Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Review
Electronic Cigarettes’ Toxicity: From Periodontal Disease
to Oral Cancer
Alexandra Jităreanu 1, Luminița Agoroaei 1,†, Ovidiu Dumitru Aungurencei 2,†, Ancuța Goriuc 3,*,
Diana Diaconu Popa 4,*, Carmen Savin 5, Ioana‐Cezara Caba 1, Simona Tătărușanu 6, Bianca Profire 7
and Ioana Mârțu 4
1 Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”,
700115 Iași, Romania; jitareanu.alexandra@umfiasi.ro (A.J.); luminita.agoroaei@umfiasi.ro (L.A.);
ioana‐cezara.caba@umfiasi.ro (I.‐C.C.)
2 Department of Odontology‐Periodontology, Faculty of Dental Medicine,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania;
ovidiu.aungurencei@umfiasi.ro
3 Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania
4 Department of Dental Technology, Faculty of Dental Medicine,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania; ioana.martu@umfiasi.ro
5 Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Faculty of Dental Medicine,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania; carmen.savin@umfiasi.ro
6 Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania;
simona‐maria.v.rotariu@d.umfiasi.ro
7 Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine,
University of Medicine and Pharmacy “Grigore T. Popa”, 700115 Iași, Romania;
bianca‐stefania.m.profire@students.umfiasi.ro
Citation: Jităreanu, A.; Agoroaei, L; * Correspondence: ancuta.goriuc@umfiasi.ro (A.G.); antonela.diaconu@umfiasi.ro (D.D.P.)
Aungurencei, O.D.; Goriuc, A; † Authors with equal contribution as the first author.
Popa, D.D.; Savin, C.; Caba, I.‐C.;
Tătăru, S.; Profire, B.; Mârțu I. Abstract: Electronic nicotine delivery systems first appeared on the market in 2003 and have been
Electronic Cigarettes’ Toxicity: From promoted as healthier alternatives to conventional tobacco cigarettes. The rapid evolution of tech‐
Periodontal Disease to Oral Cancer. nology for these products generated a wide variety of models, and electronic cigarettes have quickly
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742. gained worldwide popularity. However, research regarding the effects of both short‐term and long‐
https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209742 term exposure revealed a wide variety of potential negative effects on human health, and the first
system to be affected by these electronic smoking devices is the oral cavity. This review makes an
Academic Editor: Oleh Andrukhov
up‐to‐date extensive presentation of the possible mechanisms that associate electronic cigarette
smoking with increased prevalence and progression of oral cancer. Oxidative stress, inflammation
Received: 30 September 2021
response, and DNA damage are the main mechanisms that explain e‐cigarettes’ cytotoxicity, but
Accepted: 15 October 2021
there are still questions to be answered. At present, tens of thousands of e‐liquids are available, with
Published: 19 October 2021
distinct compositions, which makes the research even more challenging. Another aspect ap‐
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐ proached in the present paper is the effect of nicotine on chemotherapy drug resistance. Nicotine
tral with regard to jurisdictional activates nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, consecutively inhibiting apoptosis, increasing tumor
claims in published maps and insti‐ cells proliferation and survival, and reducing the effects of chemotherapy drugs.
tutional affiliations.
Keywords: chemoresistance; e‐cigarette; mechanism; nicotine; oral cancer
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. 1. Introduction
This article is an open access article
Electronic nicotine delivery systems have been on the market for almost two decades.
distributed under the terms and con‐
In a short period, they became very popular, because their marketing strategies empha‐
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐
tribution (CC BY) license (http://cre‐
sized the ideas of safety and harm reduction in comparison to traditional tobacco prod‐
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
ucts. Today, there is extensive evidence of potential health concerns of vaping [1].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11209742 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 2 of 19
Electronic cigarettes are battery‐operated and they consist of a metal heating element,
a cartridge, an atomizer, and a battery. The heating mechanism vaporizes the e‐liquid,
and the formed vapors are inhaled by the user. The used e‐liquids are glycerol/propylene
glycol‐based solutions that contain nicotine and flavorings [2].
The evaluation of the toxicological profile of e‐liquids and e‐vapors is quite difficult
because of the lack of knowledge about their chemical composition, and exposure also
depends on the device’s characteristics, such as voltage and temperature [3].
The focus of this review is on the impact of electronic cigarette use on oral health
because the oral cavity is the first and one of the most affected systems in the human body.
There are many unknown aspects related to the long‐term effects of e‐cigarettes on the
oral cavity, and a better understanding of these effects can increase awareness in the gen‐
eral population, but also help specialists in the monitoring and treatment of dental pa‐
tients. This subject is of great interest because vaping is becoming a major public health
problem worldwide, especially among young people, and the safety of smoking electronic
devices is questionable.
The literature search for the present study was conducted in PubMed and Web of
Science.
2. Effects of Electronic Cigarettes on the Oral Cavity
The oral cavity, the first system in the human body in direct contact with the vapors
produced by electronic cigarettes, is very exposed to the negative effects of vaping (Figure
1). The evidence of a direct link between e‐cigarettes smoking and oral diseases (perio‐
dontal disease and oral cancer) is not easily obtained, because these harmful effects can
be assessed after a long period of exposure, and chronic diseases (like periodontitis and
cancer) need several years until the clinical symptoms appear [1].
Figure 1. Effects of electronic cigarettes on oral cavity.
There are a few clinical studies addressing the direct impact of vaping on the oral
cavity [4]. In one cross‐sectional analysis performed by Huilgol et al., a link between poor
oral health, increased odds of permanent tooth loss and daily use of e‐cigarettes was ob‐
served [5]. Additionally, electronic cigarette users reported adverse events like dry mouth,
sensitive teeth, mouth ulcers [6]. Another study that is often cited as evidence for the
harmful effects of vaping refers to the increase in gingival bleeding that appeared when a
group of smokers switched to e‐cigarettes [7].
When it comes to evaluating clinical (plaque index, bleeding on probing, probing
pocket depth, clinical attachment loss) and radiographic parameters of periodontal in‐
flammation, the evidence suggested that the risks of developing periodontal disease were
lower in e‐cigarette users in comparison with conventional tobacco smokers, but higher
than for non‐smokers [8–10].
With regard to subjectively evaluating the clinical effects of electronic cigarettes on
oral health, there are a few aspects that make this task challenging. One of the most im‐
portant is related to the period required by several chronic diseases to develop, as men‐
tioned above, while the popularity of these devices started to grow only within 5 to 10
years. To have a clear image, decades might be necessary until extended epidemiological
studies could precisely estimate the impact of electronic cigarettes. Furthermore, many
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 3 of 19
electronic cigarette users are former conventional tobacco smokers or dual users, therefore
it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of traditional and electronic cigarettes [4].
Cancer represents a leading cause of death, and its incidence and mortality are rap‐
idly escalating worldwide. In 2020, 377,713 new cases of oral cancer were recorded glob‐
ally (according to GLOBOCAN). Several of the risk factors for cancer are associated with
socioeconomic development and with human behavior, and epidemiological studies have
reported that smoking is a major etiological factor for oral cancer [11,12].
Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) combines several cellular and biochemical al‐
terations, accompanied by clinical modifications, affecting the morphology and function
of the epithelium of the oral mucosa. Sometimes, this is preceded by white, red, or mixed
mucosal changes, known as oral potentially malignant disorders (OPMDs). In the cate‐
gory of OPMDs are included oral lichen planus (OLP), leukoplakia (LPK), and oral sub‐
mucous fibrosis (OSF). The malignant transformation rate for OLP was 1.1–1.63%, 0.13–
17.9% for LPK, and 7.6% for OSF. Habitual usage of different types of tobacco products
(including smokeless tobacco) is associated with a higher risk of oral potentially malig‐
nant disorders and is an important etiological factor for oral cancer [13].
Periodontal disease affects the supporting tissues of the teeth and is characterized by
chronic inflammation status. There is a potential link between periodontal disease and
oral cancer, and one mechanism that can explain this connection is particularly the chronic
inflammation status associated with periodontal disease, which can affect normal cell
growth control and induce carcinogenesis. Some studies confirm a relationship between
periodontal disease and oral cancer [14,15].
Numerous microbial species colonize the oral cavity and form the oral microbiome.
It is a well‐known fact that cigarette smoking is a major factor for the alteration of the
eubiotic balance, and there is also evidence that vaping can affect the profile of the oral
microbiome, although the studies on this issue are still scarce. Dysbiosis can be character‐
ized by the alteration of microbial diversity, with the loss of beneficial microorganisms,
and excessive proliferation of the pathogenic microbes. This unbalance can reduce the
host’s ability to fight pathogens and increase the susceptibility to infections, and to car‐
cinogenic compounds [4,16,17]. In consequence, dysbiosis is associated with the initiation
and progression of various oral diseases (dental caries, halitosis, periodontitis, and oral
cancer) [16,18].
Tissue damage, as a result of vaping, cannot only affect the integrity of gingival tissue
but can also potentiate inflammatory responses, as well as setting up an optimal environ‐
ment for bacterial growth. Pushalkar et al. investigated the effects of electronic cigarette
aerosols on the human salivary microbiome and found that e‐vapors exposure was linked
to a higher abundance of periodontal pathogens. The proliferation of Veillonella and Por‐
phyromonas was significantly higher in e‐cigarette users, in comparison with conventional
smokers and nonsmokers, and it was accompanied by high levels of proinflammatory cy‐
tokines [19].
Ganesan et al. revealed that the changes that appeared in the microbiome and the
differences in bacterial biofilm production and architecture are more likely to be caused
by the glycerol and propylene glycol present in e‐liquids and not by nicotine. These sugar
alcohols can become a source of nutrients for bacteria. They also discovered high virulence
signatures, and proinflammatory signals in clinically healthy e‐cigarette users, and they
emphasize the fact that pathogenetic mechanisms associated with e‐cigarette use might
be different from conventional cigarettes [20].
Oral microbiome alterations can be linked to the appearance of periodontitis and
even oral cancer. Periodontal pathogens (S. anginosus, C. gingivalis, P. melaninogenica, F.
nucleatum) determine an increase in markers of systemic inflammation including C‐reac‐
tive protein, interleukin (IL)‐1, IL‐6, TNF‐alpha, and MMPs, which may lead to carcino‐
genesis [21,22]. P. gingivalis, T. denticola, and F. nucleatum promoted oral cancer migration
and aggressivity. Therefore, the concepts of periodontal pathogen‐mediated carcinogen‐
esis, as well as antimicrobial‐based cancer therapy have emerged [16–18].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 4 of 19
Furthermore, due to the direct interaction with the carcinogens from cigarette smoke
and e‐vapors, and to the fact that oral epithelium possesses xenobiotic enzymes capable
of converting proximate carcinogens to reactive metabolites, this tissue becomes a major
target for smoking/vaping‐associated cancer [23].
Oral cancer susceptibility is modulated by environmental factors and genetic altera‐
tions in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes [24], and the mechanisms involved in the
prevalence and progression of oral cancer are complex. A better understanding of this
process can help scientists develop targeted therapies, maximize the efficiency of current
drugs, but it can also have an impact on increasing awareness in the general population,
thus reducing exposure to potential risk factors.
3. Potential Mechanisms Involved in Oral Cancer Development Associated with
Electronic Cigarette Smoking
Usually, different forms of cancers share an etiology of oxidative stress associated
with inflammation, DNA damage, and disrupted immune processes. Accumulation of
mutations in genes encoding homeostatic regulators of DNA mismatch‐repair factors,
predominantly in stem cells becoming CSCs (cancer stem cells) is the leading event in
carcinogenesis. The immune system and inflammatory reactions are activated when path‐
ogens or other non‐self‐molecules enter an organism. Their role is to eliminate the threat
agent or to control systemic colonization, but the same physiological responses induce
repair mechanisms that recover the function and integrity of tissues in an organ with a
tumor [25]. In carcinogenesis, a shift from anti‐inflammatory to pro‐inflammatory path‐
ways is observed, and excessive production of inflammatory agents and cytotoxic media‐
tors (like reactive oxygen species) promotes genomic instability and neoplastic develop‐
ment. Under these circumstances, the immune system can no longer maintain cell and
tissue homeostasis (Figure 2) [26].
Figure 2. The process of carcinogenesis
3.1. Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress occurs as a state of disturbance between free radical production and
the capability of the body’s antioxidant system to counteract them. Free radicals are clas‐
sified as reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and both pos‐
sess unpaired valence electrons, which make them highly reactive. The salivary antioxi‐
dant system is one of the most critical defense mechanisms, and it consists of enzymes
(peroxidase, catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase) and other com‐
pounds, like glutathione, and vitamins E and C [26–28]. Glutathione is one of the most
important antioxidant agents, vital for protecting cells against oxygen reactive species, but
also against the reactive aldehydes found in e‐vapors. The thiol group of the glutathione
molecule reacts with the electrophilic aldehydes and forms GSH‐aldehydes adducts
(mainly GSH‐acrolein and GSH‐crotonaldehyde) [29]. When the natural defense systems
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 5 of 19
are overwhelmed, structural alterations and DNA damage can appear. The most abun‐
dant oxidative DNA lesions are considered to be 8‐oxo‐7,8‐dihydro‐2′‐deoxyguanosine (8‐
oxo‐dG), and exposure to e‐vapors is linked to a higher frequency of 8‐oxo‐dG. Chronic
oxidative stress can also cause impaired BER (base excision repair) activity, which reduces
the efficiency of DNA repair [26–28].
There is scientific evidence that smoking minimizes the antioxidants activity. Several
studies indicated that the reactivity of oxidants/reactive oxygen species found in e‐ciga‐
rette aerosols is comparable to the one in conventional cigarette smoke (7 × 1011 free radi‐
cals/puff for e‐cigarette vapors compared to 1014 in cigarette smoke), and that chronic ex‐
posure can cause systemic oxidant–antioxidant imbalance [26,29–31]. The components
from e‐cigarette aerosols have the ability to disturb the function of the mitochondrial res‐
piratory chain complexes, and mitochondrial malfunction is a key element in acute and
chronic cellular stress [32]. Furthermore, the reorganization of the extracellular matrix and
the disruption of collagen biosynthesis can be triggered by prolonged inflammation and
oxidative stress [27]. Oxidative stress also increased the expression of pro‐apoptotic pro‐
teins, with a more pronounced effect seen for nicotine‐containing e‐liquids (Figure 3) [33].
Figure 3. Oxidative stress implications
3.2. Inflammatory Response
The concept of inflammation‐associated tumorigenesis has attracted the interest of
several research teams in recent years. A complex inflammatory cascade and a high pro‐
duction of cytokines can be linked to several oral cavity diseases, from periodontal disease
to oral cancer. Cytokines are important regulators of the immune processes, involved in
inducing growth, proliferation, and differentiation of normal cells, in inflammation and
tumorigenesis. Increased inflammatory reactions can lead to the alteration of the mucosal
epithelium, which can respond to external aggression through morphological adaptations
(keratinization, metaplasia) [34]. The cytokines that are most commonly assessed in saliva
are IL‐6, IL‐8, IL‐1β, and TNF‐α. Their salivary levels are also linked to predicting the
prognosis and progression of precancerous lesions [34]. High IL‐8 levels may promote
carcinogenesis due to its ability to induce cell proliferation and promote DNA damage,
but also by upregulating gene transcription and activity of metalloproteinase‐2. By stim‐
ulating the activity of collagenases, IL8 is also associated with metastasis and enhanced
tumor cells invasion in healthy tissues [24].
In inducing oncogenic inflammatory conditions, STAT3 signaling is a major intrinsic
pathway, involved in the initiation and progression of malignant transformation. It is fre‐
quently activated in cancer cells and capable of inducing a large number of genes encod‐
ing for inflammation. STAT3 hyperactivation may be due to two molecular events, one is
constitutive activation by cytokine stimulation and the other is loss of SOCS (suppressor
of cytokine signaling) proteins expression [35].
To better understand the effect of electronic cigarettes on oral tissues, Sundar et al.
showed that exposure to e‐vapors with flavorings caused increased carbonyl stress and
inflammatory cytokine release in human periodontal ligament fibroblasts, human gingi‐
val epithelium progenitors pooled, and epi‐gingival 3D epithelium. Increased levels of
prostaglandin‐E2, cyclooxygenase‐2, and IL‐8 were observed [2].
TNF‐α is another promoter in the process of carcinogenesis, and Faridoun analyzed
in a pilot study the salivary levels of TNF‐α in the group of electronic cigarette smokers
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 6 of 19
were significantly higher than in the control group, despite the lack of tobacco combustion
[34].
To gain insights into the mechanism by which smoking could affect oral cancer cells,
and tumor invasion and metastasis, Allam et al. examined the collagen degrading ability
and MMP (matrix metalloproteinase) production of two lines of oral carcinoma cells (met‐
astatic and non‐metastatic) exposed to cigarette smoke condensate. There is clear evidence
of the connection between tumor progression and metastases and the expression and ac‐
tivity of MMP‐2 and MMP‐9 because one of the key elements in the metastatic cascade is
the degradation of collagen, which disrupts the extracellular matrix and basement mem‐
branes. The conclusion of the study was that continued smoking in oral cancer patients
can enhance the metastatic potential of cancer cells, reducing the survival rates [12].
3.3. DNA Damage and Genotoxic Mechanism
Genotoxicity and DNA damage are linked to the malignant transformation of normal
cells. Alanazi et al. demonstrated that electronic cigarettes affect periodontal tissue by in‐
hibiting the proliferation of human gingival fibroblasts through apoptotic mechanisms.
Cell proliferation is a key process for tissue repair. Cell apoptosis was investigated by
DNA fragmentation using the TUNEL assay. Exposure to e‐vapor condensate also led to
altered fibroblasts’ morphology. These effects were also visible for nicotine‐free e‐liquids,
pointing to the conclusion that other compounds, besides nicotine, present a toxic poten‐
tial to the cells [36].
Willershausen et al. also studied the viability and proliferation of human periodontal
fibroblasts exposed to e‐liquids, and they observed that the highest reduction in the pro‐
liferation rate was observed for menthol flavored liquids, pointing to the cytotoxic poten‐
tial of some additives [37]. In another study, Yu et al. conclusively linked e‐cigarettes to
DNA breakage, regardless of nicotine concentration. The accumulation of double‐strand
breaks is suggestive of the carcinogenic potential of e‐cigarettes. Increased rates of G1 and
G2 arrest were observed among exposed cells, reducing the intervention of homologous
recombination, a higher‐fidelity double‐strand breaks repair mechanism primarily active
in the S phase [38].
One assay used for the noninvasive assessment of chromosomal instability, genomic
damage, and oral cell death is the buccal micronucleus cytome assay, indicating an ele‐
vated risk of carcinogenesis. Micronuclei, extra‐nuclear structures produced during cell
division containing chromosomes fragments, are important for chromosomal aberrations
biomonitoring, both structural or numerical, while binucleation is related to defects in
cytokinesis [39].
Different studies demonstrated the genotoxic potential of nicotine. Nicotine‐induced
micronuclei formation in human gingival fibroblasts and in human primary parotid gland
cells. A higher frequency of micronuclei can be associated with a higher risk of cancer
[40,41]. However, in a cytological study that assessed the prevalence of micronuclei in oral
cavity cells, there were no significant alterations in the micronuclei distribution in e‐ciga‐
rette users in comparison to nonsmokers [33].
Nicotine exposed cells presented increased comet tail length and γ‐H2AX foci, signs
of increased DNA strand breaks [2]. Nicotine can induce the over‐expression of human
telomerase reverse transcriptase mRNA in oral keratinocytes, which may play a role in
the progression and malignancy of oral submucous fibrosis. This aspect is important be‐
cause approximately 7–13% of patients with oral submucous fibrosis will eventually pro‐
gress to oral squamous cell carcinoma [42].
Deregulations of the cell cycle are considered a fundamental hallmark of cancer pro‐
gression. In oral carcinoma, several deregulations in cell cycle regulatory protein are fre‐
quently seen, and they stimulate carcinogenesis. The abrogation of cell cycle regulatory
proteins such as retinoblastoma tumor suppressor protein (pRB), cyclin D1, cyclin‐de‐
pendent kinase (CDKs), and CDK inhibitors (p12WAF1/CIP1, p27KIP1, and p16INK4a)
occurs in response to stress (both extracellular and intracellular) and DNA damage [13].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 7 of 19
When the regulation of genes and associated molecular pathways involved in crucial
cellular functions (growth control and differentiation) were analyzed using RNA‐se‐
quencing, a significant number of aberrantly expressed transcripts were identified in e‐
cigarette smokers. The Wnt/Ca+ pathway and the Rho family GTPases signaling pathway
were the most affected. In e‐cigarette users the activators of the Wnt/Ca+ signaling path‐
way (the tumor suppressor WNT5A gene and the frizzled receptor FDZ7 gene) were
down‐regulated, this causing the inhibition of downstream effectors of the cascade. The
GTPase family regulates a wide range of biological processes (reorganization of the actin
cytoskeleton, transcriptional regulation, vesicle trafficking, morphogenesis, neutrophil ac‐
tivation, phagocytosis, mitogenesis, apoptosis, tumorigenesis). Rho GTPases may play an
important role in the DNA damage response following genotoxin treatment, and these
GTPases regulate structures of the nuclear cytoskeleton, assuring the temporal and spatial
distribution of DNA repair factors at the site of damage [23,33].
The presence of aldehydes in e‐vapors can also explain the delay or inhibition in
DNA repair. Acrolein inhibits nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, and mis‐
match repair, and it reduces the unscheduled DNA synthesis that usually occurs after
DNA damage [43].
Sundar et al. showed that e‐cigarette aerosols exposure produces in gingival epithe‐
lium persistent DNA damage via RAGE‐HDAC2‐dependent mechanisms [2].
3.4. Genetic and Epigenetic Alterations
The transition from a normal cell to a cancer cell is a multistep process and is usually
based on the accumulation of genetic alterations. Cancer progression appears when the
alterations occur for the genes that regulate cell proliferation and apoptosis, but also an‐
giogenesis and metastasis. Gene function can be altered in different ways: oncogenes can
be activated by mutation or amplification and tumor suppressor genes may be inactivated
by mutation, deletion, or methylation. In oral cancer, there are some genetic alterations
found with a high frequency: the inactivation of TP53 (located at 17p13), the gain of chro‐
mosomal material at 3q26, and 11q13, and losses at 3p21, 13q21, and 14q32. In many cases,
the tumor suppressor genes or oncogenes still need to be identified. Alterations like allelic
losses at 3p, 9q, and 17p were observed in dysplastic lesions and were associated with
early markers of carcinogenesis. However, early genetic changes are not necessarily cor‐
related with altered morphology [44].
The initiation and evolution of oral cancer represent a cascade of complex processes,
where both coding and non‐coding genes are involved. Therefore, the identification of
clinically relevant Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC)‐specific circRNAs (circular
RNAs) and the examination of their function and regulatory effects on OSCC are crucial
to understanding the disease. circRNAs can regulate several cancer‐associated pathways,
and ultimately the malignancy of tumor cells. Understanding these processes can be used
for the design of more effective anticancer therapies for patients with OSCC, increasing
survival [45].
circRNA expression levels were compared in OSCC and healthy oral mucosa tissues
using high‐throughput, next‐generation RNA sequencing technology, and a circRNA de‐
rived from the gene encoding pleckstrin homology domain‐interacting protein (circPHIP)
was characterized. Su et al. revealed that circPHIP acts as a ceRNA (competitive endoge‐
nous RNAs), regulating OSCC cells by adsorbing microRNA miR‐142‐5p, which not only
displayed strong binding to circPHIP in oral cancer cell lines (SCC15 and CAL27) but also
played an important role in the progression and metastasis of oral squamous cell carci‐
noma. The study indicated that circPHIP is highly expressed in both OSCC tissues and
cell lines, and it can act as an oncogene in OSCC, due to its involvement in upregulating
the expression of PHIP and alpha‐actinin 4 (ACTN4), which are driver genes in OSCC
development. circPHIP regulated PHIP expression and, in consequence, affected the ma‐
lignant behavior of OSCC. Moreover, the overexpression of PHIP and ACTN4 is associ‐
ated with the activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling. The circPHIP/miR‐142‐5p/PHIP‐
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 8 of 19
ACTN4 axis can be at the basis of developing new strategies for targeted therapies for
OSCC [46].
The term epigenetics refers to the analysis of changes in gene function that are mitot‐
ically and/or meiotically heritable and that do not involve a modification in DNA se‐
quence. These modifications directly affect gene expression. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are
small RNA molecules that have the ability to regulate gene expression after transcription,
by either inhibiting mRNA translation or by degrading mRNA. These molecules intervene
in many cellular, physiological, developmental, and pathological processes, including
cancer initiation, progression, apoptosis, invasion, and metastasis. It is appreciated that
about 50% of human genes are regulated by miRNAs. Dysregulations of microRNA have
been reported in many types of cancers, including oral cancer. They play an important
role in human natural killer cell function, epithelial–mesenchymal transition, and sup‐
pression of cell migration and invasion in cancer [34,47].
Solleti et al. identified 578 miRNAs dysregulated by e‐cigarette exposure (non‐vapor‐
ized liquids) in human lung epithelial cells, and 125 miRNA affected by vaporized e‐cig‐
arette liquids. The data collected during the study showed that e‐liquids with nicotine
exhibited a greater influence on miRNA expression [48]. Sewer et al. performed a meta‐
analysis and identified several key miRNAs (e.g., miR‐125b‐5p, miR‐132‐3p, miR‐99a‐5p,
and miR‐146a‐5p) that could potentially serve as biomarkers of response to nicotine‐con‐
taining products exposure in human aerodigestive epithelial tissues. Their analysis also
revealed that e‐vapor products produce smaller changes in miRNA expression than ex‐
posure to conventional cigarette smoke [49]. The microRNAs profile of plasma exosomes
showed both similarities and differences between cigarette smokers and electronic ciga‐
rette users. This is understandable because there are both similarities (eq. nicotine) and
differences (eq. combustion byproducts) between cigarette smoke and e‐vapors. Singh et
al. identified 17 microRNA dysregulated significantly in comparison to nonsmokers, and
24 significant microRNAs between cigarette smokers and nonsmokers. The differences
between the epigenetic alterations associated with smoking and the ones associated with
vaping were represented by 9 microRNAs (hsa‐miR‐365a‐3p, hsa‐miR‐1299, hsa‐miR‐532‐
5p, hsa‐miR‐30e‐5p, hsa‐miR‐2355‐5p, hsa‐miR‐362‐5p, hsa‐miR‐193b‐3p, hsa‐miR‐186‐
5p, hsa‐miR‐144‐5p) that were altered significantly in electronic‐cigarette users versus
conventional cigarette smokers, when they analyzed plasma exosomes [47].
At present, there are still questions unanswered regarding the implication of these
epigenetic biomarkers in the etiology of vaping‐associated diseases, in evaluating the rel‐
ative risks of vaping compared to smoking, and to what extent these epigenetic changes
are influenced by the differences in the chemical composition of e‐liquids, especially the
addition of flavor agents [50].
4. Chemical Composition of e‐Liquids and Vapors and the Implications in
Oral Carcinogenesis
Electronic cigarettes functioning involves heating a mixture of propylene glycol,
glycerol, nicotine, and different flavoring agents to produce vapors that are inhaled. All
these ingredients potentially contribute to adverse oral health outcomes. Although the e‐
liquids used for electronic cigarettes have a simple composition in comparison with tra‐
ditional tobacco products, e‐cigarettes were found to be a source of toxic and potentially
carcinogenic tobacco‐specific nitrosamines, tobacco alkaloids, and nicotine decomposition
products, aromatic amines, heavy metals, and carbonyl compounds (Figure 4) [51].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 9 of 19
Figure 4. Carcinogens found in e‐cigarettes’ liquids and vapors
4.1. Nicotine
Nicotine remains one of the main components responsible for the toxicity of elec‐
tronic cigarettes. Nicotine represents a significant source of concern, because 45% of the
nicotine released from e‐cigarettes is deposited in the oral cavity, and its concentrations
in saliva are 10.5 times higher than those in plasma [1]. Nicotine can be found in the saliva
of all tobacco products users, and its absorption is closely connected to the salivary pH.
More alkaline saliva determines higher rates of nicotine absorption [41].
E‐liquids with nicotine demonstrated a higher degree of cytotoxicity in comparison
to nicotine‐free samples. In one study, human gingival fibroblasts exposed to nicotine pre‐
sented vacuolization of cytoplasm, the endoplasmic reticulum was heavily dilated, and
the mitochondria were also affected. These changes in the morphology of the cells are
considered a sign of lysosome metabolism alteration, impairing the digestive capacity.
Nicotine is a lysosomotropic amine, that accumulates into lysosomes, and it raises the pH
above the optimum level for hydrolases activity. By affecting intracellular autophagy, nic‐
otine alters the cell’s capacity to degrade dysfunctional and unnecessary components, a
skill that is essential for cell survival [52].
There is evidence that nicotine may directly promote carcinogenesis by stimulating
lesion development, angiogenesis, and by inhibiting apoptosis [53,54].
Nicotine is metabolized into cotinine and nitrosamines. Nitrosamines are com‐
pounds that lead to the appearance of methylation intermediates in DNA. Nicotine and
NNK (nicotine‐derived nitrosamine ketone) also activate serine/threonine kinase Akt, a
member of the oncogene families involved in tumorigenesis. Alterations in Akt activity
modify vital cellular processes (glucose metabolism and protein synthesis, cell growth,
cell survival and apoptosis, cell migration, angiogenesis), and cause major cellular pertur‐
bations, ultimately leading to cancer [26,55].
Nicotine interacts with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) that are found in
the central nervous system, but also in non‐neuronal cells, where they regulate cellular
growth, differentiation, and migration. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAchRs) are in‐
volved in accelerated cell proliferation, tumor invasion, and angiogenesis. Nicotine and
tobacco‐specific nitrosamines (NNK, NNN) are nAchRs agonists with a high affinity. Nic‐
otine alters the expression levels and the sensitivity of these receptors, which play an im‐
portant role in carcinogenesis. The activation of these receptors activates proliferative sig‐
naling pathways in cancer cells (eq. PI3K/AKT, Raf/MEKK/ERK1/2, NF‐κB), which inhib‐
its cell apoptosis and elevates the risk of cancer. Chronic nicotine and tobacco‐specific
nitrosamine exposure also activates STAT3, which is associated with perturbations in the
cell cycle, and chemoresistance [56,57]. Cytokine‐inducible SH2 containing protein (CISH)
is a member of the suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins and it regulates
STAT3 activity. Peng et al. demonstrated that STAT3 can be activated through a miR‐944‐
mediated CISH down‐expression pattern. The results of their study clearly showed that
NNK‐induced TP63/miR‐944 co‐expression is an important factor in oral carcinogenesis
[35].
The proliferative effects of nAchRs activated by nicotine and NNK were first reported
for lung cancer cell lines, but these effects were observed in various normal and cancerous
cells. nAchRs are also found on extraneuronal cells, including oral epithelium and oral
keratinocytes, where the expressed subunits are α3, α5, α7, α9, and β2. In the cells, nAchRs
are located at two levels: on the cell membrane and the mitochondrial membrane [57]. α7
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 10 of 19
is the main subunit that mediates the proliferative effects of nicotine and the development
of α7 nAchR antagonists can become a target for cancer therapy, but also for enhancing
the therapeutic effect of anticancer drugs, nicotine exposure reducing apoptosis in cancer
cells treated with different chemotherapy agents [57–60].
Nicotine’s implication in cancer development can be also explained by the stimulat‐
ing effect this compound has on both growth factors, and growth factors receptors (Figure
5) [59].
Figure 5. Effects of nicotine on growth factors receptors
Nicotine has an important role in FASN (fatty acid synthase)/EGFR (epidermal
growth factor receptor) signaling; it activates the EGFR signaling through a marked in‐
crease in fatty acid synthase expression. This is a pro‐oncogenic event relevant to oral
carcinogenesis, and EGFR overexpression is associated with increased migration of
premalignant cells [26,61].
Nicotine is also involved in epithelial‐to‐mesenchymal transition; it affects the mor‐
phology of oral cancer cells, which acquire migratory abilities associated with metastasis
[62,63].
4.2. Propylene Glycol and Glycerol
The heating of propylene glycol and glycerol produces acrolein, and α,β‐unsaturated
aldehydes, with a proven genotoxic potential in vivo, that forms exocyclic 1,N2‐pro‐
panodeoxyguanosine adducts with 2′‐deoxyguanosine by Michael addition. α,β‐unsatu‐
rated aldehydes do not require metabolic activation and can interact directly to form DNA
adduct, even after inhalation exposure. Furthermore, the major pathway of metabolism
for acrolein is conjugation with glutathione (GSH). This partially explains why exposure
to e‐vapors decreases the glutathione (GSH) levels, the major intracellular antioxidant de‐
fense within the cells, leading to oxidative stress [43].
Bitzer et al. found that free radical generation is closely linked to the concentration of
propylene glycol from e‐liquids [64].
4.3. Flavoring Agents
The number of e‐cigarette brands and flavored products is impressive (over 8000 dif‐
ferent flavorings). Many flavoring ingredients are labeled as “generally recognized as
safe” (by the Flavors Extracts Manufacturers Association), but their evaluation was per‐
formed on food products (at ingestion), and not for inhalation toxicity. Despite the ban‐
ning of certain flavors from conventional cigarettes, these flavors are still used in all the
other products, including e‐liquids. Kaur et al. make an extensive presentation of the main
e‐cigarette flavorings (Table 1) and their toxic potential [65,66].
In another study, Hua et al. identified a positive correlation between the cytotoxicity
of different e‐liquids and the total number and total concentration of flavor chemicals [67].
Flavoring chemicals also affect the formation of free radicals. Bitzer et al. found that
compounds like non‐phenolic terpenes (linalool, dipentene, citral) contribute to a high
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 11 of 19
level of free radical production, probably due to their autooxidation process during which
hydroperoxides form. These hydroperoxides can rapidly degrade into allylaxyl and car‐
bon‐centered radicals. Ethyl maltol and maltol also promote the generation of radicals, by
interaction with iron and copper. On the other hand, in the same study, some flavors in‐
hibited the formation of free radicals. The best results were obtained for ethyl vanillin [66].
Table 1. The toxic effects of flavoring ingredients in e‐liquids
Chemical Compounds
Flavors Toxic Potential
Found in Flavoring Agents
Cytotoxic, oxidative, inflammatory, loss of epi‐
Mint Menthol
thelial barrier function
Buttery Diacetyl Oxidative, inflammatory, lung toxicity
Chocolate Pyrazine derivatives Cytotoxic
Oxidative, irritant, protein carbonylation of extra‐
Cherry Benzaldehyde derivatives
cellular matrix, DNA damage
Cytotoxic, oxidative, loss of epithelial barrier
Cinnamon Cinnamaldehyde
function
Vanilla Vanillin Oxidative, cytotoxic, inflammatory, irritant
Oxidative, inflammatory, loss of epithelial barrier
Caramel Maltol
function
Some flavors present in e‐liquids are associated with higher reactive oxygen species
production rates, and more severe cytotoxicity and inflammatory responses. Pyrazine de‐
rivatives are found in chocolate and roasted nut flavors. The pyrazine moiety can interact
with p53 tumor suppressor protein, estrogen receptor, and the endothelial growth factor
[27]. The p53 gene inactivation is linked to several types of cancers, and p53 is considered
“the guardian of the genome” due to its importance in regulating intracellular functions
[68].
Aldehydes, like vanillin or cinnamaldehyde, generate oxidative stress, cause protein
carbonylation of extracellular matrix, and promote DNA damage responses. As a result,
dysregulated repair and impaired wound healing will occur [27,42]. DNA damage ap‐
pears due to the high reactivity of aldehydes, that bind covalently to macromolecules
(DNA and proteins) and cause DNA adducts. A positive correlation between high DNA
adduct levels in target organs and elevated cancer risk was observed [43].
Furan derivatives (found in sweet and fruity flavors) caused damage to the nasal
mucosa, while furfural derivatives exhibited tumorigenic activity in mice [27].
4.4. Tobacco‐Specific Nitrosamines
Tobacco‐specific nitrosamines (TSNAs) are considered important risk agents in the
induction of smoking‐related cancers of the lungs, pancreas, esophagus, and oral cavity.
NNK (4‐(methylnitrosamino)‐1‐(3‐pyridyl)‐1‐butanone) and NNN (N′‐nitrosonornico‐
tine) are included in Group 1 of carcinogens to humans by the World Health Organization
(WHO) International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) [69].
Tobacco‐specific nitrosamines (Figure 6) are procarcinogens and require metaboliza‐
tion and activation. A major metabolic pathway is TSNAs α‐hydroxylation, several CYP
isoforms being involved. The malignant transformations caused by TSNAs are mainly
due to the formation of adducts with DNA [70,71]. Furthermore, TSNAs are also involved
in the migration and invasion of cancer cells, promoting metastasis. A study performed
on lung cancer cells revealed that NNK induced phosphorylation and activation of μ‐ and
m‐calpain via ERK1/2. Calpains are matrix‐degrading enzymes and have a key role in
cancer cells dissemination [72,73].
NNK and NNN, similar to nicotine, have the ability to activate nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors (nAChRs), which plays an important role in cancer initiation, but also in chemo‐
resistance [60].
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 12 of 19
Figure 6. Formation of tobacco‐specific nitrosamines
Kim and Shin analyzed 105 e‐liquids, produced by 11 companies, and they quantified
tobacco‐specific nitrosamines using an LC–MS/MS method. The mean concentrations ob‐
tained are presented in Table 2 [74].
Table 2. The levels of TSNAs in 105 replacement liquids of E‐cigarettes using LC–MS method
(Kim and Shin, 2013).
Compound Mean Concentration (μg/L) ± SD
NNN 4.06 ± 9.34
NNK 1.71 ± 1.69
NAT 6.36 ± 12.52
NAB 0.90 ± 1.72
Total TSNAs 12.99 ± 18.23
Goniewicz et al. analyzed the tobacco nitrosamines in the vapors generated from 12
brands of e‐cigarettes and determined the concentrations of NNK and NNN per e‐ciga‐
rette (150 puffs). The values they found were between 0.8 ng and 4.3 ng for NNK and be‐
tween 1.1 ng and 28.3 ng for NNN) [75].
In another study, Lee et al. analyzed 6 samples of e‐liquids, and the concentration of
TSNAs in liquid and aerosol samples was measured as below the detection limit [76].
The conclusion of all these studies seems to be that TSNAs exist in a minimum
amount in EC liquids, and the carcinogenic risk associated with the presence of TSNAs is
low. However, their presence should not be completely ignored, because median levels of
0.47 pg/mL of NNAL (range: 0.125–3.2 pg/mL) were found in the urine of participants
who were passively exposed to e‐cigarettes. Although the levels are very low, it is difficult
to quantify the risks, because there is no safe level of exposure. Additionally, the risks are
closely related to the intensity and duration of exposure [77].
4.5. Heavy Metals
The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified cadmium
(Cd), nickel (Ni), and chromium (in its hexavalent‐oxidation state) as carcinogens to hu‐
mans (Group 1), while inorganic lead (Pb) is classified as a probable carcinogen (Group
2A). Electronic cigarettes can represent a source of toxic and carcinogenic metals. Hess et
al. used inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry to assess toxic metals (cadmium,
chromium, lead, manganese, and nickel) concentrations in e‐liquid samples [78].
In another study, Na et al. analyzed the potential of heavy metals transfers from the
metallic compartments of e‐cigarettes into the e‐liquids during use. They found that heavy
metal contents usually increased after using electronic devices [79].
There are multiple mechanisms by which metals can induce carcinogenesis: genotox‐
icity, mutagenesis, oxidative stress, epigenetic modifications, competition with essential
metal ions and cancer‐related signaling pathways. For example, Cd induces DNA damage
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 13 of 19
by generating ROS and inhibiting DNA repair. Cd also promotes epigenetic changes, al‐
tering the DNA methylation status. Cr (VI) also induces genotoxicity and DNA damage.
Ni facilitates carcinogenesis through epigenetic mechanisms, oxidative stress, and DNA
damage [80,81].
5. Nicotine’s Influence on Chemotherapy Drug Resistance
Oral cancers treatment is usually represented by surgery, radiotherapy, chemother‐
apy, targeted agents, and immunotherapy. Chemotherapy of oral cancers includes several
therapeutic agents (Table 3) [82].
Table 3. Chemotherapy agents used in oral cancer treatment.
Doctors observed that smoking cancer patients have lower chemotherapy response
rates, mainly due to nicotine’s ability to inhibit apoptosis and induce chemoresistance in
cancer cells. Nicotine inhibited the apoptotic effect of cisplastin, vinblastine, paclitaxel,
and doxorubicin [60,90].
Xu et al. assess the impact of nicotine on cisplatin‐induced apoptosis in human oral
cancer cells and observed that nicotine exposure inhibited apoptosis induced by cisplatin.
They demonstrated that survivin and the Akt pathway play an important role in this pro‐
cess [91].
Chernyavsky et al. investigated the effects of nicotine on oral and lung cancer cells
and demonstrated that activated cell membrane‐localized nAchRs form complexes with
EGFR and VEGFR, while activated mitochondrial‐nAchRs form complexes with phospha‐
tidylinositol 3‐kinases (PI3K) and Src (proto‐oncogene tyrosine‐protein kinase). The re‐
sults of these interactions are increased cell proliferation, upregulated expression of cyclin
D1 (a protein required for progression through the G1 phase of the cell cycle,) activation
of ERK1/2 (extracellular signal‐regulated kinases that act in a signaling cascade regulating
proliferation, differentiation, and cell cycle progression), but also the inhibition of the
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 14 of 19
Figure 7. Nicotine’s antiapoptotic activity
Another direction in the therapy of oral cancer patients is antitumor immunotherapy.
Immunotherapy focuses on the stimulation of the specific activity of the immune system
to attack abnormal cells and destroy them. In some cancerous processes, the activity of
immune T‐cells, and cytokine production are inhibited via programmed cell death
protein‐1/programmed cell death protein ligand‐1 (PD‐1/PD‐L1) pathway. To counteract
this phenomenon, monoclonal antibodies that bind to the PD‐1 receptor and block its
interaction with PD‐ligands were obtained and introduced in cancer therapy (eq.
pembrolizumab). Another class of immunotherapy agents is monoclonal antibodies
targeting EGFR—epidermal growth factor receptor (eq. cetuximab, panitumumab) [93].
The immunosuppressive and anti‐inflammatory potential of nicotine [94,95] can
affect the activity of immune cells, and reduce the quantity of inflammatory cytokines,
vital for immunotherapy success [50]. However, an increased PD‐L1 expression is
associated with nicotine‐product consumption, and some literature meta‐analysis showed
that smokers could benefit more from anti‐PD‐1/PD‐L1 therapy than non‐smokers [96–
99].
The issue of whether nicotine or other tobacco products can be used as potential
immunotherapy sensitizers is still controversial. More studies regarding nicotine’s
influence on immunotherapy efficiency in oral cancer are needed. Furthermore, it is
difficult to draw conclusions regarding the influence of vaping on cancer immunotherapy
because the investigations in this direction were not performed for electronic smoking
devices, and cigarette smoke has a much more complex composition than e‐vapors.
6. Conclusions
This research subject (the health impact of vaping) is of great interest due to the
popularity of this habit. These products are called Modified Risk Tobacco Products [100]
Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 9742 15 of 19
and promise to offer a less harmful alternative for smokers. There is scientific evidence
supporting the benefits of switching from conventional cigarettes to electronic nicotine
delivery devices, including in the oral health area, but it is very dangerous to promote
electronic cigarettes as low‐risk products, especially among young people or pregnant
women who are trying to quit smoking.
The oral tissues are extremely exposed to the potentially harmful effects of electronic
cigarettes, and although many signs of progress have been made in the last few years,
there are still research gaps regarding the effects of short‐term and long‐term exposure to
e‐vapors. However, the evidence gathered so far clearly indicates that vaping affects the
periodontal ligament and fibroblasts and can be linked to serious health issues–like
periodontitis and oral cancer. It is important to understand the mechanisms behind the
toxicity of electronic cigarettes and how different variables (eq. the chemical composition
of e‐liquids) can influence the outcome. The different compositions of the tens of
thousands of e‐liquids can affect the experimental results and it is also difficult to quantify
e‐cigarette exposure.
Future research should focus on robust‐designed studies, especially in vivo studies,
in order to obtain conclusive results and strong evidence for the impact of e‐cigarettes on
periodontal and oral cancer initiation and progression. Quality scientific information is
vital for the introduction of standardized regulations of these products. Additionally, it is
essential to determine to what extend vaping can influence the success of chemotherapy
and in cancer patients.
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