OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTIONS (OSI)

Introduction
The open system interconnection is an ISO layered model that defines the rules of communication between various
communicating entities. The model separates the data communication tasks into layers or modules. The concept of
layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another. The table below shows several examples of
flow and ways that the flow process can be broken down into details or layers.

Network What is flowing Different forms Rules Where

Water Water Hot, cold, drinkable, Access rules (turning taps),flushing, not Pipes
wastewater/sewer putting certain things in drains
Highway Vehicles Trucks, cars, cycles Traffic laws and rules for politeness Roads & highways
Postal Objects Letter(written information) Rules for packaging & attaching Postal services boxes, offices,
packages postage trucks, planes, delivery people
Telephone Information Spoken languages Rules for accessing phones & rules for Phone system wires, EM waves
politeness. etc

A conversation between two people provides a good opportunity to use a layered approach to analyze information flow. In a
conversation, each person wishing to communicate begins by creating an idea. Then a decision is made on how to properly
communicate the idea. For example, a person could decide to speak, sing or shout, and what language to use. Finally the idea is
delivered. For example, the person creates the sound which carries the message. This process can be broken into separate layers
that may be applied to all conversations. The top layer is the idea that will be communicated. The middle layer is the decision on
how the idea is to be communicated. The bottom layer is the creation of sound to carry the communication.

The same method of layering explains how a computer network distributes information from a source to a destination. When
computers send information through a network, all communications originate at a source then travel to a destination as shown
below.

The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a packet. A packet is a logically grouped unit of
information that moves between computer systems. As the data passes between layers, each layer adds additional information
that enables effective communication with the corresponding layer on the other computer.
The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is communicated from one computer to another. The models differ
in the number and function of the layers. However, each model can be used to help describe and provide details about the flow of
information from a source to a destination.

Importance of OSI Layers

In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network, it is important that all the devices on the network
speak the same language or protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient. For
example, while flying an airplane, pilots obey rules for communication with other airplanes and with air traffic control.
A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines the format and transmission of data.
Layer 4 on the source computer communicates with Layer 4 on the destination computer as shown below. The rules and
conventions used for this layer are known as Layer 4 protocols. It is important to remember that protocols prepare data in a linear
fashion. A protocol in one layer performs a certain set of operations on data as it prepares the data to be sent over the network.
The data is then passed to the next layer where another protocol performs a different set of operations.

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Once the packet has been sent to the destination, the protocols undo the construction of the packet that was done on the source
side. This is done in reverse order. The protocols for each layer on the destination return the information to its original form, so
the application can properly read the data.
In Summary: OSI model benefits;
• Reduces complexity
• Standardizes interfaces
• Facilitates modular engineering
• Ensures interoperable technology
• Accelerates evolution
• Simplifies learning and teaching

The OSI Model

By the mid-1980s, companies began to experience problems from the rapid expansion. Just as people who do not speak the same
language have difficulty communicating with each other; it was difficult for networks that used different specifications and
implementations to exchange information. The same problem occurred with the companies that developed private or proprietary
networking technologies. Proprietary means that one or a small group of companies controls all usage of the technology.
Networking technologies strictly following proprietary rules could not communicate with technologies that followed different
proprietary rules.
To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched
networking models like Digital Equipment Corporation net (DECnet), Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and TCP/IP in order to
find a generally applicable set of rules for all networks. Using this research, the ISO created a network model that helps vendors
create networks that are compatible with other networks.

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model was released in 1984 and was the descriptive network model that the
ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various
network technologies produced by companies around the world.

The OSI Layers

The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how information travels throughout a network. The OSI
reference model explains how packets travel through the various layers to another device on a network, even if the sender and
destination have different types of network media. Dividing the network into seven layers provides the following advantages:
• It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts.
• It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and support.
• It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other.
• It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.
• It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to understand
In order for data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate with
its peer layer at the destination. This form of communication is referred to as peer-to-peer. During this process, the protocols of
each layer exchange information, called protocol data units (PDUs). Each layer of communication on the source computer
communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the destination computer as illustrated in Figure below.

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Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination. Each layer depends on the service function of the
OSI layer below it. To provide this service, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer into its data
field. Then it adds whatever headers and trailers the layer needs to perform its function. Next, as the data moves down through
the layers of the OSI model, additional headers and trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have added their information, Layer
4 adds more information. This grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment.

The network layer provides a service to the transport layer, and the transport layer presents data to the internetwork subsystem.
The network layer has the task of moving the data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by encapsulating the data
and attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU). The header contains information required to complete the transfer,
such as source and destination logical addresses.
The data link layer provides a service to the network layer. It encapsulates the network layer information in a frame (the Layer 2
PDU). The frame header contains information (for example, physical addresses) required to complete the data link functions. The
data link layer provides a service to the network layer by encapsulating the network layer information in a frame.
The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical layer encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s
and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium (usually a wire) at Layer 1.
All communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destination. The information sent on a network is
referred to as data or data packets. If one computer (host A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data must first
be packaged through a process called encapsulation.
Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network transit. Therefore, as the data packet moves
down through the layers of the OSI model, it receives headers, trailers, and other information.
Once the data is sent from the source, it travels through the application layer down through the other layers. The packaging and
flow of the data that is exchanged goes through changes as the layers perform their services for end users. Networks must
perform the following five conversion steps in order to encapsulate data:
1. Build the data – As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters are converted to data that can travel
across the internetwork.
2. Package the data for end-to-end transport – The data is packaged for internetwork transport. By using segments, the
transport function ensures that the message hosts at both ends of the e-mail system can reliably communicate.
3. Add the network IP address to the header – The data is put into a packet or datagram that contains a packet header
with source and destination logical addresses. These addresses help network devices send the packets across the
network along a chosen path.
4. Add the data link layer header and trailer – Each network device must put the packet into a frame. The frame allows
connection to the next directly-connected network device on the link. Each device in the chosen network path requires
framing in order for it to connect to the next device.
5. Convert to bits for transmission – The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the
medium. A clocking function enables the devices to distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The medium
on the physical internetwork can vary along the path used. For example, the e-mail message can originate on a LAN,
cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its destination on another remote LAN.

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 Layers Tasks
1 Application Layer
This layer do invokes generic applications (e.g. email, file transfer etc) in support of data generated by specific
applications. When sending the application layer:
• Combines data received from users’ applications with appropriate generic function to create users data block.
• Encapsulates the user’s data block with a header (application header, AH) that identifies this communication
specific user application.
• Passes the application protocol unit (APDU) to the presentation layer.
When receiving the application layer:
• Decapsulates the APDU (i.e. removes the application header from APDU to leave users data block)
• Passes the users’ data to the application identified by the header
Peer-to-peer communication is required to agree upon the unique identifier for the communication. Usually it includes a
port number and may include a sequence number. They are all included in the application header.

2 Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. A typical example of
a presentation service is encoding data in a standard, agreed upon way. Different computers have different codes for
representing character strings, integers and so on. In order to make it possible for computers with different
representation to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a
standard encoding to be used "on the wire". The job of managing these abstract data structures and converting from
the representation used inside the computer to the network standard representation is handled by the presentation
layer. The presentation layer is also concerned with other aspects of information representation. For example, data
compression can be used here to reduce the number of bits that have to be transmitted and cryptography is frequently
required for privacy and authentication.

This layer conditions APDU to compensate for differences in local data formats in the sender and receiver. When
sending the presentation layer:
• Performs translation services (i.e. code changing) and may perform data compression and encryption on the
APDU
• Encapsulates the APDU by adding a header (presentation header, PH) that identifies the specific coding,
compression and encryption employed.
• Passes the presentation PDU (PPDU) to session layer.
When receiving the presentation layer:
• Decapsulates the PPDU by removing the presentation header to leave APDU.
• Performs any decoding, decompression and decryption required.
• Passes APDU to application layer.
Peer –to-peer communication is required to agree upon coding, compression and encryption algorithms. They are
included in the presentation header.

3 Session Layer

This layer establishes, manages and terminates connections between applications. The session layer sets up,
coordinates, and terminates conversations, exchanges, and dialogues between the applications at each end. It deals
with session and connection coordination. The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions
between them. One of the services of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in
both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If traffic can only go one way at a time, the session
layer can help keep track of whose turn it is. Another session service is synchronization.

The session layer directs the establishment, maintenance and termination of sessions. It manages data transfer,
including registration and password formalities and may insert synchronization points into the information flow to
facilitate restarting should catastrophic failure occur. When sending the session layer:
• Supervises the use of passwords and other checks.
• Tracks request for transmission and response.
• Identifies the beginning and certifies the ending of exchange.
• Encapsulates PPDU by adding a header (session header, SH) that identifies any markers used.
• Passes session PDU (SPDU) to transport layer.
When receiving the session layer:
• Decapsulates the SPDU by removing the session header to leave the PPDU.
• Notes any specific markers.

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 • Passes the PPDU to transport layer.
Peer-to-peer communication is required to check authorization and agree upon line discipline and the use of markers.
They are functions included in the session header.
4 Transport Layer
This layer provides transparent transfer of data between end systems, or hosts, and is responsible for end-to-end error
recovery and flow control. It ensures complete data transfer. The basic function of the transport layer, is to accept data
from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the
pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. The transport layer also determines what type of service to provide to the
session layer, and ultimately, the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free
point-to-point channel that delivers messages in the order in which they were sent. However, other possible kinds of
transport, service and transport isolated messages with no guarantee about the order of delivery, and broadcasting of
messages to multiple destinations. The type of service is determined when the connection is established. The transport
layer is a true source-to destination or end-to-end layer.
It is the highest layer in the stack to be concerned with communication protocols. It ensures the integrity of end-to-end
communication independent of the number of networks involved, and their performance. It is responsible for
sequencing delivery of the entire message, including error control, flow control and quality of service requirements (if
they are invoked). When sending, the transport layer:
• Establishes a connection-oriented duplex or connectionless simplex connection.
• Calculates a frame check sequence (FCS), or uses another technique to facilitate checking the integrity of the
SPDU at the receiver.
• Encapsulates the SPDU with a header (transport header, TH) to form the transport PDU (TPDU)
• Copies the TPDU for retransmission (if necessary).
• Passes the TPDU to the network layer.
When receiving the transport layer:
• Decapsulates the TPDU by removing the transport header to form the SPDU.
• Verifies the FCS to confirm error-free reception.
• Acknowledges an error-free SPDU or discards it and may request a resend.
• May instruct the sender to modify the flow rate, if necessary.
• Passes the SPDU to the session layer.
Peer-to-peer communication is required to agree on the network(s) used for this communication, to replace corrupted
frames and to adjust data rates. This information is included in the transport header.

5 Network Layer
This layer provides communication services to transport layer. If necessary it fragments the TPDU ino packets to match
the maximum frame limits of the network(s) and reassembles the packets top create the transport PDU. This layer
provides switching and routing technologies, creating logical paths, known as virtual circuits, for transmitting data from
node to node. Routing and forwarding are functions of this layer, as well as addressing, internetworking, error handling,
congestion control and packet sequencing.
The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how
packets are routed from source to destination. Routes could be based on static tables that are "wired into" the network
and rarely changed. They could also be determined at the start of each conversation, for example a terminal session.
Finally, they could be highly dynamic, being determined a new for each packet, to reflect the current network load. If
too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in each other's way, forming bottlenecks. The
control of such congestion also belongs to the network layer. Since the operators of the subnet may well expect
remuneration for their efforts, there is often some accounting function built into the network layer. At the very least,
the software must count how many packets or characters or bits are sent by each customer, to produce billing
information. When a packet crosses a national border, with different rates on each side, the accounting
can become complicated. When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination,
many problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be different from the first one. The second
one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may differ, and so on. It is up to the network
layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected. In broadcast networks,
the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.
When sending, the network layer:

• Encapsulates the TPDU with a header (network header, NH) to form the network PDU (NPDU). The network
header provides a destination address.
• May break the TPDU into packets to match the capabilities of the networks.
• If the TPDU is segmented, it encapsulates each segment with a network header to form an NPDU. The network
header provides a destination address and a sequence number.
• Passes the network PDU(s) to the data link layer.

When receiving the network layer:

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 • Removes the network header from the NPDU to form the TPDU.
• Verifies destination address and sequence number
• Reassembles the TPDU if necessary
• Passes it to the transport layer.
Peer-to-peer communication is required to initiate, maintain and terminate network level connection. These
functions are performed by the network header.

6 Data link
It transfers data frames over a single communication link without intermediate nodes. At this layer, data packets are
encoded and decoded into bits. It furnishes transmission protocol knowledge and management and handles errors in
the physical layer, flow control and frame synchronization. The data link layer is divided into two sublayers: The Media
Access Control (MAC) layer and the Logical Link Control (LLC) layer. The MAC sublayer controls how a computer on the
network gains access to the data and permission to transmit it. The LLC layer controls frame synchronization, flow
control and error checking. The main task of the data link layer is to take a raw transmission facility and transform it into
a line that appears free of transmission errors in the network layer. It accomplishes this task by having the sender break
the input data up into data frames (typically a few hundred bytes), transmit the frames sequentially, and process the
acknowledgment frames sent back by the receiver. Since the physical layer merely accepts and transmits a stream of
bits without any regard to meaning of structure, it is up to the data link layer to create and recognize frame boundaries.
This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame. If there is a chance
that these bit patterns might occur in the data, special care must be taken to avoid confusion. The data link layer should
provide error control between adjacent nodes. Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher
layers as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation
mechanism must be employed in order to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver has at the
moment. Frequently, flow regulation and error handling are integrated, for convenience. If the line can be used to
transmit data in both directions, this introduces a new complication that the data link layer software must deal with.
The problem is that the acknowledgment frames for A to B traffic compete for the use of the line with data frames for
the B to A traffic.
When sending the data link layer:
• Adds a header (DH) and a trailer (DT) to form the data link PDU (DPDU). The header includes a flag, class of
frame identifier, sequence number and hardware address of destination on the link. The trailer includes an
FCS and a flag.
• Copies the frame in case retransmission is requested.
• Passes the frame to the physical layer.
When receiving, the data link layer:
• Reconstructs the DPDU from the bit stream received from the physical layer.
• Removes both header and trailer from the DPDU.
• Verifies FCS and other layer information.
• Discards the frame if the checks area not conclusive.
• Passes a correct NPDU on to the network layer.
• Request resend, if necessary.
Peer-to-peer communication is required to agree on data link protocol parameters, error detection
information and error correction procedures. These are the functions of the data link header and trailer.
7 Physical

The physical layer converts the logical symbol stream into the actual signal stream and completes the connection over
which signals flow between the users. This layer conveys the bit stream – electrical impulse, light or radio signal --
through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. The physical later is concerned with transmitting raw bits
over a communication channel. The design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is
received by the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit. Typical questions here ar e how many volts should be used to
represent a 1 and how many for a 0, how many microseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is established and how it is torn down when both sides are
finished, and how many pins the network connector has and what each pin is used for. The design issues here deal
largely with mechanical, electrical, and procedural interfaces, and the physical transmission medium, which lies below
the physical layer. Physical layer design can properly be considered to be within the domain of the electrical engineer.

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When sending the physical layer:
• Converts the logical data stream to a suitable electrical signal, including signal conditioning (i.e. pulse shaping )
• Transmits a sequence of electrical symbols that represents the frame received from the data link layer
When receiving the physical layer:
• Receives a sequence of electrical signals.
• Interprets the signals 1s and 0s.
• Deconditions the bit stream.
• Passes a clean logical symbol stream to the data link layer.