FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
worthwhile general experience and also
Lesson 1: Introduction to surveying
Surveying
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is
surveying. From the earliest times, it has
always been necessary to mark boundaries
and divide tracts of land. Through the
centuries, the uses of surveying have
expanded such that today it is difficult to
undertake any type of engineering
construction that does not involve some type
of surveying. Planning and design are based
on the results of surveys and construction is
controlled by surveying.
Professionals in the different fields of
engineering as well as geologists, architects,
foresters, agriculturists, and geographers are
concerned with surveying as a means of
planning and executing their respective
projects.
Surveys cover a wide range in scope and
complexity, from the staking out of simple
structures or the surveying of small parcels
of land to the extensive and difficult surveys
required in the construction of subdivisions,
bridges, highways, canals, dams, railroads,
drainage and irrigation systems or the survey
of relatively large portions of the earth’s
surface.
Surveying is also required for the laying out
of industrial equipment, preparing forestry
and geological maps, positioning massive
and complex machinery, in the construction
of ships and airplanes, as well as in the
survey and exploration of extraterrestrial
bodies such as the moon and the planets.
In the training of a technical student, the
study of surveying is an important part even
though he may never actually use it later in
practice. It is one course, which trains
students to visualize and think logically, to
plan, to work carefully and accurately, and to
arrange the product of these efforts in a neat
and orderly manner for record or
presentation.
A surveying course will provide the student a
develop desirable traits and habits because
the nature of the subject with its related field
measurements is such that it will develop
habits of accuracy, industry and reliability.
In addition, the student will learn a great deal
about the relative importance of
measurements. He is trained to decide on
how accurate and precise measurements
should be made and acquire essential habits
of checking numerical calculations,
measurements and observations. All these
attributes are expected to add to the stature
and technical confidence of a future
professional. All surveying operations have
the same basic characteristics that of
delineating a portion of the earth surface or
subsurface or of establishing the position or
boundaries of some object upon it. A host of
definitions have been made by different
authors in the author, la putt believes that the
science of surveying is now much wider an
complex in extent and feels that it should be
redefined more appropriately as-
Definition of Surveying:
The art and science of determining angular
and linear measurements to establish the
form, extent and relative position of points,
lines and areas on or near the surface of the
earth or on other extraterrestrial bodies
through applied mathematics and the use of
specialized equipment and techniques.
2. General Classification:
Plane Surveying - is that type of surveying in
which the earth is considered to be a flat
surface and where distances and areas
involved are of limited extent that the exact
shape of the earth is disregarded.
With regard to horizontal distances and
directions, a level line is consider as
mathematically straight. The direction of the
plum line is assume to be the same at all
points within the limits of the survey and all
angles are consider plain angles. Plane
surveying is of wide scope an application.
The different methods of plane surveying are
employ in various surveys undertaken in
engineering, scientific, commercial,
architectural, geographic, navigational and
exploratory work. Since it is the required
degree of accuracy, which forms the
controlling factor in most surveys, no
definite limit can be assign for the area up to
which a survey may be considered as plain,
and less extreme accuracy is required. Plane
surveying is applicable to areas of some
thousands of square kilometers in extent.
Geodetic surveying - are surveys of wide
extent, which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth.
These surveys employ principles of geodesy,
are of high precision and the related
calculations involve the solving of equations
derived from advanced mathematics
particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus
and some applications of the theory of least
square. Geodetic surveys, which are usually
of a national character, are mostly undertake
by government agencies to serve as a basis
for the production of accurate based and
topographic maps. The most refined
instruments and methods of observation are
employ since these surveys provide a
reference framework covering a large area of
the earth surface. The field measurements for
most geodetic surveys are primarily observed
by the use of theodolites, tapes and
electronic distance measuring devices,
recently newly devised equipment have been
employed such as Doppler and inertial
surveying systems, these sophisticated
systems are capable of achieving high
degrees of accuracy in shorter time spins.
Types of Surveys:
1. Cadastral Surveys - are usually closed
surveys, which are undertake in urban and
rural locations for determining and defining
property lines and boundaries, corners, and
areas. These surveys are also made to fix the
boundaries of municipalities, towns and
provincial jurisdictions.
2. City Surveys - are surveys of the areas in
and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating
property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and
configuration of the land and preparing maps.
3. Construction Surveys - these are surveys,
which are undertake at a construction site to
provide data regarding grades, reference
lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and
the location and elevation of structures,
which are of concern to engineers, architects
and builders
4. Forestry Surveys - a type of survey
executed in connection with forest
management and mensuration and the
production and conservation of forestlands
5. Hydrographic Surveys - refers to surveying
streams, lakes, reservoirs, harbors, oceans
and other bodies of water They are of general
importance in connection with navigation,
development of water supply and resources,
flood control, irrigation, production of
hydroelectric power, subaqueous
constructions and recreation
6. Industrial Surveys - sometimes known as
optical tooling. It refers to use of surveying
techniques in shipbuilding, construction and
assembly of aircraft, layout and installation
of heavy and complex machinery and in other
industries where very accurate dimensional
layouts are required
7. Mine Surveys - are surveys, which are
perform to determine the position of all
underground excavations and surface mine
structures, to fix surface boundaries of
mining claims, determine geological
formations, to calculate excavated volumes,
and establish lines and grades for other
related mining work
8. Photogrammetric Surveys - a type of survey,
which makes use of photographs taken with
specially, designed cameras either from
airplanes or from ground stations.
Measurements are obtain from the
photographs, which are used in conjunction
with limited ground surveys
9. Route Surveys - involves the determination
of alignment, grades, earthwork quantities,
location of natural and artificial objects in
connection with the planning, design, and
construction of highways, railroads,
pipelines, canals, transmission lines and
other linear projects
10. Topographic Surveys - are those surveys
made for determining the shape of the
ground, and the location and elevation of
natural and artificial features upon it The
features shown include such natural objects
as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the
ground surface, etc. and the works of man,
such as roads, buildings, ports, towns,
municipalities and bridges
Measurement - is the process of determining
the extent, size or dimensions of a particular
quantity in comparison to a given standard
In surveying, measurements are usually
concentrated on angles, elevations, times,
lines, areas and volumes
Making measurements in the subsequent
computations utilizing them are basic and
essential tasks of a surveyor. The surveyor's
role is primarily to design a survey, then plan
out and execute the required field operations.
In so doing, he designates the type, extent
and procedure of measurements to be
undertaken. The measurements obtained are
then evaluate and adjusted to obtain the
desired results. Any surveying measurement
is always subject to the imperfections of the
instrument used in the different errors
inherent in the process of obtaining the
measurement. There is no such thing as a
perfect measuring instrument nor is there a
surveyor whose senses are perfect to
measure any quantity exactly. The first thing
the student of surveying must learn about
measurement is that no exact or true
measurement is ever possible in the true
value of a measured quantity is never known.
Measurements are never exact and they will
always be imperfect no matter how carefully
made. The physical measurements acquired
are correct only within certain limits because
errors cannot be eliminate.
Direct Measurement - is a comparison of the
measured quantity with a standard
measuring unit or units employed for
measuring a quantity of that kind.
Some common examples of direct
measurements are applying a wire or tape to
align, determining a horizontal or vertical
angle with a transit or fitting a protractor
between two intersecting lines to determine
the intersection angle.
Indirect measurement - is when it is not
possible to apply a measuring instrument
directly to a quantity to be measure. In this
type of measurement, the observed value is
determine by its relationship to some other
known values
For example, the total length of align would
be an indirectly observed distance if it is
determined by a summation of a series of
directly measured short segments. In the
stadia and subtends bar method, horizontal
and vertical distances are indirectly obtained
since it makes use of optical systems for
relating as short known length to the angle
that subtends at the distance to be
determined.
Meter
The international unit of linear measure is the
meter. French scientists proposed this
sometime in 1789 who hoped to established
a system suitable for all times and all people
and which could be based upon permanent
natural standards. Originally, the meter was
defined as 1/10,000,000 of the earth’s
meridional quadrant.
The growing use of the meter led to demands
for an international organization to insure
the uniformity and standardization of its
defined length. The French government for
this particular objective convened several
conferences. Finally, in May 20, 1875, a treaty
was signed in Paris by representatives of 18
countries (13 from Europe, 4 from the
American continent and 1 from the Middle
East) which created a permanent
International Bureau of Weights and Measures.
As a direct result of this treaty the standard
for linear measure was established as the
international meter which was initially based
on an iron meter bar standardized in Paris in
1799. The meter was defined as the distance
between two lines engraved across the
surface, near the ends, of a bar with an X
shaped cross section composed of 90%
platinum and 10% iridium, when the
temperature of the bar is zero degrees celsius.
The original international meter bar was
deposited at the international bureau in sevre
near Paris, France. The Bureau took care of
the prototype standards of the meter and was
given the task to periodically compare and
calibrate the primary standards of the
participating countries, which has grown, to
35 members in 1954. The Bureau also carried
on research to improve the standards, and
methods of measurement all through the
following years the metric standards made of
platinum and iridium served its purpose well.
However, many scientists believe that the
system should eventually be based upon the
natural standards of even greater
permanence and possibly of greater precision.
Ideas were conceived to adopt a natural
standard in lieu of the previous man-made
physical standard such a standard would
have the advantage of being reproducible and
also immune to possible damage by accident
or by hostile act. In October 1960, the meter
was redefine at the 11th general conference
on weights and measures and agreed upon by
36 countries. The meter is now defined as a
length equal to 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of
the orange red light produced by burning the
element crouton with an atomic weight of 86
at a specified energy level in the spectrum.
This new definition will enable nations now
using the international system of units to
make more accurate measurements with the
meter. It will keep them from having to check
and calibrate their meter bars against the
international prototype bar in France since
this new defined length presumably can be
reproduce with great accuracy in a well-
equipped laboratory.
Lesson 2: Errors in measurement
Errors - is defined as the difference between
the true value and the measured value of a
quantity
It is a deviation of an observation or a
calculation from the true value and is often
beyond the control of the one performing the
operation. Since the true value of a quantity
can never be ascertained by measurements,
the exact value of an error likewise can never
be determined in any measurement.
Errors are inherent in all measurements and
result from sources which cannot be avoided.
They may be caused by the type of equipment
used or by the way in which the equipment is
employed It may also be caused by the
imperfections of the senses of the person
undertaking the measurement or by natural
causes. The effects of errors cannot be
entirely eliminated; they can, however, be
minimized by careful work and by applying
corrections.
In any surveying operation, the surveyor is
continuously dealing with errors. If the work
must be performed to exacting standards he
must understand thoroughly the different
kinds of error, their sources, and behavior,
magnitude and affects upon field
measurements. It is only by then that he can
intelligently select the instruments to be used
in the survey methods to be employed which
will reduce errors to acceptable limits.
Mistakes - are inaccuracies in measurements
which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by the
surveyor with carelessness, inattention, poor
judgement and improper execution
Mistakes are also caused by a
misunderstanding of the problem,
inexperience, or indifference of the surveyor
A large mistake is referred to as a blunder.
mistakes and blunders are not classified as
errors because they usually are so large in
magnitude when compared to errors.
Among students of surveying, mistakes
which are frequently committed include:
reading the wrong graduation on the tape,
omitting a whole length of tape, transposition
of figures, reading a scale backward,
misplacing a decimal point, incorrect
recording of field notes, adding a row or
column of numbers incorrectly, etc.
If careful attention is given to the execution
of any surveying operation, mistakes can be
avoided. The various types of mistakes,
however, can only be corrected if discovered.
Their detection can be made by systematic
checking of all work, making a common sense
estimate in analysis, or by making a duplicate
measurement. Undetected mistakes may
produce very serious effects on the final
result of a survey such that the surveyor
should exert every possible effort to
minimize their occurrence. When mistakes
are discovered corrections should
immediately be made. It is usually advisable
to repeat a measurement when a mistake is
detected. However, if an adequate number of
other measurements of the same quantity are
available in which closely agree the widely
divergent results should be discarded.
Mistakes have no place in engineering and
surveying works the effects of errors can be
minimized but they cannot be entirely
illuminated whereas mistakes can be
detected and removed from recorded
measurements.
Types of error:
1. Systematic Errors / Cumulative Errors
- is one which will always have the same sign
and magnitude as long as field conditions
remain constant and unchanged
For changing field conditions there is a
corresponding change in magnitude of the
error. However, the sign remains constant. a
systematic error will repeat itself in other
measurements, still maintaining the same
sign and thus will accumulate. it is for this
reason that this type of error is also called a
cumulative error.
For instance, in making a measurement with
a 30 m tape which is 5 cm too short, the same
error is made each time the tape is used. If a
full tape length is used six times, the error
accumulates and totals six times the error (or
30 cm) for the total measurement.
Systematic errors conform to mathematical
and physical loss. Such errors can be
computed in their effects illuminated by
applying corrections, employing proper
techniques in the use of instruments, or by
adopting a field procedure which will
automatically eliminate it.
In surveying, systematic errors occur due to
instrumental factors, natural causes, and
human limitations of the observer This type
of error will continue to persist and impose
regular effects in the performance of a survey
operation.
2. Accidental Errors
These errors are purely accidental in
character. The occurrence of such errors are
matters of chance as they are likely to be
positive or negative, and may tend in part to
compensate or average out according to law
of probability. There is no absolute way of
determining or eliminating them since the
error for an observation of a quantity is not
likely to be the same as for a second
observation.
Accidental errors are caused by factors
beyond the control of the surveyor in are
present in all surveying measurements. They
remain after mistakes and systematic errors
have been illuminated. An example of such an
error is the failure of the tape man to exert
the correct amount of pull on the ends of a
tape during measurement sometimes he may
exert a pull beyond that which is required and
sometimes less than what is required.
Another example is in the reading of an angle
with the transit, since the instrument men
cannot read it perfectly there would be too
small these errors are likely to have either a
positive or a negative sign and tend to cancel
each other or compensate for each other.
In comparison to systematic errors,
accidental errors are usually of minor
importance in surveying operations since
they are variable in sign and are of
compensating nature. This characteristic
usually tends to balance out in the final
results. Although the total error increases as
the number of measurements increases, the
total error becomes proportionally less when
compared with the number of measurements,
and the accuracy becomes greater as the
number of measurements increases
Sources of Errors:
1. Instrumental Errors - are due to
imperfections in the instruments used, either
from faults in their construction or from
improper adjustments between the different
parts prior to their use.
Surveying instruments just like any other
instrument, are never perfect proper
corrections and field methods are applied to
bring the measurements within certain
allowable limits of precision. Moreover, with
time and continuous usage, the wear and tear
of the instrument will likely be a cause for
errors
Examples of instrumental errors are:
1. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect
length
2. Using a leveling rod with painted
graduations not perfectly spaced

3. Determining the difference in elevation
between two points with an instrument
whose line of sight is not an adjustment
4. Siding on a rod which is warped in
5. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles
of a transit or level
2. Natural Errors - are caused by variations in
the phenomena of nature such as changes in
magnetic declination, temperature, humidity,
wind, refraction, gravity, and curvature of the
earth
Natural errors are beyond the control of man.
However, in order to keep the resulting errors
within allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken
Methods can also be adopted to suit
prevailing conditions, the surveyor may not
be able to totally remove the cause of such
errors but he can minimize their effects by
making proper corrections of the results and
using good judgment. Common examples are:
the effect of temperature variation on the
length of a steel tape, errors in the readings
of the magnetic needle due to variations in
magnetic declination, deflection of the line of
sight due to the effect of the earth's curvature
an atmospheric refraction, error in the
measurement of a line with the tape being
blown sideways by a strong wind, and error
in the measurement of a horizontal distance
due to slope or uneven ground.
3. Personal Errors - arise principally from
limitations of the senses of sight, touch and
hearing of the human observer which are
likely to be erroneous or inaccurate
This type of fallibility differs from one
individual to another and may vary due to
certain circumstances existing during a
measurement. Some personal errors are
constant, some are compensating, while
others may be erratic.
Personal errors are significantly reduced or
eliminated as skills are developed in
surveying operations through constant
practice and experience. Errors of this type
are also eliminated by employing appropriate
checking of procedures in the taking and
recording of measurements
Typical of these errors are error in
determining a reading on a rod which is out
of Plumb during sighting, error in the
measurement of a vertical angle when the
crosshairs of the telescope are not positioned
correctly on the target and making an
erroneous estimate of the required pull to be
applied on a steel tape during measurement
Accuracy
indicates how close a given measurement is
to the absolute or true value of the quantity
measured It implies the closeness between
related measurements and their expectations
Precision
refers to the degree of refinement and
consistency with which any physical
measurement is made It is portrayed by the
closeness to one another of a set of repeated
measurements of a quantity
Probability
is defined as the number of times something
will probably occur over the range of possible
occurrences
The theory of probability is useful in
indicating the precision of results only in so
far as they are affected by accident errors. It
does not, however, in any way determine the
magnitude of systematic errors which may
also be present. The theory assumes an
infinite number of occurrences of all possible
events however, it may be applied with good
results to a limited but fairly large number of
observations
Relative (Error) Precision
In surveying measurements, ratio of the error
the measured quantity is used to define the
degree of refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative
precision, is expressed by fraction having the
magnitude of error in the numerator and the
magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator.
Lesson 3: Measurement of Horizontal
Distances
The accurate determination of the distance
between two points on any surface is one of
the basic operations of plane surveying. Such
linear measurements are understood to mean
the horizontal distance. If the points are at
different elevations, the distance is the
horizontal length between plumb lines at the
points In many instances measurements are
taken along an inclined line. These distances,
however, are subsequently reduced to their
equivalent on the horizontal projection for
use.
In surveying, the commonly employed
methods of linear measurement include
pacing, taping, tachymetric, graphical,
mathematical, mechanical, photogrammetric
and electronic distance measurement. In
some instances, a surveyor may find occasion
to employ a combination of methods to
advantage.
1. Distance by pacing
Pacing consists of counting the number of
steps or paces in a required distance. A pace
is defined as the length of a step in walking.
It may be measured from heel to heel or from
toe to toe.
In surveying, pacing means moving with
measured steps and if the steps are counted,
distances can be determined if the length of
a step is known. Counting strides instead of
paces is sometimes preferred by surveyors, A
stride is equivalent to two paces or a double
step.
2. Distance by taping
The use of a graduated tape is probably the
most common method of measuring or laying
out horizontal distances. Taping consists of
stretching a calibrated tape between two
points and reading the distance indicated on
the tape. It is a form of a direct measurement
which is widely used in the construction of
buildings, dams, bridges, canals and many
other engineering as well as non engineering
activities.
3. Distance by tachymetry
Tachymetry (or tacheometry is another
procedure of obtaining horizontal distances.
It is based on the optical geometry of the
instruments employed and is an indirect
method of measurement. A transit or a
theodolite is used to determine subtended
intervals and angles on a graduated rod or
scale from which distances are computed by
trigonometry
1. Stadia method
This method provides a rapid means of
determining horizontal distances. It was
introduced in 1771 by James Watt of Scotland
and was at that time referred to as
micrometer for measuring distances.
The equipment for stadia measurements
consists of a telescope with two horizontal
hairs called stadia hairs and a graduated rod
called a stadia rod. The telescopes of most
surveying instruments are equipped with
stadia hairs which are placed an equal
distance on either side of the horizontal cross
hair
2. Subtense Bar Method
The subtense bar is a convenient and
practical device used for quick and accurate
measurement of horizontal distance. The bar
which is precisely 2 meters long, consists of
a rounded steel tube through which runs a
thin invar rod At each end of the frame the
target marks are housed It is mounted
horizontally on a tripod and placed
perpendicular to the line of sight by means of
a sighting device on top of the bar
4. Distance by Graphical and Mathematical
Methods
By graphical or mathematical methods,
unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
distances geometrically. The determination
of lengths of the sides of a horizontal control
system such as in triangulation and
trilateration involves geometric and
trigonometric relationships
5. Distance by Mechanical Devices
There are a few mechanical devices which
could also be employed for the measurement
of distances. These devices, however, are
only applicable for low precision surveys or
where quick measurements are desired. The
more commonly used among these devices
include the odometer, measuring wheel and
the optical rangefinder
6. Distance by Photogrammetry:
The term photogrammetry refers to the
measurement of images on a photograph. The
type of photographs used are those taken
from an aircraft with the axis of the camera
pointed vertically towards the terrain
photographed. When very precise cameras
and photogrammetric equipment are used,
distances can be measured on photographs
with a precision of about 1/3000 to 1/5000
Lesson 4: Distance Correction
Breaking Tape – It is standard practice to hold
the tape horizontally above ground and to
plumb at one or both ends when taping on
sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This
requires the measurement of shorter
distances which are accumulated to total a
full tape length. The procedure is referred to
as “breaking tape”.
In measuring down slope, the zero end of the
tape is carried ahead.
Slope Taping – Taped measurements may be
directly along the slopes when the ground is
of uniform inclination and fairly smooth,
rather than break tape every few meters. This
very practical method is generally preferred
since measurements could be made quickly
and more accurately than horizontal
measurements.
Corrections in Taping:
Taping operations could either be the
following taping to determine an unknown
length, or taping for the purpose of laying out
a required or specified length Regardless of
which of these two categories is involved,
there are some corrections which are applied
to the original measurements to determine
the correct and accurate length
1st Rule: When a line is measured with a tape
that is “too long” the corrections are applied
to the observed length by adding
2nd Rule: When a specified or required length
is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are subtracted from known
length to determine the corrected length to
be laid out
3rd Rule: When measuring or laying out
lengths with a tape that is “too short”, the
corrections are applied opposite to those
stated in the first two rules
1. Correction due to Temperature:
The tape lengthens as the temperature rises
and shortens as the temperature falls. Any
change in the length of a tape due to
variations in temperature is critical when
under taking precise measurements. It can
also be significant even for measurements of
lower precision as in most engineering type
surveys. In ordinary taping of short distances
it is not usually considered since the amount
involved is usually small and negligible
2. Correction due to Tension:
During calibration (or standardization) a tape
is subjected to a certain amount of standard
pull or tension on its ends. When used in the
field during taping, it is elongated or
shortened accordingly, depending on the
amount of pull applied on it
3. Correction due to Sag:
A tape attains its correct length when it is
fully supported and subjected to the pull for
which it was standardized. If the support is
only at its ends or at the two points measured,
it will sag even if the standard pull is
maintained because of its own weight. The
tape takes the form of a catenary when it sags
between points of support just as an electric
or telephone wire which hangs and swings
loosely between two posts
4. Correction due to Slope:
When distances are measured along the slope,
the equivalent horizontal distance may
correspondingly be
Normal Tension:
By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of
pull on the tape when it is suspended and
sagged, the tape will be stretched and a
considerable decrease in the amount of sag
results. The applied pull which will lengthen
the tape to equal the shortening caused by
sag is referred to as the normal tension
Lesson 5: Introduction to levelling
Leveling:
- is the process of directly or indirectly
measuring vertical distances to
determine the elevation of points or
their differences in elevation
It is a vital and important aspect of surveying
since leveling operations are undertaken to
provide necessary data for engineering
design and construction, and the production
of topographic maps
Leveling is a method of determining the
difference in elevations between series of
points. If one point is at known elevation,
then the relative elevations of all the other
points can be determined through leveling
Basic Definitions:
1. Level Surface
- it is the curved surface which is at any point
perpendicular to the direction of gravity or
the plumb line.
It is best represented by the surface of a large
body of still water. However, a level surface
is not a plane and does not have a regular
form because of local deviations and plumb
line. To some effect, the direction of gravity
depends on the distribution of masses of the
earth’s crust and on their densities
2. Level Line
- is a curved line in a level surface all points
of which are normal to the direction of
gravity and equidistant from the center of the
earth
3. Horizontal Surface
- it is plane that is tangent to a level surface
at a particular point. It is also perpendicular
to the plumb line at the same point
4. Horizontal Line
-a straight line in a horizontal plane in which
is tangent to a level line at one point. It is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at
the point of tangency
5. Vertical Line
- is a line parallel to the direction of gravity
6. Mean Sea Level
- is an imaginary surface of the sea which is
midway between high and low tides.
It is taken as the reference surface to which
most ground elevations are referred. This
surface is determined by averaging the height
of the sea’s surface for all its tide stages over
a long period of time which may extend to
about 20 years.
7. Datum
- is any convenient level surface coincident or
parallel with mean sea level to which
elevations of a particular area are referred.
Any surface may be used as a datum when
relative elevations over a limited area needs
to be established
8. Elevation
For a particular point, its elevation is the
vertical distance above or below mean
sea level or any other selected datum. Points
on or near the surface of the earth have either
positive or negative elevations, depending if
the point is above or below mean sea level
9. Difference in Elevation
The difference in Elevation between two
points is the vertical distance between the
two level surfaces in which the points lie
THREE GENERAL METHODS OF LEVELING
Direct or Spirit Leveling ––(usual method in
leveling, using a level) Vertical distances are
measured in relation to a horizontal line,
these values are used to compute the
differences in elevations between various
points
The term spirit leveling is often used because
the bubble tubes of many of the older levels
were filled with alcohol
Trigonometric Leveling is a leveling in which
distances and angles are measured and
elevation differences calculated by
trigonometry
The method can be used to determine
elevations of inaccessible points such as
mountain peaks, church steeples, or offshore
platforms
The procedure works well for distances up to
800 or 1000 ft but for greater distances it may
be necessary to consider the effect of earth
curvature
Barometric Leveling ––(observing the
atmospheric pressure, temperature,
humidity, etc involves the determination of
elevations by measuring the changes in air
pressure
Although air pressures can be measured with
mercurial barometers, these instruments are
cumbersome and fragile and are impractical
for surveying purposes
Altimeters used in barometric leveling, a light
and sturdy but less precise aneroid
barometers
OTHER METHODS OF LEVELING
Reciprocal leveling is the process of
accurately determining the difference in
elevation between two intervisible points
located at a considerable distance apart and
between which points leveling could not be
performed in a usual manner
This method is commonly employed when
leveling across wide river, a deep ravine or
across canyons and gullies
Profile Leveling is a leveling is used to
determine differences in elevation between
points at designated short measured
intervals along an established line to provide
data from which vertical section of the
ground surface can be plotted
Design of roads, railroads, canals, drainage
system and transmission lines
Stadia Leveling combines features of direct
leveling with those of trigonometric leveling
Cross Section Leveling in a highway or
railroad constructions it is often necessary to
obtain a representation of the ground surface
on either side of the centerline
Borrow Pit Leveling is a method of
determining the relative elevations of points
in borrow pit excavations for purpose of
calculating volumes of earthwork
Level:
A level consists of a high powered telescope
20 to 45 diameters) with a spirit level
attached to it in such a manner that when its
bubble is centered, the line of sight is
horizontal.
Types of Level:
Dumpy Level was commonly used in a
surveying work until the few decades.
Although these excellent, sturdy, and long
lasting devices have very largely been
replaced with more modern instruments
Wye Level is another type of dumpy level that
was formerly used.
Automatic or Self Leveling Level are standard
instruments used by today’s surveyor. This
type of level is very easy to set up and use
and is available with almost any desired
range of precision
Electronic Digital Level is an automatic
instrument because after its bull’s eye level
is roughly centered, the compensator will
finish the leveling
Tilting Level is one whose telescope can be
tilted or rotated about its horizontal axis. The
instrument can be leveled quickly and
approximately by means of bull’s eye or
circular type of level
Laser Level it is commonly used to create a
known reference elevation or point from
which construction measurements can be
taken
Transit or Theodolites Used as Levels
although they are primarily used for angle
measurement, transits and theodolites can be
used for leveling
Total Stations Used as Levels are commonly
used today for determining various
elevations Total stations are preferred to
levels when horizontal locations are needed
Sources of Error in Leveling:
1. Instrumental Errors
These errors are attributed to imperfections
in the instruments either from faults in their
manufacture or from improper adjustment.
In leveling work instrumental errors are
usually due to a defective tripod, a leveling
rod not of standard length, or when the
instrument used is out of adjustment
A. Instrument Out of Adjustment
The most common instrumental error is
caused by the level being out of adjustment.
Particularly significant is when the line of
sight of the telescope is not parallel to the
axis of the level vial
This source of error can be eliminated or kept
at a minimum by frequently testing the
instrument and keeping it always in good
adjustment. The error will also greatly
minimize or eliminated if the back sight and
foresight distances are kept nearly equal
B. Rod Not Standard Length
It is possible to have inaccurate graduations
or divisions on a rod. This is usually due to
imperfections in their manufacture.
Inaccurate rod graduations can cause errors
in measured vertical distances similar to
those resulting from incorrect markings on a
tape
It is important that rod lengths are compared
periodically with a standardized steel tape.
Any error in length should be determined and
necessary corrections applied to all
measurements made with the rod Also, the
rod must always be handled carefully
C. Defective Tripod
The movement of the level due to settling of
the tripod legs can cause possible errors in
leveling work. The tripod usually settles in
soft ground or due to vibrations caused by
passing vehicular traffic
To avoid sliding of tripod legs due to
vibrations, the instrument should be set up
only at firm and stable ground Smooth
surfaces such as concrete pavements and
steel plates should be avoided
2. Personal Errors
Although personal errors occur largely due to
the limitations of the senses of touch, sight,
or hearing of individuals, the skills, training,
and teamwork of the members of a leveling
party are also major factors to be considered.
Personal errors are usually caused by
erroneous manipulations and careless
handling of instruments when making
observations
A. Bubble not Centered
Rod readings will be in error when the bubble
is not centered in the level vial. It could be
caused by a tripod leg settling in soft ground,
the instrument may not be leveled properly
or it may be out of adjustment
The instrument should not be handled
unnecessarily after it is set up and leveled. Its
tripod should not be grasped when taking a
sight, and vertical pressure exerted on any
part of the instrument should be avoided.
The error introduced by a bubble which is not
centered varies as the distance from
instrument to the rod It is therefore
important to exercise great care in leveling
the instrument when extra long sights are
taken
B. Parallax
If a pressure gauge or any graduated circular
meter is viewed from different angles, one
will notice that a number of slightly divergent
values could be read. This is due to the effect
of parallax However, if the pointer and scale
of the gauge were positioned at exactly the
same plane, parallax would be totally
eliminated
C. Faulty Rod Reading
The instrumentman at times may misread the
number of meters and decimals when taking
a rod reading. An incorrect rod reading is
usually the result of the length of sight, poor
weather conditions, and the skill of the
instrumentman and the rod man.
In precise leveling work, instruments used
are equipped with three horizontal hairs.
Three readings are usually recorded at each
sighting. Since the two extra hairs (or stadia
hairs) are equally spaced from the center
middle hair, the difference between the
readings of the middle and lower hair should
be equal to the difference between the
readings of the middle and upper hairs. The
instrumentman should take time to compare
these two quantities before transferring to
another set up since it is an effective
precaution against faulty rod readings
D.Rod Not Held Plumb
Aside from holding the rod on a firm and
definite point, it should also be held as nearly
vertical as possible If it is held off the vertical,
it will be intersected by the line of sight
farther from the base and the reading will be
much greater than what it should really be.
The reading on the rod will be lowest when it
is held plumb.
E. Incorrect Setting of Target
It is important to always handle the leveling
rod carefully. The rodman at times fails to set
properly the target when a high rod reading
is made with it. During use, the target may
slip downward because it is not clamped
firmly at the exact position signaled by the
instrumentman
To avoid this type of error, the instrumenman
should always take a second sight on the
target after it is clamped by the rodman in
order to be sure that it has not slipped
F. Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
In leveling work it is usually good practice to
make backsight and corresponding foresight
distances nearly equal. In such a practice,
errors due to curvature and refraction are
reduced or totally eliminated since the error
in backsight is equal to that in the foresight
3. Natural Errors
These are errors which are due to natural
sources and could not be totally removed but
their effects can be reduced by applying
corrections and using good judgment
A. Curvature of the Earth
The effect of curvature of the earth is to
increase the rod reading. From this source the
error amounts to about 0.07 cm per 100
meters. This error is introduced even if the
instrument used is in perfect adjustment.
When long sights could not be avoided, the
error may be eliminated by applying a
correction to the computed difference in
elevation or by employing the method of
reciprocal leveling.
B. Atmospheric Refraction
The pressure of heat waves on a hot day is a
sign of rapidly fluctuating refraction in the
atmosphere
To reduce the effects of atmospheric
refraction only short sights should be taken.
Balancing the lengths of backsights and
foresights also eliminates errors due to
refraction. Its effect is negligible in ordinary
leveling, but in precise leveling, combined
corrections for curvature and refraction are
applied to observe rod readings
C. Temperature Variations
Changes in temperature causes leveling rods
to either expand or contract and these could
introduce errors when taking rod readings.
To guard against such effects, invar or nilvar
graduated strips are used on rods for precise
leveling works
D. Wind
A strong wind can shake a leveling
instrument making difficult to center the
bubble in the level vial. It can also exert a
sufficient amount of force to cause an
extended rod to vibrate making it stand
unsteady and hard to read or plumb
E. Settlement of the Instrument
In soft or thawing ground, mud, and swamps
the instrument may settle in the interval of
time between rod readings. This source of
error cumulative since every settlement of
the instrument increases the computed
elevations of all other observed points by the
amount of the settlement
Errors due to settlement can be avoided if the
instrumentman takes the necessary
precautions to insure that the level is always
set up on firm and stable ground
F. Faulty Turning Point
In differential leveling work, a poorly chosen
turning point may be a source of error
Care should be taken not to strike the rod
against the turning point or to exert any
pressure on it. In soft and unstable ground, it
is advisable to use a peg or a steel plate as a
support to prevent settlement of a turning
point
Common Mistakes in Leveling:
1. Misreading the Rod
2. Incorrect Recording
3. Erroneous Computations
4. Rod Not Fully Extended
5. Moving Turing Points
Differential Leveling:
- is the process of determining the
difference in elevation between two or
more points some distance apart
It requires a series of set ups of the
instrument along a general route and, for
each set up, a rod reading back to the point
of known elevation backsight and forward a
point of unknown elevation ( are taken
The basic equipment used in differential
leveling include a graduated leveling rod and
a leveling instrument such as dumpy level,
automatic level or an engineer’s transit.
These leveling instruments are used to
establish a horizontal line of sight and to
measure the vertical distance between the
line of sight and the point on which the rod
is held
Differential Leveling:
Definitions:
Bench mark (BM) - relatively permanent point
known elevation.
Backsight (BS) - a sight taken to the level rod
held at a point of known elevation (either a
BM or TBM).
Height of instrument (HI) - the elevation of
the line of sight of the telescope.
Foresight (FS) - a sight taken on any point to
determine its elevation.
Turning Point (TP) – an intervening point
between two bench marks upo which point
foresight and backsight are taken to enable a
leveling operation to continue from a new
instrument position.
Double Rodded Leveling:
- is a method of determining differences
in elevation between points by
employing two level routes
simultaneously
This method differs from conventional
differential leveling in that two turning
points are established such that at each setup
of the leveling instrument, two sets of
independent backsights and foresights are
taken
Three Wire Leveling:
A more precise method of differential
leveling can be attained by the three wire
method of leveling. It is a method of
determining differences in elevation wherein
three horizontal hairs (or threads) are read
and recorded rather than from a single
horizontal hair
Profile Leveling:
- the process of determining differences
in elevation along a fixed line at
designed short measured intervals
It is executed to provide data from which a
vertical section of the ground surface can be
plotted
Definitions of Term:
Profile- is a curved line which graphically
portrays the intersection of a vertical plane
with the surface of the earth. It predicts
ground elevations of selected critical points
along a surveyed line and the horizontal
distances between these points
Stationing- A numerical designation given in
terms of horizontal distance any point along
a profile line is away from the starting point.
Each stake used is marked with its station and
plus
Intermediate Foresight (IFS)- These sight,
which are also known as ground rod readings,
are taken along the centerline of the
proposed project to provide an accurate
representation of the ground surface
Full Stations- Are points which are
established along the profile level route at
uniformly measured distances
Plus Station - Any other intermediate point
established along a profile level route which
is not designated as a full station. These
points are taken at breaks in the ground
surface slope and at critical points such as
the intended location of culverts, bridges,
and other structures
Vertical Exaggeration - is a process of drawing
the vertical scale for a profile much larger
than the horizontal scale in order to
accentuate the differences in elevation
Profile Paper - A special heavy grade graphing
paper used for plotting profiles
Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric
Refraction:
-We assumed that when the instrument is
leveled, it’s line of sight will represent a level
line
-Due to Earth’s Curvature the line of sight of
the telescope will actually be perpendicular
to a plumb line at one point only that will be
at the instrument location
-Since the line of sight is assumed to be
horizontal line, the vertical distance is not
correct because of atmospheric refraction
Atmospheric refraction is the deviation of
light or other electromagnetic wave from a
straight line as it passes through the
atmosphere due to the variation in air density
as a function of altitude
Earth’s Curvature and Atmospheric
Refraction:
-When rays of light pass through air strata of
different densities, they are refracted or bent
downward .. (this mean to see an object on
the ground some distance away, a person
actually has to look above it)
-Amount of refraction is dependent on
temperature, pressure and relative humidity
-Average amount of refraction is 0 093
ft/mile 0/028 m/mile) 1/7 of earth’s
curvature} [1 ft 0/3048 m]
Barometric Leveling:
In barometric leveling, differences in
elevation of points are determined by
observations of the prevailing atmospheric
Pressure. It is based on the basic principle
that the pressure caused by the weight of the
column of air above the observer decreases
(or increases) as the observer goes higher (or
lower) in elevation
Barometric leveling is ideally suited for
determining large differences in elevation in
rough or mountainous terrain where
extensive areas need to be covered
Barometric leveling results are better
obtained when the weather is stable and
climatic conditions remain constant such that
there are no signs of rapid variations in
barometric pressure. Such surveys should be
undertaken when the winds are gentle and
there is a cloudy overcast sky
Trigonometric Leveling:
Trigonometric leveling or indirect leveling is
defined as the determination of differences
in elevation from observed vertical angles
and either horizontal or inclined distances.
Vertical measurements determined by
trigonometric methods are only approximate
unless the observed vertical angles and the
required distances are precisely measured.
This method of leveling is used extensively
when undertaking topographic surveys over
rugged or rolling terrain since it provides a
rapid means of determining vertical
distances and elevation of points.
Lesson 6: Angles and Direction Measurments
Meridian:
In surveying, the direction of a line is
described by horizontal angle that it makes
with reference line or direction. Usually, this
is done by referring to a fixed line of
reference called a meridian.
Four Types of Meridians
1. True Meridian
- also knows as the astronomic meridian or
geographic meridian
- the direction of a line passing through the
astronomic north and south poles and the
observer’s position
2. Magnetic Meridian
- is the direction taken by the magnetized
needle of a compass at the observer’s
position
- It is not parallel to the astronomic meridians
since they converge at a magnetic pole which
is located some distance away from the true
geographic poles
3. Grid Meridian
- is a fixed line of reference parallel to the
central meridian of a system of plane
rectangular coordinates
4. Assumed Meridian
- is an arbitrary chosen fixed line of reference
which is taken for convenience
- this meridian is usually the direction from a
survey station to an adjoining stations or
some well defined and permanent point
Expedient Methods of Establishing
Meridians:
1. Establishing magnetic meridians by
compass
2. Determining true north by the aid of Sun
and a plumb line
3. Determining true north by the rising and
setting of the sun
4. Determining true north by Polaris
5. Determining true south by southern cross
6. Determining true north (or south) by a
wrist watch
Directions of Lines:
- is defined as the horizontal angle the
line makes with an established line of
reference
Kinds of Angles used in Surveying:
1. Interior Angles
2. Deflections Angles
3. Angles to the right
- measured to the right clockwise from the
preceding line
4. Bearings
- either from north or south either clockwise
or anticlockwise as per convenience
- value doesn’t exceed 90 deg
- denoted as N Φ E or S Φ W
- The system of measuring this bearing is
known as Reduced Bearing System (RB System)
5. Azimuths
- Always clockwise either from north or south
end
- Mostly from north end, in the
Philippines, it is from South end.
- Value varies from 0-360
- The system of measuring this bearing is
known as Whole Circle Bearing System (WCB
System)
Compass:
A hand held instrument for determining the
horizontal direction of a line with reference
to magnetic meridian
COMPASS BOX the compass box of the
instrument has a horizontal circle which is
graduated from 0-90 (in each quadrant 5 10
minutes reading)
LINE OF SIGHT usually is fixed along the index
mark on the north graduation of the circle
MAGNETIC NEEDLE the compass needle is of
magnetized tampered steel balanced at its
center on a jeweled pivot so that it swings
freely in the horizontal position
Types of Compass:
1. BRUNTON COMPASS is specialized
instrument used widely by those meeting to
make accurate deeper angle measurements in
the field (geologist archeologists,
environmental engineers surveyors)
2. LENSATIC COMPASS is the typical military
field compass, and is and principally to
measure or layout magnetic bearings
3. SURVEYOR’S COMPASS also known as
CICUMFERENTOR is an instrument used in
surveying to measure horizontal angles
4. PLAIN POCKET COMPASS is similar to the
surveyor’s compass, except that it has no
sight vanes
5. PRISMATIC COMPASS the graduation an
found on a rotating card instead of being on
the compass box
6. FORESTER’S COMPASS is another type of
pocket compass, which is usually made of
aluminum or some type of metal which does
not affect the free movement and positioning
of the magnetic needle
7. TRANSIT COMPASS the engineer’s transit
has a compass box which is similar in
construction to the surveyor’s compass
Magnetic Declination:
- Is the horizontal angle and direction by
which the needle of a compass deflects from
the meridian at any particular locality
Lesson 7: Traversing
Traversing:
•TRAVERSE Consists of a series of successive
straight line that are connected
together
•TRAVERSING process of measuring the
lengths and directions of the sides of a
traverse Purpose to find the position of
certain points
•OPEN TRAVERSE which are normally used
for exploratory purposes, have the
disadvantage that arithmetic checks are not
available
•CLOSED TRAVERSE is one that begins and
ends at the same point It offers
simple checks and adjustments for both
angles and distances
Latitudes and Departures:
The closure of a traverse is checked by
computing the latitudes and departures of
each of its sides
Latitudes and Departures:
The latitude of a line is its projection on the
north south meridian
The departure of a line is its projection on the
east west line
A northeasterly bearing has
-latitude and
-departure
Error of Closure:
Consider the following statement
“If start at one corner of a closed traverse and
walk its lines until you return to your starting
point, you will have walked as far north as
you walked south and as far east as you have
walked west”
Traverse Adjustment:
-Balancing the latitudes and departures of a
traverse attempts to obtain more probable
values for the locations of the corners of the
traverse
-A popular method for balancing errors is
called the compass or the Bowditch rule
The “Bowditch rule” as devised by Nathaniel
Bowditch, surveyor, navigator and
mathematician, as a proposed solution to the
problem of compass traverse adjustment,
which was posed in the American journal. The
Analyst in 1807
I. Compass Rule:
The compass method assumes
1. angles and distances have same error
2. errors are accidental
The rule states
“The error in latitude (departure) of a line is
to the total error in latitude(departure) as the
length of the line is the perimeter of the
traverse
II. Transit Rule:
The method of adjusting a traverse by the
transit rule is similar to the method using the
compass rule. The main difference is that
with the transit rule the latitudes and
departure corrections depend on the length
of the latitude and departure of the course
respectively instead of both depending on
the length of the course
The transit rule has no sound theoretical
foundation since it is purely empirical. It is
not commonly used as the compass rule,
however, it is best suited for surveys where
the sides of the traverse are measured by the
stadia or subtense bar method
The rule is based on the assumption that the
angular measurements are more precise than
the linear measurements and that the errors
in traversing are accidental.
Lesson 8: Area Computation
Methods of Determining Area:
An important objective of most land surveys
is the determination of the area of tracts of
land. The method of determining areas of
land by plane surveying differs from that of
geodetic surveying. In plane surveying, the
area is not the actual area of the land surface
but is taken as its projection upon a
horizontal plane
Areas of land also come in different shapes.
Some areas may be in the shape of a regular
geometric figure such as a square, triangle, or
parallelogram. Others may be quite irregular
and may be bounded entirely by curved
boundaries
Methods of Determining Area:
1. Area by Triangles
The area can be found by dividing the lot into
a series of triangles, making the necessary
measurements and then calculating the area
by any of the usual trigonometric formulas
2. Area by Coordinates Squares
The scaled drawing is marked off in squares
of unit areas then counted. This is used to
approximate areas.
3. Area by Polar Planimeter
The polar planimeter is a mechanical device
used to determine the area of any shape of
figure plotted to a known scale by directly
tracing the perimeter and reading the result
from the scale
4. Area by Coordinates
The method of coordinates is based on the
following rule in analytic geometry. If the
vertices of the figure are taken in order
around the figure, the area is equal to one
half the sum of the products of each ordinate
multiplied by the difference between the two
adjacent abscissas always subtracting the
preceding from the following abscissa
5. Area by Double Meridian Distance
(DMD)
-Meridian distance is the distance of the
midpoint of a line to the reference meridian
-This method is an adaptation of the
coordinates method and is convenient to use
when the latitudes and departures of the
traverse are known
Rule 1:
The DMD of the first course is equal to the
departure of the course
Rule 2:
The DMD of any other course is equal to the
DMD of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the course itself
Rule 3:
The DMD of the last course is numerically
equal to the departure of that course, but
with opposite sign
6. Double Parallel Distance (DPD)
Rule 1:
The DPD of the first course is equal to the
latitude of the course
Rule 2:
The DPD of any other course is equal to the
DPD of the preceding course, plus the
latitude of the preceding course, plus the
latitude of the course itself
Rule 3:
The DPD of the last course is numerically
equal to the latitude of that course, but with
opposite sign.
7. Area by Offsets from Straight Lines
Areas with irregular or curved boundaries are
usually measured by establishing a base line
conveniently near and by taking offsets at
regular intervals from the base line to the
boundary
A. Trapezoidal Rule
B. Simpson’s One Third Rule
Lesson 9: Omitted Measurements
Omitted Measurements:
Sometimes it is not possible or practical to
determine by field observation the length or
direction of a line (or lines) within a closed
Traverse. These missing quantities may be
determined analytically to obtain a complete
set of notes for the traverse as long as they
do not exceed two in number
However, the practice of omitting
measurements for one or more sides of a
closed traverse and solving for them is not a
desirable one and should be avoided. The
trouble with such calculations is that it tends
to throw all possible errors and mistakes into
the computation of the lengths or direction
Also, it eliminates the check on the precision
of the field measurements that were made
There is no choice but to assume that the
measurements taken are all correct and
without error in order that the missing
quantities may be calculated
It is not justifiable, however, to say that such
a practice should never be attempted or
employed. There are various circumstances
where this method can be used to advantage.
Common types of omitted measurements:
1. Omitted Measurements Are in One Side
1st Case:
Length and Bearing of One Side Unknown
2. Omitted Measurements Involving Two
Adjoining Sides
1st Case:
Length of One Side and Bearing of Another
Side Unknown
2nd Case:
Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case:
Bearings of Two Sides Unknown
3. Omitted Measurements Involving Two
Non Adjoining Sides
1st Case:
Length of One Side and Bearing of Another
Side Unknown
2nd Case:
Lengths of Two Sides Unknown
3rd Case:
Bearings of Two Sides Unknown
Subdivision of Land:
The subdivision of land is a usual task
undertaken by surveyors and engineers in
property surveys. When tracts of land are
sold or inherited it is often necessary to
divide it into smaller parcels or into areas
having certain proportions to each other
There are numerous problems which may
arise in the subdivision of land. The process
of subdivision may require the application of
the principles of geometry and trigonometry
or the use of special techniques in
computations. Other cases are performed by
trial and error methods This usually involves
an initial assumption such as the starting
point or the direction to be taken by a
selected cut off line which will separate a
certain area from the main parcel. Most of the
problems encountered are so common and
frequently involved in the working out of
more complicated cases