Mining & Milling Processing

Course Code: NPE-6112

Course Title: Nuclear Fuel Cycle
Course Teacher: Prof M.A.A. Shoukat Choudhury
Department of Chemical Engineering, BUET

Submitted by: 1.Shamsun Nahar Raka

Student ID: 0421322042

2.Imtiaz Taimoor
Student ID: 0421322047

Submission Date: 25/10/2021

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Table of Contents
1.0 Abstract: ................................................................................................................................................ 4
1.1 Nuclear Fuel: ..................................................................................................................................... 4
1.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle:........................................................................................................................... 5
2.0 Uranium Mining: .................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1 History of Uranium mining:............................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Uranium mines: ................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3 Types of Uranium Deposits: ............................................................................................................ 8
2.4 Necessary parameters for assessing uranium ore resource: ....................................................... 10
2.5 Mining Technique: .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.5 (a) Open Pit:................................................................................................................................. 10
2.5 (b) Underground Mining: ........................................................................................................... 10
2.5 (c) In-Situ Leaching (ISL)/ Recovery (ISR): ............................................................................. 10
2.5 (d) Heap Leaching:...................................................................................................................... 11
2.5 (e) Sea Water Recovery: ............................................................................................................. 11
2.5 (f) By-Product Uranium: ............................................................................................................ 12
2.6 Environmental & Health Effects of Uranium Mining: ................................................................ 12
2.7 Recent Trends in Mining:............................................................................................................... 13
3.0 Uranium Milling: ................................................................................................................................ 13
3.1 Introduction to Uranium Milling: ................................................................................................. 13
3.2 Overview on stages of Uranium Milling: ...................................................................................... 14
3.3 Detailed procedure of milling to produce Uranium Ore Concentrate (UOC) from excavated
ore:.......................................................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 (a) Ore Preparation: ................................................................................................................... 15
3.3 (b) Extraction: ............................................................................................................................. 16
3.3 (c) Solid/Liquid Separation: ....................................................................................................... 16
3.3 (d) Purification: ........................................................................................................................... 17
3.3 (e) Precipitation:.......................................................................................................................... 17
3.3 (f) Calcination: ............................................................................................................................ 18
3.4 Uranium Mill Tailings: ................................................................................................................... 18
3.5 Decommissioning: ........................................................................................................................... 19
3.6 Current Trend Followed: ............................................................................................................... 19
4.0 Conclusions:......................................................................................................................................... 20

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List of Tables:
Table 1: Isotopes of Uranium..................................................................................................................... 5
Table 2: Average uranium concentrations in ores, rocks and waters (ppm - parts per million) ......... 6
Table 3: Uranium resources by country in 2019 ...................................................................................... 7
Table 4: The largest-producing uranium mines in 2019 ........................................................................ 8
Table 5: Percentage distribution of world uranium production by processing method in 2016 ...... 12
Table 6: Leaching process chemicals ..................................................................................................... 16
Table 7: SX process chemicals. ............................................................................................................... 17
Table 8: Precipitation process chemicals ............................................................................................... 18
Table 9: Four largest Uranium production facilities ............................................................................ 20

List of Figures:
Figure 1: Uranium Fuel Cycle. .................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 2: ISL Mining Process. ................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 3: Typical conventional Uranium Mill ....................................................................................... 15

List of Nomenclature:
ADU: Ammonium diuranate.................................................................................................................. 17
CCD: Counter-Current-Decantation .................................................................................................... 16
Cu: Copper .............................................................................................................................................. 11
ISL: In-situ Leaching .............................................................................................................................. 10
ISR: In-situ Recovery ............................................................................................................................. 10
IX: Ion exchange ..................................................................................................................................... 16
SX: Solvant Extraction ........................................................................................................................... 16
U: Uranium ................................................................................................................................................ 4
U3O8: Triuranium octoxide .................................................................................................................... 18
UO2: Uranium dioxide ............................................................................................................................ 18
UO3.5H2O: Uranium(VI) oxide dihydrate ............................................................................................ 18
UO3: Uranium trioxide ........................................................................................................................... 18
UO4: Uranyl peroxide ............................................................................................................................. 17

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Uranium Mining and Milling Processing

1.0 Abstract:
There is a rapidly-increasing world demand for energy, and especially for electricity. Much of the
electricity demand is for continuous, reliable supply on a large scale, which generally only fossil
fuels and nuclear power can meet. [1]

The significance of Uranium as nuclear fuel for power generation is great. The Uranium mining
& milling process of the fuel cycle is discussed at large in two separate parts in this paper.

A brief history of Uranium mining & on depth data about Uranium mines all over the world, their
deposit type was discussed. Necessary parameters for assessing uranium ore resource was also a
part of discussion. There are different types of Uranium mining method available such as open pit,
underground, ISL, by-product etc. methods had also been discussed. Recent concern on
environmental impact of mining & method to counteract them has also been discussed in the paper.
Lastly, for the mining part recent trends in mining was also briefly mentioned.

For Uranium milling part, after a brief introduction, stages of uranium milling were discussed on
depth. Handling mill tailings and decommissioning of Uranium mines are also part of the
discussion. Lastly current trends on milling process was mentioned.

1.1 Nuclear Fuel:

Nuclear fuel is material used in nuclear power stations to produce heat to power turbines. Heat is
created when nuclear fuel undergoes nuclear fission. Most nuclear fuels contain heavy fissile
actinide elements that are capable of undergoing and sustaining nuclear fission. Uranium is the
most widely used fuel by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission. U is a naturally occurring
element that has the atomic weight of ~238 g/mole and is radioactive. It can be found in minute
quantities in most rocks, soils and waters (normally < 5 ppm) [1], but the real challenge is to find
it in high enough concentrations to make it economically feasible to mine. There are different
Isotopes of Uranium: U-233, U-234, U-235, U-236, U-237, U-238 and U-239.

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In Table-1 percentage of different isotopes of U at different stage is given: [2]

Table 1: Isotopes of Uranium

Isotope % found in natural U % found in Enriched U* % found in Depleted U

U-238 99.28% 96.471% 99.8%

U-235 0.72% 3.5% 0.2%

U-234 0.0057% 0.029% 0.001%

* Reactor-grade enriched uranium (normally varies from 3.5 to 5% U-235)

1.2 Nuclear Fuel Cycle:

The nuclear fuel cycle consists of front-end steps that prepare uranium for use in nuclear reactors
and back-end steps to safely manage, prepare, and dispose of used or spent but still highly
radioactive spent nuclear fuel. In this paper, Uranium mining & Uranium milling of fuel cycle will
be discussed [3].

Figure 1: Uranium Fuel Cycle.

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2.0 Uranium Mining:

Uranium mining is the process of extraction of uranium ore from the ground.

2.1 History of Uranium mining:

Uranium mining has a short history as the uranium element was not discovered until 1789 by the
German chemist Martin Klaport. The history of uranium mining can be divided into five main
periods:
 1795–1925: Uranium used for glass/ceramic
 1905–1925: Radium as a by-product of uranium as waste
 1925–1945: Vanadium as a by product
 1945–1967: Governmental use
 1967–to date: Commercial. [2]

Table 2: Average uranium concentrations in ores, rocks and waters (ppm - parts per
million)

Material Concentration (ppm U)

High-grade ore body (>2% U) >20,000

Low-grade ore body (0.1% U) 1,000

Average granite 4

Average volcanic rock 20-200

Average sedimentary rock 2

Average black shale 50-250

Average earth's crust 2.8

Seawater 0.003

Groundwater >0.001 - 8

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2.2 Uranium mines:

Uranium mines operate in some twenty countries, though 55% of world production comes from
just ten mines in six countries, these six providing 85% of the world’s mined uranium. Most of the
uranium ore deposits at present supporting these mines have average grades in excess of 0.10% of
uranium [4]. Uranium resources by country in 2019 is given in the Table-3 & the largest-producing
uranium mines in 2019 is given in Table-4 [5].

Table 3: Uranium resources by country in 2019

Country tonnes U Percentage of world

Australia 1,692,700 28%
Kazakhstan 906,800 15%
Canada 564,900 9%
Russia 486,000 8%
Namibia 448,300 7%
South Africa 320,900 5%
Brazil 276,800 5%
Niger 276,400 4%
China 248,900 4%
Mongolia 143,500 2%
Uzbekistan 132,300 2%
Ukraine 108,700 2%
Botswana 87,200 1%
Tanzania 58,200 1%
Jordan 52,500 1%
USA 47,900 1%
Other 295,800 5%
World Total 6,147,800

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Table 4: The largest-producing uranium mines in 2019 [5]

2.3 Types of Uranium Deposits: [2]

(a) Fault and Unconformity-related Uranium Deposits: An unconformity is time gap in the
rock record between two rock units where the lower unit may be deformed, brecciated or
altered and the overlying units are less deformed. Uranium deposits can occur in the
underlying or overlying units. In the underlying units, there may be a weathering zone,
fault zone or some other feature that increases the rocks porosity and permeability. In the
overlying units, it may be the sandstones or some other features that allows the
concentration of uranium. Deposits of this type are common in Australia, Canada and India.
(b) Breccia uranium deposit: Breccias are pre-existing rocks that have to be broken-up into
pieces by either, weathering and collapse or fracturing (hydraulic or tectonic). The blocks
form a high porosity and permeability framework for U precipitation. Deposits of this type
are common in Australia, United States and India.
(c) Sandstone & Conglomerate deposits: Sandstone deposits are contained within medium
to coarse-grained sandstones deposited in a continental fluvial or marginal marine
sedimentary environment. Deposits of this type are common in United States, Niger,
Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Gabon, South Africa, Canada, India and Australia. Types of
deposits include:

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i. Roll-front Deposits: Roll-front deposits cut across bedding. U-bearing ground

waters precipitate uranium oxide minerals when they come in contact with reducing
conditions in porous and permeable rocks.
ii. Tabular or Trend: U deposits form tabular bodies that may or may not cross
bedding.
(d) Tectonic Deposits: U is remobilized and precipitates adjacent to permeable fault and/or
fracture zones.
(e) Limestone Deposits: Units that have high porosity and permeability as well as organic
carbon contents form good sites for uranium precipitation. Deposits of this type are rare,
but can be found in United States (Grants Mineral Belt, New Mexico).
(f) Surficial Deposits: The U is concentrated in young sediments or soils near the earth's
surface. Uranium minerals precipitate out onto the finer-grained particles or are transported
particles. Associated with soil formation. Deposits of this type are found in United States,
Australia, Canada and Namibia.
(g) Volcanic Deposits: Deposits are associated with fault, fracture and shear zones in acidic
volcanic rocks. Deposits of this type are found in China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mexico,
Namibia, Greenland, South Africa, United States, Canada and Australia.
(h) Vein Deposits: Uranium ore is associated with veins or other lenses in igneous,
metamorphic or sedimentary rocks. Deposits of this type are found in Australia, France,
Czech Republic, Germany and Zaire.
(i) Intrusive Deposits: In intermediate to acidic igneous rocks and pegmatites, the uranium-
rich minerals are direct precipitates (no dissolution and remobilization). Deposits of this
type are found in USA, Namibia, Greenland, Canada and South Africa.
(j) Metasomatic Deposits: Hydrothermal alteration of deformed basement rocks. Deposits of
this type are found in Brazil, Ukraine and Australia.
(k) Phosphorite and Lignite Deposits: U occurs with organic-rich marine-deposited
phosphorites or in lignites (low-grade coal). Fly ash, the result of burning coal, can increase
the U concentration by burning off the carbon. Deposits of this type are found in the United
States.

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2.4 Necessary parameters for assessing uranium ore resource:

Modeling of a uranium resource is the first and most important step in selecting a mining method
that will optimize exploitation of a mineralized deposit [2].
 Location
 Shape
 Size
 Depth
 Orientation
 Geotectonic
 Mineralogy
 Hydrology
 Boundary conditions

2.5 Mining Technique:

There are a few different Uranium mining technique:

2.5 (a) Open Pit: Where ore bodies lie close to the surface, they are usually accessed by open cut
mining, involving a large pit and the removal of much overburden (overlying rock) as well as a lot
of other waste rock. Overburden is removed by drilling and blasting to expose the ore body, which
is then mined by blasting and excavation using loaders and dump trucks. At Ranger in north
Australia, Rossing in Namibia, and most of Canada’s Northern Saskatchewan mines through to
McClean Lake, the ore bodies have been accessed by open cut mining [4].

2.5 (b) Underground Mining: Where ore bodies are deeper, underground mining is usually
employed, involving construction of access shafts and tunnels but with less waste rock removed
and less environmental impact. Olympic Dam in Australia, McArthur River, Rabbit Lake and
Cigar Lake in Northern Saskatchewan, and Akouta in Niger are underground, up to 600 meters
deep [4].

2.5 (c) In-Situ Leaching (ISL)/ Recovery (ISR): In-situ leaching (ISL), also known as solution
mining, or in-situ recovery (ISR) in North America, involves leaving the ore where it is in the
ground, and recovering the minerals from it by dissolving them and pumping the pregnant solution
to the surface where the minerals can be recovered. There is little surface disturbance and no

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tailings or waste rock generated. Uranium ISL uses the native groundwater in the ore body which
is fortified with a complexing agent and in most cases an oxidant. It is then pumped through the
underground ore body to recover the minerals in it by leaching. Once the pregnant solution is
returned to the surface, the uranium is recovered in much the same way as in any other uranium
plant (mill) [6].

Figure 2: ISL Mining Process.

2.5 (d) Heap Leaching: Very low-grade ore (below 0.1%U), is treated by heap leaching. Here the
broken ore is stacked about 5 to 30 meters high on an impermeable pad and irrigated with acid (or
sometimes alkaline) solution over many weeks. The pregnant liquor from this is collected and
treated to recover the uranium, as with ISL, usually using ion exchange. After the material ceases
to yield significant further uranium, it is removed and replaced with fresh ore. Recoveries are
typically 50–80%. The depleted material has the potential to cause pollution so must be emplaced
securely so as not to affect surface water or groundwater. Usually it will be in mined-out pits [4].

2.5 (e) Sea Water Recovery: The uranium concentration in sea water is low, approximately 3.3
parts per billion or 3.3 micrograms per liter of seawater. If even portion of the uranium in seawater
could be used the entire world's nuclear power generation fuel could be provided over long time
period [7].

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2.5 (f) By-Product Uranium: Uranium can be recovered as a by-product along with other co-
products such as molybdenum, vanadium, nickel, zinc and petroleum products. The main by-
product source of uranium today is at Olympic Dam in South Australia, where low concentrations
of uranium (0.025 to 0.050%U) occur with copper grading about 1.8% Cu. Following primary
crushing underground, the ore is ground and treated in a copper sulphide flotation plant. About
80% of the uranium minerals remain in the tailings from the flotation cells, from which they are
recovered by acid leaching as in a normal uranium mill [4].

Table 5: Percentage distribution of world uranium production by processing method in

2016 [8]

Processing Method Percentage (%)

Open Pit 12.9%
Underground Mining 30.8%
In-Situ Leaching 49.7%
Heap Leaching 0.4%
By- product 6.1%
Miscellaneous Recovery 0.1%

2.6 Environmental & Health Effects of Uranium Mining:

Uranium mining facilities produce tailings that generally are disposed of in near surface
impoundments close to the mine. These tailings pose serious environmental and health risks in the
form of Radon emission, windblown dust dispersal and leaching of contaminants including heavy
metals and arsenic into the water [9].

In order to counteract these effects, measures below can be taken: [4]

 Contaminated water is treated or disposed off.
 Good forced ventilation systems in underground mines to ensure that exposure to radon
gas and its radioactive daughter products is as low as possible and does not exceed
established safety levels.
 Efficient dust control, because the dust may contain radioactive constituents and emit
radon gas.

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 Limiting the radiation exposure of workers in mine, mill and tailings areas so that it is as
low as possible, and in any event does not exceed the allowable dose limits set by the
authorities.
 The use of radiation detection equipment in all mines and plants, often including personal
dose badges.
 Imposition of strict personal hygiene standards for workers handling uranium oxide
concentrate.

2.7 Recent Trends in Mining:

Development trends in mining in recent years mainly follows:

 Operational improvements: Recent operational improvement was undertaken in mining

operation. Mining and milling companies have embarked on cost-reduction and
consolidation programs.
 Change in mining methods: ISL/ISR is the recent and more developed mining method.
Research has been carried out by the uranium industry to develop operating strategies that
meet the regulatory requirements.
 Environmental restoration: Mining and milling have been focusing on mitigating the
environmental impacts. Limiting long-term impacts on the environment, demonstrating
that facilities can be successfully decommissioned and returned to green-field status, and
show that waste sites can be closed safely and the original environment can be restored is
a goal of recent mining technique.
 New resources: In addition to these operational developments in mining and milling,
developments in search of new uranium resources for the very long term are ongoing [10].

3.0 Uranium Milling:

3.1 Introduction to Uranium Milling:
The function of a uranium mill is to extract uranium oxide from uranium-bearing ores and
concentrate it into a product called “yellow cake” [11]. Uranium milling involves a number of
physical and chemical processes and these processes need to be controlled and monitored
precisely for economic conversion of ore to yellow cake. In most of cases, conventional uranium
ore milling begins with comminution of the ore to prepare it for processing [12]. At first, the ore

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is blended and grinded as part of ore preparation and this preparation involves some physical
processes. Then the uranium is dissolute in the solution. The resultant is a solid-liquid mixture
and the next process involves the separation of pregnant solution from the solid. After that some
purification is done to remove impurities. Uranium is precipitated afterwards from the solution.
Subsequently, it is dried and calcinated to remove moisture and volatile contents [13].

3.2 Overview on stages of Uranium Milling:

Pictorial representation on stages of Uranium milling in a brief [18]:

1. Ground Uranium 2. The mixture is

Ore mixed with water unloaded in the
is delivered to the storage tanks and
mill by the truck. pumped into the mill.

3. Uranium in the ore 4. Uranium in

is separated from the solution form is
host rock by separated from waste
dissolving it with solids through a
Sulfuric Acid. series of thickeners

5. Uranium solution 6. The uranium from

proceeds to solvent the solvent extraction
extraction circuit circuit is pumped into
where it is purified a precipitation tank
and concentrated where ammonia gas
through a series of is added to separate
chemical reactions. the uranium.

8. Dry yellow cake

7. Solid uranium is from oven is screened
pumped to an oven and conveyed to a
where it is baked to storage bin. It is then
remove impurities. packaged in steel
drums.

9. Drums of yellow
10. It is then shipped
cake are loaded on
for further processing
transport trailers.

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A schematic diagram on a typical conventional milling facility will clarify the conversion
pathway from uranium ore to dry yellow cake:

Figure 3: Typical conventional Uranium Mill [17]

3.3 Detailed procedure of milling to produce Uranium Ore Concentrate

(UOC) from excavated ore:
3.3 (a) Ore Preparation:
After receiving ore from the uranium mining facility the ore is prepared for the subsequent milling
processing and from this point, the milling process starts. Ore preparation involves different
physical processes. During the whole tenure of Uranium milling, ore preparation involves the
highest percentage of physical process involvement. The ore is sampled and weighed for moisture
content [11]. Measuring accurate moisture content is very much important because the amount of
ore fed to the mill is always calculated by dry tonne equivalents [11]. After sampling and weighing
ore is crushed and grinded. Priliminary and secondary crushing is done by a ball mill. After

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crushing the ore is reduced to a size which is suitable for feeding it to the milling circuit. Then the
ore is mixed with water to produce a Ore Slurry (70% solid and 30% water) [11] and it is prepared
for leaching. Sometimes radiometric sorting, paramagnetic sorting, optical sorting are done to
achieve pre-leach benefication and to avoid processing of non-uranium bearing gangue material
[12].

3.3 (b) Extraction:

Uranium is extracted from Ore Slurry, which is achieved after ore preparation, to produce a
pregnant leach slurry through the addition of lixiviants and oxidants. The whole process occurs in
a series of mechanical- or air-agitated vessels (atmospheric or pressurized [11]). Sulfuric acid
leaching is most common on the other hand alkaline leaching is utilized for acid-consuming
carbonate ores [12]. Common oxidants include sodium chlorate, manganese dioxide, hydrogen
peroxide, and ferric sulfate in addition to the ferric ions that occur naturally in ore or sometimes
from contact with grinding equipment. The final product after extraction is: for acid leach is uranyl
sulfate and for alkaline leach uranyl carbonate. This final product can be called Uranium-Bearing
Solution (Leachate). Leaching may also occur at the mining site through heap and in-situ leaching.
Chemicals involved in leaching process are listed here in the following Table:
Table 6: Leaching process chemicals [13]

3.3 (c) Solid/Liquid Separation:

Uranium-Bearing Solutions are separated from solid ore residues to produce a Clarified Leach
Liquor or dilute pulps via multi-stage counter-current decantation (CCD) [12], filtration, and/or
sand-slime separation equipment. Subsequent solvent extraction processes typically require
clarified solutions whereas ion exchange processes can accommodate pulps. Recent developments
in flocculants (i.e. polyacrlymides, guar gums, animal glues) technology that helps the settling of
solids have led to significant reduction in production costs.

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3.3 (d) Purification:

Purification involves both the SX and IX process. Clarified Leach Liquor or pulps from solid-
liquid separation are purified to selectively extract uranium from impurities. Solvent extraction
(SX) and ion exchange (IX) are utilized by large production facilities in roughly equal numbers
[12]. Solvent extraction typically utilizes a series of mixer-settlers to contact leach solutions with
organic solvents combined with modifiers and diluents to reduce the formation of amine salts and
improve the separation of organic from aqueous phases.
Basicllay, diluents are the Organic Liquid in which the extractant is dissolved to form solvent and
modifiers avoid formation of third phase (organic phase) [14]. Uranium is then stripped from the
organic phase back to an aqueous phase. The Amex process is the most common amongst large
SX facilities, utilizing amine-isodecanol-kerosene in the extraction stages to form the uranyl
sulfate anion, followed by stripping with ammonium sulfate to produce Uranyl Sulfate. Process
abd its corresponding solvent, modifiers/diluents and stripping agents are listed below in Table:

Table 7: SX process chemicals. [13] [15]

3.3 (e) Precipitation:

Uranium is recovered from Uranyl Sulfate solution through precipitation, most commonly by the
addition of ammonia to produce a Wet Concentrate of ammonium diuranate (ADU). Two facilities,
Rabbit Lake and Betpak Dala precipitate uranium peroxide (UO4) by the addition of hydrogen
peroxide (H2O2). Additional possibilities are listed in Table:

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Table 8: Precipitation process chemicals [13]

3.3 (f) Calcination:

Wet uranium concentrate is washed to remove residues and dried in a series of thickeners, filters,
spray driers, and/or centrifuges. Calcination of the dried uranium concentrate in furnaces results
in the formation oxides of uranium, most commonly U3O8. During calcination, yellow ADU
transitions to orange UO3 to a grayish-green U3O8. UO4 transitions to U3O8 with a hydride of
UO3.5H2O as an intermediate compound. Overheating of U3O8 leads to the production of sintered
UO2 that interferes with following conversion processes. The resulting powder is packaged into
drums for shipment to a conversion facility.

3.4 Uranium Mill Tailings:

This ore residue contains the radioactive decay products from the uranium chains (mainly the U-
238 chain) and heavy metals [16]. The tailings or wastes produced by the extraction or
concentration of uranium or thorium from any ore processed primarily for its source
material content is byproduct material [16]. Byproduct material does not include underground ore
bodies depleted by solution extraction. The wastes from these solution extraction facilities are
transported to a mill tailings impoundment for disposal [16]. Tailings stored on surface require a
containment basin which is surrounded by low impermeable natural or man-made structures
capable of ensuring that toxic elements cannot escape to the environment [11]. Decommissioning
of the tailings pit will include capping the entire surface with a suitable cover. Water cover has
been proven to be effective in reducing radon release and gamma attenuation. It is also an effective
barrier for sulfide oxidation. In dry climates, clay cover is used with a topping of rock or cobble
for erosion protection [11].

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3.5 Decommissioning:
Decommissioning and site rehabilitation is the work required to return a uranium mine, mill or
waste management facility to a condition which delivers a safe and sustainable environment that
requires little or no human intervention over the long term [11]. Decommissioning of a uranium
project is site specific and will depend in large measure on the design of the mining operations,
the process chosen and the geological environment in which it is situated.
 Open Pit: Decommissioning open pits can take a number of forms. Most jurisdictions
require that material such as waste rock removed to gain access to the uranium ore to be
backfilled into the pit and steep side walls be given more modest slopes. In some cases
where there is sufficient rainfall, the pits are allowed to flood [11].
 Underground excavation: There are a number of issues which must be addressed when
underground mines are abandoned. Complete and accurate maps of all underground
openings are required for permanent government records. Underground workings,
provided they can be properly isolated, are excellent repositories for contaminated surface
debris resulting from demolition of uranium mills and contaminated soils [11].
 ISL: The major issue in decommissioning in situ leaching (ISL) operations is the
restoration of the aquifer in which the uranium ore is situated. Permits of up to three or
four years are sometimes required to restore water to an acceptable condition. It is
important to note that in some jurisdictions it is necessary to not only restore to original
condition but also improve water quality to drinking water standards [11].

3.6 Current Trend Followed:

Here is an illustration of all involved processes and chemical used in recent times among four
largest Uranium production facilities:

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Table 9: Four largest Uranium production facilities [12]

4.0 Conclusions:
Most popular uranium mining methods are In-Situ Leaching/ Recovery, Open pit, Underground
Mining, Heap Leaching. Initial product of uranium milling is uranium ore slurry which is milled
to final product: yellow cake. The milling process involves: grinding/crushing, extraction,
solid/liquid separation, purification, precipitation, calcination. Starting in uranium mines, ore is
mined and milled to produce uranium in the form of uranium oxide concentrate, commonly known
as U3O8. It has the same isotopic ratio as the ore, where U-235 is present to the extent of about
0.7%. Apart from traces of U-234, the rest is a heavier isotope of U-238.

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List of References:
1. Our world in data official website: https://ourworldindata.org/energy-production-
consumption.
2. Methods of exploitation of different types of uranium deposits by IAEA.
3. US Energy Information administration. Official website:
https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/nuclear/the-nuclear-fuel-cycle.php.
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