According to deception expert, Dr.

Paul Ekman, a lie is "an act in which someone makes a

deliberate choice to mislead another person(s) without giving prior notification of that
intention." 
In this lesson, s, you will clearly understand why people resort to lying and other deceptive
behaviors. The context of truth and deception will be presented in this module to assist you to
become reliable investigators in the future. Since deception detection and truth verification are
two important processes in crime detection and investigation.  By going through the succeeding
lessons, you will learn the different types of lies as well as the typology of liars. 
 
According to the website Everyday health, there are multiple explanations to understand why
people lie. Here are some of the reasons behind the deceptive behavior of humans. 
Often we do not like to associate with people who lie, but in fact, we all lie from time to time.
Lies take on all shapes and forms, from the omission of details to flat-out falsehoods. It's almost
reasonable to say that lying is instinctive because even young children lie without realizing it.
No matter how common it is to lie, it is still considered impolite and bad behavior. Being lied to
can be frustrating and it often breaks the bond of trust between two people, causing problems
in the relationship. Knowing the reasons why people lie, however, can shed some light on the
problem and help us understand the people who lie. Let’s take a look at some of the common
reasons why people lie.
Self-Defense
Many people lie because they want to protect themselves from an unpleasant situation or
conflict. Think of young children who lie; they lie to make sure that they don't get into trouble.
Children lie to avoid unpleasant consequences or punishment. Adults do the same. Many
people lie because they know they've done something that will anger the other person. A
woman might lie about the cost of the shoes she purchased and a man might lie about which
buddy he was going to hang out with. These lies are strictly to escape punishment or to avoid a
fight. The person may not have done anything wrong but would prefer not to have to justify,
explain or face an irate spouse.
To Spare Feelings
Some people who lie often do so with good intentions. We call these "white lies", or lies that
occur when the person wants to avoid causing someone else pain. A husband may lie to spare
his wife's feelings, or a father may lie to avoid his child's tears. One example of a common white
lie is, "Yes, dear, that dress looks great on you."
To some, a white lie is nothing more than a reason or excuse rather than an untruth. The ethical
philosophy behind telling a white lie has been debated the world over by theologians and
philosophers. Each individual must decide if telling a white lie is justified. If keeping someone
from being hurt unduly means omitting the truth and no damage comes from the fib, then most
people not only feel it is justified, but necessary.

To Protect Feelings
While some people who lie want to protect the feelings of others and spare someone else pain
or hurt, many people lie to protect their own feelings, self-esteem, self-confidence, or other
personal emotion. A woman who says, "I didn't want that job anyway," when she really did, is
lying to protect herself. A child who yells out, "I hate you!" may be trying to protect himself
from feeling hurt or to reject others before he is rejected.
To Keep a Secret
When thinking of lies that are concocted to keep a secret, one must only think of birthdays and
Christmas.Plenty of people lie about where they went or what they bought, with the good
intention of maintaining an aspect of surprise. Most of the time, the lies are obvious. A
teenager may know that her mother went out, but something about her mother’s excuse
fosters suspicion. When the truth comes out and the teen receives a nice gift for a special
occasion, the lie is forgiven and forgotten.

To Present a Good Image

Many people want to present a good image, often for work-related reasons. Think of a job
interview where a person might dress well and attempt to impress the interviewer in order to
land the job. People who lie for image reasons often do so because they want to gloss over a
blemish in their work history or avoid providing the real reason for termination of employment
from a previous job.
To Be Liked
Everyone wants to be liked and being part of the group is important, as well as part of human
nature. Many people lie simply to be accepted by others. A person may feign interest in
something or agree with a statement he or she does not believe. One problem that might occur
with this type of lie is a lack of individuality, as well as not being able to be oneself.
To Manipulate Others
We learn very quickly that we can manipulate other people. Whether we choose to do so might
be a subject of debate.The fact remains that many people lie to get other people do what they
want them to do. People who lie to manipulate a situation or other people are often only
interested in personal gain and fail to consider other people's feelings. By lying or omitting
details, the person can achieve a personal goal.

n the previous lesson, we have learned about the factors or many reasons why people lie. To
continue with the first module, the context of truth and deception will be discussed further.
The two primary types of lies

 Concealing: withholding some information

o Example: When asked by your significant other how your day was at
work, you shrug it off and refrain from mentioning that you were actually
laid off that day.
 Falsifying: presenting false information as if it were true
 o Example: When asked by your significant other how your day was at
work, you say, “Great! I was promoted,” when in reality you were laid off
that day.
Other ways to lie

 Misdirecting: acknowledging an emotion but misidentifying what caused that

emotion
o Example: When being questioned about lying, you admit to feeling
panicked but claim it is due to the fear that your innocence is under
suspicion rather than the truth which is that you’re panicking about
being caught in a lie.

 Telling the truth falsely: telling the truth but with such exaggeration or humor that
the target remains uninformed or misled
o Example: A teenager doesn’t want to take their vitamins one morning
and decides to flush them down the toilet instead. When their parent
asks them if they took their vitamins, the teen sarcastically admits, “No, I
flushed them down the toilet!” The teen states this with such irony that
the parent is misled to believe that they did, in fact, take their vitamins.

 Half-concealment: admitting only part of the truth, allowing the liar to maintain the
lie without ever saying anything untrue
o Example: When asked about their company’s performance, a CEO
responds, “We’re doing great! We made twice as much money this year,”
while failing to mention that they also spent four times as much money
than the previous period and lost half their staff.

 Incorrect-inference dodge: telling the truth but in a way that implies the opposite of
what is said
o Example: A friend invited you to their dinner party and asks how you
liked their casserole dish. You thought it was disgusting but your respond
with a dodge, saying, “Wow! I’ve never tasted anything like that before,”
deceptively implying you enjoyed your meal without actually saying
anything untrue.
What is NOT a LIE?
Simply telling a person incorrect or untrue information does not necessarily mean deception
has occurred. In fact, there are four common ways we mislead others without ever intending to
deceive them. Such scenarios include memory failure, false statements, misinterpreting events,
and believing the lie. 
What makes a lie a lie and what distinguishes a lie from another form of untruth? Dr. Ekman
takes a look at the role of memory, interpretation, intention and belief in understanding
deception.
Failure to Remember
The failure to remember is not a lie, although liars will often try to excuse their lies, once
discovered, by claiming a memory failure. It is not uncommon to forget actions that one
regrets, but if the forgetting truly has occurred, we should not consider that a lie, for there was
no choice involved. Often it will not be possible to determine whether a memory failure has
occurred or whether its invocation is itself a lie.
False Statements
If someone provides a false account of what truly occurred, that does not necessarily mean the
person intended to mislead, and, if there is not a deliberate intent to mislead, a false statement
should not be considered a lie. Why should it matter what we call a false statement? It is not
simply a matter of semantics or definition. If the person is not lying or, rather, if the person
does not believe he is engaged in deception at the moment he is doing it, then I expect his
demeanor will be that of a truthful person, and there should be no behavioral cluesLinks to an
external site. that the account is untrue… There are a number of ways in which people may
provide false information that they believe to be true.
Misinterpreting Events
People do misinterpret events, especially the meaning of other people’s actions and the
motives that lead people to act one way or another. The fact that someone interprets matters
in a way that reflects well upon them, a way that allows them to engage in actions they finds
desirable, does not mean that they are necessarily lying rather than misinterpreting. I would
not consider such an occurrence necessarily an instance of self-deception. Not every
misunderstanding or misinterpretation is self-deception.
Believing the Lie
Misinterpreting is not the only route by which someone may believe his or her false account is
true. A person initially may know he is lying, but over time he may come to believe in his lie.
Once he has come to believe his lie is a faithful account of what transpired, he may appear
truthful.. Overtime one may come to believe their false story is true. It is conceivable they could
maintain in consciousness both the memory of the true event, and the constructed belief. Or
the true memory might overtime become much less accessible than the constructed belief, or
perhaps not accessible at all.
 
WHO LIES?
Whether or not we like it, deception is a central characteristic of life. Most (if not all) human
relationships involve some form of deceit, or at least the possibility of it. Lies occur between
those we love and trust as much as they do with those we dislike, and even happens among
complete strangers.
Lies, both big and small, occur every day between romantic partners, parents and children,
teachers and students, doctors and patients, witnesses and juries, lawyers and clients,
salespersons and customers... to name a few.
 
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF LYING
Remember that lying person fears detection and possible ostracism by the offended
community. He may feel that once detection, he could not but accept the bitter results of being
penalized, thus placing his whole life at stake.

Since fear reaction carries emotional responses due to detection, he may now exhibit external
and internal physical and physiological changes within him, such that these changes occur
beyond his defensive power to control or repress them. These changes, on the other hand, are
recorded by the polygraph instrument and diagnosed by the Examiner.
 
But what is always driving a person to lie? What is behind all these?
The answer is the PSYCHOLOGY of a LYING PERSON. A person’s fears,, anxieties and
apprehensions are channeled toward the situation that evoke his instinct of self-preservation to
struggle out from the consequences of the wrong he has already done. He may, once and for
all, “grind-the axe” of his self-defense mechanism come what may through lies, alibis and
excuses. His conscience is bothered so much on how to hide everything beyond his own senses.
And his will power and emotions are perplexed and varied.
 
In polygraphy, the psychological approach to all these lies or similar situations are governed by
the different types of test and control questions prepared and formulated by the Examiner. The
test contains relevant questions which are designed to pose a threat to the security of the guilty
(or lying) Subject, and control questions designed to pose a threat to the security of the
innocent (or truthful) Subject. The equally truthful Subject, though accused, is assured of the
reactions he may exhibit during the whole polygraph examination by the carefully formulated
questions.
 
Other factors psychologically taken into consideration are Subject’s basic emotionality and
intensity of the offense. Normally, the innocent Subject’s reaction potential is lower than that
of the guilty Subject. A temporary heightening of his emotional state when the examination
began registers this. Then such reaction decreases as the test itself progresses.
  
In understanding more of the psychologically of lying, we are tempted to include the study of
the different kinds of LIES, which are as follows:
Kinds of Lie

WHITE LIE This is the kind of lie, the most common of all, which is intended to protect or maintain of
friendship, at home, in the office or elsewhere. 
OR
Example: Peter’s Denial: The distorted formulation of rules and regulations in some companies
BENIGN LIE in order to protect and secure own products from any outside competing forces.

This is a lie made by persons who cannot distinguish right from wrong. It must by said that
those persons are mentally sick, or of low mental caliber. In Polygraphy, impairment of the
PATHOLOGICAL LIE mind must be established first before conducting any lie-detector test; otherwise the whole
test will be useless. Pathological liars are among those classified as Barriers and Obstacles to
Lie-Detection with the aid of the Polygraph.
This involves political interests and motives because this is part of Communist propaganda
strategy.  This lie is prevalent in communist countries or communist-infested nations.  Lies of
RED LIE
this sort purport to destroy other ideologies by means of propaganda-brain-washing and black-
mail via espionage and treason.
A lie which accompanies pretensions and hypocrisies, intriguing to cause dishonor or discredit
BLACK LIE one’s good image.  (An example is the person who always pretends what he thinks of himself,
what kind of person he is, and what he is doing.)

This is a very pure and unjustifiable kind of lie.  This is intended purely to mislead justice.  The
MALICIOUS or JUDICIOUS
probable result would be “PERJURY” and pure dishonesty to obstruct justice!  Some liar lawyers
LIE
and false witnesses fall under this category.

When you pull investigation manuals out of the shelves, you will often times  read about
different practical techniques in detecting lies among suspects, witnesses and victims. Same are
taught in police academies to prepare detectives perform their jobs especially in separating
people who are truth telling apart from the deceptive or suspicious type of people under
investigation. Most of these police practices include direct observation of the suspect's
behavior, checking consistencies in both verbal and written statements recorded during the
course of the investigation. 
The succeeding lessons, you will learn the different techniques employed by most law
enforcement and detective agencies in detecting deception and validating the truth. However,
in this particular lesson let us first cover the practical ways in detecting lie and deceptive
behaviors.  
 
Before delving on these techniques, let us answer some frequently asked questions. 
Why do some lies fail?

Occasionally, we encounter lies that are performed so beautifully that nothing the liar says or
does betrays their lie. However, this is rare, even for skilled liars.  
More frequently, lies fail due to some noticeable change in our voice, posture and/or facial
expression which gives away an emotion we are feeling but trying to hide. The more emotions
involved, and the stronger they are, the more likely it is that the lie will be betrayed by some
form of emotional leakage. Lies also fail because of “bad lines”, cover stories that are
inconsistent or discrepant with other indisputable facts.
Do we really want to know if someone is lying?

In most cases, there’s no quick or easy way to detect deception and, even if there were, we
might not like what we discover. 
So, while people often claim to want to know the truth, there are many instances in which it is
more comforting to believe the lies. In these circumstances, we tend to ignore deception clues
and excuse otherwise suspicious behaviors to avoid the potentially negative consequences of
uncovering the lies we’re told.
What is deception detection?
Deception detection refers to the investigative practices used to determine a person’s
truthfulness and credibility. This is largely determined through the consideration of certain
behavioral and physiological cues as well as larger contextual and situational information.
What methods are used to detect deception?
While historians are not entirely sure where or when deception detection practices originated,
it is clear that humans have been trying to figure out how to tell if someone is lying for
centuries. 
Fortunately, the methodologies have evolved drastically over time, shifting first from non-
scientific testing (i.e., Salem Witch Trials) to more biologically-oriented ones (i.e., phrenology
and graphology). Today’s deception detection generally combines behavioral psychology (i.e.,
human observation) and technology (i.e. polygraphs and artificial intelligence). 

Dr. Ekman’s work in the field of deception detection largely focuses on nonverbal
communication of emotion observed in the face and body.
The challenges of deception detection
There is no single, definitive sign of deceit itself; no muscle twitch, facial expression, or gesture
proves that a person is lying with absolute certainty. Therefore, most modern-day methods of
deception detection heavily rely on a variety of methods to collect, analyze and interpret
emotional and physiological data. 
However, any data collected merely expose emotional clues that may or may not be related to
deception. For example, sweaty palms during a job interview could indicate an interviewee’s
fear of being caught in a lie about their qualifications. Or, sweaty palms could be illustrating
their fear that the interviewer won’t believe their qualifications despite being totally honest on
their resume. Or, their palms could be sweaty because they’re worried about something else
entirely, like a sick child at home.
There are still many more possible reasons why a person might experience sweating palms,
especially during high stakes scenarios. To determine the actual cause, further investigation and
analysis is needed. Jumping to conclusions, while easy to do, can be harmful to everyone
involved and must be avoided.
 
What do lies look like?

Many observable signs have been linked to lying, but they are not always shown by everyone.
The absence of these signals does not mean a person is truthful, but their presence, especially
when there are multiple signs, is very suggestive of potential deceit.
An invaluable aspect in deception detection is first establishing a “baseline”, or behavior
considered to be “normal” for the individual in question. The basic process of behavioral
deception detection then involves looking for clues that signal some kind of change or deviation
from this baseline. These can be noticed through “hot spots” across a number of different
observable channels such as: facial expressions, body language, voice, verbal style and verbal
content.
 
What is a "hot spot"?
Dr. Ekman coined the term “hot spot” to refer to signs that something is amiss; either that the
full story is not being told or that details of the story are being falsified. Hot spots flag some
kind of emotional or cognitive stressor though, importantly, do not reveal why. Further
investigation and consideration of context is required to test your hypothesis. 
Typical hot spots are:

 a deviation from baseline (e.g., a talkative child is uncharacteristically quiet when

asked about a broken vase)
 a momentary conflict between what is being communicated verbally and what is
being presented nonverbally (e.g., assuring someone you don’t feel angry with them
while clenching your jaw and raising your voice).

 
Facial clues to deceit
Micro Expressions
When lying, the face often contains two messages- what the liar wants to show and what the
liar wants to conceal. Often, these hidden emotions leak in the form of a micro expression, a
brief (half a second or less) involuntary facial expression revealing true emotion.
While Dr. Ekman cautions that a single micro expression or flash of leakage does not offer
conclusive proof of lying, micro expressions are one of the most effective nonverbal behaviors
to monitor to indicate a person is being dishonest.
False Expressions
Any emotional expression can be falsified and/or used to conceal any other emotion. Across all
emotions, studies have shown that often faked emotional facial expressions are asymmetrical.
Some felt expressions are asymmetrical; it is just that most are not. 
In fear or sadness, a clue that an emotion is falsified is the absence of reliable forehead
expression. 
A key clue that a happiness expression is false is when the eye muscles are not involved when
smiling. The absence of movement in the outer part of the muscle that orbits the eye
(orbicularis oculi pars lateralis, in Latin or AU 6 in FACS terms) distinguishes a fabricated smile
from the genuine thing. This difference is sometimes difficult to recognize, and most of the time
we are easily fooled by broad smiles that are fabrication, which might also explain why it is such
a common emotional maskLinks to an external site..

A lie catcher should never rely upon one clue to deceit; there must be many. The facial clues
should be confirmed by clues from voice, words, or body. Even within the face, any one clue
shouldn’t be interpreted unless it is repeated and, even better, confirmed by another type of
facial clue.
 
The Observation Methods:

Through Facial Expressions, such as:

1. Blushing, paling, or profuse sweating of forehead;

2. Dilation of the eyes, protrusion of eyeballs, and elevation of upper eyelids;
3. Squinting of the eyes (showing envy, disdain, distrust, etc.);
4. Twitching of the lips;
5. Excessive winking of eyes;
6. Failure to look the inquirer “straight into the eye”;
7. Excessive activity of the Adam’s apple and the vein at the temple due to dryness of
throat and mouth;
 8. Quivering of Nose or Nostrils;
9. A peculiar monotone of the voice;
10. A forced laugh;
11. Rolling of eyeballs from one direction to another;

Through Postural Reactions, such as:

1. Fidgeting, tapping, or drumming of fingers on the chair or other surfaces;

2. Swinging of legs, or of one leg over the other;
3. Unnecessary movements of hands and feet (like scratching, nail-biting, thumb- or
finger-sucking, etc.);
4. Pulsation of the carotid artery in the neck;
5. Incoherence, trembling and sweating of the whole body;

Through Cause-And-Effect Process, such as:

1. Stimulus-Reaction test;
2. Stimulus-Response test;

Regular Police Methods:
This method sought to answer the legal investigation processes to the following:

1. The “Five Wives & One Husband” (or the “5 W’s & 1 H”) which stand for –

                  What?  Who?  When?  Where?  Why? and How?

2. The “Three Eyes” (or “3 I’s”) which stand for –

3. Information Gathering, through Records check, Surveillance, Background
Investigation, and Intelligence check;
4. Investigation, through Interview & Interrogation, and through Confession &
Admission;

Ordeals – ‘the judgments of God’ – are usually related to the Inquisition and to the tortures
imposed to those accused of heresy and witchcraft. However, trials by ordeal (and hot water
ordeal) were used both before and after the Inquisition and not only in Europe.
The Hot water ordeal

The accused of the crime was required to dip his hands, sometimes up to his wrists or elbows, in
a cauldron of boiling water and retrieve a ring or a coin sitting on the bottom of the cauldron.
 
Since time immemorial, truth seeking and deception detection has been the business of ancient
states to enforce law and order in the community. The authorities of those times uses crude
methods of coming out with the truth. Often times, these methods are inhumane, cruel and
brutal.
In this lesson, we will explore the various methods used by the early civilizations in detecting lie
and proving the truth. At the end of the lesson, you will be asked to argue on the practicality,
reliability, accuracy and constitutionality of each method.
 
The Ancient Methods:

(the placing of hot iron  onto the tongue of suspects and guilt is establis
The Red-Hot Iron Ordeal tongue gets burn or blister);  the Basis: Salivary Secretion – if tongue is
suspect is guilty as dryness is a sign of nervousness;

(by balancing of stick on the lever, or by balancing through walking on ro

Ordeal of the Balance ropes);  the Basis: Body incoherence or failure to balance is indicative o
to trembling and fear reaction;

(by plunging the suspect’s feet in to the giant pot full of boiling
Boiling Water Ordeal water);  the Basis:  Sweating of body enhances blisters and burns;  if su
burned, he is guilty, as guilt is indicated due to sweating and nervousnes

(staying in the water for several “suns” and “moons”);  the Basis:   Fear
Water Test Ordeal
wears down body resistance due to nervousness and guilt therefore is n

(an African method through “smelling-out” of foul odors); the Basis:  Sw

The Smell-Out Technique causes body odor and guilt is determined when foul odor is exhibited du
extreme fear and nervousness;

(as practiced by the Hindus of India, wherein a cow or an ass is secretly p

inside a closed and very dark room, and suspects are told to enter said r
The Sacred Ass Ordeal at a time to touch the tail of the cow;  if the cow would make a loud sou
said suspect is deemed guilty); the Basis:  Un-blackened hand is a sign o
merely psychological;

Other known common practices, such Rice-Chewing

as:
Palm-Reading
Card-reading
 Winnow & Scissors
Spirit of the Glass

Towards the 18th century, methods that were based on science were put into practice.
Although it lack significant findings of whether these are scientific or not, many civilized
societies are still using these methods up to these present days.
Let us take a glance of the following:
Hypnotism Method:
FRANZ (FRIEDRICH) ANTON MESMER (1734-1815), an Austrian Mystic and Physician; born on
May 23, 1734 at Iznang, a village near Lake Constance, Austria, was the first to introduce
hypnotism as a method of deception detection in 1778.  He believed in animal magnetism, by
which his own personal electro-magnetism for therapeutic effect influenced other persons. 
Actually, these effects he produced were attributed to the state of mind of the Subject whereby
he is induce, and thereby instructed to sit quietly and gaze at a flashing light or shiny object
dangled before his eyes, and to cooperate with whatever the hypnotist would like him to do.  In
this case, conscious cooperation by the Subject is a must.
 
The basis of hypnotism is through the recovered memory by the use of increased dissociated
functions, hyper-amnesia, and at times regressive and para-regressive experiences.  The
Subject, who is not actually asleep, but at complete comfortable state of relaxation and that he
would be doing whatever the hypnotist may tell him to do.
 
Word-Association Test Method:
Here is another method of deception detection, which was introduced in 1879 by Sir FRANCIS
GALTON(1822-1911), an English Scientist Explorer and Anthropometrist,, born on Feb. 16, 1822
at Sparkbrook, Birmingham, London, and the cousin of the famous Charles Darwin. Later on,
Dr. CARL GUSTAV JUNG (1875-1961), A Swiss Psychologist, Psychiatrist, and Founder of the
Analytical Psychology (born on July 26, 1875 at Basel, Zwitzerland) developed Galton’s works
and experiments.
     
Accordingly, this process is being done by giving the Subject a long list of care- fully selected
stimulus words or objects with other pictures interspersed with other irrelevant words, objects
or pictures with the instructions to respond with the very first word that may come to Subject’s
mind.
 
Dr. Jung was able to observe how the thinking reactions were linked into the emo-tional habit
of his Subject.  The theory behind this method is that, one word or idea is reflective of another
word or idea and the expression of their association forms a meaningful picture.
 
Truth-Serum Test/ Intoxication Method:
The so-called “Truth-Serum” Test was a method introduced by Dr. EDWARD MANDEL
HOUSE (1858-1938), a U.S. Physicist and Diplomat, serving as Confidential Adviser to former
U.S. Pres. Woodrow Wilson, (born on July 26, 1858 at Ferris, Texas, USA).  This method involved
the intravenous injection or oral-taking of various drugs, such as hyocine bromide, morphine,
ether, chloroform, sodium amytal and scopolamine, which may produce a condition of
anesthesia.  There must be an immediate need for a physician to be present during the test so
that the application of these drugs be properly determined and supervised to produce required
results.
 
Accordingly, this method is based on the theory, that intervention through interro-gation, is
made possible after the dosage of any of these drugs has been appropriately administered,
which depresses the cerebral activity to a point of unconsciousness, an influence called as
the “House Receptive Stage” or the “Twilight Zone”.  The objective of the test is to extract from
the subconscious mind, as the Subject himself is “half-asleep”, the stored contents of the mind
called “Memory”.  It has been said, that if correct dosage is administered and the expected
influence resulted, the Subject will answer by experiencing temporary removal of his will-
power, self-preservation instinct and the reasoning power.  He may disclose everything without
evasiveness.
 
Of all the deception detection methods, the “Truth-Serum” test is considered most favorably
effective if all the conditions proper to the conduct of the test must be observed.  However, its
effectiveness is upset by several objections raised as to its application.  These objections are as
follows:

1. Was the test performed by a skilled operator, technician, or physician?

2. Was the dosage of the drugs administered necessary to produce desires results?
3. Was there an appropriate amount of time consumed in the test?          
4. Was there certainty of results to determine truth from deception?

 
Statements taken from the Subject through this process is not admissible as evidence in court
because its very nature is involuntary, but its application to criminal investigation is rather very
useful due to its psychological effect, before, during and even after.  Just as well, a person not
knowing the fallacies of the test may even, before the test, tell the factual truth to avoid pain of
needles and brain destruction.
 
Intoxication:  This method employs alcoholic beverages as stimuli to obtain truth.  The person
or Subject whose statement is to be taken is allowed to take alcoholic beverages to intoxication
level or point.  When under the influence of alcohol, the power to control the body is
diminished and the investigator begins propounding questions.
Interrogation must be made only during the excitatory effect of the alcohol.  During this stage,
therein noted is the sensation of well-being and actions.  Speech and emotions are less strained
due to the lowering of the inhibition normally exercised by the higher brain centers.  There is
eventually lack of self-control.  When the Subject is already in the depressive state due to
excess of alcohol intake, he will not be able to answer questions anymore, and perhaps he
would fell asleep.
Confession made by a Subject while intoxicated is admissible if he is physically able to recollect
the facts and state them truly and exactly, even after the influence or the “spirit of alcohol” has
disappeared.  But in most instances, the Subject cannot recall his utterances or usually refuses
to admit the truth of the statement given.
 The Contemporary Methods:
Psychological Stress Evaluation
Computerized Voice Stress Analysis
Brain Wave Fingerprinting
Iris Analysis
Polygraph Examination
The PSE is now routinely used in criminal investigations and employment
screening. In certain limited situations it may be used in court. It may well have
some value as a "truth tester."
The PSE and the polygraph operate similarly. Both rely on the fact that deception
causes stress and that stress causes psycho-physiological changes. 
The PSE mea- sures changes in the subject's voice.
Voice stress analysis (VSA) was developed in the 1970’s by three American army
personnel who were first tasked with enabling voice identification of intercepted
radio communications. The premise is that changes in something known as the
physiological microtremor due to the fight or flight response will be noticeable in
graphic representations of a subject’s answers. It was first accepted as a means of
psychophysiological detection of deception however many studies since have
concluded that it is unacceptable, yielding results ‘no better than flipping a coin.’
Brain fingerprinting (BF) detects concealed information stored in the brain by
measuring brainwaves. A specific EEG event-related potential, a P300-MERMER, is
elicited by stimuli that are significant in the present context. BF detects P300-
MERMER responses to words/pictures relevant to a crime scene, terrorist
training, bomb-making knowledge, etc. BF detects information by measuring
cognitive information processing. BF does not detect lies, stress, or emotion. BF
computes a determination of “information present” or “information absent” and
a statistical confidence for each individual determination.
It's a next-generation lie detector that measures slight changes in eye behaviors
to detect lies. 
The technology accurately tests job applicants, employees, patients, parolees,
drug users, athletes, criminal suspects and others about specific issues or crimes
in just 15 to 30 minutes.
This can be used for screening tests on general topics. It can also be used to for
diagnostic (single issue) tests in criminal or civil cases. It’s a true lie detection
industry game changer.
It is the scientific method of detecting deception with the use of a polygraph
instrument. This is the new name of LIE DETECTION.
 ANGELO MOSSO – 1895

 He studied fear influence on the heart and his observation subsequently f

THE DEVELOPMENT
OF the basis for detecting technique.
CARDIOSPYMOGRAPH
 He developed a type of sphygmomanometer and scientific cardio for the s
fear.
 CESAR LOMBROSO – 1895

 An Italian scientist
 He was accorded the distinction being the first person to utilize an instrum
purpose of detecting lies.
 He employed the first scientific instrument to detect deception.

 This machine is called Hydrosphymograph it measures changes in pulse an
pressure when suspect were questioned about their involvement in a parti
offense.
 He believes that there is such a thing as born criminal (false). Through stig
can determine a person who can be a criminal.

**Stigmata – bodily marks like Christ wounds impressed supernaturally.

 DR. WILLIAM Moulton MARSTON – 1915

 He conducted numerous tests for detecting deception utilizing the change

blood pressure
 He favored discontinuous method of reading systolic blood pressure
 He also experimented with galvanograph which register changer in skin re

JOHN A. LARSON – 1921

 He devised an instrument capable of continuously recording blood pressu

 pulse rate and respiration.
 First Inventor of American Polygraph Machine
 He also developed broad board lie detector which was polygraphic, appar
portable form.
 MUNSTERBURG (1908)

  Proposed that lie test based on lie detector should be admissible as eviden
 The detection is based on using blood pressure variations for deception de
 He advocates the used of lie detection in court.
 But it was not known if the same was followed.

STICKER – 1897

 He made the first suggestion for using galvanograph for detecting decepti
THE DEVELOPMENT OF the works of several predecessors.
GALVANOGRAPH  He theorized that galvanic skin reflex is influence by existing mental impre
COMPONENT that will had no effect upon it.
 First Inventor of Polygraph Machine.
 He invented the first lie detector using Electro dermal response.

VERGUTH – 1926

 He was the first who used the term psycho-galvanic reflex.
 He believed that electrical phenomena are due to the activity of sweat gla

FERE – (1888)

 French Scientist
  Discovered that electro dermal response is caused by an increase in the ac
heart and vital energy converted with human emotions.
 He asserted that human body has the ability to generate store, discharged
voltage of static electricity.
 D’ARSONVAL

 French Scientist
  Declared that electricity is generated by the body and named External Fric
source of generation.
 He assorted those sweat glands which the body at times store the electric
other times discharged them.

PAUL WILHELM AND DONALD BURNS (1951)

 Michigan City, Indiana, USA, (Independent Lie Detector Specialists)

  Invented an Electronic Psychometric using Electrodermal Response as a ba
detection.
 Both have proven that results of lie detection test (during) using their inst
95% accurate.

VITTORIO BENUSSI – 1914

THE DEVELOPMENT OF
PNEUMOGRAPH  He noted changes in respiration ratio during deception.
COMPONENT  He recorded respiratory course with the pneumograph component

HAROLD E. BURTT – 1918

  He determine the respiratory changes was indication of deception

 He found that changes in systolic blood pressure were of greater value in
deception than in changes respiration.

LEONARD KEELER – 1926

 He devised metal recording bellows

  Rolled chart paper
 Incorporated galvanograph with the measurement of blood pressure and
 Method of question
 Kymograph


DARROW (1930)

 Devised a research photo polygraph which records several responses simu

 which are;

1. Electro dermal response (skin)

2. Blood pressure
3. Heart Beat Frequency
4. Tine between verbal stimuli and verbal response.
5. Signal Marks
6. Involuntary tremors of one hand
7. Breathing amplitude and frequency
8. Voluntary movement of the hand.
o This method did not however last long.

 Devised an instrument for recording muscular activity

 The recording made simultaneously with blood pressu
JOHN E. REID - 1945 respiration tracings, renders much more accurate any
based upon these later phenomena.

 Generally overlooked in that history of the lie detecto

technique is the fact that so called polygraph was in e
at least as early as 1906.
 Its invention, however as not for lie detection purpose
for the use in medical examination.
 Nevertheless, it did contain the essential features of p
SIR JAMES MACKENZLE
day instrument and first construction was based upon
principle.
 Its inventor was Sir James Mackenzle, the famous Eng
Specialist which an articles entitled “The Ink Polygrap
appeared in 1908 number of the English Journal.

CLEVE BACKSTER – 1947  Develop the control question technique which introdu
in the polygraph chart to establish a yard sticks so tha
would know what the reaction really means.
 If this person responds to this control lie to a greater
than does to the actual questions under investigation
assume and establish the subject is telling the truth a
point.
  If the reverse is true we state that he is not telling the
that point.

 
THE PIONEERS WHO USED BLOOD PRESSURE IN DETECTING DECEPTION ARE THE FOLLOWING:

1. Lombroso (1895)
2. Munster burg (1908)
3. Marston (1917)
4. John Larson (1921)
5. Darrow (1930 )
6. Leonard Keeler (1930)

 
PIONEERS WHO USED HEARTBEAT IN DETECTING DECEPTION

1. Erasistratus

 Greek Physician (300B.C.)

 Had successfully noted the frequency of heartbeat, upon application of some stimuli
related to the question at hand.

2. Galileo (1581)

 Devised a gadget called “Pulsilogium”

 Instrument used to measure heartbeat frequency.
 He did not use this device for lie detection purposes.

Objectives of a polygraph examination

 Ascertain of a person is telling the truth by verifying statement or comparing

conflicting statements.
 Obtain additional investigative leads to the facts of an offense;
 Locate fruits of tools of crime or whereabouts of waned persons;
 Identify other person involved;
 Obtain valuable information from reluctant witnesses and;
 Most important is the elimination of innocent suspects.

 
THE POLYGRAPH INSTRUMENT
The instrument used in the proper application of the polygraph technique is essentially a
pneumatically operated mechanical recorder of changes in respiration, blood pressure/pulse
heat supplemented with a unit for recording galvanic skin reflexes, or an additional unit for
recording abdominal respiration; muscular movements and pressures; or a plethymograph for
recording changes in blood oxygenation.  Attachments for the human body comprises of a
rubber convoluted tube for the chest area,  a blood pressure arm-cuff on one bicep,  and,  in
some models,  an electrode on two fingers or on the palmer side of one hand.  These
attachments act as the detectors of the physiological changes and transmit the same to the
instrument where it is connected into mechanical impulses and transformed into tracings of the
respiration, blood pressure and skin resistance or the likes.
 
DIVISIONS OF CRIMINAL INTERROGATION AND LIE DETECTION:

1. PSYCHOLOGICAL (MIND); AND

2. PHYSIOLOGICAL (MUSCLE).

 NERVOUS SYSTEM IS DIVIDED IN TO TWO (2):

1. Central Nervous System

2. Peripheral Nervous System

SWEAT GLAND ACTIVITY

This is affected by air temperature, relative humidity and circulation of sweat glands; fatigue;
nausea; pain; mental excitement; nervousness; shortness of breath; certain disease and drugs
also affects sweat gland activity; resulting in increased or decreased sweat activity; voiding large
quantities of urine; dehydration; intoxication and
drugged condition.
PSYCHOLOGY OF THE LYING PERSON

 The lying person fears detection, causing physiological changes to take place in his
body.
 Fear of detection must be experienced by the subject, otherwise no physiological
changes will occur.
 A person “tunes in” that which indicates trouble or danger by having his sense
organs and attention for a particular stimulus , and he “tunes out “ that which is of a
lesser threat to his self-preservation or general well-being.
 In a series of questions containing relevant and control questions, the lying subjects
will “tune in” on the most intense relevant questions and “tune out “ the control
question and may not be materially affected by other weak relevant questions.
 The truthful subject will direct his attention to the control question wherein he
consciously know he is deceptive and “tune out” the relevant ones.
 
How Does a Polygraph Work?
The polygraph simultaneously records various physiological phenomena by means a horizontal
kymograph. The resulting polygram indicates tracing of external respiration in the thoraxic and
abdominal cavities by means of a pneumograph tambour assembly, systolic and diastolic
contraction of the heart, as well as pulse fluctuations with the resistance of a phygmonometer
and psycho-galvanic skin response by means o instrument connected electronics sensors fixed
to the person.  Each phenomena is recorded by a hallow-tube ink styles moving across
horizontally and vertically ruled being driven by a synchronous electronic motor.
 
THEORY OF POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
A conscious mental effort of a mentally normal person lie causes physiological changes within
his body. The physiological changes could be recorded by the Polygraph Instrument and
diagnosed of evaluated by the polygraph examiner.
 General Purposes of Using Polygraph:

1. Security risk – Leakage of Information Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence.

2. Criminal Law Infraction – Murder, Robbery, Theft, Rape ets.
3. Personnel Screening
4. Misconduct
5. Medical Measurements

 
Importance of Polygraph to a Law Enforcer:

1. Most effective way of establishing the truth.

2. Guilt is separated from truth (guilty separated from innocent)
3. If scientifically determined (lie) the investigator can evaluate the evidence.
4. Saves time, efforts and money
5. Measures the efficiency and effectiveness of the law enforcer.

 
Problem encountered by Law Enforcement Officer during investigation and interrogation:

1. Determination whether subject is telling the truth regarding the crime index
investigation.
2. Obtaining admission or confession from a suspect after his guilt has been
established.
 3. In cases of witnesses, informer and informant who are in possession of helpful
information who are willing but fearful or reluctant to disclose it to interrogator.

 
Qualities of a Good Examiner (Backster)

1. To make himself understand and not resented by subject, by his very exposure to
him.
2. Ability to establish or create a rapport with the subject.
3. Much investigative experience as possible.
4. Interrogation Experience.
5. Must be deeply involved in his work (even beyond the call of duty).

 
What kind of man should be conducting the Polygraph Test? (Fred Inbau)

1. Good educational background

2. Intelligent and some degree of maturity
3. Possessed with sense of values
4. Adequate perid of training under someone who is experienced and skilled in the
technique.

 
LIMITATIONS OF POLYGRAPH:

1. It is an invaluable investigative aid, but never a substitute for investigation. 

2. It is not a lie detector; it is a scientific diagnostic instrument.
3. It does not determine facts, it record responses to that which the subject knows to
be true.
4. It is only as accurate as the examiner is competent.
5. The test will not be given until enough facts have been established to permit the
examiner to prepare a complete set of suitable questions.
6. The test will not be given without the voluntary consent of the subject.
7. No indication will be given to any person or placed in any report that a person will
be considered guilty because he refused to take the test.
8. A test will not be given until the accusations have been explained with the subject.
9. No attempt to use Polygraph for mental or physical evaluation of any person.
10. No examination will be conducted on unfit subject.

 
BARRIERS TO POLYGRAPH EXAMINATION
There are instances where it is impossible to make an analysis of polygraph tests because of the
following:
 

1. Pathological liar (a person who cannot determine right and wrong).

2. Mental cases.
3. Persons under the influence of intoxicating liquor.
4. Narcotics related cases.
5. Various heart and other organic troubles.

 
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR
THE 25% ERRORS OF THE LIE DETECTOR TEST
Nevousness or extreme emotional tension experienced by a subject who is telling the truth
regarding the offense in question but who is nevertheless affected by:

o apprehension induced by the mere fact that suspicionor accusation has
been directed against him.
o Apprehension over the possibility of an inaccurate lie detector test
result.
o Over-anxiety to cooperate in order to assure an accurate test result.
o Apprehension concerning possible physical hurt from the instrument.
o Anger resentment over having to take a lie detector test.
o Over-anxiety regarding serious personal problems unrelated to the
offense under investigation.
o Previous extensive interrogation, especially when accompanied by
physical abuse.
o A guilt complex or fear of detection regarding some other offense which
he had committed.

 
Physiological abnormalities such as:

 Excessively high or excessive low blood pressure.

 Diseases of the heart.
 Respiratory disorder.

Mental Abnormalities such as;

 Feeblemindedness as in idiots, imbeciles and morons.

  Psychosis or insanities, as in maniac-depressives, paranoids, schizophrenia, paretics,
etc.
 Pschoneurosis and psychopathia, as among the so-called “peculiar” or emotionally
unstable persons – those who are neither psychotic or normal.

Unresponsiveness in a lying or guilty subject because of:

 No fear of detection.
 Apparent inability to consciously control response by means of certain mental sets
of attitudes.
 A condition of “sub-shock” or “adrenal exhaustion” at the time of test.
 Raionalization of the crime in advance of the test to such an extent that lying about
the offense arouses little or no emotional disturbance.
 Extensive interrogation prior to the test.

 
Attempt to “beat the machine” by controlled breathing or by muscular flexing.
Unobserved application of muscular pressure which produces ambiguities and misleading
indications in the blood pressure tracing.
POLYGRAPHY

QUESTION FORMULATION AND TEST CONSTRUCTION

NATURE OF TEST QUESTIONS:
Formulating the questions to be used in the polygraph test is a critical part of the whole
test procedure. Let us bear in mind that all questions must be framed in words or terminology
that are most familiar to the subject. Hence, medium of the test depends on the subject’s
understanding of the language used. We know for a fact that the Philippines is a nation of so
many spoken dialects, aside from being a multi-lingual state, illiterates or less literates of the
mountain Province cannot be interrogated in English of the Visayan vernacular. Neither can the
uneducated farmer in the Visayan region e interrogated in English or Spanish of the Maranao
dialect, nor the unschooled Ilongo in Ilocano dialect. Great consideration must be observed
when local dialect be employed as media for test procedure. If the subject cannot simply
understand English, favor can be extended to him by using his spoken language, so must the
examiner adjust to said situation. The greatest problem may now be the Translation into English
for record and future references, if it all necessary in criminal investigation.
Another important nature of the test questions is that they must be worded in order to
get a definite “yes” or “no” answer. Questions of this kind must not be keyed to give out
possible reasons and probably counter-questions be the subject. Remember that any indecision
on the part of the subject during the test might be reflected in the chart as an emotional
disturbance. Therefore, questions must be kept as brief and yet as simple as possible to
eliminate reactions due to prejudice and apprehensiveness.
There are some differences of opinion as to whether the actual questions should be read
to the subject previous to the test. In fact, it does not make a great deal of difference in most
cases. If there is a great deal of nervous tension to overcome it may be better to read the
questions. If the subject has had previous tests he knows about what the questions are going to
be anyway.
Therefore, the polygraph test questions must be formulated so that they will pose a
threat to the security of the guilty (about his lies) and the innocent (pertaining to this
truthfulness) because by his process each will focus his attention on specific questions in the
test construction.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE RELEVANT-IRRELEVANT TEST

The methodology employed by Larson and Keeler in 1942 was the Relevant-irrelevant
Test. The theory behind this test is that guilt reaction occurs only when relevant questions are
asked, while not in the innocent. This early technique however, failed to account for the quilt
complex reaction, general nervous tension, strong outside issues and non-reactors.
In 1946, several Examiners successfully developed the Relevant-Irrelevant with the
Insertion of an embarrassing personal question not only to determine the reactivity of the
subject but also to stimulate the innocent ones. However, this technique failed to evaluate truth
and deception because both the innocent and the guilty reacted to the embarrassing
questions. It was embarrassing too.
In 1948, Reid an Inbau improves this technique with the surprise control question to
stimulate the innocent and to prove contrast for the guilty. Like the earlier technique, it failed to
determine general nervous tension, quilt complex reactors and other strong outside issues.
From 1950 to 1953, they developed this technique with the addition of reviewed control
(known lie) and guilt questions, Although the test stimulate the innocent, identify the general
nervous tension and guilt complex and determine contrast between the innocent and the bulky,
it still failed to identify outside issues.
In 1960, Cleeve Backster developed the Zone Comparison Techniques. The basis was of
psychological set: a) provision of constant monitoring of subjects reactivity, b) designation to
disclose outside issues.
 Inbau and Reid, in the years that follow, modifies their technique, this time by
eliminating some questions and replacing them evidence – connecting relevant questions etc.

GENERAL RULES ON QUESTION FORMULATION

Of great importance to polygraph examination, is the formulation of test questions.
As previously pointed out, in the Nature of Test questions, formulation varies from case
to case. The information supplying theses questions emanates from the investigators handling
the case, from the statements of witnesses or the subject himself, the official and professional
records, interviews and other resource agencies.

The following are the general rules:

1. Questions must be simple and direct.
2. They must not involve legal terminology; e.g. Rape, Assault, Murder, etc.
3. They must be answerable by “YES” or “NO” and should be short as possible.
4. Their meaning must be clear and unmistakable and phrased in language the subject
easily understand.
5. They must not be in a formed of accusation.
6. They must never contain an influence which presupposes knowledge on the part of
the subject.
7. All questions must refer to only one element of an offense.
8. They must not contain influences to one’s religion, race or belief.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF TEST QUESTIONS

In every criminal investigation, there is no prescribed standard operational questioning
of subjects in any given case. In order to acquire knowledge of the case, full appreciation and or
study of various types of question is a must for every investigator or examiner.
Hence, in polygraph, the following are the different types of question used fort est
construction.
A. RELEVANT QUESTION- (or critical) are the primary or key questions asked
by the examiner in order to resolve a specific subject-matter. It is further classified according
to0 its stimulation effect when applied, namely:
1. Strong relevant or primary relevant questions are relevant questions which have an
intense and specific relationship to the crime or problem being considered. These
are intended to produce strong emotional response in guilty subjects

Examples:
 Did you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?
 Did you steal anything from Hazel’s house?
2. Secondary or Weak Relevant- are questions that concern some secondary elements
of the crime and deal mostly on guilty knowledge and partial involvement:

Example:
 Do you know where the missing wristwatch of Hazel’s is now?

Further, the weak relevant is classified into the following:

2.1 . Sacrifice Relevant or DYAT questions (Do you intend to Answer

Truthfully) are designed to absorb the response generally generated by the
introduction of the first relevant question in the series. Reaction to these
questions gives the examiner a clue as to subject’s attitude of willingness or
voluntariness to submit to the test.

Example: Regarding the stolen wristwatch, you intend truthfully to answer

each question about that?

2.2. Knowledge question. This type of question is propounded to the subject

to prove whether he possesses the information leading to the identification
of the offender or the location of the evidence.
Example: Do you know for sure who stole the wristwatch of Hazel?
N.B. At this instance, the phrase “for sure” is included to eliminate further
suspicion just in case the subject knew the offender the location of evidence
but is only hesitant to answer “yes”.
2.3. Evidence-connecting Question-this has to do with inviting subject’s
attention on the probability of incriminating proof that would tend to
establish his guilt, by linking him and his predicaments to the fingerprints,
footprints, tool marks, etc. collected at the crime scene.
Example: Were the footprints outside the house of Hazel’s yours?
B. IRRELEVANT QUESTIONS: After the subject has been interviewed, it is the primary
duty of the examiner to prepare and arrange several types of questions to be asked
during what kind of Question Test.

Of no importance to the case under investigation, but of great significance to

controlling fatigue, nervousness and discomfiture of the subject, irrelevant or
neutral questions must precede the relevant ones. Some of them may form like
this:

 1. Did you eat today?

 2. Do you smoke?
 3. Are you wearing brown leather shoes now?
 4. Is the cigarette you smoke a Marlboro brand?
 5. Do you live in General Junquera St.?

Neutral questions are always entertained in the polygraph interrogation with

the intention to relieve or normalize the fear of subject’s nervousness or his
discomfort due to constant blood pressure cuff pressing. If the Subject is halfway
telling the truth, or has told a lie successfully, irrelevant questions help neutralize
mental effort of perceiving what he said of the falsity of his recent answer.
Care must be taken into consideration in formulating the irrelevant question
because its primary purpose is to help the subject converse his ability to respond
and to ascertain his normal reaction under testing condition. Question such as
this, “Is your name Juan?” must be avoided because it may evoke emotionally
reaction it happens to be alias or not his own nickname. The best way to
formulate question is to rephrase it,” have you ever been called by the name
Juan?”
An incident occurred with the above when the question “Are you wearing
rubber shoes now?” evoked a high reaction, due to the fact that the shoes worn
by the subject was only borrowed. Changing it with another irrelevant as “Do you
smoke?” eliminated the unusual disturbance in the subject’s norm.
C. CONTROL QUESTION ( PROBABLY LIE)- These are questions based on a known lie
made by the subject about denying having done something which is verified or
known to be true. Control questions have two kinds:
 1. Primary Control Question-recalls the offense done from the time of childhood
up to three to five years before the occurrence of the present offense being
investigated.

Example: Before reaching the age of 25, have you ever stolen anything?

2. The secondary Control Question-more specific in nature, is based upon another

species of wrong doing which will enhance the subject’s opportunity for
responsiveness. Its scope includes up to the present period of examination.
Example: Have you ever stolen anything from this locality?

The formulation of both types of control questions necessity reasonable certainly that
the subject’s answers are lie.

D. GUILT COMPLEX QUESTIONS. This refers to the questions which safeguard against
mistaking relevant question response of the guilt complex reactor as deception
responses, and is based on a fictitious crime situation closely parallel and equal in
weight to the actual crime under investigation, so that the guilty can be sure de did
not commit it.

Example: Did you steal that gold coin collection?

Remember that the stealing of the gold coin collection was not actually committed
because the alleged crime investigated was the loss of the precious wristwatch of
Hazel.

E. SYMPTOMATIC QUESTION: Its function is to detect and evaluate the presence of

outside issues which may suppress response to relevant questions. This is often true
that subject fear they might be asked about another cases in which that are
involved, but are not the subject-matter investigation.

Example: Are you completely convinced that I will not ask any question on this test
that has not already been reviewed?
 F. “S” “K” “Y” QUESTIONS
S- stands for SUSPECT; K-means KNOWLEDGE; Y-refers to “you” as the subject.

These three questions grouped together by Backster confirm the previous charts
and may detect indirect involvement on guilty knowledge.

Example:
 (“S”) Do you suspect anyone in particular of stealing Hazel’s wristwatch?
 (“K”) Do you know for sure who stole Hazel’s wristwatch?
 (“Y”) Do you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?

G. PEAK OF TENSION TEST QUESTIONS: (see the succeeding pages of this type of
test questions}

HOW TO SEQUENCE TEST QUESTIONS

Polygraph examination does not only prescribe or limits its application to particular types of
questions formulated. These are various types of test constructions developed by the foremost
scholars and scientists of the polygraph such that incriminating types of questions must be
safeguard. Some of these developments are already briefly discussed in the first part of this
chapter.
Since, we already have the different types of questions and the general rules of formulating
them, our next problems will be how to sequence them for examination proper. In a case given,
the examiner must now proceed to the numbering and sequencing questions as to their
application. He must know several techniques, therefore.
The two most used techniques are the Revised Reid and Inbau Relevant-Irrelevant Test and the
Backster’s Zone Comparison Test. In order to know and compare the two test technique, it is
necessary to lay out a hypothetical or a sample case we are supposed to investigate. The case
was theft.
Let us suppose that the house of a certain Hazel, a wristwatch (amounting to 5,000.00 pesos)
was stolen. Upon noticing the loss, Hazel reported the same immediately to the nearest police
precinct. During the conduct of investigation, several footprints were found outside her
house. She suspected a very well-known thief in that locality, whom we shall call Gary. The
modus operandi applied in committing the theft bore similarly with the police records and
files of Gary, whose criminal activities specialized burglary, theft and robbery. Gary was then
confronted with suspicion, but he denied the implication that he has something to do with the
theft. The investigator was forced to apply several methods of interrogation and intense
investigation in order to get confession or admission. He denied the commission, such that he
even went to the extent of consenting to undergo polygraph examination in order to bolster
his alibis and excuses. The polygraph was resorted to.

THE REID AND INBAU TECHNIQUES: the best questions to that given case would be formulated
and sequence in this manner.
1. (Irrelevant) Have you ever been called by the name Gary?
2. (Irrelevant) Do you drink water?
3. (Weak relevant) Were you in the vicinity of Hazel’s house between
7:00-9:00 last night?
4. (Irrelevant) Are you now sitting down?
5. (Strong Relevant) Did you steal the wrist watch of Hazel?
6. (Primary Control) Before reaching the age 0f 25, have you ever stolen
anything?
7. (Irrelevant) Do you smoke?
8. (Evidence Connecting) Were the footprints outside the house of Hazel yours?
9. (Knowledge) do you know for sure who stole the wristwatch of
Hazel?
10. (Secondary Control) Have you ever stolen anything from this locality?
11. (Symptomatic) have you ever lied answering any of my questions
now?

BACKSTER’S COMPARISON TEST. This is somewhat different from the Reid and Inbau Technique.
The questions will be formulated and the test so constructed in this sequence.
1. (Irrelevant) Have you ever been called the name Gary?
2. (Sacrifice Relevant) Regarding the stolen wristwatch and gold coin
collection, do you intend to answer truthfully each
question about that?
3. (Symptomatic) Are you completely convinced that I ill not ask any
question on this test that has already been reviewed?
4. (Control) Can you remember stealing anything before you were
25 years of age?
5. (Strong Relevant) Did you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?
6. (Control) Other than what you told me, did you steal any other
things from your locality?
 7. (Strong Relevant) Did you steal the wristwatch from Hazel’s House?
8. ((Symptomatic) Is there anything else you are afraid I will ask you,
though I told you I would not?
9. (Guilt complex) Did you steal the gold coin collection?
10. (Weak Relevant) Do you where the missing wristwatch of Hazel now?
11. (“S”) Do you suspect anyone in particular of stealing
Hazel’s wristwatch?
12. (“K”) Do you for sure who stole Hazel’s wristwatch?
13. (“Y”) Did you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?

PEAK OF TENSION TEST: As in the case sample that we have, the peak of tension test can be
conducted as follows:
1. Regarding the stolen wristwatch of Hazel’s do you know it is a RADO?
2. Do you know that it is a SEIKO?
3. Do you if it is a ROLEX?
4. Do you know if it is an OMEGA?
5. Do you know if it is a CITIZEN?
6. Do you know if it is a GERARD-PERAGAUX?

If it happened that Gary exhibited specific response to question number 3, another peak of
tension test may be conducted based on how the stolen item was disposed of.
1. Do you know if it is in the custody of the theft/
2. Do you know if it is being kept by the relatives of the thief?
3. Do you if it is pawned?
4. Do you know if it was sold?
5. Do you know if it being kept by someone other than the thief?

Further, if it is so happened that he still exhibited to the number 4 question, it is also better to
conduct another peak of tension test this time about how the entrance to the house was done.
They are the following:
1. Was the entrance made through the kitchen window?
2. Was the entrance made through 1st floor dining room?
3. Was the entrance made through 2nd floor bathroom window?
4. Was the entrance made through 2nd bedroom window?
5. Was the entrance made through door on upper deck of balcony?
Since these peak of tension questions are key questions, it would be better that the example
must not give all the details of the questions to be asked during the pre-test interview so that
they can be assured of producing desired results once a guilt reaction has been detected. “The
peak of tension test is particularly valuable if all the details of the crime have been disclosed to
the subject during previous interrogation”.

TEST CONSTRUCTION
In this process, the examiner has been endeavored to the questions for further sequencing and
numbering. It is not a matter of what question should be asked but rather how the said
questions should be asked and they should be arranged according to their purpose. Key
questions preferably are not revealed to the subject during the pre-test interview. Therefore,
they may be place in the 2nd, 3rd, or 4th number.
Polygraph test require repeated testing with at least two charts containing the same sets of
questions taken from the subject. In other circumstance, four to five are recorded and analyzed
in the two charts/ But each test runs to between 4 to 6 minutes with an interval of from five to
ten minutes rest between charts.
This is true with the Reid and Inbau Technique. There are five tests to be conducted. The
foremost test consists of the series of questions as formulated.
The second test is the card or number stimulation test. This control test is employed by the
examiner for the purpose of determining the subject\s physiological norm (whether he is
comparative or not) when under tension as compared to the results of those that when the
peak of tension tests have caused. Test such as this will include the selection and denial of the
cards and their number contents respectively under the instruction of the examiner.
He (the subject) was to select a number between 1-10, write it in a place of paper and put it in
his pocket. The examiner then instructed him that he would be asked about each number while
attached to the polygraph and told to answer each question “NO” even when asked the number
he had selected and kept. The chosen number turned out to be no. 3 and note in his graph
results the rise in blood pressure in the lower tracing including the shallowness of breathing in
the upper tracing following the figure no. “3”.
The purpose of this test is not only of controlling the subject, but also of knowing his relations
to the purported lie he had to make be answering “NO” to the right number, as recorded in the
instrument. This is the most sensible test to be done since the examiner would be assured of
the subject’s active responses and cooperation to the test procedure.
If the second test proves to be unsatisfactory, the third test will serve as the repetition of the
first as formulated.
 However, if the same results were obtained, the fourth test is necessarily resorted to. It
consists of mixing or inter-changing the order of the arrangement of the questions of the first
and the third tests/ an example of the kind of the test is as follows: (refer to the sample series
given by Reid and Inbau Technique)
4. Are you now sitting down?
1. Have you ever been called by the name Gary?
5. Did you steal the wristwatch of Hazel?
6. Before reaching the age of 25, have you ever stolen anything?
2. Do you drink water?
3. Were you in the vicinity of Hazel’s house between 7:00 to 9:00 PM?
9 Do you know for sure who stole the wristwatch of Hazel?
10. Have you ever stolen anything from this locality?
7. Do you smoke?
5. Did you steal Hazel’s wristwatch?

The aim of this mixed-up question test is to check the possibility of spot response, a
response which occur in the first test but never in the third of fourth tests. The examiner has
the free hand to compare the responses noted in the relevant and control questions among the
proceeding tests. It has advantageous effects of detecting whether the reaction recorded on the
portion of the test is due to discomfiture caused by the constant pressure of the blood-pressure
cuff. However, if in the third test, the reaction in the Knowledge Questions of the Evidence-
connecting questions is greater that then the strong relevant questions, these questions are
placed in lie of the strong relevant questions in the mixed questions test.
If the mixed questions test prove to have failed in indicating subject’s truthfulness or
deception. The fifth test is given. This is the final test in the Reid and Inbau Technique. It is a
“Yes” to all questions, even if the questions asked absolutely require the “NO answers. This also
places Subject’s mind in attention to whatever questions that need the “NO” answers. And on
such a test, lying subjects will often attempt to distort the tracings on relevant questions in an
effort to make their “YES” answers look like lies. Further, the questions to be asked in this final
test should be those in the first and third tests.
In the Backster’s Zone Comparison Test, the subject is reviewed regarding all the
questions to be asked. The construction of this test is as simple as the Reid and Inbau
Technique.
 Accordingly, the first test construction consists of questions found in numbers from 1 to
10 but without “S”-“K”-“Y” questions.
Similar to Reid and Inbau Technique, the second test is administered by means of card
simulation test. The third test is also a repetition of the first, while the fourth is administered
and so constructed that the “S”-“K”-“Y” questions will be included. In case the Backster’s Zone
Comparison Test indicate deception, a probing Peak of Tension test is recommendatory very
useful.