BSECE 4

ECEN 106 - ELECTIVE 2

Laboratory 4: Audio Measurement and Test Gear

I. Audio Measurements

When it comes to measuring audio, there are several important factors to consider. One of the most important is the
accuracy and precision of the equipment being used. This can include everything from the sensitivity of the input circuitry
to the stability of the quartz crystal oscillator used for frequency measurements.
Additionally, different types of signals may be needed for different types of measurements - for example, sine waves
may be useful for measuring distortion, while noise signals may be better for measuring frequency response. Finally,
filtering and other signal processing techniques can be used to isolate specific components of a complex signal for
independent measurement.
Overall, successful audio measurements require careful consideration of these and other factors, as well as a deep
understanding of the underlying principles of audio engineering.

Amplitude Measurements

An ac voltmeter and associated electronics are often used to

measure audio amplitude or level. An ac voltmeter is made up of two
parts: a detector and an indication. The detector's role is to transform the
constantly fluctuating ac signal into a steady-state (dc) signal
proportional to some ac signal characteristic such as its rms (root-mean-
square) value, average value, or peak value. The calibrated dc value is
then shown by the indicator. Mechanical meters were utilized in older
devices. Digital voltmeter technology is used in more recent instruments,
with the actual display being LED or LCD numeric readouts or a computer
Figure 1: Audio level meter block diagram display screen. [1]

 Rms Detectors  Crest Factor

 Average-Responding Detectors  Power
 Peak Detectors  Decibels
 Detector Response Times

The volt (V) is the fundamental unit for measuring electrical amplitude. Volts, many practical values are millivolts
(mV) and microvolts (V). Typical audio levels, are units that are often employed in specific aspects of the audio field.
Consumer high-fidelity and stereo equipment usually specifies device input sensitivity and control amplifier output levels
(where significant). No power is transmitted) in volts.

Noise Measurements
The previous discussion about audio meters did not include filtering of the input signal. When measuring single sine
wave signals with good signal-to-noise ratio (more than 40 dB) for frequency response, power, level, gain, loss, and similar
applications, there is no need for filters, and in fact, they can cause problems. [1]

 Weighting (Psophometric) Filters

 Time Variance
 DUT Input Conditions for Noise Measurements
 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

However, noise-measurement instruments often include bandwidth-limiting filters, either as bandpass filters or as
separately-selectable high-pass and low-pass filters. The most commonly used bandwidth for noise measurements in
professional audio, broadcasting, and consumer audio applications is 20 Hz–20 kHz or 22 Hz–22 kHz according to the CCIR
468 standard. Communication applications usually specify a narrower range, such as 300 Hz–3.5 kHz, which is suitable for
voice-quality communication. Different bandwidth filters may also be available for specific purposes.
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Measurement of Non-Linearity
If a device under test (DUT) has a linear input-output relationship, then the output signal will be the same as the input
signal in terms of waveform, but may have a different amplitude depending on the DUT's gain or loss. However, if the
transfer function is non-linear, the output waveform will differ from the input waveform, showing energy at harmonics of
the fundamental sine wave in the frequency domain. [1]

 Output Versus Input Amplitude  Noise Bandwidth for THD+N Measurements

 Harmonic Distortion  Interference Signal Effects on THD+N
 Individual Harmonic Distortion  Intermodulation Distortion (IMD)
 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)  SMPTE/DIN IMD
 Total Harmonic Distortion Plus Noise (THD+N)

There are various techniques available to measure non-linearity, including measuring output amplitude versus input
amplitude, individual harmonic amplitudes, total harmonic distortion excluding noise (THD), total harmonic distortion plus
noise (THD+N), and different methods of intermodulation distortion (IMD) measurement. Of these techniques, THD+N is
the most commonly used, and commercial distortion analyzers typically use this method.

Frequency Measurements
To measure frequencies accurately in audio applications, it is important for the input and triggering circuits to be
sensitive enough to detect relatively low-amplitude signals, preferably down to tens of millivolts or lower. The most useful
technique for frequency measurement at audio frequencies is the reciprocal, period-averaging technique. The accuracy of
frequency measurement is dependent on the accuracy and stability of the quartz crystal oscillator, but most audio
applications can be satisfied with commercially available quartz oscillators that are a few parts per million accurate. In some
audio applications, [1]

 Phase Measurement
 Input-Output Phase

it is desirable to use a bandpass filter before connecting the signal to the frequency counter to allow for independent
measurement of the frequencies of multiple components of moderately complex signals such as IMD test signals. The basic
frequency counter architecture does not have frequency selectivity and may count the highest amplitude signal present or
give false readings if the signal is complex.

Measurements with Noise Stimulus

` There are audio measurements that require signals other than sine waves, such as frequency response
measurements that can use noise stimuli. A noise stimulus has the advantage of having energy present at all frequencies
at the same time, making measurements faster compared to using a sine wave that needs to sweep or step through the
frequency spectrum. The appropriate signal to use, whether white or pink noise, depends on the analyzer's characteristics.
Random and pseudorandom noise signals can also be used, each having their own strengths and weaknesses. [1]

 White Noise
 Pink Noise
 Pseudorandom vs Random Noise Signals

II. Equipment for Audio Measurement and Analysis

Audio measurement and test gear refers to a variety of equipment used to measure and analyze audio signals,
including their amplitude, frequency, distortion, noise, and other characteristics. These instruments are essential for
ensuring the quality of audio recordings, playback, and transmission in a variety of settings, from professional music studios
and concert venues to consumer electronics and home theaters. [1]
Some of the most common types of audio measurement and test gear include:
 Audio analyzers: These are devices that analyze audio signals and measure parameters such as frequency response,
harmonic distortion, noise, and crosstalk. They can be used for testing and calibrating audio equipment such as
speakers, amplifiers, and mixers.
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Figure 2: Audio analyzer

 Audio generators: These are devices that produce audio signals of specific frequencies, waveforms, and
amplitudes. They are used for testing and calibrating audio equipment and for evaluating the performance of audio
systems in various environments.

Figure 3: Audio generator

 Audio meters: These are devices that measure the level or intensity of an audio signal, typically expressed in
decibels (dB). They can be used to ensure that audio levels are consistent and within safe limits, especially in
settings such as live performances, broadcasting, and recording.

Figure 4: Audio meter

 Impedance analyzers: These are devices that measure the electrical impedance of an audio system or component.
They are used to test and calibrate audio equipment and to ensure that it is operating at optimal performance.

Figure 5: Impedance analyzer

 Audio oscilloscopes: These are devices that display the shape and characteristics of an audio signal in real-time.
They are used for troubleshooting and diagnosing problems with audio equipment and for evaluating the quality
of audio signals.
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Figure 6:Audio oscilloscope

Other types of audio measurement and test gear include spectrum analyzers, noise meters, signal generators, phase
meters, and audio switchers, among others. Each of these devices serves a specific purpose and can be used in various
settings and applications.
In conclusion, audio measurement and test gear plays a critical role in ensuring the quality and reliability of audio
signals and systems. Whether in professional or consumer settings, having the right equipment and tools to measure and
analyze audio signals is essential for achieving optimal performance and user experience.

III. Basic Audio Measurements

When stripped down to its essence, audio testing and measuring is concerned with a small number of performance
metrics. [2]

LEVEL
Audio Measurement and Test Gear include choosing target levels and referencing them for subsequent measurements
on a Device Under Test (DUT). Input/output levels that create a particular output distortion or excellent noise performance
with reasonable headroom are examples of target levels. THD+N measurements are done at specific levels, whereas
frequency response measurements are made relative to the level of a mid-band frequency.
A DUT's voltage gain is the ratio of its output voltage to its input voltage. A DUT with a gain of one is referred to as
having unity gain. Some DUTs have constant gain, while others have variable gain as a result of parameters like as volume
and tone controls. When determining and measuring level, it is critical to consider whether the DUT gain is variable and
how to configure the DUT controls to achieve the desired test results.

FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Figure 7: FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Various techniques can be employed to measure the frequency response of a DUT across its entire frequency range.
The traditional method involves sweeping a sine wave from the lowest frequency to the highest and plotting the results on
a graph. A "flat" response is one where the DUT responds uniformly across all frequencies, resulting in a graph with a slope
of 0 and negligible variations.

TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION PLUS NOISE (THD+N)

THD+N is a term used to refer to Total Harmonic Distortion plus Noise, which is the addition of unwanted new
tones to an audio signal. These tones are harmonically related to the original signal, meaning they are at integral multiples
of the original tone's frequency. Total harmonic distortion is the sum of all the harmonics measured within the DUT's
bandwidth. Measuring THD and N separately was challenging in the pre-FFT era of audio measurement, so THD+N was the
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preferred method since it was easier to measure both together. THD+N is a widely accepted and convenient way to mark
the performance of a device with a single number.

Figure 8: THD+N

The measurement of THD+N varies with the bandwidth used and should be restricted using high-pass and low-
pass filters, and the measurement bandwidth must be included when reporting the result. Typically, THD+N is measured
and reported in a 20 Hz-20 kHz bandwidth. The THD+N measurement of a device also varies with the frequency of the
applied signal and level. Generally, audio THD+N is measured and reported at a mid-range frequency, such as 1 kHz, at the
device's nominal operating level or its maximum output level (MOL).

PHASE
Phase measurements are used in audio engineering to characterize the positive or negative time offset in a cycle of a
periodic waveform (such as a sine wave) measured from a reference waveform. The reference is often the same signal at a
different location in the system, or a comparable signal in a separate system channel. The two most frequent phase
measures are defined by this set of references: device input/output phase and interchannel phase.
Because phase shift varies with frequency, it is common to perform phase measurements at multiple frequencies or
plot the phase response of a frequency sweep. The phase is measured in degrees.

CROSSTALK
It is undesirable in multi-channel audio systems for the signal from one channel to appear at a lower level in the output
of another channel. This signal leakage across channels is known as crosstalk, and it is extremely difficult to remove in real
electronics. It is calculated as the ratio of the unwanted signal in the unstimulated channel to the signal in the stimulated
channel.
Crosstalk is caused primarily by capacitive coupling between the device's channel conductors and often has a rising
characteristic with frequency. A crosstalk vs frequency sweep will indicate how a DUT performs over its working bandwidth,
which is commonly stated as a single value.

SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO
The acceptability of noise in a signal is dependent on the signal's loudness. Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is a metric that
quantifies the difference between the signal and the noise, similar to THD+N, providing a single-value indicator of device
performance. The signal level is usually set to the DUT's nominal or maximum operating level (MOL). When SNR is
determined at the MOL, it may also be referred to as the dynamic range, as it describes the two extremes of possible levels
in the DUT. SNR is usually expressed in decibels, with negative values being common.

Figure 9: SNR MEASUREMENT

Using traditional methods, SNR requires two measurements and some arithmetic. Initially, the signal level is measured,
followed by switching off the generator (and possibly terminating the DUT inputs in a low impedance to fully reduce the
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noise in the device). The noise level, often referred to as the noise floor, is then measured while limiting the measurement
bandwidth using filters. The SNR is the ratio of the two measurements.

IV. Other Basic Test Gears for Audio Measurements

Audio measurements are critical for assuring high-quality sound reproduction and performance in a variety of audio
equipment. Specialized test equipment is necessary to correctly measure and evaluate the many elements of audio signals.
These test equipment is intended to test and analyze many characteristics of audio devices, such as output levels, frequency
response, distortion, and other factors. Professionals and fans may use this test equipment to analyze and optimize the
performance of their audio systems, as well as solve any difficulties that may develop. In this context, we will go through
some of the most common audio measuring test equipment and their applications in depth. [3]

a) VOLTMETER or MULTIMETER
A voltmeter can be helpful for some sorts of audio measurements, such as measuring an amplifier's output voltage or
the amount of voltage in a signal in a specific area of a circuit. In the case of an amplifier, a voltmeter may be used to
measure the output voltage level, which can then be used to assess if the amplifier is working within its set parameters or
truncating or distorting the signal. A voltmeter can be used to detect places where the signal level is too low or too high
when measuring the voltage level of a circuit. This data can be utilized to alter or troubleshoot circuit components.
It is crucial to understand that a voltmeter measures voltage, which is a difference in electrical current. Other key audio
signal qualities, such as frequency response and distortion, are not directly assessed. Specialized audio test equipment,
such as a spectrum analyzer or distortion analyzer, may be required for such evaluations.
`

Figure 10: VOLTMETER

Figure 11: MULTIMETER

A multimeter is an instrument that can be used to measure voltage, current, and resistance in audio circuits. It can
help diagnose problems with components or lines, determine energy consumption, and measure input and output rates.
However, specialized audio testing equipment may be required to obtain detailed measurements.

b) MINI AMP AUDIO TESTER

A "mini-amp" audio tester, also known as a headphone amplifier, is useful for measuring the output level, frequency
response, and distortion of headphones and other low-power audio devices It provides an easy way to test that these
devices are monitored and verified to operate within specified parameters. Accurately measuring output levels can
determine if a device is distorting the signal, while frequency response can be measured to ensure a balanced sound across
the frequency spectrum Furthermore, measuring distortion levels can help identify issues each to enable necessary
adjustments.
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Figure 12: MINI AMP TESTER

Overall, using a "mini-amp" audio tester can provide valuable information about the performance of relatively simple
audio equipment, helping to diagnose and troubleshoot problems Although designed primarily for headphone testing, it
can also be used with other less complex audio devices. however, it is important to note that more detailed measurements
may require specialized audio test equipment.

c) WHIRLWIND CABLE TESTER

The Whirlwind Cable Tester is a specialist tool for testing audio cables. It can be used to check cable continuity, wiring
and shielding, ensure that it is properly connected to provide high quality audio signals, any problems with the cable can
be identified and repaired or replaced if necessary, and thereby eliminate problems such as phase cancellation or distorted
signal

Figure 13: WHIRLWIND CABLE TESTER

Overall, the Whirlwind Cable Tester is an essential tool for anyone working with audio cables. This allows faster and
more accurate cable testing, saving time and money by preventing problems before they occur. Power monitoring, wiring
and shielding ensure the cable is working properly, and provides high quality audio signals

V. REFERENCES

[1] B. Metzler, “Audio Measurement Handbook,” 1993.

[2] D. MATHEW, “Introduction to the Six Basic Audio Measurements,” Radio World, 2020.
https://www.radioworld.com/tech-and-gear/introduction-to-the-six-basic-audio-measurements.
[3] A. G. World, “Audio test equipment - essential tools for your home studio.” https://avcssguitarworld.com/audio-
test-equipment/.