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Marching Towards
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Solved Papers (2021-18) 0-48

HISTORY OF INDIA &

INDIAN NATIONAL MOVEMENT
ANCIENT HISTORY Later Vedic Economy 1-23
The Position of Women 1-24
Sources of Ancient Indian History Vedic Literature 1-25
The Nomenclature of India 1-3
Pre-Mauryan Age
Types of Sources 1-3
Emergence of New Religious Sects 1-26
Archaeological Sources 1-3
Literary Sources 1-5 Socio-Economic Developments 1-26
Accounts of Foreign Historians and Travellers 1-7 Jainism 1-26
Doctrines of Jainism 1-27
The Pre-Historic Age Philosophy of Jainism 1-27
Stone Age 1-8 Sects of Jainism 1-28
Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age (10000-7000 BC) 1-9
Spread of Jainism 1-28
Megalith Culture or Iron Age 1-10
Decline of Jainism 1-29
Indus Valley Civilisation Buddhism 1-29
The Discovery 1-11 Gautama Buddha 1-29
The Geographical Extent 1-11 Buddhist Councils 1-30
Features of Important Harappan Sites 1-11 The Buddhist Literature 1-31
Major Characteristics of Harappan Sites 1-14 The Decline of Buddhism 1-33
Drainage System 1-14 Other Heterodox Sects 1-34
Social Life 1-15
Political Life 1-15 Mahajanapadas
Economic Life 1-15 Emergence of the Mahajanapadas 1-34
Domestication of Animals 1-15 List of the Mahajanapadas and their Capitals 1-35
Trade, Crafts, Technology and Weight and Measures 1-16 The Republics of the 6th Century 1-35
Art and Architecture 1-17 The Pre-Mauryan Economic System 1-36
Decline and End of the Harappan Civilisation 1-18 Iranian or Persian Invasion 1-37
The Vedic Age Alexander’s Invasion (The Greek Invasion) 1-37
The Aryans 1-19 The Mauryan Empire
Early Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC) 1-19 Origin of the Mauryan Rule 1-38
The Rigvedic Polity (Tribal Polity) 1-20 Literary Sources for the Mauryan Period 1-38
Later Vedic Age (1000-600 BC) 1-22 Chandragupta Maurya (321-298 BC) 1-39

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Bindusara (298-273 BC) 1-39 The Rajputs in Northern India 1-67

Ashoka (273-232 BC) 1-39 Bhima II (1178-1239 AD) 1-69
The Later Mauryas 1-41 Practice Questions: Topicwise, Sectionwise,
The Mauryan Administration 1-41 UPSC Questions (2017-2005) 1-70 — 1-83
Mauryan Army 1-42
Decline of the Mauryan Empire 1-44 MEDIEVAL HISTORY
Post-Mauryan Age
Arrival of Arabs and Turks in India
Northern and Eastern India 1-44
Arab Conquest of the Sindh 1-84
The Sunga Dynasty (185-75 BC) 1-44
Turk Conquest 1-85
Hunas 1-44
Mohammed of Ghur (1175-1206) 1-86
The Kanva Dynasty (75-30 BC) 1-45
Chedi Dynasty of Kalinga Chetas (Chedis) 1-45 The Delhi Sultanate
The Satavahana Dynasty (230 BC-220 AD) 1-45 Foundation of the Muslim State 1-86
Indo-Greeks 1-45 The Slave Dynasty (1206-90 AD) 1-87
The Shakas (90 BC-100 AD) 1-46 The Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 AD) 1-88
The Parthians (247 BC-224 AD) 1-46 Market Control and Economic Reforms 1-90
The Kushanas (45-73 AD) 1-46 The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414 AD) 1-91
Impact of Central Asian Contact 1-46 The Sayyid Dynasty (1414-1451 AD) 1-93
Development of Art (200 BC-300 AD) 1-48 The Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526 AD) 1-93
Geographical Discoveries in Post-Mauryan Period 1-50 Administration in the Sultanate Period 1-94
Economy in the Sultanate Period 1-95
South India
Relation Between the Hindus and the Muslims 1-96
The Sangam Age 1-50
Development of Music 1-97
Sangam Age Sources 1-50
The Early Kingdoms 1-51 The Emergence of Provincial Kingdoms
Sangam Administration 1-52 Bengal 1-97
The Chalukyas (543-753 AD) 1-54 Orissa 1-98
The Imperial Cholas 1-55 Kashmir 1-98
Chola Administration 1-56 Gujarat 1-98
The Cheras 1-57 Malwa 1-99
Jaunpur 1-99
The Gupta Empire (320-550 AD)
Marwar 1-99
Rise of the Guptas 1-57
Amber or Amer 1-99
Sources of the Gupta Rule 1-57
The Dynastic History of Guptas 1-58 The Vijayanagara and Bahamani Empire
Chandragupta II (380-412 AD) 1-58 Origin of the Empire 1-100
Kumaragupta (415-455 AD) 1-58 Sangama Dynasty (1336-1485 AD) 1-100
The Gupta Administration 1-59 Decline of the Sangama Dynasty 1-101
Importance of Land in Gupta Period 1-60 The Saluva Dynasty (1485-1505 AD) 1-101
Gupta Paintings 1-62 The Tuluva Dynasty (1505-1570 AD) 1-101
Developments in Science and Technology 1-62 The Aravidu Dynasty (1570-1652 AD) 1-102
Decline of the Guptas 1-63 Vijayanagara Administration 1-102
Vijayanagara Society 1-103
Post-Gupta Era/Early Medieval
Bahmani Kingdom 1-104
North India 1-63
Independent Kingdoms of the Deccan 1-104
The Gaudas 1-64
Art and Architecture 1-105
Kannauj After Harsha 1-65
The Rashtrakutas in Deccan 1-65 Bhakti and Sufi Movements
The Palas of Bengal 1-66 Bhakti Movement 1-106
The Senas of Bengal 1-67 Some Important Philosophers 1-107

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Nirguna Saints 1-107 The Dutch 1-151

Saguna Saints 1-107 The French 1-151
Maharashtra Saints 1-108 The British Occupation of Bengal 1-153
Sufism in India 1-109 The Nawabs of Bengal 1-153
Important Sufi Saints 1-110 Battle of Buxar (1764) 1-154
The Mughal Empire Anglo-Mysore Conflict 1-156
Mughal Rule 1-112 The Anglo-Maratha Wars 1-157
Babur (1526-30 AD) 1-112 The Sikhs 1-158
Humayun (1530-56 AD) 1-112 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 1-159
Sher Shah’s Administration 1-113 The British Administrative Structure and Economic Policies
Akbar (1556-1605 AD) 1-114 The Structure of the Government 1-160
Jahangir (1605-27 AD) 1-117 Acts and Amendments 1-161
Prince Salim’s Rebellion 1-117 Civil Services and Judiciary 1-162
Shahjahan (1627-58 AD) 1-118 Different Dimensions of Exploitation During British Rule1-163
Aurangzeb (1658-1707 AD) 1-119 Transport and Communication in India 1-165
Sikhs Revolt 1-120 Peasant and Tribal Movements
Policies of Aurangzeb 1-121 Peasant Uprisings 1-165
Mughal Administration 1-121 Pabna Rebellion (1873-85) 1-166
Provincial Administration 1-121 The Gadkari Revolt (1844) 1-167
Mansabdari System 1-122 All India Kisan Sabha 1-168
The Jagir System 1-122 Tribal Rebellions 1-169
Methods of Land Revenue Assessment 1-122 Important Uprisings in India 1-170
Jagirdari Crisis 1-124 Failure of the Tribal Uprisings 1-171
Categories of Agriculturists 1-124
Military Organisation of the Mughals 1-126 Labour Movements in India
Organisations Related to Labour Movements 1-172
The Maratha Empire Unity Among Trade Unions 1-172
The Marathas 1-127 Post War Period 1-173
Shivaji (1627-80 AD) 1-127
Maratha Administration 1-129 Socio-Religious Reform Movements in India
Maratha Power Under the Peshwas 1-130 Causes for Socio-Religious Reform Movements 1-174
Baji Rao I (1720-40 AD) 1-130 Reforms and their Leaders 1-174
Maratha Confederacy 1-131 The Brahmo Samaj 1-175
The Young Bengal Movement 1-175
Practice Questions: Topicwise, Sectionwise, The Prarthana Samaj 1-176
UPSC Questions (2017-2005) 1-132 — 1-141 The Arya Samaj 1-176
The Theosophical Society 1-177
MODERN HISTORY Other Significant Hindu Reform Movements 1-178
Later Mughals and the Rise of Autonomous States Reform Movements among Muslims 1-179
Bahadur Shah I (1707-12) 1-142 Sikh Reform Movements 1-179
Causes for the Decline of the Mughal Empire 1-143 Muslim Socio-Religious Movements and Organisation 1-181
Rise of Autonomous States 1-144 Growth of Press and Education in India
Tipu Sultan 1-145 Press Laws and Regulations in British India 1-182
The Jats 1-146 The Vernacular Press Act, 1878 1-182
Social and Economic Conditions in the 18th Century 1-147 The Press Enquiry Committee 1-183
Life in the Early 18th Century 1-147 Development of Modern Education 1-184
European Penetration and the British Conquest of India Wood’s Despatch, 1854 1-185
The Advent of the Europeans 1-148 Hunter Commission or Indian Educational
The Portuguese 1-148 Commission, 1882 1-185
The English 1-149 Indian Universities Act, 1904 1-185

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Saddler Commission, 1917-19 1-186 Governor-Generals and Viceroys of India

Hartog Committee, 1929 1-186 Some Famous Governor-Generals of the Company 1-230
Wardha Scheme of Education, 1937 1-186 Governor-Generals of India 1-233
Sergeant Plan, 1944 1-186 Viceroys of India 1-236
Kothari Education Commission, 1964 1-187 Important National Leaders 1-240
University Grants Commission (UGC), 1953 1-187 Timeline 1-247
The Revolt of 1857 Practice Questions: Topicwise, Sectionwise,
Causes of the Revolt 1-188 UPSC Questions (2017-2005) 1-251 — 1-281
Outside Influence on the Revolt of 1857 1-189
Impact of the Revolt/Mutiny 1-190 INDIAN ART AND CULTURE
The Government of India Act, 1858 1-190 Introduction: To Indian Culture
Reorganisation of the Army 1-190 Culture and Civilisation 1-282
Significance of the Revolt 1-191 A Preview of Indian Culture 1-283
Struggle for Independence First Phase (1885-1915) Characteristics of the Indian Culture 1-284
Rise and Growth of Nationalism 1-192 Languages and Literature
Formation of Indian National Congress (INC), 1885 1-195 Indian Language Families 1-285
Moderates and the Era of Early Nationalists (1885-1905) 1-196 Other Indian Languages and Indian Literature 1-289
Rise of Extremism in Indian Politics 1-197 Literature and National Ideology 1-290
Partition of Bengal, 1905 1-199 Indian Literature in English Language 1-292
Swadeshi Movement, 1905 1-199
Surat Split, 1907 1-200 Religion and Philosophy
Foundation of Muslim League, 1906 1-200 Proto-Historic Religion 1-292
Revolutionary Activities (First Phase) 1-201 Ancient Indian Religions 1-292
Ghadar Party (1913) 1-202 Theistic Religions 1-295
The Schools of Indian Philosophy 1-296
Struggle for Independence Second Phase (1915-1935)
Lucknow Pact, 1916 1-203 Art and Architecture
The Gandhian Era in India 1-204 The Indus Valley Period 1-299
The Impact of World War I 1-206 Mauryan Art 1-300
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre, 1919 1-207 Post-Mauryan Art 1-301
Khilafat Movement, 1919 1-207 The Gupta Art 1-302
Non-Cooperation Movement, 1920 1-208 Indo-Islamic Art and Architecture 1-308
Civil Disobedience Movement (First Phase) 1-212 Mughal Architecture 1-309
Communal Award, 1932 1-214 Post- Mughal Architecture 1-310
The Poona Pact, 1932 1-215 European Influence on Indian Art 1-311
Struggle for Independence Third Phase (1935-1947) Indian Painting
Government of India Act, 1935 1-216 Paintings 1-313
Contesting Provincial Elections 1-217 Cave Paintings 1-313
Cripps Mission, 1942 1-218 Miniature Paintings 1-314
Quit India Movement, August, 1942 1-219 Rajput Paintings 1-316
Rajagopalachari Formula (March, 1944) 1-221 Pahari Paintings 1-316
Cabinet Mission Plan (March, 1946) 1-223 Mysore Paintings 1-316
Partition of India 1-226 Tanjore Paintings 1-317
Integration of Princely States after Independence 1-226 Kalamkari Art 1-318
Leftist Movement Music, Dance and Drama
Communist Ideology: The Rise and Growth of Development of Music in India 1-319
the Left in India 1-228 Famous Classical Singers of India 1-323
Formation of the Congress Socialist Party 1-229 Emergence of Dance in India 1-323

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Classical Dances 1-324 Classification of Crafts 1-340

Folk Dances of India 1-327 Kinds of Handicrafts in India 1-340
Drama and Theatre 1-329
Modern Indian Theatre 1-331 Indian Cinema
Puppetry 1-331 The Era of Silent Films (1913-31) 1-341
Pre-Independence Talkies (1931-47) 1-342
Festivals and Fairs
Post-Independence Films (1947) (Till Today) 1-342
Festivals and Fairs 1-333
Statewise Fairs and Festivals of India 1-335 Various Types of Indian Cinema 1-342

Crafts Practice Questions: Topicwise, Sectionwise,

Crafts of India 1-339 UPSC Questions (2017-2006) 1-343 — 1-352
Crafts in Various Phases 1-339

INDIA & WORLD GEOGRAPHY

WORLD GEOGRAPHY Rainfall 2-40
Air Masses 2-41
The Universe Fronts 2-42
Study of the Universe 2-3 Cyclone 2-43
Solar System 2-5 World Climatic Types and Their Distribution 2-44
The Planets 2-5
Hydrosphere
The Earth Hydrological Cycle 2-51
Origin of the Earth 2-9 The Oceans and Seas 2-52
Motions of the Earth 2-10 Temperature and Salinity of Oceans 2-53
Time 2-13 Ocean Currents 2-55
International Date Line 2-13 Coral Reefs 2-57
Moon and Tides 2-14 Marine Resources 2-58
Geological Time Scale 2-15 Various Ocean Development Programmes in India 2-61
Lithosphere Government Institutions Regarding Research and
Interior of the Earth 2-16 Development in Ocean 2-62
Earthquakes 2-17 Rivers 2-62
Volcanism 2-18 Lakes 2-63
Rocks 2-20 Human Geography : World
Major Theories for Evolution of Landforms 2-21 Human Race 2-65
Forces and Associated Landforms 2-23 Ethnic Groups of the World 2-65
Mountains, Plateaus and Plains 2-27 World Population 2-66
Soil 2-30 Human Development 2-70
Atmosphere Migration 2-71
Composition of Atmosphere 2-32 Settlement 2-73
Insolation and Temperature 2-34 Natural Resources of the World
Atmospheric Pressure 2-36 Land Resources 2-74
Winds 2-37 Forest Resources 2-74
Humidity 2-39 Water Resources 2-74
Clouds 2-39 Minerals Resources 2-75
Precipitation 2-40 Energy Resources 2-77

10

Culture, representing a set of shared
attitudes, values and practices, plays
a vital role in the development of a
nation. India is diverse attested well
by the plurality of its culture. India’s
cultural history is largely a result of
the customs, traditions or rituals so
absorbed by the early invaders or
immigrants. This comingling or
fusion of different cultures has thus
contributed to what we have today.
INDIAN
ART & CULTURE
INTRODUCTION :
TO INDIAN CULTURE
As one perceives, culture can be described as a way of life. The
food we eat, the clothes we wear, the language that we speak
and the almighty whom we worship, are all aspects of culture.
Thus, culture is the embodiment of the way in which we think
and do things. At the same time, it is also something that we
have inherited as members of the society.
So, whatever a human being learns or inherits as members of
social groups can be termed as culture. For instance, art, music,
literature, architecture, sculpture, philosophy, religion and
science can be seen as aspects of culture. Also, it includes the
traditions, customs, festivals and certain ways of living.
According to Herskovits “Culture can be defined as part of our
environment created by human being.” Culture has two
distinctive components, namely–material and non-material.
Material culture consists of objects that are related to the
material aspects of our life such as our attire, food, household
goods etc.
Non-material culture refers to ideas, thoughts, beliefs etc.
Culture varies from place to place and country to country. So,
the people of any country are characterised by their distinctive
cultural traditions.
CULTURE AND CIVILISATION
The words culture and civilisation are synonymous, but
culture is bit different from civilisation in the sense that where
culture is the higher level of inner refinement within us, better
ways of living—socially or politically and better utilisation of
nature, is termed as civilisation. Culture and civilisation can be
differentiated in one more way, as we can define civilisation in
physical aspects like buildings, city architecture etc whereas
culture is defined in non-physical terms e.g. music, tradition
etc. So, we define Harappan era as Harappan civilisation where
as Vedic period is defined as Vedic culture.
CULTURE AND HERITAGE
Culture is transmitted and carried forward from one generation
to the next generation. The culture inherited from the
predecessors is called Heritage. They are cherished, protected
and maintained with unbroken continuity and felt proud of e.g.
the Taj Mahal, Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore etc. Besides
the architectural creations, monuments, material artefacts,
intellectual achievements, philosophies, treasures of
ART AND CULTURE
knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries also constitute the part
of Heritage. Culture is liable to change but heritage is not. Individuals
belonging to a culture or a particular group may acquire or borrow
certain cultural traits of other communities or cultures but their
belongingness to a particular culture remains unchanged. So, heritage is
complimentary to the development of civilisation.
A PREVIEW OF INDIAN CULTURE
CULTURE OF THE INDUS VALLEY
Before the excavation of the Indus Valley Civilisation, Indian culture
was regarded as the youngest among the Ancient cultures. The
archaeological investigations of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro established
that civilisation had attained maturity around 5000 years ago. The
excavations provide ample evidences that their religious beliefs and
practices are to some extent reflected in Hinduism. Yoga, worshipping
sacred animals and trees, importance of Mother Goddess etc are some of
the aspects of Indus Valley Culture, which were passed on to later ages
and became vital part of Indian culture.
DRAVIDIAN AND VEDIC CULTURE
The Dravidian culture in South India had reached a high level of
development in around 2000 BC. Archaeological findings proved a long
period of commercial and cultural exchange between the Indus
valley and Dravidian cultures. Thus in form of Dravidian culture
the continuity of Indian culture was maintained after decline of Indus
Valley Civilisation. Around 1000 BC, the Vedic culture which was earlier
simple, reached a stage of high development and changed considerably.
Now the Aryan mind gave a philosophical depth to the idea of unity
which had already begun in the Rigveda and the Vedic culture made the
old Indian traditions (which had been taken mostly from the Dravidian
culture) as an integral part of its religion. So, a new common religion
was developed, known as the Vedic Hindu Religion, which served as
the very foundation of a new culture known as the Vedic Hindu
Culture.
HETERODOX CULTURE
After 400 years, in the 6th century BC there was a period of religious
unrest. This period saw the rise of two great religions—Buddhism and
Jainism. During the later centuries, six schools of Hindu Philosophy
emerged as new currents of thought in religious and philosophical
thought. Buddhism and Jainism acquired much prominence and
acceptance amongst the people of the time. Not only did both contributed
to a ritual and superstition free society, but also, to a great extent, led to
a great cohesion and taught how to rise above the then prevalent varna
hierarchies.
THE PERIOD OF EXCELLENCE
In the Mauryan period, though religion continued to dominate the
society, the process of differentiation amongst the various spheres of life
became more pronounced. Science, Literature and Fine Art were now
free to move outside the narrow circle of religious subjects. Under the
patronage of the Guptas, secular literature made remarkable progress.
Great scholars of this period exercised a direct influence on the scientific
thoughts of Arab countries and indirectly on Europe.
1-283
THE PERIOD OF STAGNATION
NORTH INDIA
After the decline of Gupta empire, India saw a
period of political unstability and during this
period adventurous warlike tribes i.e. the Shakas,
the Hunas and the Gujjars spread throughout
India.
They had already adopted the Hindu culture and
religion after their arrival and now claimed to be
the descendants of the old Kshatriyas and began
to call themselves Rajputs. They revived the
Hindu society and created a stir and movement in
its stagnant, intellectual and cultural life. Their
courts became the centre of art, architecture,
literature, poetry and drama.
But the Rajputs were so obsessed with tribal
consciousness that they seemed to have lost even
the sense of national unity. The very idea of
nationhood had completely disappeared. Rajput is
a broad term which involve Kshatriya clans of
ancient India, descendants of invaders like
Shaka, Kushana etc and local tribes who
established themselves as rulers.
SOUTH INDIA
South India remained free from the advancement
of civilisation and from any adverse effects of
foreign invasions. Favourable conditions in the
South preserved intellectual life from stagnation,
unlike the North. This period is marked by a
remarkable movement and activity in religious
thoughts. In the 7th century, two orders of the
Shaivite and Vaishnavite saints had translated
the Puranas into Tamil verses, so to propagate a
cult of love and devotion which was later called
Bhakti.
The contacts of Muslim Arabs with South India
had already begun in the later part of the
preceding period. But the Muslim influence on
Indian culture in the South and West was
negligible. It was in the North, (where the long
series of invasions by the Muslim Turks in the
10th century continued till the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanate) that the Muslim culture had
a profound and direct influence on every sphere
of life.
CULTURAL SYNTHESIS
Though the Delhi Sultanate united India
politically; especially Northern India; the Hindus
could not regard it as their own state because the
rulers in general made no positive attempt to
bridge the gulf between themselves and their
Hindu subjects. But the relationship between the
common Muslims with the Hindus improved
considerably long before because of the historic
mediating role played by the Muslim Sufis and
1-284
Hindu saints of the Bhakti school. The Hindus found Sufi ideas very
similar to those of the Vedantic philosophy and were naturally
attracted by them. But the greatest attraction for the lower castes of
Hindus was the social organisation of Islam which was founded on the
basis of equality and fraternity. Another great force which created a
general atmosphere of religious harmony between the Hindus and the
Muslims was the Bhakti Movement. They could not merge the
currents of Hinduism and Islam on the surface, but they showed that
the springs which freed them, did meet somewhere below it.
ART AND ARCHITECTURAL SYNTHESIS
In aesthetic consciousness, which is deeply influenced by the physical
environment, Hindus and Muslims came still closer to each other.
Indian music captured the heart of Muslims, though paintings were
discouraged by few rulers. In the very 1st century of the Delhi
Sultanate, a Hindu-Muslim style of Architecture had come into
being which was adopted in the 14th century with various degrees of
modifications by the Muslim kings of Bengal, Gujarat and the Deccan
and also by the Hindu rajas of Bundelkhand and Rajasthan. According
to Fergusson, the design of Jama Masjid in Ajmer had been taken
from the Jaina temple of Mount Abu.
TRANSITION PHASE
In the 19th century, the sub-continent was exposed to the full force of
Western influence. It stimulated every sphere of life of the Indian
people. The soul of India responded deeply to the call of the West, for it
corresponded closely to what was already there, but had grown inert.
The highway which took India from her medieval to modern phase is
marked by convenient milestones in the form of great personalities.
There was a glorious outburst of the Indian renaissance and the
succession of religious teachers who discovered the ancient truth in a
new form, aspect by aspect and layer by layer.The architecture of
India’s destiny evolved through the integral philosophy of the modern
Indian culture during the 1st and a half centuries.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE INDIAN CULTURE
Indian culture has as many colours as life and includes intellectual
and social aspects of any human being. It also takes account of the
aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritual impulses of human beings. It
has also, in effect, an appeal to the subconscious as a force, making for
the formation of character.
We see people around us speaking different languages, having
different religions and practising different rituals. We also observe
diversities in their food habits and dressing patterns. Besides, there is
a myriad of dance forms and music in our country. But within all these
diversities, there is an underlying unity, which acts as a cementing
force. This unity in diversity is the basic character of Indian culture.
The intermingling of people has been steadily taking place in India
over the centuries. A number of people of different racial stocks, ethnic
backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here.
CONTINUITY AND CHANGE
Many great cultures have developed in different countries and regions
of the world. Many of them have perished or have been replaced by
other cultures. However, Indian culture has had an enduring
character. Despite major changes and upheavals, significant threads
of continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history
right up to the present day. The continuity and change in our
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
civilisation has gone hand in hand. In fact, a
remarkable feature of Indian culture is that
alongwith a continuity, it has also kept on
changing, with a continuance of the basic spirit of
our culture.
VARIETY AND UNITY
A large number of languages and dialects are
spoken in our country, which has led to the growth
of a great variety of literature. The second
important reason for the variety in our culture is
the intermingling among various ethnic groups.
Since time immemorial, people from far and near
have been coming and settling here.
Secular Outlook The secular character of Indian
culture also happens to be the result of the
intermingling of the people belonging to diverse
cultural groups over a long period of time. There
have been instances of occasional conflicts
though, but by and large, people have lived
together peacefully for centuries.
Universalism India has had a universal outlook
and it has been promoting the message of peace
and harmony to the entire world.
MATERIALISTIC AND SPIRITUALISTIC CULTURE
Spiritual development of a race or nation in the
field of mind, interest, conduct, thought, art, skill
and civilisation takes place in the country. India is
popularly known to be a land of spirituality
particularly to the West. However, Indian history
from ancient times to the present day shows that
the developments of materialistic and non-
materialistic culture have been going on
simultaneously.
CONTINUITY OF THE INDIAN
CULTURE
To prove the continuity and fundamental similarity
of Indian culture over a period of thousands of
years, we can observe some cultural aspects of the
Indus Valley Civilisation prevalent in the present
times.
˜
Female Deities were an important part of the
religious beliefs and worship of the people of the
Indus valley. Even now, we have several female
deities with their worship forming a unique aspect
of Indian culture.
˜
Swastika and the Phallic forms were important
symbols in the Indus valley. We still have the
Swastika and the Shiva Lingam as important
constituents of our culture.
˜
Sindoor (a cosmetic powder applied by women
along the parting of their hair) has been seen even
in the statues of the Indus valley.
˜
There are evidences that even the people of Indus
valley practiced certain forms of Yoga.
ART AND CULTURE
LANGUAGES AND
LITERATURE
Richness of any culture can be seen and
appreciated but when it comes to language
and literature, it is to be read and
comprehended. Language is a medium
through which one express thoughts while
literature is a mirror that reflects ideas and
philosophies which govern society.
INDIAN LANGUAGE FAMILIES
In India, many major languages exist along with
other minor languages usually spoken by a small
number of people. The Indian languages can be
divided into the following four families
1. Indo-Aryan Speakers of languages from this
family account for around 70% of the population
of the country. Most of the languages in this
family are derived from Sanskrit. Hindi, Bengali,
Punjabi, Gujarati, Rajasthani, Assamese etc are
part of this family.
2. Dravidian This is the second largest family of
languages in India and consists of languages
mostly spoken in Southern India like Tamil,
Kannada, Malayalam and Telugu. The Dravidian
languages are older than the Indo-Aryan
languages and many of them have classical
language status.
3. Austric This is the oldest and most indigenous
language in the language family of India. Its
speakers are concentrated in the hilly and tribal
areas of Central and Eastern India. Santhali,
Nicobarese, Khond etc are the examples of
languages from this family.
4. Sino-Indian This includes languages spoken in
the North-East and Northern parts of India. It
includes Naga, Bodo, Tibetan, Ladakhi, Karbi etc.
Apart from this, a fifth family of languages spoken in
South Andaman is Ongan, which includes the two
languages of Onge and Jarawa. The Great
Andamanese is another language family, which is
almost extinct. The Nihali language spoken by
around 2000 people in Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan is an isolated language, not a part of any
family.
The Sidi language, spoken by Sidi people in Gujarat
till the middle of the 20th century, is not extinct, and
was derived from Swahili and also constituted to be a
part of the Niger-Congo language family.
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SANSKRIT
The Sanskrit language happens to be the mother of many Indian
languages. The Vedas, Upanishadas, Puranas and Dharmasutras
are all written in Sanskrit. Sanskrit is the most ancient language of
our country. The literature in Sanskrit is vast, beginning with the
most ancient thought embodied in the Rigveda, the oldest literary
heritage of mankind.
It is noteworthy that Zend Avesta is believed to be written initially
in Sanskrit. The great grammarian Panini, analysed Sanskrit and
its word formation in his unrivalled descriptive grammar
Ashtadhyayi.
THE VEDAS
The Vedas are the earliest known literature of India. The Vedas
were written in Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one
generation to the other. To be able to keep such a vast literary
wealth as the Vedas intact, when the art of writing was not there
and there was a paucity of writing material is unprecedented in
world history.
There are four Vedas, namely, the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda
and Atharvaveda. Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the
Aranyakas and the Upanishadas. The Rigveda, Samaveda and the
Yajurveda are collectively known an Trayi. In later years, the
Atharvaveda was incorporated in this group.
STRUCTURE OF THE VEDAS
Each Veda consists of four parts: the Samhitas (hymns), the
Brahmanas (rituals), the Aranyakas (theologies) and the
Upanishadas (philosophies). The collection of mantras or hymns is
called the Samhita. The Brahmanas are ritualistic texts and
include precepts and religious duties. Each Veda has several
Brahmanas attached to it.
The Aranyakas (forest texts) intend to serve as objects of meditation
for ascetics, who live in the forests and deal with mysticism and
symbolism. The Upanishadas form the concluding portions of the
Veda and therefore are called the Vedanta or the end of Veda and
contain the essence of Vedic teachings. The Upanishadas and the
Aranyakas are the concluding portions of the Brahmanas, which
discuss philosophical problems.
SANSKRIT LITERATURE
We also have a large body of books dealing with various sciences, law,
medicine and grammar. To this class belong the law books called the
Dharmasutras and Smritis, together known as Dharmashastras.
These books are as under
˜
Gautama’s Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC.
These lay down duties for different Varnas as well as for the kings
and their officials. They prescribe the rules according to
which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also
prescribe punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and
adultery.
˜
The Manusmriti was written in narrative form, in which a dialogue
takes place between Manu’s disciple, Bhrigu and an audience of his
own students.
˜
This book projects an ideal society and ideal human conduct as the
basis to establish an orderly society and diverse centered life. It
should be noted that Manusmriti is just one of the various Smritis
1-286
written in ancient India, which was
given prominence by Europeans to
highlight the negative aspects of varna
system of ancient Indian society.
˜
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is an
important treatise belonging to the
Mauryan times. It reflects the state of
society and economy at that time and
provides rich material for the study of
ancient Indian polity and economy.
˜
Books written on Astronomy by
Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and
on Astrology by Lagdhacharya had all
achieved prominence. No other work can
compete with Varahamihir’s Brihat
Sawitha, Aryabhattiya and Vedanga
Jyotisha of Lagadhmuni.
˜
Books on medicine were written by
Charaka and on surgery by Sushruta.
Madhava wrote a book on Pathology
Madhavnidian.
Post-Medieval Period of
Sanskrit Literature
The Post-Medieval period in Northern India
saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir.
Somadeva’s Kathasaritsagar and Kalhana’s
Rajatarangini are of historical importance. It
gives a vivid account of the Kings of
Kashmir.
Gita Govinda of Jayadeva is the finest poem
of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides
the numerous works on different aspects of
art and architecture, sculpture, iconography
and related fields.
PALI LITERATURE
Pali is an Indo-Aryan language, used for
composing the earliest Buddhist
scriptures. Pali literature is mainly
concerned with Theravada Buddhism.
BUDDHIST AND JAINA LITERATURE
The religious books of the Jains and the
Buddhists mostly refer to historical
persons or incidents. The earliest
Buddhist works were written in Pali,
which was spoken in Magadha and
Southern Bihar. The Buddhist works can
be divided into canonical and
non-canonical. The Jaina texts were
written in Prakrit and were finally
compiled in the 6th century AD in Valabhi
in Gujarat. The important works are
known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,
Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
Among the important Jaina
scholars, reference may be made
to Haribhadra Suri (8th century
AD) and Hemchandra Suri
(12th century AD). Jainism
helped in the growth of a rich
literature comprising of poetry,
philosophy and grammar. These
works contain many passages,
which help us in reconstructing
the political history of Eastern
Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The
Jain texts refer repeatedly to
trade and traders.
CANONICAL AND
NON-CANONICAL LITERATURE
CANONICAL LITERATURE
These are linked to the Buddha.
The canonical literature is best
represented by the tripitakas i.e.
the three baskets Vinaya Pitaka,
Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma
Pitaka. The Vinaya Pitaka deals
with rules and regulations of daily
life.
The Sutta Pitaka contains
dialogues and discourses on
morality and Dharma. The
Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with
philosophy and metaphysics. It
includes discourses on various
subjects such as Ethics,
Psychology, theories of knowledge
and metaphysical problems.
NON-CANONICAL LITERATURE
These are commentaries on the
canonical texts. The non-canonical
literature is best represented by
the Jatakas. The Jatakas are the
most interesting stories of the
previous births of the Buddha. It
was believed that before he was
finally born as Gautama, the
Buddha practising Dharma,
passed through more than 550
births, in many cases even in the
form of animals.
Each story of his birth is called a
Jataka. The Jatakas throw
invaluable light on the social and
economic conditions ranging from
the 6th century BC to the 2nd
century BC. They also make
incidental references to political
events in the age of the Buddha.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES
The four Dravidian languages Tamil,
Telugu, Kannada and Malayalam
developed their own literature. Tamil
being the oldest of these langauges began
to be written earlier, leading to the
production of the Sangam literature the
oldest literature in Tamil.
TAMIL OR SANGAM LITERATURE
There are about 30000 lines of poetry,
which are arranged in eight anthologies
called Ettuttokoi. There are two main
groups the Patinenkil Kanakku (the
eighteen lower collections) and Pattupattu
(the ten songs). The former is generally
assumed to be older than the latter and
considered to be of more historical
significance.
The Sangam literature is a collection of
long and short poems composed by various
poets in praise of numerous heroes and
heroines. They are secular in nature and
are of a very high quality. Three such
Sangams were held. The poems collected
in the first Sangam have been lost. In the
second Sangam, about 2000 poems have
been collected. The contributions of Tamil
saints like Thiruvalluvar who wrote
Kural, which has been translated into
many languages are noteworthy.
TELUGU LITERATURE
The Vijayanagara period was the golden
age of the Telugu literature. Nachana
Somanatha, a court poet of Bukka I,
produced a poetical work titled
Uttaraharivamsamu.
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529), the
greatest of the Vijayanagara Emperors,
was a poet of great merit. His work
Amukta Malyada is regarded as an
excellent prabandha in Telugu literature.
There were Eight Telugu literary
luminaries, popularly known as the
Ashtadiggajas.
Dhurjati, a devotee of Shiva, composed
two poetical works of great merit known
as Kalahasteeswara Mahatmayam and
Kalahasteeswara Satakam.
Ramakrishna was the author of
Panduranga Mahatmayam, which was
considered one of the greatest poetical
works of Telugu literature.
Ramarajabhushana was the author of
Vasucharitram. He was also known
as Bhattumurti.
ART AND CULTURE
KANNADA LITERATURE
Kannada is spoken in Karnataka.
Kannada language developed fully after
the 10th century AD. The earliest known
literary work in Kannada is
Kavirajamang written by the
Rashtrakuta King Nripatunga
Amoghavarsha I. Pampa, known as the
Father of Kannada literature wrote his
great poetic works Adi Purana and
Vïkramarjiva Vijaya in the 10th century
AD.
Madhava wrote Dharmanathapurana on
the 15th Tirthankara. Another Jain
scholar, Uritta Vilasa, wrote Dharma
Parikshe. The other eminent poet is the
great Sarvajna, popularly known as the
people’s poet. His aphoristic tripadi
(three-lined) compositions serve as a
source of wisdom and ethics. A special
mention may be made of Honnamma,
perhaps the first outstanding poetess in
Kannada. Her Hadibadeya Dharma (Duty
of a Devout Wife) is a compendium of
ethics.
MALAYALAM LITERATURE
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and its
adjoining areas. The language of
Malayalam emerged around the 11th
century AD. By 15th century, Malayalam
was recognised as an independent
language. Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary
on Arthashastra and Kokasandisan are
two great works. Rama Panikkar and
Ramanujan Ezhuttachchan are
well-known authors of Malayalam
literature.
NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES
AND LITERATURE
A large number of people speak Hindi in
its different forms that include Braj
Bhasha and Avadhi (spoken in Oudh
region), Haryanvi, Bhojpuri, Magadhi and
Maithili (spoken around Mithila) and
Rajasthani and Khari Boli (spoken around
Delhi). This classification is done primarily
on the basis of the geographical region
where these forms of Hindi language were
spoken. e.g. Braj Bhasha got its name
from Braj Mandal, the area where it is
spoken, Braj Mandal includes Mathura,
Agra, Aligarh, Bareilly etc. Similarly
Avadhi is spoken in Avadh region of Uttar
Pradesh which includes Lucknow, Gonda,
Balrampur, Behraich etc.
Bhojpuri got its name from
Bhojpur region in Bihar and is
spoken in Northern Bihar and
regions of Eastern Uttar Pradesh
neighbouring Bihar. That form of
Hindi which is spoken in Meerut,
Ambala, Delhi is known as Khari
Boli and there are many conflicting
views about the origin of term Khari
Boli.
World class literature is written in
above forms of Hindi language e.g.
Sursagar is written by Surdas
in Braj Bhasha, similarly
Ramcharitmanas whose popularity
is unmatched by any other literary
work in world’s history is written in
Avadhi by Goswami Tulsidas.
Similarly in Maithili, which is
spoken in Mithila region of Bihar.
Vidyapati wrote his Keertilata,
Keertipataka and Padavali.
Though, Khusrow has used Khari
Boli in his compositions in the 13th
century, its extensive use in
literature began only in the 19th
century. The language also shows
some influence of Urdu.
URDU LITERATURE
Urdu emerged as an independent
language towards the end of the
14th century AD. Arabic and
Persian were introduced in India
with the coming of the Turks and
the Mongols. Persian remained the
court language for many centuries.
Urdu became more popular in the
early 18th century. People even
wrote accounts of later Mughals in
Urdu. Gradually, it achieved a
status, where the literature both
poetry and prose started being
composed in Urdu. The last Mughal
emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar wrote
poetry in it. Some of his couplets
have become quite well-known in
the Hindi and Urdu speaking areas.
Urdu as a language was born out of
the interaction between Hindi and
Persian. Urdu was given its pride of
place by a large number of poets,
who have left inimitable poetry for
posterity.
Among other well-known poets are
Ghalib, Zauq and Iqbal. Iqbal’s
Urdu poetry is available in his
collection called Bang-i-dara.
1-287
His Sare Jahan Se Achha Hindustan
Hamara is sung and played at many of
the national celebrations in India.
Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of
Lucknow, who held symposiums in this
language. Slowly, it became quite
popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as
its State language.
PERSIAN LITERATURE
In the medieval period, Persian was
adopted as the court language of the
Mughals. Several historical accounts,
administrative manuals and allied
literature in this language have come
down to us. The Mughal rulers were
great patrons of learning and
literature. Babur wrote his Tuzuk
(autobiography) in Turkish language,
but his grandson Akbar got it
translated into Persian. Akbar
patronised many scholars. He got
Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-
Jahangiri) is also in Persian and is a
unique piece of literature. Quite a fair
amount of Persian literature has been
produced by the Mughal courtiers.
HINDI LITERATURE
Hindi is a direct descendant of the
Sanskrit language through Prakrit and
Apabhramsha. It has been enriched by
incorporation of words from languages
such as Persian, English, Arabic etc. It
is spoken largely in North India in
Delhi, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh,
North-Eastern Madhya Pradesh and
parts of Eastern Rajasthan.
Hindi Literature started as religious
and philosophical poetry in mediveal
period in dialects like Avadhi and Braj.
The literature of Hindi language can be
divided into four different styles i.e.
Bhakti (devotional), Sri Nagar
(beauty), Veer-Gatha (praising brave
warriors) and Adhunik (modern).
Evolution of Hindi literature can be
better understood through the four
stages of Adi Kal, Bhakti Kal, Riti Kal
and Adhunik Kal.
ADI KAL (1050-1375 AD)
This period is also known as
Veer-Gatha Kal. Prithviraj Raso by
Chandra Bardai is considered as one of
the first works in Hindi literature.
Other literary works from this period
belong to the Siddha, Nathpanthi, Jain
and Rasau poetical works.
1-288
BHAKTI KAL (1375-1700 AD)
This period witnessed the rise of Bhakti
Kavyas or devotional poetry. This form
of poetry has been divided into two
schools: Nirguna and Saguna schools,
depending upon the devotional attitude
of the poets towards the Lord.
The Nirgunas believed in a formless
God, while the Sagunas believed in a
human incarnation of God.
Kabir (1399-1518 AD) was the most
important poet of the Nirguna School.
The Saguna poets were either the
followers of Lord Rama or of Lord
Krishna.
Tulsidas is the foremost among
the Ram Bhakt poets. He depicted
Rama as the ideal man in his classical
works Ramacharitamanasa, Gitavali,
Kavitavali and Vinaya Patrika.
Meera Bai (1498-1557)
She is the most celebrated of the women
poets of medieval times. Several works like
Narsiji ki Mahera, Gita Govinda Ki Tika, Rag
Govinda, Garva Geet Raga-vihaga are
attributed to Meera Bai.
RITI KAL (CE 1700 TO 1900)
Literature in this period emulated the
Sanskrit rhetorical tradition and tackled
different aspects of poetics like rasa,
alankara and nayika bheda through
Saviyas and Kavithas. Saptashati
written by Bihari represents the literary
work of this era.
Ghanananda (1699-1740)
Bodha (b.1747) and Thakur (1766-1823) were
the leading names of this genre of poetry.
Ghanananda (Sujana-Sagara, Rasa-Kelivalli
and Kripa-Kanda) is by far the best writer of
the non-rhetorical tradition of Hindi poetry.
ADHUNIK KAL (1900 ONWARDS AD)
The most important development of this
period was the evolution of Khari Boli
prose and proliferation of the use of
Khari Boli in poetry in place of Braj
Bhasha.
This period has been divided into four
phases: the age of Bharatendu or the
Renaissance (1868-1893), Dwivedi Yug
(1893-1918), Chhayavadi Yug
(1918-1936) and the Contemporary
Period (1937 onwards).
BENGALI LITERATURE
Raja Rammohan Roy, wrote in
Bengali besides English which gave an
impetus to Bengali literature. Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) and
Akshay Kumar Dutta (1820- 86) were
two other writers of this early period.
A part from them, Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee (l834–94), Sharat Chandra
Chatterjee (l876-1938) and Romesh
Chunder Dutt, a noted historian and a
prose writer, all contributed to the
making of the Bengali literature.
But the most important name that
influenced the whole of India was that of
Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941).
Novels, dramas, short stories, criticism,
music and essays, all flowed from his
pen. He won the Nobel Prize for
literature in 1913 for his Geetanjali.
ASSAMESE LITERATURE
Like Bengali, Assamese also developed
in response to the Bhakti movement.
Shankaradeva, who introduced
Vaishnavism in Assam helped in the
growth of Assamese poetry. Even the
Puranas were translated in Assamese.
The earliest Assamese literature
consisted of the buranjis (court
chronicles).
Shankaradeva has left several
devotional poems, which people sang
with rapturous pleasure, but it was only
after 1827, that more interest was
shown in producing Assamese
literature. Two names, Lakshmi Nath
Bezbarua and Padmanaba Gohain
Barua cannot be forgotten in the same
regard.
ORIYA LITERATURE
Oriya language shows the maximum
influence of Sanskrit. It originated in
the 9th century AD and its literary
development took place in the
13th century. Names worth mentioning
in Oriya literature are Fakirmohan
Senapati and Radhanath Ray, whose
writings deserve considerable attention
in the history of Oriya literature.
The works of Upendra Bhanja
(1670-1720) were important as they
ushered a new period of Oriya
literature. In Odisha, the works of
Saraladaise are regarded as the first
works of Oriya literature.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
PUNJABI LITERATURE
Punjabi is a language with several
shades. It is written in two scripts,
Gurmukhi and Persian. Guru
Nanak was the first poet in Punjabi.
Some other contemporary poets,
mostly Sufi saints, used to sing in this
language. Guru Gobind Singh, the
tenth guru, was educated in Patna
(Bihar), where he learnt Persian and
Sanskrit.
He has composed two savaiyyas in
Punjabi, but these are not a part of
the Adi Granth. Similar is the
popularity of Bulley Shah, who was
a Sufi saint. He has left a large
number of songs.
One of his popular forms of
compositions was called Kafi, which
was sung in a classical musical form.
Kafis are sung by people with great
fervour. In the 20th century, Punjabi
had come into its own.
Bhai Vir Singh composed an epic,
named Rana Surat Singh. Puran
Singh and Dr Mohan Singh are
among the best known writers.
Essays, short stories, poetry, novels,
criticism and all other forms of
writing have adorned the Punjabi
literary scene.
GUJARATI LITERATURE
Early Gujarati literature is available
in the form of Bhakti songs of the
14th and 15th centuries. It still
follows the old tradition, which is
popular in Gujarat. Narsi Mehta’s
name is the foremost in this respect.
Narmad’s poetry gave a fillip to the
Gujarati literature. Saraswati
Chandra, a novel by Govardhan
Ram, has become a classic. Narsi
Mehta’s songs in praise of Krishna
not only made him a very popular
figure, but also made the Gujarati
language popular.
SINDHI LITERATURE
Sindh was one of the important
centres of the Sufis, who established
khanqahs at various places. The Sufi
singers with their devotional music
made the language popular. The
credit for creating literature in Sindhi
goes to Mirza Kalish Beg and Dewan
Kauramal.
ART AND CULTURE
MARATHI LITERATURE
In Maharashtra, large number of local dialects
were in use. Marathi grew out of these local
dialects. The earliest Marathi poetry and prose
is by Saint Jnaneshwar (Gyaneshwar) who
wrote a long commentary on the Bhagavad
Gita. He was the one who started the Kirtan
tradition in Maharashtra.
He was followed by Namdev (1270-1350),
Gora, Sena and Janabai. All these were sang
and popularised the Marathi language. Their
songs are sung even today by the Varkari
pilgrims on their way to Pandharpur
pilgrimage. Almost 2nd centuries later, Eknath
(1533-99) came on the scene. He wrote the
commentaries on the Ramayana and the
Bhagavata Purana. His songs are very popular
all over Maharashtra.
Then came Tukaram (1598-1650). He is
supposed to be the greatest Bhakti poet of them
all. Ramdas (1608-81), who was the Guru of
Shivaji, is the last of these hymn writers. He
was the devotee of Rama. He inspired Shivaji.
KASHMIRI LITERATURE
Kashmir shot into literary prominence, when
Kalhana wrote Rajatarangini in Sanskrit , but
this was in the language of the elite.
For locals, Kashmiri was the popular dialect.
Here, also the Bhakti Movement played its role.
Lal Ded, who lived in the 14th century was
probably the first to sing in the Kashmiri
language. She was a Shaivite mystic.
After Islam spread in this area, the Sufi
influence also came to be visible. Habba
Khatoon, Mahjoor, Zinda Kaul, Noor-ud-Din
also known as Nand Rishi. Akhtar Mohiuddin,
Sufi Ghulam Mohammed and Dina Nath Nadim
wrote devotional poetry in Kashmiri. These
people contributed to the growth of Kashmiri
literature.
KONKANI LITERATURE
Konkani language is close to Marathi and Hindi
and is written in Devanagari script. Most of the
early work in Konkani has been lost.
Mahabharata and Ramayana were translated
in the 16th century by Krishnadas Sharma
from the Marathi language. A lot of Christian
literature was written in the 17th century in
Konkani including Riglo Jesu Mollantum by
Father Joachim de Miranda and Papience
Xerathini by Dona Barreto. Modern period of
Konkani literature began from the 20th century
onwards. Notable Konkani writers of modern
period are Balakrishna Bhagwant Borkar,
M Sardesai and Reginaldo Fernandez.
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MANIPURI LITERATURE
Manipuri is a language of Tibetan- Burmese origin. Its literature up to the
19th century belongs mainly to the Folk tradition.Examples of literature
from this period are–Numit Kappa (10th century), Naotinkhon Phambal
Kaba (16th-17th century), Lelthak Lekharol (17th century). Adaptations
and translations of Sanskrit texts were also done in this period. From
20th century, modern Manipuri literature started developing. Important
works from this period are ‘Le Paren’ and ‘Madhabi’ by Kamal Singh,
‘Kamsa Badha’ by Ashangbam Minaketan Singha etc.
ROLE OF MODERN INDIAN LITERATURES
In almost all the Indian languages, the modern age begins with the first
struggle for India’s freedom in 1857, or near that time. The impact of
Western civilisation, the rise of political consciousness and the change
could be seen in what was written during that time. Contact with the
Western world resulted in India’s acceptance of Western thoughts on the
one hand and rejection of it on the other and resulted in an effort made to
revive her ancient glory and Indian consciousness.
OTHER INDIAN LANGUAGES AND INDIAN
LITERATURE
BODO
It is a language from the Sino-Tibetan family. Presently, it is written in
the Devanagari script. Even though, it is an ancient language its written
literature began only in the second decade of the 20th century. Initially,
the Christian missionaries published books on grammar and dictionary.
An early book was JD Anderson’s A Collection of Bodo Folktales and
Rhymes, promoted by Bodo organisations. It is now a language for
children upto the secondary school level.
MAITHILI
It is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Nepal and Northern India.
Earliest Maithili literature in the form of ballads, songs and dohas, was
written between 700 and 1350 CE. Some popular writers of the period
were Sarahapad, Umapati and Jyotirishwar Thakur.
Sir George Graham Grierson researched Maithili folklore and transcribed
its grammar. In recent times, many prominent Maithili writers have
emerged such as Satyananda Pathak, Ramesh Jha, Narendra Jha and
Triloknath Mishra.
DOGRI
It is an Indo-Aryan language spoken mainly in Kashmir. It is presently
written in the Devanagari script. Most of the initial work in Dogri was in
the form of translation. In 1873, Jyotishi Vishveshar translated
Bhaskaracharya’s Lilavati into Dogri. The New Testament was also
translated into Dogri by Christian missionaries.
In recent times, Karan Singh has written some important works in the
Dogri language such as New India and Welcome the Moonrise.
SANTHALI
This language is a part of the Austric family. It is related to Ho and
Mundari. It is spoken by groups in Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Tripura,
West Bengal and Assam. During British times, it was written in the
Roman script and later in the Devanagari script.
1-290
Presently, the language is written in
its own script known as Ol Chiki,
which was invented by Pandit
Raghunath Murmu in 1925. He also
wrote over 150 books in this language.
LITERATURE AND
NATIONAL IDEOLOGY
A large number of writers opted for a
synthesis between Indianisation and
Westernisation, in their search for a
National Ideology. All these attitudes
were combined to bring about the
renaissance in 19th century, India.
But it was a renaissance in a country
which was under foreign domination.
So, it was not that kind of renaissance,
which had spread in 14th-15th century
Europe, where scientific reasoning,
individual freedom and humanism
were the dominant characteristics.
The Indian renaissance took a
different shape, in the context of the
Indian race, moment and milieu and
as a result, nationalistic, reformistic
and revivalistic thinking found its way
into literature, which slowly turned
itself into a Pan-Indian movement,
spearheaded in different parts of the
country by renaissance leaders
like Raja Rammohan Roy (1772-1833),
Bankim Chandra Chatterjee,
Vivekananda, Madhav Govind
Ranade, UV Swaminatha Iyer, Gopal
Krishna Gokhale, Kandukuri
Virasalingam Pantulu, Narmada
Shankar Lalshankar Dave and others.
The leaders of the renaissance, in fact,
succeeded in instilling nationalistic
fervour in the people and induced in
them a desire for social reform and a
sentimental yearning for their past
glory.
NEWSPAPERS AND
PERIODICALS
The birth of newspapers and
periodicals in Indian languages
between 1800 and 1850 was extremely
important for the development of
prose. The emergence of prose as a
powerful medium brought a kind of
change that coincided with the process
of modernisation.
THE LITERATURE OF
NATIONALISM
Patriotic writings proliferated almost
spontaneously in different languages, as
a resistance of the community against
foreign rule. Rangalal (in Bengali,) and
Bharatendu Harishchandra (in Hindi)
expressed themselves as the patriotic
voice of that era. This voice was, on the
one hand, against colonial rule and on
the other, for the glorification of India.
BIRTH OF THE NOVELS
The birth of novels is associated with
the social reform-oriented movement of
the 19th century. This new genre,
borrowed from the West, is
characterised by a spirit of revolt, right
from its adoption into the Indian
system.
The first Tamil novel, Pratap
Mudaliyar Charitram (1879) by
Samuel V Pillai, the first Telugu
novel, Shri Ranga Raja Charitra (1872)
by Krishnamma Chetty and the first
Malayalam novel, Indu Lekha (1889) by
Chandu Menon were written with
didactic intentions and to re-examine
evil social customs and practices like
untouchability, caste distinctions,
denial of widow remarriage etc.
HISTORICAL NOVELS
They were written by Bankim
Chandra Chatterjee (Bengali), Hari
Narayan Apte (Marathi) and others, to
describe the glorious past of India and
to instill nationalist fervour in her
people. It was during this time that
Tagore started writing the novel Gora
(1910), to challenge the colonial rule,
colonial criteria and colonial authority
and to give a new meaning to Indian
nationalism.
INDIAN ROMANTICISM
The trend of Indian romanticism ushered
in by three great forces influenced the
destiny of modern Indian literature.
These forces were Shri Aurobindo’s
(1872-1950) search ‘for the divine in
man’, Tagore’s quest ‘for the beauty in
nature and man’ and Mahatma
Gandhi’s ‘experiments with truth and
non-violence’.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Shri Aurobindo, through his poetry and
philosophical treatise, ‘The Life Divine’,
presents the prospect of the ultimate
revelation of divinity in everything. He
wrote mostly in English.
PROGRESSIVE LITERATURE
The Progressive Writers
Association was originally established
in 1936 by some expatriate writers in
London, one of whom was Mulk Raj
Anand (English). However, soon it
became a great Pan-Indian Movement
that brought together Gandhian and
Marxist insights into society.
The movement was especially
conspicuous in Urdu, Punjabi, Bengali,
Telugu and Malayalam, but its impact
was felt all over India.
It compelled every writer to re-examine
his/her relationship with social reality.
In Hindi, romanticism of Chhayavada
was challenged by a progressive school
that came to be known as Pragativada
(progressivism).
DALIT LITERATURE
One of the most significant features of
the post-modernist era was the
emergence of writings of the outcasts as
a major literary force. The word ‘Dalit’
means the downtrodden. The Dalit
Movement was started in literature by
the Marathi, Gujarati and Kannada
writers under the leadership of Dr
Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar.
It came into the limelight because of
progressive literature moving nearer to
the downtrodden. It is a literature of
militant protest against the upper caste
literature that upholded Brahmanical
values. Omprakash Valmiki is a
contemporary author known for his
writings with insights of Dalit
consciousness.
USE OF MYTHOLOGY
In order to bridge the gap between
urban and rural consciousness,
between the past and the present,
another trend, which is very much
visible in the post-modernist poetry
scene, is the use of mythology to
present the modern predicament.
The mythical past affirms man’s
relationship to the transcendent. It has
a value structure. It is a rediscovery of
ART AND CULTURE
the past for the present and an
adaptation for the future.
One comes across many instances of
writers trying to explore their roots,
funding their moorings and probing
whole areas of experience, blurred
during a period of extreme modernism
during the last several decades. In
Contemporary Indian poetry, along
with a sense of urbanity, an attitude of
irony, frequent use of mythological
sequences as structural images and a
continuous involvement with the
problems of expediency and eternity,
are very visible.
CONTEMPORARY
LITERATURE
The present day crisis in India is the
conflict between expediency and
universality and as a result, a large
number of writers are in the process of
identifying a pattern of problem-solving
within the traditional system, vigorous
enough to generate and sustain an
indigenous process of modernisation,
which does not need readymade
external solutions and is in accord with
indigenous needs and attitudes.
In the Uttara Adhunika (post-modern)
era, the effort is to be natural, to be
Indian, to be near to the common man,
to be socially conscious.
The third generation of Malayalam
writers like N Prabhakaran and
P Surendran prefer the term
Anti-Modernism to Post-Modernism
and are content simply to narrate
human tales without any explicit social
message or philosophical pretensions.
Kamleshwar, Nirmal Verma, Mohan
Rakesh are known for the realistic
portrayal of post-independence India in
Hindi literature.
Recently Indian novels by Jayamohan
(Tamil), Debes Ray (Bengali) and
Shivprasad Singh (Hindi), dealing with
various neglected regions and the
spoken dialect of that area, carving a
composite picture of a total India,
pulsating with new experience and
struggling to hold onto the old values
and in the process sometimes also
discarding them, are also easily
discernible. The new crop of writers are
concerned with the truth as they see it
in life around them. Even for the
Indian English writers, English is no
more a colonial language.
Amitabh Ghosh, Shashi Tharoor,
Vikram Seth, Upamanyu Chatterjee,
Arundhati Roy and others are using it
without showing a lack of commitment
to Indianness. Those writers who are
aware of their inheritance, complexity
and uniqueness, express in their work,
without any conscious effort, both
tradition and the actuality.
INDIAN SCRIPTS
Indus Script It refers to the script
used by the people belonging to the
Indus valley civilisation. It has not
been deciphered yet. Some people
have argued that this script was the
predecessor of the Brahmi script. This
script is an example
Boustrophedon style as in one line it
is written from left to right while in
other it is written from right to left.
Brahmi Script Brahmi is the
originator of most of the present
Indian scripts, including Devanagari,
Bengali, Tamil, Malayalam etc.
It developed into two broad types in
Northern and Southern India, with
the Northern one being more angular
and the Southern one being more
circular. It was deciphered in 1937 by
James Princep. Its best examples
are found in the rock-cut edicts of
Ashoka.
Kharosthi Script It is the sister script
and contemporary of Brahmi. It was
written from right to left. It was used
in the Gandhara culture of North-
Western India and is sometimes also
called the Gandhari Script. Its
inscriptions have been found in the
form of Buddhist texts from present
day Afghanistan and Pakistan.
Gupta Script It is also known as the
Late Brahmi script. It was used for
writing Sanskrit in the Gupta period.
It gave rise to the Nagari, Sarada and
Siddham scripts which in turn gave
rise to the most important scripts of
India such as Devanagari, Bengali
etc.
Sarada Script It was a Western
variant of the Gupta script. It evolved
into Kashmiri and Gurmukhi (now
1-291
used for writing Punjabi) scripts. It
was also used for writing Sanskrit. It
is now rarely used.
Nagari Script It was an Eastern
variant of the Gupta script. It is an
early form of the Devanagari script. It
branched off into many other scripts
such as Devanagari, Bengali, Tibetan
etc. It was used to write both Prakrit
and Sanskrit.
Devanagari Script It is the main
script at present to write standard
Hindi, Marathi and Nepali as well as
Santhali, Konkani and many other
Indian languages. It is also used
presently to write Sanskrit and is one
of the most used writing systems in
the world. It is composed of Deva
meaning,(God) and Nagari meaning,
(city), which meant that it was both
religious and urbane or sophisticated.
of
Kalinga Script Kalinga was the
ancient name of Odisha and this
script was used to write an ancient
form of Oriya. It is visually closest to
the original Brahmi. Oriya language
presently uses a different script,
which has been derived from Bengali
script.
Grantha Script It is one of the
earliest Southern scripts to originate
from Brahmi. It branched off into
Tamil and Malayalam scripts, which
are still used to write those
languages, It is also the predecessor
of the Sinhala script used in Sri
Lanka. A variant of Grantha called
Pallava was taken by Indian
merchants to Indonesia, where it led
to the development of many
South-East Asian scripts. It was used
in Tamil Nadu to write the Sanskrit
Granthas and hence, was named
Grantha.
Vatteluttu Script It was a script
derived from the Brahmi and was
used in the Southern part of India. It
was used to write Tamil and
Malayalam. It removed those signs
from Brahmi, which were not needed
for writing the Southern languages.
Presently, both Tamil and Malayalam
have moved on to their own Grantha
derived scripts.
Kadamba Script It is a descendant of
Brahmi and marks the birth of the
dedicated Kannada script. It led to
1-292
the development of modern Kannada and Telugu scripts. It was
used to write Sanskrit, Konkani, Kannada and Marathi.
Tamil Script It is the script used to write Tamil language in
India and Sri Lanka. It evolved from Grantha, the Southern
form of Brahmi. It is a syllabic language and not alphabetic. It
is written from left to right.
INDIAN LITERATURE
IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The English language came to India with the British and soon
became a language of formal education. Some of the early Indian
works in English were written by Raja Rammohan Roy, Henry
Vivian Derozio and Madhusudan Dutt. Aurobindo Ghosh wrote
his epic poem Savitri a Legend and a Symbol in English.
India’s only Nobel Laureate in literature Rabindranath Tagore
wrote some of his work originally in English and did some of his
own English translations from Bengali.
Sarojini Naidu and Jawaharlal Nehru also wrote in English.
Nehru’s The Discovery of India and Glimpses of World History
are quite popular. Some notable Indian poets who write in
English are Nissim Ezekiel, Dom Moraes, Arun Kolatkar and
Dilip Chitre. Other notable Indian writers are Khushwant Singh,
Salman Rushdie, Vikram Seth, Arundhati Roy, Kamala
Markandaya, Kiran Desai, Jhumpa Lahiri etc.
CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
The government of India currently follows the following criteria
to determine the eligibility of language to be considered for
classification as ‘classical language.’
1. High antiquity of its early texts/recorded history over a period
of 1500-2000 years.
2. A body of ancient literature/texts, which is considered a
valuable heritage by generations of speakers.
3. The literary tradition be original and not borrowed from
another speech community.
4. The classical language and literature being distinct from
modern, there may also be a discontinuity between the
classical language and its later forms or its offshoots.
CURRENT CLASSICAL LANGUAGES
Tamil was the first Classical language of India. The government
declared Tamil (in 2004), Sanskrit (in 2005). These two languages
are undoubtedly parental sources for many languages belonging
to the Indo-European family and the Dravidian family of
linguistic groups. Later the government declared Kannada and
Telugu (in 2008) as classical languages of India. In 2013,
Malayalam was also given status of classical language. In 2014,
Oriya was also given the status of Classical language. With this
the following six languages are included in the list of Classical
Languages
Tamil (since 2004) Sanskrit (since 2005) Telugu (since 2008)
Kannada (Since 2008) Malayalam (since 2013) Oriya (since 2014).
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
RELIGION AND
PHILOSOPHY
Religion is a transforming experience, not a
theory of God. It is spiritual consciousness, belief
and conduct, rites and ceremonies. Dogmas and
authorities are subordinate to the art of self
discovery and contact with the divine. There is a
long tradition of religious pluralism i.e. all the
major religions of the world are professed in
India.
There are four religions, which trace their origin to the
Indian sub-continent, namely Hinduism, Buddhism,
Jainism and Sikhism. At the same time, some religious
beliefs and systems have came from outside, They are
Islam, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Bahai.
Indian philosophy refers to any of the several traditions
of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian
sub–continent, including Hindu philosophy, Buddhist
philosophy and Jaina philosophy. It is disciplined and its
goal is to improve human life.
PROTO-HISTORIC RELIGION
The earliest civilised inhabitants of India the Harappans
worshipped, the chief male deity known as Pashupati
Mahadeva and the chief female deity known as Mother
Goddess. They also worshipped Gods in the form of
trees, animals, snakes and birds.
There is also evidence of both phallic and yoni worship.
The salient features of the Harappan religion appeared
in a new form in a later date. From this, we can conclude
that it never died, but was practiced by some people,
gradually developing because of their contact with other
doctrines and cults, until it gathered enough faith to
reappear and influence the old faith of the Aryans.
ANCIENT INDIAN RELIGIONS
VEDIC RELIGION
From the archaeological findings, it seems that the
people during these times believed in the sanctity of the
creative force and venerated the male and female
aspects of divinity. It appears that they were the
worshippers of the forces of nature like the Sun and the
Moon. This belief is also partly substantiated by the
early literature of the Aryans. The nature of the
religious beliefs and practices of the Aryans is also
known from the Rigveda. They believed in many Gods
like Indra, Varuna, Agni, Surya and Rudra.
ART AND CULTURE
Sacrifices and ritual offering of food and
drink to fire in honour of the Gods,
constituted the main religious practices.
This ritualism was further elaborated in
the Brahmanas.
The Atharvaveda contained a great deal
of animistic beliefs. It was during the
later Vedic period that definite ideas and
philosophies about the true nature of
soul or the Atman and the cosmic
principle or the Brahman, who
represented the ultimate reality
developed. Polytheism was challenged by
monotheistic ideas and the various
deities were introduced as different ways
of naming one eternal entity. It must be
noted that the Aranyaka and Upanishad
sections of the Vedic literature envisage
a progressive outlook.
The Upanishadas represent the early
stage in the origin and development of
the religions metaphysical concepts,
which were used later in ancient and
medieval India.
Unorthodox
Religious Movements
In the middle of the 1st Millennium BC, the
religious movements associated with the
Mahavira and the Buddha fall under this
category. There were many other creeds
preached by some elements during this
time that were not keeping with the vedic
tradition.
Both Buddhism and Jainism were atheistic
creeds in the beginning. However,
Buddhism endorsed the doctrine of the law
of karma and upheld the belief in the
rebirths of the embodied Skandhas and the
inevitability of suffering in the very
existence of beings. These view points
were also strengthened by the major
Upanishadas.
JAIN PHILOSOPHY
Jain or Jina means the conqueror, Jains
do not believe in the Vedas, but they
admit the existence of a soul. They also
agree with the orthodox tradition, that
suffering can be stopped by controlling
the mind and by seeking the right
knowledge and perception and by
observing the right conduct.
The Jain philosophy was first
propounded by the first Tirthankara
Rishabha Deva. The names of Ajit Nath
and Aristanemi are also mentioned with
Rishabha Deva.
There were 24 Tirthankaras, who
actually established the Jain
darshan.The first Tirthankara realised
that the source of Jain philosophy
was Adinath. The 24th and the
last Tirthankara was Vardhaman
Mahavira, who gave a great impetus to
Jainism. Mahavira was born in 599
BC.
He left worldly life at the age of 30 and
led a very hard life to gain true
knowledge. After he had attained the
truth, he was called Mahavira. He
strongly believed in the importance of
Celibacy or called Brahmacharya.
THREE JEWELS
The path of Dharma (meaning truth,
teaching) that Mahavira advocated
was one of strict asceticism,
renunciation and moral cultivation. He
instructed his followers to cultivate the
three jewels
1. Right belief.
2. Right knowledge.
3. Right conduct.
FIVE VOWS
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence)
2. Satya (Truthfulness)
3. Asteya (Non-stealing)
4. Aparigraha (Non-acquisition)
5. Brahmacharya (Chaste living)
There are two forms of the five vows
1. Mahavrata The five great vows
followed by Jaina monks and nuns.
2. Anuvrata The lesser vows
followed by Jain lay people. These
are the less strict version of the
great vows.
JAIN BELIEFS
According to Jainism, the destiny of
every being is a consequence of his
actions. Souls are unborn and
uncreated. They are also eternal and
equal. They exist in both animate and
inanimate objects of existence.
They all are capable of becoming free
or attaining moksha, through their
personal efforts. The liberation of each
soul depends upon its own karma and
purity of effort.
According to Jain beliefs, the universe
was never created, nor will it ever
cease to exist. Therefore, history of the
universe is shaswat.
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It has no beginning or end, but time is
cyclical in nature with progressive and
regressive spirituality phases.
The Jainas divided time into
Utsarpinis and Avsarpinis that
constituted one time cycle. Every
Utsarpini and Avsarpini was divided
into ‘Aras’ or unequal periods, which
are as follow
AHIMSA
It is central to Jain belief. Compassion
towards all fellow living beings (along
with humans) is central to Jain belief.
Jainism is the only religion wherein
all the followers, both monks and the
practicing lay persons of all the sects
and traditions are required to be
vegetarian.
ANEKANTAVADA
It is one of the foundation pillars of
Jain philosophy. Anekantavada is
defined as a (multiplicity of views and
stresses and looking at things from the
other person’s perspective).
SYADVADA
It is the theory of conditioned
predication. It states that, since reality
is complex, no single proposition can
express the nature of reality fully.
Thus, the term syat meaning (may be)
should be prefixed before each
proposition giving it a conditional
point of view and thus, removing any
dogmatism in the statement.
NAYAVADA
It is the theory of partial standpoints
or viewpoints. It says that an object
has infinite aspects to it, but when we
describe it in practice, we describe
only the relevant ones and ignore the
others.
The standpoints we adopt are thus, an
outcome of the purposes that we are
pursuing. Jaina philosophy is based
upon eternal, universal truths,
according to its followers.
During the first and last two Areas,
these truths lapse among humanity
and then reappear through the
teachings of the enlightened humans,
those who have reached enlightenment
or total knowledge (Kevala Jnana),
during the 3rd and the 4th (Jain
Councils) Aras.
1-294
Traditionally, in our universe and in our time, Lord
Rishabha is regarded as the first to realise the truth. Lord
Vardhaman Mahavira was the last Tirthankara to attain
enlightenment. The sacred texts of Jainism are known as
Agamas and are based on Mahavira’s teachings.
The Kalpasutra is a Jain sacred text, which describes the
biography of the Tirthankaras, mainly Parshvanath and
Mahavira.
JAIN THEORY OF REALITY
The Jains believe that the natural and supernatural things
of the universe can be traced back to 9 fundamental
elements, namely
1. Jiva (Soul or living beings)
2. Ajivaa (Non-living substances)
3. Asrava (Cause of the influx of Karma)
4. Astikaya (Bondage of Karma)
5. Samvara (A mest of the influx of Karma)
6. Nirjana (Exhaustion of the accumulated Karma)
7. Moksha (Total liberation from Karma)
8. Punya (Virtue)
9. Paap (Sin)
When life ends, the body dies, but not the soul. The soul
moves from life-to-life until it attains Moksha or Nirvana. In
order to achieve Nirvana, Jainism explains the law of
Karma and shows the path of Moksha.
SECTS OF JAINISM
There are two main sects in Jainism. The followers of the
23rd Tirthankara Parsvanath, Bhadrabahu were known as
Svetambaras, while those following Mahavira came to be
called as Digambaras.
Svetambaras and Digambaras agree on most of the basic
principles of Jainism and disagree on the following
˜
Digambaras stress one the practice of nudity as an absolute
pre-requisite to the mendicant’s path and to the attainment
of salvation, the Svetambaras assert that the practice of
complete nudity is not essential to attain liberation.
˜
Digambaras believe that a woman lacks the adamantine
body necessary to attain Moksha i.e. liberation and hence,
must be reborn as a man before such an attainment is
possible. But, the Svetambaras hold the contrary view and
maintain that women are capable in the present life time
itself of the same spiritual accomplishments as men.
˜
According to the Digambaras, once a saint becomes Kevali
or Kevala-jnani i.e. omniscient, he needs no morsel of food.
But this view is not acceptable to the Svetambaras.
BUDDHA PHILOSOPHY
The Buddha presented simple principles of life and practical
ethics that people could follow easily. He considered the
world as full of misery.
Man’s duty is to seek liberation from this painful world. He
strongly criticised blind faith in the traditional scriptures
like the Vedas.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Buddha’s teachings are very practical and suggest how to
attain peace of mind and ultimate liberation from this
material world.
THE FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS
The knowledge realised by the Buddha is reflected in the
following four noble truths
1. There is Suffering in Human Life When Buddha saw
human beings suffering from sickness, pain and death,
he concluded that there was definitely suffering in
human life.
2. There is a Cause of Suffering The second noble truth
is related to the cause of suffering. It is desire that
motivates the cycle of birth and death.
3. There is Cessation of Suffering The third noble truth
tells that when passion, desire and love of life are totally
destroyed, pain cesses.
4. Path of Liberation The fourth noble truth leads to a
way that takes one to liberation. Thus, initially starting
with pessimism, the Buddhist philosophy finally leads to
optimism.
An important guiding principle of Buddhist practice is the
middle way (madhyama-pratipada), which is said to have
been discovered by Gautama Buddha prior to his
enlightenment. The middle way is described as the practice of
non-extremism or a path of moderation away from the
extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification.
SECTS OF BUDDHISM
During the 4th Buddhist Council, Buddhism split into the
sects of Hinayana and Mahayana.
Hinayana It means the inferior vehicle. This sect considered
Buddha as a man and gave his teachings an ethical value.
Mahayana This sect subscribed to the theory of eternal
Buddhas, which resembled the Gods of theistic sects.
THE EIGHT FOLD PATH TO LIBERATION (NIRVANA)
Eight fold path to liberation are as follows
1. Right Vision One can attain right vision by removing
ignorance.
2. Right Resolution It is the strong will-power to destroy
thoughts and desires that harm others. It includes
sacrifice, sympathy and kindness towards others.
3. Right Speech Man should know, how to control his
speech.
4. Right Conduct It means to avoid activities, which harm
life.
5. Right Livelihood Right livelihood means to earn one’s
bread and butter by the right means.
6. Right Effort It is also necessary to avoid bad feelings
and bad impressions.
7. Right Mindfulness It means to keep one’s body, heart
and mind in their real form.
8. Right Concentration If a person pursues the above
seven rights, he will be able to concentrate properly and
rightly.
ART AND CULTURE
THEISTIC RELIGIONS
The theistic character evolved almost
simultaneously with the non-theistic
religions. The important deities of these
religions were not primarily vedic ones, but
those that came from unorthodox sources.
The primary factor that motivated these
creeds was Bhakti, the single-soul
devotion of the worshipper to a personal
God with some moral link. This led to the
evolution of different religious sects like
Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism,
which came to be regarded as components
of orthodox Brahminism. These sects in
course of time, came to have a significant
impact on the popular forms of Buddhism
and Jainism.
FOLK CULTS
The worship of Yakshas and Nagas and
other folk deities constituted the most
important part of primitive religious
beliefs, in which Bhakti had a very
important role to play. There is ample
evidence about the prevalence of this form
of worship among the people.
VAISHNAVISM
The history of the above movement from
the end of the Gupta period till the first
decade of the 13th century AD is concerned
mainly with South India. In South India,
Vaishnava poet saints known as Alvars
preached single- minded devotion
(Ekatmika Bhakti) for Vishnu and their
songs were collectively known as
Prabandhas.
A Sutra in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to
the worshippers of Vasudeva (Krishna).
The Chhandogya Upanishad also speaks of
Krishna, the son of Devaki, a pupil of the
sage Ghora Angirasa, who was a
Sun-worshipping priest. A large number of
people worshipped Vasudeva Krishna
exclusively as their personal God and they
were at first known as the Bhagavatas.
The Vasudeva- Bhagavata cult grew
steadily, absorbing within its fold other
Vedic and Brahminic divinities like Vishnu
(primarily, an aspect of the Sun) and
Narayana (a cosmic God).
From the late Gupta period, the name
mostly used to designate this Bhakti cult
was Vaishnava, indicating the
predominance of the Vedic Vishnu element
in it with emphasis on the doctrine of
incarnations (avataras).
SHAIVISM
Panini refers to a group of Shiva
worshippers as Shiva Bhagavatas.
They were characterised by the iron
lances and clubs that they carried
along with their skin garments.
The Shaiva movement in the South
flourished at the beginning through
the activities of many of the 63
saints known in Tamil as
Nayanars (Siva-bhakts).
Their appealing emotional songs in
Tamil were called Tevaram
Stotras and also as Dravida Veda
and ceremonially sung in the local
Shiva temples. It must be noted
that the Nayanars hailed from all
the castes. This was supplemented
on the doctrinal side by a large
number of Shaiva intellectuals,
whose names were associated with
several forms of Shaiva movements
like Agamanta, Shudha and
Vira-shaivism.
OTHER RELIGIONS
ISLAM
It is a monotheistic religion
articulated by the Quran
(considered as the verbatim word of
God) and the teachings and
normative examples of Prophet
Mohammed (considered as the last
prophet of God). With about 1.57
billion followers.
Islam is the second largest religion
in the world. According to
traditional Islamic view, Quran
began with revelations to
Mohammed when he was 40 years
old, that is in 610 AD. Most
Muslims belong to two
denominations Shia and Sunni.
Islam arrived in India in the 8th
century AD with the Arab traders.
CHRISTIANITY
It is a monotheistic religion based
on the life and teachings of Jesus.
The Christians believe that Jesus is
the son of God and the saviour of
humanity.
The three largest groups of
Christianity are roman catholic
church, eastern orthodox church
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and the various denominations of
protestantism. With about 2.2 billion
adherents, Christianity is the world’s
largest religion.
The Old Testament and the New
Testament are considered as the sacred
texts of Christianity.
In Christianity, trinity refers to the
teaching that God comprises three
distincts, eternally co-existing persons,
that is the Father, the Son and the
Holy Spirit.
Confirmation is a rite of initiation
in Churches carried out through
anointing, the laying on of hands and
prayers, for the purpose of best owing
the gift of the holy spirit.
Ordination is the process in
Christianity by which individuals are
set apart as clergy to perform various
religious rites and ceremonies.
Confession is the practice by which
men and women may confess their sins
committed after Baptism and to get
them absolved by a Pope.
SIKHISM
The Sikhs, mainly belonging to Punjab,
form a sizeable group of our population.
The orthodox Sikhs believe that their
religion was revealed by the God to
Guru Nanak, whose spirit entered the
2nd and the subsequent gurus and till
the 10th Guru. Guru Gobind Singh
ordained the Sikhs to treat the Adi
Granth, as his successor, elevating it to
Guru Granth Sahib.
The Sikhs basically believed in a
formless God, equality of the mankind,
need of a Guru and the pahul tradition.
Sometimes, the gurudom was conferred
on the son and sometimes on the best
disciple.
The 5th Guru, Guru Arjan Dev,
provided the Sikhs, three things–Adi
Granth, standardised script for
Gurmukhi, the site and the foundation
of the Harmandir Sahib or the Golden
Temple and the Akal Takht at
Amritsar.
The 10th Guru, Guru Gobind Singh
created the Khalsa, which means, the
Pure, in 1699. He also ordained the
Sikhs to take 5 vows, namely, keeping
of kesh, kangha, kada, kirpan and
kaccha.
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Consequently, these symbols became the distinguishing
marks of a Sikh. He further added that after his death
the Adi Granth will be the Guru of the Sikhs and they
have to pay obedience to this holy book.
ZOROASTRIANISM
The Parsi or Zoroastrian religion was founded by
Zarathushtra or Zoroaster, in the 8th century BC. He
preached monotheism in the region now known as
Persia.
He taught the worship of fire and the presence of good
and bad in the form of Ahura Mazda and Angra
Mainyu. He also taught the ethical doctrine of kindness
and charity. These doctrines are enshrined in the
Avesta.
JUDAISM
It is a monotheistic religion originating in the Hebrew
Bible. It is one of the oldest monotheistic religions and
spans a period of more than 3000 years. Jewish religious
texts consist of Tanakh, works of the Talmudic era,
Midrashic literature, Halakhic literature etc.
The basis of Jewish law and tradition is contained in the
Torah. There are 613 commandments in the Torah.
Other important texts are Talmud and Tanakh. There
are around 13.4 million Jews in the world with around
42% of them in Israel and a similar number in United
States.
CONFUCIANISM
It is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system based on
the teachings of Chinese Philosopher Confucius, who
lived between 551 and 479 BC.
The core belief of Confucianism is humanism, which is
the belief that human beings are teachable, improvable
and perfectible through personal and communal
endeavour. Confucius taught six books to his followers,
namely the Classic of Poetry, Book of Documents, Book
of Rites, Book of Music, I-Ching and Spring and Autumn
Annals.
Ren is one of the basic virtues promoted by confucianism
which means an obligation of altruism and humanness
for other individuals within a community. Filial piety is
considered as one of the greatest virtues in confucianism
and it must be taught both the living and the dead.
TAOISM
It is a philosophical and religious practice which
believes in harmonising oneself with nature. The literal
meaning of Tao is way, but it can also road, channel,
path, doctrine or line. The key text of Taoism is Tao Te
Ching which consists of teachings attributed to Laozi.
Other important texts in Taoism are Zhuangzi, Daozang
and Mozi. The three treasures or three Jewels of taoism
are basic virtues in Taoism namely; compassion,
moderation and humility.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
BAHAI FAITH
It is a monotheistic religion founded by Baha‘u’llah in 19th
century Persia which emphasises the spiritual unity of all
humankind. The core principles of Bahai’s are unity of God, unity
of religion and unity of humankind.
There are an estimated five to six million Bahai’s around the world
in more than 200 countries and territories. The Bahai’s believe
that religious history has unfolded through a series of divine
messengers each of whom established a religion which was suited
for the needs and capacities of the people of the time. The key
scriptures of Bahai’s are Kitab-i-Aqdas and Kitab-i-Iqan.
SHINTOISM
It is an indigenous spirituality of Japan. It refers to a set of
practices to be carried out diligently so to establish a connection
between present day Japan.
THE SCHOOLS OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY
According to a traditional principle of classification, the schools or
systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad classes,
namely, the orthodox (astika) and heterodox (nastika).
To the first group belong the six chief philosophical systems
(popularly known as Shadadarshana), namely mimamsa,
vedanta, samkhya, yoga, nyaya and vaisesika. These are regarded
as orthodox (astika), not because they believe in God, but because
of their acceptance of the authority of the Vedas.
Under the other class of heterodox systems, the chief three are
the schools of the materialists like the Charvakas, the Buddhas
and the Jainas. They are called Heterodox (nastika) because
they do not believe in the authority of the vedas.
THE SAMKHYA SYSTEM
It is a philosophy of dualistic realism, attributed to the sage
Kapila. It admits two ultimate realities namely, purusa and
prakrti, which are independent of each other in respect of their
existence.
REALISATION OF THE SELF
It is the self which is quite distinct from the body, the senses and
the mind. It is beyond the whole world of objects and is the
eternal consciousness which witnesses the changes and activities
going on in the world, but does not itself act and change in any
way. Therefore, there must be the purusa or the self which is
distinct from prakrti or primary matter, but is the enjoyer
(bhokta) of the products of the prakrti.
There are many different selves related to different bodies, for
when some men are happy, others are unhappy, some die, but
others live. The Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world. It is an
eternal unconscious principle (jada), which is always changing
and has no other end than the satisfaction of the selves, sattva,
rajas and tamas are the three constituents of prakrti, which holds
them together in a state of rest or equilibrium (samyavastha). The
three are called the gunas.
But they are not qualities or attributes in any sense. Rather, they
are three substantial elements which constitute the prakrti like
three cords making up a rope. The existence of the gunas is
ART AND CULTURE
inferred from the qualities of pleasure,
pain and in difference which, we find in
all the things of the world.
The same sweet is liked or disliked or
treated with in difference by the
same man in different conditions. The
course of evolution is as follows.
From prakrti arises the great gem of
this vast universe which is called, the
great one (mahat).
SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS
The consciousness of the self is reflected
on this and makes it appear as
conscious. It represents the awakening
of nature from her cosmic slumber and
the first appearance of thought and
therefore, it is also called the Intellect
(buddhi).
It is the creative thought of the world to
be evolved. Ahankara, the second
product, arises by a further
transformation of the intellect. The
function of the ahankara is the feeling
of ‘I and mine’ (abhimana).
Owing to its identification with this
principle, the self considers itself to be
an agent (karta), which it really is not.
From ahankara, with an excess of the
element of sattva, arise the five organs
of knowledge (jnanendriya), the five
organs of action (karmendriya) and the
mind (manas), which is at once an
organ of knowledge and activity
(ubhayendriya). With an increase of
tamas, the ahankara produces, on the
other hand, the five subtle elements
(tanmatra), which are the potentialities
of sound, touch, colour, taste and smell.
From the five subtle elements come the
five gross elements of akasa ether, air,
fire, water and earth in the same
order. Thus, we have altogether
twenty-five principles in the samkhya.
REALISATION OF THE SELF AND
THE NON-SELF
Once we realise the distinction between
the self and the non-self including the
body and the senses, the mind, the
intellect and the ego (Vivekajnana),
ourself ceases to be affected by the joys
and sorrows, the ups and downs of life.
It rests in itself as the dispassionate
observer of the show of events in the
world without being implicated in
them.
This is the state of liberation or freedom
from suffering which has been variously
described as mukti, apavarga, kaivalya
etc. It is possible for us to attain this
state while alive in this world
(jivanmukti) or after this life in the
other world (videhamukti).
According to the Samkhya philosophy,
the existence of God cannot be proved in
any way. We need not admit the
existence of God to explain the world ;
for prakrti is the adequate cause of the
world as a whole.
THE NYAYA SYSTEM
It is the work of the great sage
Gautama. It is a realistic philosophy
based mainly on logical grounds. It
admits four separate sources of true
knowledge, viz perception (pratyaksha),
inference (anumana), comparison
(upamana) and testimony (sabda).
OBJECTS OF NYAYA SYSTEM
The objects of knowledge, according to
the Nyaya are the self, the body, the
senses and their objects, cognition
(buddhi), Mind (manas), activity
(pravritti), mental defects (dosa),
rebirth (pretyabhava), the feelings of
pleasure and pain (phala), suffering
(duhkha) and freedom from suffering
(apavarga).
IMPORTANT COMPONENTS
The Nyaya, like many other systems of
the Indian philosophy seeks to deliver
the self from its bondage to the body,
the senses and their objects. According
to it, the self is distinct from the body
and the mind. The mind (manas) is a
subtle, indivisible and eternal substance
(anu). It serves the soul as an
instrument for the perception of psychic
qualities like pleasure, pain etc. It is
therefore, called an Internal Sense.
The self (atman) is another substance,
which is quite distinct from the mind
and the body. It acquires the attribute
of consciousness when it is related to
any object through the senses. The
existence of God is proved by the
Naiyayikas by several arguments. God
is the ultimate cause of the creation,
maintenance and destruction of the
world.
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He did not create the world out of
nothing, but out of eternal atoms;
space, time, ether, minds and souls.
This world has been created in order
that individual souls (jivas) might
enjoy pleasure or suffer pain according
to the merit or demerit of their actions
in other lives and in other worlds.
THE YOGA SYSTEM
The sage Patanjali is the founder of
the Yoga philosophy. The yoga is
closely allied to the samkhya. It mostly
accepts the epistemology and the
metaphysics of the samkhya with its
twenty-five principles, but admits also
to the existence of God. The special
interest of this system is in the
practice of yoga as the means to the
attainment of vivekajnana or
discriminative knowledge, which is
held in the Sankhya to be the essential
condition of liberation.
FUNCTIONS OF THE YOGA SYSTEM
According to it the yoga consists in the
cessation of all mental functions
(cittavrtti nirodha). There are five
levels of mental functions (cittabhumi).
The first is called Skipta or the
dissipated condition, in which the
mind flits among objects.
The second is mudha or the stupefied
condition as in sleep. The third is
called viksipta or the relatively
pacified condition. The yoga is not
possible in any of these conditions. The
fourth and the fifth levels are called
Ekagra and Nirodha.
(i) The first is a state of
concentration of the mind on
some object of contemplation.
(ii) The other is the cessation of even
the act or function of
contemplation.
(iii) The last three levels of the mind
(cittabhumi) are conducive to the
yoga.
TYPES OF YOGA
There are two kinds of yoga or
samadhi, viz samprajnata and
asamprajnata. In the first, we have
yoga in the form of the mind’s perfect
concentration on the object of
contemplation and therefore, involving
a clear apprehension of that object.
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In the second, there is the complete cessation of all mental
modifications and consequently, the entire absence of all
knowledge including that of the contemplated object. There
are eight steps in the practice of yoga.
These are yama or restraint, niyama or moral culture,
asana or posture, pranayama or breath control, pratyahara
(withdrawal), dharana (conception), dhyan (deep
meditation) samadhi (concentration) etc. The yoga system is
called the Theistic (sesvara).
PHILOSOPHY OF YOGA
The yoga argues for the existence of God on the following
grounds
˜
Whatever has degrees must have a maximum. This
maximum is represented by God.
˜
There are degrees of knowledge; therefore, there must be
such a thing as perfect knowledge or omniscience.
˜
He who has omniscience is God.
˜
The association of purusa with the prakrti is what initiates
the evolution of the world and the cessation of this leads to
dissolution.
˜
Neither the association nor the dissociation is natural to
prakrti and the purusa. Therefore, there must be a
supreme being, who is able to bring about these relations
between the prakrti and purusa according to the moral
deserts of individuals souls.
THE VAISESIKA SYSTEM
It was founded by the sage Kanada, also named as Uluka.
It is allied to the Nyaya system and has the same end in
view namely, the liberation of the individual self. It brings
all the objects of knowledge i.e. the whole world, under the
following categories of substance (dravya), quality (guna),
action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa),
the relation of inherence (samavaya) and non-existence
(abhava).
PHILOSOPHY OF VAISESIKA SYSTEM
These are four kinds of atoms earth, water, fire and air,
which are invisible and indestructible particles of matter.
The atoms are uncreated and eternal entities, which are
obtained by resolving any material object into smaller and
smaller parts till to they cannot be further divided.
Akasa, space and time are imperceptible substances, each of
which is one, eternal and all pervading.
The mind is an eternal substance, which is not all
pervading, but infinitely small like an atom. It is the
internal sense, which is directly or indirectly concerned in
all physical functions like cognition, feeling and will. The
supreme soul or the God is inferred as the creator of the
world of effects. The atoms are made to compose a world
that befits the unseen moral deserts of individual souls and
serves the purpose of moral dispensation. This is the atomic
theory of the vaisesikas.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
There are altogether twenty-four kinds of qualities, viz colour,
taste, smell, touch, sound, number, magnitude, distinctness,
conjunction, fluidity (dravata), viscidity (sneha), cognition
(buddhi), pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, striving (prayatna),
heaviness (gurutva), tendency (samskara), merit (dharma)
and demerit (adharma) etc.
THE MIMANSA SYSTEM
The Mimansa (or purva-Mimansa) school was founded by
Jaimini. Its primary object was to defend and justify vedic
ritualism. In course of this attempt, it had to find a philosophy
supporting the world view, on which ritualism depends.
The authority of the vedas is the basis of ritualism in the
Mimansa, which formulates that the Vedas were not the
works of any person and were free from errors that the human
authors commit. The vedas are eternal and self-existing; the
written or pronounced vedas are only their temporary
manifestations through particular seers.
For establishing the validity of the vedas, the Mimansa
discusses very elaborately the theory of knowledge, the chief
object of which is to show that the validity of, every knowledge
is self-evident. When there are sufficient conditions,
knowledge arises.
When the senses are sound, objects are present to them and
when other auxiliary conditions also prevail, there is
perception. When there are sufficient data, there is inference.
Similarly by reading the vedas, we have at once a knowledge
and also belief in what they say. The validity of Vedic
knowledge is self-evident like that of every other knowledge. If
any doubts arise, they are removed with the help of Mimansa
arguments and the obstacles being removed, the vedas
themselves reveal their contents to the reader. The authority
of the vedas, thus becomes unquestionable.
PHILOSOPHY OF MIMANSA SYSTEM
The soul in the body has different kinds of knowledge. One
school of Mimansa founded by Prabhakara admits five different
sources of knowledge (pramanas), namely perception (pratyaksa),
inference (annumana), comparison (upamana), testimony
(sabda) and postulation (orthapatti). The first four are admitted
as in the Nyaya system.
The Mimansa believes in the reality of the physical world on
the strength of perception. It is therefore realistic. It believes
in the reality of souls as well. But, it does not believe that
there is a supreme soul or God, who has created the world. It
does not hold like other orthodox systems that there is a cycle
of creation and dissolution. The world has always been as it is.
It has neither a beginning nor an end. The world’s objects are
formed out of matter in accordance with the Karmas of the
souls. The law of Karma is an autonomous, natural and moral
law that rules the world.
The Mimansa also admits that when any man performs any
ritual, there arises in his soul a potency (apurva), which
produces in future the fruit of the action at an opportune
moment.
ART AND CULTURE
THE VEDANTA SYSTEM
This system arises out of
Upanishadas, which mark the culmination
the
of the vedic speculation and are fittingly
called the Vedanta or End of the Vedas.
Of all the systems, the vedanta, especially
as interpreted by sankara, has exerted the
greatest influence on Indian life and it still
persists in some form or other in different
parts of India. Sankara interprets the
Upanishadas and the Brahmasutra to
show that pure and unqualified monism is
taught therein.
EXISTENCE OF GOD
God is the only reality, not simply in the
sense that there is nothing except God, but
also in the sense that there is no
multiplicity even within God.
The denial of plurality, the unity of the
soul and God, the assertion that when God
is known, all is known and similar views
found in the Upanishadas, in fact, the
general tone that pervades their
teachings, cannot be explained
consistently if we believe even in the
existence of many realities within God.
PHILOSOPHY OF VEDANTA SYSTEM
In view of this, Sankara finds it necessary
to distinguish three different points of
view the ordinary or empirical
(Vyavaharika), the transcendental or real
(paramarthika) and the apparent reality
or unreality (pratibhasika).
The first is the standpoint of
unenlightened persons, who regard the
world as real; our life of practice depends
on this; it is rightly called, therefore, the
Vyavaharika or practical point of view.
From this point of view, the world appears
as real; God is thought to be its
omnipotent and omniscient creator,
sustainer and destroyer.
Thus, God appears as qualified (Saguna)
by many qualities. God in this aspect is
called by Sankara as the Saguna
Brahman or the isvara.
Paramarthika It is an entity which is
present everywhere and at all times.
This is the true and eternal reality.
Pratibhasika It has neither basis nor any
existence. It is the illusion and a good
example is the reality during dream.
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ART AND ARCHITECTURE
Indian art and architecture, which have evolved through centuries,
is the result of socio-economic and geographical conditions.
Different types of Indian art and architectural styles include forms
of expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of
history considered unique to India. As a result of vast diversities, a
vast range of architectural specimens have evolved, retaining a
certain amount of continuity across history.
Art is a subjective concept and has no universal definition. We can define art as
the power, skill, ability and talent that an individual possesses to express
himself or herself. Art is simply an acquired skill that can be brought into use
make another person know and understand, what you think and how you feel.
‘‘Art happens to be a yet another word for expression’’.
THE INDUS VALLEY PERIOD
The forms of art found from various sites of the Indus Valley Civilisation include
terracotta figurines, pottery, seals, ornaments etc.
TERRACOTTA FIGURINES
A large number of terracotta figurines of men, women and animals discovered
from the sites of Indus Valley Civilisation comprises a remarkable group. The
figurine of the great Mother Goddess is one of the most typical evidence of the
civilisation.
The survived works consist of the high-crested head-dress, the chaplets round
the neck, the long series of pendant necklaces, a beautiful miniature bronze girl
with thin limbs who holds a bowl against her thigh etc. The humped bull, dog,
sheep, elephant, rhinoceros, pig, monkey and several birds, as well as wheeled
model carts and whistles constitute the wide variety of clay toys that the Indus
valley people fashioned for their children’s enjoyment.
POTTERY
The variety of wheel-turned pottery baked in round kilns, reveals the amazing
expertise of the Indus valley craftsmen. The great variety of painted
decorations and pictorial motifs, including leaf patterns, scales, chequers,
lattice-work, wave patterns, trees and floral designs were their most important
creations.
SEALS
One of the most distinctive artefacts of the Indus Valley Civilisation, the seals
of the period were made of steatite (soapstone). The seals had animal motifs
and various signs. These seals are rectangular, circular or even cylindrical in
shape. The seals outline the culture and civilisation of the Indus valley people.
In particular, they indicate
˜
the dresses, ornaments and the hairstyles of people.
˜
skill of the artists and sculptors.
˜
trade contacts and commercial relations.
˜
religious beliefs.
˜
scripts of the people.
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IMPORTANT SEALS
THE PASHUPATI SEAL
This seal depicts a yogi, probably
Lord Shiva (Pashupati) as claimed
by John Marshal. A pair of horns
crowns his head. He is surrounded by
a rhino, a buffalo, an elephant and a
tiger.
Under his throne, are two deers. This
seal shows that Shiva was
worshipped and that he was
considered as the Lord of Animals
(Pashupati).
THE UNICORN SEAL
The Unicorn is a mythological
animal. The Unicorn seal shows that
at a very early stage of civilisation,
the humans had produced many
creations of imagination in the shape
of birds and animal motifs that
survived in the later art as well.
THE BULL SEAL
This seal depicts a humped bull of
great vigour. The figure shows the
artistic skills and a good knowledge of
animal anatomy.
ORNAMENTS
The ornaments made of gold, silver,
copper and other metals were worn
by both men and women. Men wore
necklaces, finger rings and armlets of
various designs and shapes.
The women wore a head dress,
earrings, bangles, girdles, bracelets
and anklets. The rich people wore
expensive ornaments made of gold
while the poor had ornaments made
of shell, bone or copper.
ARCHITECTURE
The layouts of Harappan cities were
much planned and the streets were
rectilinear. The houses of the earlier
settlements were with an upper
storey, made of mud and baked bricks
in standardised sizes.
The streets, along with the houses
were wide, with drains collecting
from bathrooms and latrines by
means of chutes.
The granaries and the Great Bath at
Mohenjo-daro seem to have been
constructed for special rituals.
MAURYAN ART
In the Mauryan period, stone culture
dramatically emerged as the principal
medium of the Indian artists. Some
evidence is put forward by John Irwin
that Ashokan columns may be the
culmination of the ancient pre-buddhist
religious tradition in India of a cult of
one cosmic pillar of axis mundi. With
the Mauryan empire, came a change in
the art forms as well.
Earlier, wood was the chief material for
most of the art forms, but it was
changed to stone during the Mauryan
empire. Even the present day National
Emblem of India, the Lion Capital of
Ashoka at Sarnath belongs to the
Mauryan empire.
STUPAS
Stupas are Buddhist religious
monuments and were originally only a
simple mound of mud or clay to cover
the supposed relics of the Buddha and
other prominent Buddhist monks.
These were basically funeral mounds
which were low and circular mounds
ringed by the boulders.
Stupa construction was a Buddhist art,
however even the Jains also seemed to
have built stupas. After the passing
away of the Buddha, his remains were
cremated and the ashes divided and
buried under eight stupas with two
further stupas encasing the urn and the
embers.
A railing surrounded this is called as
vedika. These railings were constructed
of stone but resembled the look of the
wooden railings of the past in design.
The Buddha’s relics were placed in a
casket chamber in the centre of the
dome. At the base of the dome, is a high
circular terrace probably meant for
parikrama or circumambulation and an
encircling the Balustrade. At the
ground level is a stone-paved procession
path and another stone balustrade and
two flights of steps leading to the
circular terrace.
Access to the same is through four
exquisitely carved gateways or Toranas
in the North, South, East and West.
The diameter of the stupa is 36.60 m
and its height is 16.46 m.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
EVOLUTION OF STUPAS
Stupa architecture developed gradually.
Earlier stupas were made up of bricks as
was Piprahva stupa but in later stages
stupas were built up of stone.
Mahastupa of Sanchi and Stupa of
Bharhut are important examples of
stupa architecture.
PILLARS
The pillars built by Ashoka furnish the
finest remains of the Mauryan art. The
pillars with Ashoka edicts inscribed on
them were placed either in sacred
enclosures or in the vicinity of towns.
The pillars were made of two types of
stone : the spotted Red and White
sandstone from the region of Mathura
and the Buff coloured fine grained
hard sandstone usually with small black
spots quarried in Chunar near Varanasi.
The palace of Chandragupta Maurya
excavated in Kumrahara near Patna is
an example of high level of stone art. The
stone was transported from Mathura
and Chunar to the various sites where
the pillars have been found and here the
stone was cut and carried by craftsmen.
Each pillar had three parts: the Prop
under the foundation, the Shaft or the
Column and the Capital. The Prop is
buried in the ground. The Shaft made of
a single piece of sandstone supports the
Capital made of another single piece of
sandstone.
The thin–round and slightly tapering
shaft is highly polished and very
graceful in its proportions. The capital,
which is the third part of the pillar,
consists of some finally executed animal
figures such as the lion or the elephant.
CAVES
The architectural remains of the cave
architecture ascribed to the Mauryan
period are few. The Chaitya halls and
the Stupa do not exist in their original
form except the excavated chaitya halls,
bearing inscriptions of Ashoka and
Dasaratha, in the Barabar caves.
The monolithic rail at Sarnath in
grey and polished Chunar sandstone has
been erected under the patronage
of the Emperor Ashoka himself. Its
architectural form is similar to the
rails of Bharhut.
ART AND CULTURE
The Bharhut stupa must have been
literally transferred into stone from
contemporary wooden originals.
The plinth or the alambana, the
horizontal bars and the coping have all
been just carved out of what must have
been a huge slab of stone. The altar or
the bodhimanda suited at Bodhgaya is
traditionally associated with Ashoka.
The Bharhut altar consists of four
pilasters. It is argued that one of the
caves in the Barabar hills called the
Sudama Cave, was dedicated by
Ashoka to the Ajivika monks of the
Ajivika sect. Their interior walls are
polished like mirror.
It has rightly been said that Ashoka
inaugurated a style of architecture
which spread in different parts of the
country and itself at its best in the
magnificent masterpiece of Karla,
Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta.
POST–MAURYAN ART
SUNGA AND KANVA ART
During the rule of the Kanva and
the Sunga dyansty, a plenty of
cave-temples, chaityas and stupas were
built.
STUPAS
The stupas of Bharhut, Bodhgaya and
Sanchi and the amazing cave art of
Udayagiri and Khandagiri remind us
of the heights reached in sculpture.
Human figures, dakshas-yakshas,
figures of birds and beasts, plants and
creepers were made in wonderfully
intricate patterns.
SATAVAHANA ART
Fine examples of architecture and
sculpture of the Satavahana period
constitute the Karle cave-chaitya,
Buddhist caves in Nasik, Kalyan and
elsewhere and the stupas of Amaravati.
AMARAVATI ART
In Amaravati, situated in the Eastern
Deccan, a different type of art form
evolved and flourished for nearly six
centuries commencing from the 200-100
BC. Patronised first by the
Satavahanas and later by the
Ikshvakus and also by other groups
(feudatories, officials and merchants),
four periods of activity are easily
discernible.
STUPAS
The stupas at Amaravati were made of
a distinctive white green marble and
probably began about the time of the
Christ and received its final carved
faces and railings from about 150-200
AD. The diameter of the stupa at the
base was 51 m. The height of the dome
was 31 m and its outer railing was 5
meters wide. The stupendous stupa
could not withstand the ravages of time
and its ruins are preserved in the
London museum.
Amaravati also had a great influence
over South Indian sculpture. Its
sculptures show its mastery in stone
sculpture. The monuments at
Jaggayyapeta, Nagarjunakonda and
Amaravati are examples. The Andhra
sculpture is also known as the
Amaravati school. Other pieces of art
from the Amaravati school include the
ornate bull or the Nandiswara that
was situated in the Amreswara temple.
KUSHANA ART
The period of the Kushana
empire marked a progress in
architecture, sculpture and painting.
Kanishka was a patron of art, as is
evident by the cities of Mathura, Taxila
and Peshawar and the innumerable
stupas, chaityas and viharas built
during his reign.
Kanishka erected a multi-storeyed
chaitya and monastery on the mortal
remains of the Buddha at his capital,
Purushpur or Peshawar. Four specific
schools of art flourished in Mathura,
Sarnath, Amaravati and Gandhara
during his rule. The Gandhara art, a
blend of Greek, Roman and Indian art
forms, reached its pinnacle of success
during this period. The renaissance that
took off with Kanishka flowered in the
Gupta period.
GANDHARA SCHOOL OF ART
(50 BC TO 500 AD)
The region extending from Punjab to
the borders of Afghanistan known as
the Gandhara region was an important
centre of Mahayana Buddhism upto
the 5th century AD. The region became
famous throughout the world since a
new school of Indian sculpture known
as the Gandhara school developed
during that period. Owing to its
1-301
strategic location, the Gandhara school
imbibed all kinds of foreign influences
like Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and
Kushana.
The origin of the Gandhara art can be
traced to the Greek rulers of Bactria
Parthia and North-West India. But it
was during the reign of Kanishka that
the art received great patronage.
CONTRIBUTION OF
GANDHARA SCHOOL
The Gandhara School of Art is also
known as the Graeco-Buddhist
School of Art since, Greek techniques
of art were applied to the Buddhist
subjects. The most important
contribution of the Gandhara School of
Art was the evolution of beautiful
images of the Buddha and
Bodhisattavas, which were executed in
black stone and modelled on identical
characters of Graeco-Roman pantheon.
Hence it is said, ‘the Gandhara artist
had the hand of a Greek, but the heart
of an Indian.’
The most characteristic trait of
Gandhara sculpture is the depiction of
Lord Buddha in the standing or seated
positions. The seated Buddha is always
shown cross-legged in the traditional
Indian way.
Another typical feature of the
Gandhara art is the rich carving,
elaborate ornamentation and complex
symbolism. The best specimens of
Gandhara art are from Jaulian and
Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila and from
Hadda near Jalalabad in modern
Afghanistan. The tallest rock-cut
statue of Lord Buddha is also located at
Bamiyan in modern Afghanistan and
dates back to the 3rd-4th century AD.
CHARACTERISTICS OF GANDHARA
SCHOOL OF ART
Below are the some characteristics of
Gandhara School of Art
1. Moulding human body in a
realistic manner with minute
attention to physical features like
muscles, moustache and curly
hair.
2. Thick drapery, with large and bold
fold lines.
3. Rich carving, elaborate
ornamentation and symbolic
expressions.
1-302 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
4. In Early Gandhara School blackish grey sandstone was The standing Buddha figures resembles the yaksha figures
used and in later school mud and lime plaster was used. and indicates the Kushana influence. The seated figures
5. The main theme was the Mahayana Buddhism. are in the padmasana posture. Here statues were made
Gandhara Art lost its pre-eminence and newer schools of with delighted facial expressions and graceful postures.
sculpture evolved, the finest example being the beautiful The Mathura school not only produced beautiful images of
Buddhist statue of Sarnath. A few other such wonderful the Buddha, but also of the Jain Tirthankaras and Gods
specimens are the Manjushree Avalokiteshwar statue at and Goddesses of the Hindu pantheon. Many scholars
Sarnath, the Bodhisattava at Sanchi and the bronze statue of believe that the Mathura School of Art, although of
Buddha found at Mathura. indigenous origin, was greatly influenced by the Gandhara
School of Art. The Guptas adopted the Mathura School of
MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART Art and further improvised and perfected it.
The Mathura School of Art flourished at the holy city of
Mathura during the reign of Kushana especially between CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHURA SCHOOL OF ART
1st-3rd century AD. Below are the some characteristics of Mathura School of
Art
CONTRIBUTION OF MATHURA SCHOOL
1. The Buddha image exhibit the spiritual feeling on his
It established the tradition of transforming the Buddhist
face which was largely absent in the Gandhara school.
symbols into the human form. Buddha’s first image can be
2. The Mathura school also carved out the images of
traced to Kanishka’s reign (about 78 AD). The earliest
Shiva and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvati
sculptures of Buddha were made keeping the Mathura Style
and Lakshmi.
yaksha prototype in mind. They were depicted as strongly built
with the right hand raised in protection and the left hand on 3. The female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the
the waist. The figures produced by this school of art do not Mathura school were beautifully carved.
have moustaches and beards as in the Gandhara Art. These 4. Earliest statues of Buddha were made in Mathura
figures can be seen in the museum of Mathura. School of Art.
Difference Between Mathura Art, Gandhara and Amravati Art
Factor Mathura Art Gandhara Art Amravati Art
Origin • No foreign influence, however, later it • Stong Greek influence. • It was developed indigenously
cross fertilised with the Gandhara • It was based on Graeco-Roman norms. It is
school. known as Graeco-Buddhist School of Art.
• Its development took place • Assimilating various traits of Achaemanian,
indigenously. Parthian and Bactrian traditions into the
• Initially inspired by Yaksha images. local tradition.
• Inspired by Hellenistic features.
Material Used • Spotted red sandstone • Blue-grey mica schist/grey sandstone. • White marbles were used in the sculptures of
Amravati.
Image Features • Early period: Light volume, having a • Finer details and realistic images. • Predominantly Buddhist features.
fleshy body. • Buddha carved out in various mudras. • Satvahana ruler by emphasion individual
• Later period: Flashiness reduced. • Curly hair, anatomical accuracy, spatial features of Budha, sculphtures generally depit
• Not much attention to detalied depth and foreshortening. life stories of Budha
sculpting, Buddha is stout. • Buddha is sometimes thin.
• Hindu, Jain and Buddhist influence • Mainly Buddhist influence on images.
on images
Halo • The halo around the head of Buddha • Not decorated. Satvahana rulers
was profusely decorated. • The images are very expressive.
• Image are less expressive
Patrons • Kushana rulers • Kushana rulers • Less emphasis on individual features of Buddha,
sculptures greatly depict life-stories of Buddha
Area • In area around Mathura • In North-West, frontier area in Afghanistan • In and around Amravati and Nagarjunakonda
(Kandhar)

THE GUPTA ART
This period is regarded as the most creative phase so far as art
was concerned. Old art forms improved and new ones evolved.
Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu cave-temples were carved out of
rocks, the best examples being the ones at Ajanta, Ellora and
Udayagiri.
TEMPLE SCULPTURE
Temple construction too attained new heights in the Gupta
period. For the first time bricks and rocks were used in
building temples and books were being written on this
craft. Notable examples of such temples are Koteshwar,
Maninag, Sanchi and the Vishnu temple at Tigva, the
Shiva temple at Bhumara, the Parvati temple at Kubir and
the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE GUPTA ART
In the history of Indian art and architecture, the Gupta
period occupies an important place. Both the Nagara and
Dravidian styles of art evolved during this period.
ART AND CULTURE
The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and the sculptures in the
temple at Garhwas near Allahabad remain important specimens
of the Gupta art. There was no influence of the Gandhara style.
But the beautiful statue of the standing Buddha at Mathura
reveals a Greek style. The Buddha statue unearthed at Sarnath
was an unique piece of the Gupta art. The Bhitari monolithic
pillar of Skandagupta is also remarkable. Metallurgy also made a
wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The craftsmen were
efficient in the art of casting metal statues and pillars.
The gigantic copper statue of the Buddha, originally found at
Sultanganj has been preserved now at the Birmingham museum,
and was about seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton in
weight. The Delhi Iron Pillar of the Gupta period is still free from
rust though remaining completely exposed to sun and rain for so
many centuries.
Schools of Temple Architecture
There were three major schools of temple architecture Nagara,
Dravidian and Vesara.
Nagara Architecture
Nagara temples have three distinct features
¢
In plan, the temple is a square with a number of graduated
projections in the middle of each side giving a cruciform shape with
a number of re-entrant angles on each side.
¢
In elevation, a Shikhara i.e. tower gradually inclines inwards in a
convex curve, using a concentric rotating squares and circles principle.
¢
The projections in the plan are also carried upwards to the top of the
Shikhara and thus, there is strong emphasis on vertical lines in elevation.
Dravidian Architecture
Dravidian style temples consist almost invariably of the four following
parts, differing only according to the age in which they were executed
¢
The principal part, the temple itself, is called the Vimana (or
Vimanam). It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal
roof of one or more stories; it contains the cell where the image of
the God or his emblem is placed.
¢
The porches or Mandapas which always cover and precede the door
leading to the cell.
¢
Gopurams, which are the principal features in the quadrangular
enclosures that surround the more notable temples.
¢
Pillared halls or Chaultris–properly Chawadis used for various purposes
and which are the invariable accompaniments of these temples.
Vesara Architecture
Vesara architecture have four distinct features
¢
This is also known as Chalukya style or Karnataka style.
¢
It has features of both Nagara and Dravidian styles.
¢
It has two principal components Vimana and Mandapa joined by Antrala.
¢
Ladkhan temple of Aihole is an example of this style.
KACHCHHAPAGHATA ART
The Kachchhapaghata dynasty ruled part of north-western India
between 10th to 12th century AD. They continued the tradition of
temple building famished during the reign of Chandela dynasty.
Some of their architectural contributions are
˜
Sasbahu temple, Chausath Yogini temple (Morena), Kakanmath,
sihoniya are some of temples built during this reign.
˜
Chausath Yogini temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva and its
circular design has given rise to popular belief that it was
inspiration behind Indian Parliament building.
1-303
PALLAVA ART
The Pallava architecture is known for their four specific
styles
1. Mahendra Style The influence of the cave style of
architecture is to be seen in an ancient pillar
engraved in the Ekambaranatha (Kanchipuram)
temple.
2. Mamalla Style The seven Pagodas are small
temples, each of which is chop out of a single rock
boulder. They lie near Mahabalipuram, founded by
Narasimhavarman.
These monolithic temples are complete with all the
details of an ordinary temple and stand as an
undying testimony to the superb quality of the
Pallava art.
3. Rajasimha Style The most famous temple of this
style is the Kailasha temple, Kanchi. It has a
pyramidal tower, a flat-roofed mandapam and a
series of cells surround it resembling rathas. This
style is a very elaborate one foreshadowing the
ornate Chola architecture.
4. Aprajita Style This is more ornate resembling
the Chola architecture. A few temples built in the
style are found at Dalavanur. The noteworthy
feature of some shrines is that they are adorned by
beautiful life-like images of Pallava kings and
their queens.
IMPORTANT FEATURES OF THE PALLAVA
ARCHITECTURE
˜
The Pallava architecture shows the transition from
the rock-cut architecture to the stone built temples.
˜
The earliest examples of the Pallava art are the
rock-cut temples of the 7th century AD, while the later
examples are of the structural temples built in the 8th
and the 9th century.
˜
The rock-cut reliefs of the Pallavas are the earliest
surviving royal portraits after the Kushana images.
˜
Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut
temples. This style of Pallava temples are seen at
places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi,
Mamandur, Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli, Vallam,
Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram.
˜
The five rathas, popularly called as the
Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different
styles of temple architecture. The mandapas contain
beautiful sculptures on its walls. The most popular of
these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa,
Tirumurthi Mandapa and Varaha Mandapa.
IMPORTANT PALLAVA TEMPLES
Mandagappattu Temple This is the first Pallava
rock-cut temple, built by Mahendra I in the early 7th
century. An inscription on the temple calls it the
Laksitayatna and dedicates it to Brahma, Isvara, and
Vishnu. The facade of the rectangular mandapa has
four massive pillars and is flanked by niches
containing large dvarpalaka images carved in relief.
1-304
Kailasanatha of Kanchipuram The
temple is credited to the initiative
and enterprise of the Pallava ruler
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha
(also known as Ajiranakanta,
Ranadhira and a Kshatriya
Simheshvara) who reigned between
690-728 AD. The Kailasanatha
temple is the finest structural project
of the Pallavas. It looks as if a chariot
from heaven has descended on the
Earth.
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple This
temple is situated at Kanchipuram in
Tamil Nadu and was built in the 8th
century AD. It was built by the
Pallava emperor, Nandivarman
Pallavamalla in the 8th century AD.
This temple is famous for its unique
architectural grandeur and religious
importance.
This temple is one of the 108 Divya
Desam dedicated to the Lord Vishnu.
This temple is also called the Tiru
Parameswara Vinnagaram.
The Shore temple at Mamallapuram
was built during the reign of the
Pallava King Rajasimha (c 700-728).
Its three sanctuaries are dedicated to
Vishnu and Shiva.
The Shore temple is also
acknowledged for being the first stone
structure made by the Pallavas.
Before this, the monuments used to
be carved out of the rocks or stones.
This group of temple is an UNESCO
World Heritage site.
The Seven Pagodas This term is
closely associated with the Shore
Temple of Mahabalipuram.
According to a popular belief, once
upon a time six other temples stood
along with the now famous Shore
temple on the shores of
Mahabalipuram’s rock strewn
beaches. In the late 2004, during the
tsunami that struck the coast, the
sand deposits of around 500 m from
the Shore temples were gulped by the
sea. During this time, tourists and
residents were reported to have seen
a long, straight row of large rocks
emerge from the water just before the
waters rushed back again. The
tsunami also made some immediate,
lasting changes to the coastline,
which left a few previously covered
statues and small structures
uncovered on the shore like the large
stone lion left sitting uncovered on
Mahabalipuram’s beach.
CHALUKYAN ART
The Chalukyan were great patrons of
art. The Vesara style in the building of
structural temples was developed by
them. However, only under the
Rashtrakutas and the Hoysalas, did the
Vesara style reached its culmination.
The structural temples of the
Chalukyas exist at Aihole, Badami and
Pattadakal. Cave temple architecture
was also famous under the Chalukyas.
Their cave temples are also found in
Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik. The best
instance of Chalukya paintings can be
seen in the Badami cave temple and in
the Ajanta caves. The reception given
to a Persian embassy by Pulakesin II is
depicted in a painting at Ajanta.
The Chalukya temples may be divided
into two stages: The first stage is
represented by the temples at Aihole
and Badami. Among the seventy
temples found at Aihole, four are
important
1. Ladh Khan temple is a low,
flat-roofed structure consisting of
a pillared hall.
2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha
Chaitya.
3. Huchimalligudi temple at Aihole.
4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
The second stage is represented by the
temples at Pattadakal. There are ten
temples here, four in the Northern
style and the remaining six in the
Dravidian style.
The Papanatha temple is the most
notable in the Northern style. The
Sangamesvara temple and the
Virupaksha temple are famous for their
Dravidian style.
The Virupaksha temple is built on the
model of the Kailasanatha temple at
Kanchipuram. It was built by one of the
queens of Vikramaditya II.
Sculptors brought from Kanchi were
employed in its construction. It is
located in Hampi, Karnataka on the
banks of the Tungabhadra river.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
HOYSALA ART
After succeeding the Chalukyas, the
Hoysala rulers evolved a new style of
architecture.
The most notable temples of this period
are those constructed in Belur, Halebid
and Somnathpur.
MAIN FEATURES OF THE TEMPLES
˜
The base of the temple is star shaped
and not square-shaped.
˜
Open mandapa, closed by a compound
wall.
˜
Miniature shrines within the
compound wall.
˜
Temple wall profusely decorated with
royals, sages, dancers and even
Kamasutra figures.
Seven-storeyed Gopuram.
˜
˜
Two vimana and three vimana
structure- made from single granite.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
KIRTINARAYAN TEMPLE
This temple is located in Talakkad
near Mysore, in Karnataka. It was
built by the Hoysala king
Vishnuvardhana. This temple is
known for a single granite vimana, a
huge statue of Nandi open mandapa
garbhagriha. In recent years, the ASI
has restored this temple.
SOMNATHPUR TEMPLE
It was built by Vinaditya Ballal in
about 1043 AD and is the earliest of
this type. The temple though small was
exquisitely carved with three
pyramidal vimanas surmounting the
three shrines.
HOYSALESWARA TEMPLE
It is located in Halebid in Hassan
district, Karnataka. Built of grey
soapstone, best suited for fine carving,
each of the temples has star shaped
vimanas with projections on its three
sides.
CHENNA KESAVA TEMPLE
It is located in Belur and was built by
Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala
dynasty in 1117 AD to commemorate a
victory won over the Cholas its Talkad
in 1116 AD.
ART AND CULTURE 1-305

style in South India during the

Temples of Odisha
The temples of Odisha are of the Nagara
style. The main temple, known as the
Vimana or the Deula, is the sanctum
enshrining the deity. And the porch or the
Jagamohana is a congregation place for
the devotees. Salient features of temples
of Odisha are as follows.
¢
Interior walls kept plain but interior walls
decorated lavishly.
¢
Iron girders are used for supporting roof
and pillars are not used in the porch.
¢
Rekhadeuls They are almost vertical
roofs which curved inwards sharply,
similar to Shikharas.
Boundary walls are constructed in South
¢
Rajput period. Both sculpture and
architecture attained a high degree of
excellence.
IMPORTANT FEATURES
˜
Famous temples of Khajuraho
have been built in Chandela style.
˜
The pattern and style of
architecture in Chandela dynasty
have a rugged simplicity and are
quite distinct from the works of the
later Pratiharas. Indeed, the
Chandela architecture is different
from their sandstone successors at
VIJAYANAGARA ART
The Vijayanagara style of architecture
evolved in the 14th century AD and
reached its culmination during times
of Krishnadevaraya and
Achyutadevaraya.
The architecture reflected the power of
their rulers. Under them, the temples
became an elaborate institution
containing a large number of structures.
The Vijayanagara-era architecture can
be broadly classified into Religious,
Courtly and Civic architecture.

Indian Dravidian style. They surround
the temple.
Square–shaped ground plan for the
¢
main temple.
Important Temples
Jagannath Temple, Puri
Belonging to the 11th century and
enjoying the honour of being one of the
char dhams, the holy sight of Lord
Jagannath, accompanied by Subhadra and
Balabhadra raises loads of joy among the
devotees. It was built by Anantverma
Chodganga. The structural design of the
temple can be found to be in a pyramidal
shape.
Konark Sun Temple
Built in the 13th century by King
Narasimhadeva, the temple is designed in
the shape of a colossal chariot with seven
horses and twelve wheels, carrying the
Sun God, Surya, across heavens.
The Lingaraja Temple
The great Lingaraja temple, believed to
have been built around 1000 AD, is a later
product of this revivalist movement and
has been acclaimed by many as the finest
example of Nagara style. It stands in a
cluster of sixty-five smaller shrines in a
spacious compound measuring 520 ft by
465 ft and its mighty tower (the vimana)
dominates the landscape for miles around.
CHANDELA ART
The Rajput rulers had a longing sense of
beauty in art and architecture which is
seen in the artistic excellence of their
temples, forts and palaces.
The Nagara style of architecture
developed in North India and Vesara
style in Upper Deccan and the Dravidian
Khajuraho.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The Vijayanagara architecture is a
˜
The temple complex at Khajuraho
harmonious combination of the
was built by Chandela rulers
Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and the
between the 10th and 11th
Chola style which evolved from prior
centuries in the Bundelkhand
empires in earlier centuries. It is also
region of Madhya Pradesh. Most
influenced by the later Deccan and
important among them is the
Dravidian styles. It uses granite as its
Kandariya Mahadeva temple.
main building material.
˜
Decorated carvings on interior as
˜
Vijayanagara temples are
wells as exterior walls, with
characterised by ornate pillared halls
sculptures based on theme of
and rayagopurams, monumental
Kamasutra.
towers adorned with life-sized figures
˜
Most of the temple are North or of Gods and Goddesses that stand at
East facing. the entrance of the temple.
˜
Mountain range type of impression ˜
The Kalyan mandapa or marriage
is made because subsidiary shrines hall which is an open pavalion is
also have shikharas.
another feature of temple
˜
High platform is preferred for architecture. Its interior surrounded
building temples. by impressive colours, contains a
platform in the centre for
SOLANKI ART performance of sacred dance. Hall
This art form was developed under was used for ceremonies involving
Solanki rulers in the parts of Gujarat symbolic marriage of the temple’s
and Rajasthan. divinity to his consent.
˜
Vitthala Swamy temple and Hajara
IMPORTANT FEATURES
Rama temple of Hampi are examples
˜
Variety of materials were used like
of this style.
sandstone, black basal and soft
marbel.
˜
The courtly architecture of
Vijayanagara is generally made of
˜
Temple are east facing.
mortar mixed with stone rubble and
˜
Torans : Decorated arched gateway,
often shows secular styles with
a special feature of this art form.
Islamic-influenced arches, domes
˜
Temple wallas are simple in nature,
and vaults.
devoid of interior and exterior
˜
The Vijayanagara School of Painting is
carvings.
renowned for its frescoes of Hindu
˜
Step tank : This is also a peculiar
feature, at the steps of the tank, Gods and Goddesses and scenes from
temples are constructed. e.g. Hindu mythology on temple walls and
Modhera Sun Temple, Konark. ceilings.
1-306
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
VITTHALA TEMPLE AT HAMPI
One of the most splendid of temples at
Vijayanagara is the Vitthala temple,
near the Tungabhadra river and is
also considered as the most ornate of
the Vijayanagara temple. The temple
is dedicated to Vishnu worship.
VIRUPAKSHA TEMPLE AT HAMPI
The Virupaksha or the Pampapathi
temple is the main center of
pilgrimage at Hampi. It is fully intact
and incorporates some earlier
structures. This temple has three
towers; the Eastern tower rises to a
height of 160 ft and is nine tiered. It
dates back to the first half of the 15th
century and was renovated in the
16th century by Krishnadevaraya.
SIMHACHALAM TEMPLE
Kulottunga Chola I of Tamil Nadu,
made endowments to this temple, as
evidenced from the inscriptions
dating back to the year 1087. The
Vengi Chalukyas of Andhra Pradesh
renovated the original shrine in the
11th century. Much of the structure
stiu stands intact.
RAJASTHAN ART
The Rajasthan architecture
significantly depended on the Rajput
architecture school which was a
mixture of the Mughal and the Hindu
structural design. Grand Havelis,
astonishing forts and elaborately
carved temples constitute the vital
portions of a architectural heritage of
Rajasthan. The Rajputs carries the
credit of creative builders. Few of
most striking and splendid forts along
the places with parched Aravali land
clearly depicts the history of
Rajasthan’s celebrated heritage.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
Rajasthan architecture arouses
from the Rajput school of
architecture, a perfect mixture of
Hindu and Mughal structural
pattern.
˜
The state of Rajasthan hosts a few of
the splendid palaces and forts of the
whole world. Ornamented havelis,
elaborately carved temples and also
magnificent forts are a section of the
Rajasthan’s architectural heritage.
˜
The artistic builders of the Rajputs
designed major architectural styles
which are located in cities like
Jaisalmer, Udaipur, Jaipur and
Jodhpur.
˜
The most significant architectural
designs in Rajasthan include Jantar
Mantar, Dilwara Temple, Lake Palace
Hotel, Chittorgarh Fort and Jaisalmer
Havelis.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
DILWARA TEMPLES AT MOUNT ABU
The Dilwara Temples have been described
as a dream in marble.
Mount Abu, a popular hill station, located
in Rajasthan is on the Ahmedabad, Jaipur
and New Delhi railroad, off the Abu Road,
the nearest railhead. Other attractions
here include the Nakki lake, the Adhar
Devi temple, the Achalgarh Shiva temple
and the Gau Mukh Shiva temple.
THE JAIN TEMPLES AT MOUNT ABU
It was built in the Nagara style and is
among the finest monuments of India. The
first of these ornate temples dates back to
1032 CE, approximately the period in
which the grand Brihadeeswara temple at
Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu (South India)
was built in the Dravidian style of
architecture.
THE VIMALA VASAHI TEMPLE
This is the earlierst and the most
important of the temples here and is
dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara,
Adi Nath. It stands in an open courtyard
defined by 58 subordinate cells which
contain small icons duplicating the saint’s
image in the main shrine.
The plan of the temple resembles that of
the Kashmiri Sun temple at Martand.
Elaborately columned porticoes surround
the main shrine and front the cells lining
the courtyard. The entire temple is carved
out of white marble.
THE TEJAPALA TEMPLE
It resembles the architectural plan of the
Vimala Vashi temple, (built nearly 200
years earlier), it nevertheless stands as
the last of the monuments built in the
Solanki style, which came to an end with
the occupation of Gujarat by the Muslims
towards the end of 13th century.
The striking feature of the Tejapala
temple is its dome which stands on 8
pillars.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
The pendant of the dome is a perfect
gem; where it drops from the ceiling it
looks like a cluster of half open
lotuses.
RASHTRAKUTA ART
The rulers of the Rashtrakuta dynasty
were great patrons of art and
architecture and were great builders
and a half century of the Rashtrakuta
rule, witnessed a very high
achievement in the fields of sculpture
and architecture.
Now after more than a millennium,
whatever remains, is in a dilapidated
condition. Even then, the Ellora and
Elephanta caves provide splendid
examples of that era which excelled in
carving out huge monuments and
monolithic sculptures.
In Ellora (Maharashtra), we have
rock-cut cave temples of all faiths then
flourishing in India Buddhist, Jain,
Shaiva and Vaishnava.
Out of the 34 caves, 12 are Buddhist,
(in the South) 17 are Hindu
(Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta) and 5
caves on the Northern side are Jain.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The features of the Rashtrakuta
sculpture reflect the Dravidian style.
˜
The features of Rashtrakuta
sculpture are apparent in the
rock-cut architectures.
˜
The caves at Elephanta and Ellora
nestled in Maharashtra bear
testimony to the artistic wizardry of
the Rashtrakutas.
˜
The sculptures that adorn the
monuments of the Rashtrakutas
have been drawn from Hindu
mythologies.
˜
The sculpture of Kasivisvesvara
temple has also been built by
following the vocabulary of the
Rashtrakuta architecture.
˜
The figure sculptures of dancers,
musicians, Gods and Goddesses from
Hindu Puranas, nymphs and others
are common on the outer walls of
these rock-cut caves.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
THE KAILASHA TEMPLE
It is a marvelous piece of rock
architecture and sculpture. It was
built by the Rashtrakuta King
Krishna I in 8th century AD.
ART AND CULTURE
A complete hillside has been separated
from a range of mountains and a huge
temple has been excavated out of it.
The main temple is supported on the
backs of elephants.
THE CAVE TEMPLES
These are on the island of Elephanta
near Mumbai and were also built by
the Rashtrakuta rulers. The main cave
temple belonging to the Brahminical
group of cave temples is dedicated to
Shiva and is noted for its fine
sculpture. The temple has a large
mandapa supported on 20 pillars on
the periphery. Flights of steps lead to it
from the courtyards in front and at the
back. The temple is famous for the
huge Trimurti depicting the three
aspects of the Supreme Creator,
Preserver and Destroyer.
CHOLA ART
Many temples had been built by the
Chola kings throughout their
kingdoms. The temples of the early
Cholas are found in large number in
the former Pudukkottai region. These
Chola temples reveal the gradual
evolution of the Chola art and
architecture. The Chola kings earlier
built brick temples. Later, they built
stone temples.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The dvarapalas or guardian figures,
at the entrance to the mandapa or
hall which started from the Pallava
period became an unique feature of
the Chola’s temples.
˜
The Dravidian style got fully
developed after a transition from the
rock-cut structures of the Pallava
period.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
BRIHADEESWARA TEMPLE
The celebrated Shiva temple at
Thanjavur, appropriately called the
Brihadeeswara and the
Daksinameru, is the grandest
creation of the Chola emperor
Rajaraja (985-1012 AD). It was
inaugurated by the king himself in his
19th reignal year (1009-10 AD) who
named it after himself as Rajesvara
Peruvudaiyar, architecturally, it is
the most ambitious structural temple
built of granite.
It has been regarded as a ‘landmark in
the evolution of building art in South
India’ and its vimana as ‘touchstone of
Indian architecture as a whole.’
THE TEMPLE OF
GANGAIKONDACHOLAPURAM
It was built by Rajendra I, and was
completed in 1035. Its 53m vimana
(sanctum tower) has recessed corners
and a graceful upward curving
movement, contrasting with the
straight and severe tower at
Thanjavur. It has 6 pairs of massive,
monolithic dvarapalas statues
guarding the entrances and bronzes of
remarkable beauty inside.
THE AIRAVATESVARA TEMPLE AT
DARASURAM
It was built by Rajaraja II, features a
24-m vimana and a stone image of
Shiva. The temples testify to the
Cholas brilliant achievements in
architecture, sculpture, painting and
bronze casting. Nataraja Statue fuses
in a single image of Lord Shiva’s role as
the creator, preserver and the
destroyer of the universe and conveys
the Indian conception of the
never-ending cycle of time. Although, it
appeared in sculpture as early as the
5th century, its present, world famous
form evolved under the rule of the
Cholas. Shiva’s dance is set within a
flaming hole.
The God holds in his upper right hand
the damaru (hand drum that made the
first sounds of creation). His upper left
hand holds agni (the fire that will
destory the universe). With his lower
right hand, he makes the
abhayamudra (the gesture that allays
fear).
The dwarf-like figure being trampled
by his right foot represents apasmara
purusha (illusion, which lead the
mankind astray). Shiva’s front left
hand, pointing to his raised left foot,
signifies refuge for the troubled soul.
The energy of his dance makes his hair
fly to the sides. The symbols imply
that, through belief in Shiva, his
devotees can achieve salvation.
Krishnadevaraya, the Vijayanagara
monarch visited this temple in the year
1516, as seen from inscriptions here.
There are as many as 525 inscriptions
in this temple.
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NAYAK ART
The culmination of the Dravidian style
is to be seen in the period of the Nayak
rulers of Madurai who continued the
building style and technique of the
Pandyas and improved on it.
˜
The Nayak dynasty emerged in South
India after the downfall of the
Vijayanagara empire in 1565, when
the Nayak military Governors
declared independence and ruled from
the 16th–18th century.
˜
The Nayak architectural style was
characterised by elaborate hundred-
and thousand-pillared mandapas, the
high gopurams with painted
stucco statues on the surface and long
corridors.
˜
The Nayak dynasty is also known for
its mural and wall paintings. Tanjore
paintings from this time are known
for their surface richness, vivid
colours and compact composition.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The hundred pillared mandapas.
The lofty gopurams embellished with
˜
figures in their minute detail.
˜
The closed Prakramas with huge
pillars on either side.
˜
The beautiful corbel brackets as in
Ramanatha temple in Rameshwaram.
˜
Full-sized figures of animals and
riders on rearing horses in the
Srirangam temple.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
RAMESHWARAM RAMANATHASWAMY
TEMPLE
Rameshwaram temple is situated on
the Island of Rameshwaram, off the
Sethu coast of Tamil Nadu and is
reached via the Pamban bridge across
the sea. The huge temples are known
for its long ornate corridors, towers and
36 theerthams.
PANDYAN ART
Sometime during the 10th century, the
Cholas raided and captured Madurai,
thus ending the golden age of the
Pandya rule. However, by 1223 CE, the
Pandyas returned to Madurai’s throne
and the growth of Madurai continued
afresh. The Pandya kings took a keen
interest in art and architecture, as well
as the development of the Tamil
language.
1-308
Madurai or ‘the city of nectar’ is the oldest
and second largest city of Tamil Nadu. It
is located on Vaigai River. Madurai once
was the capital of Pandyan rulers. The
Pandyan king, Kulasekhara had built a
gorgeous temple around his lotus shaped
city. It has been a centre of learning and
pilgrimage, for centuries.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
Sanctum Sanctorium- Garbhagriha.
˜
Huge Gopurams.
˜
High outer walls.
˜
High Pyramidal Vimanas full of
sculptures and decorations.
˜
Pillared halls.
˜
Antaralya—the passage between the
hall and Garbhagriha.
IMPORTANT TEMPLES
MEENAKSHI TEMPLE
˜
It is the most elegant example of the
Dravidian architecture.
˜
This temple was originally built by the
Pandyan King Kulasekara but it was
plundered and destroyed by Sultanate’s
Muslim Commander Malik Kafur. It
was rebuilt by the Nayakar ruler
Vishwanath Nayakar in the 16th
century.
˜
It is an excellent architecture, a
masterpiece which is the centre of
activity for the promotion of art and
culture in Madurai.
˜
It is the chief attraction of the city and
pilgrims gathered here in the search of
spirituality and peace.
˜
There are wonderful views of stone
carved sculptures of different deities on
the wall of the temples.
˜
The temple is dedicated to the Goddess
Meenakshi (Parvati) and to the Lord
Sundareswara (Shiva).
INDO-ISLAMIC ART AND
ARCHITECTURE
The beginning of Islamic architecture is
the tale of the Muslim invasion in India
which to a great extent reshaped the
whole architectural element of India. The
earliest attack in India took place in the
8th century, when much of the lower
Indus territories came under the power
of the Caliphs of Baghdad, the Arab
invaders.
This invasion marked the very
beginning of the Islamic architecture.
The introduction of the glazed tile
decoration by the Arabs contoured the
initial architectural development of
the Islamic architecture. The second
attack occurred in the second half of
the 10th century, much later than the
first attack.
Mahmud of Ghazni attacked Punjab
from the way to Lahore, where a
Viceroy occupied an important group of
palaces and government buildings for
his purpose.
Later in 1192 AD Muizzuddin of Ghor
(Muhammad Ghori) defeated Rajput
King Prithviraja III in Second Battle of
Terain and laid the foundation of
Sultanate in Northern India. This
marked beginning of a new era in
Indian architecture.
FEATURES OF ISLAMIC ART
The ruins of ancient brick and
timbered structures provide the clue of
the style of buildings that then
succeeded. Wooden doors and doorways
along with the ornamental elements
persisted and were incorporated not
infrequently in the Indo− Islamic art
which developed shortly afterwards.
Muslim structures can be classified
under two types–religious and secular.
Religious structures are mosques,
tombs and mausoleums. Secular ones
are forts, palaces, gateways and
gardens.
The salient features of Muslim
architecture are as follows
˜
Mosques An open courtyard with a
pillared verandah around,
sanctuary near the wall facing Mecca,
a pulpit and a minaret above the wall
to summon people to prayer. The
sanctuary has a large dome above it.
˜
Bulbous domes, open courtyards,
large buildings, tall and slender
minarets (minar).
˜
Use of coloured stone and glazed
tiles.
˜
Arcuate Style They used arch and
dome structures in their buildings/
architecture. It is known as arcuate
style of architecture, it replaced the
trabeate style.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
˜
Cementing agent used was mortar
not stones and wood.
˜
They avoided human and animal
figures on their buildings as Islam
prohibits it.
˜
They replaced sculptures with
calligraphy as a means of
decoration.
˜
Arabesque Method It is an
ornamental style which is depicted
by a stem which continuously gets
split regularly producing a series of
branching patterns.
˜
Jaali Works Their buildings have
intricate Jaali works, it signifies the
importance of light in Islamic
religion.
˜
Use of Water In the premises and
courtyard water is used for various
reasons like religious (for cleaning),
cooling effect, decorative purpose
ect.
˜
Charbagh Style This style was
introduced by Islamic rulers in
which a square block was divided
into four adjacent identical gardens.
˜
Pietra Dura This technique was
used for the inlay of precious stones
and gems into the stone walls.
˜
Foresightening Technique. This
technique makes the inscriptions
appear of the same size from any
place.
˜
They used tomb in their buildings
extremely for both strengthening as
well as decorating.
THE SULTANATE
PERIOD ART
a The Delhi or the imperial style of
Indo Islamic architecture flourished
between 1191-1557 AD and covered
the Muslim dynasties viz the Slaves
dynasty (1191-1246 AD), Khiljis
(1290-1320 AD), Tughlaq (1320-1413
AD), Sayyids (1414-1444 AD) and the
Lodis (1451-1557 AD).
The first Islamic Sultanate
structures were built of disparate
dismantled pieces of Hindu temples,
after which came an era of carefully
planned structures and precincts,
later assimilating and incorporating
Hindu elements and workmanship.
ART AND CULTURE
IMPORTANT MONUMENTS
QUWWAT-UL-ISLAM MASJID
It was built by Qutubuddin
Aibak and it is considered as the
earliest mosque in India. It was
built by the material obtained after
destroying around twenty-seven
temples and many Hindu features
can be seen in this mosque.
The mosque has beautiful Islamic
calligraphy, the arabesque designs
and pillars with pre-Islamic Hindu
motifs. Later, its construction was
extended by Iltutmish.
QUTUB MINAR
The construction of this was started
by Qutubuddin Aibak in 1192
which was eventually completed by
Iltutmish in 1230. The Qutub
Minar, built to commemorate the
entry of Islam, was essentially a
victory tower, decorated with
several calligraphic inscriptions.
The diameter of the Qutub Minar is
14.32m at the base and about
2.75m at the top. It measures a
height of 72.5m and contains a
spiral staircase of 379 steps.
ADHAI-DIN-KA-JHOPRA
It was also built by Qutubuddin
Aibak in 1153 AD and it was a
Sanskrit school converted into
mosque in 1198 AD. It is located in
the Ajmer district of Rajasthan.
ALAI DARWAZA
It was built by Allauddin Khilji.
It is well decorated and served as
an entrance gateway to the mosque
at the Qutub complex, marking the
evolution of another innovative
feature in the Indo-Islamic
architecture.
PROVINCIAL
ARCHITECTURE
The Provincial style of architecture
encompasses the architectural
trends and developments noticed in
different provincial capitals in
India, but specifically in the
following Architectural forms
BENGAL ARCHITECTURE
The Adina and Pandua mosques are the
earliest architectural examples in
Bengal. The tomb of Akhi Surajuddin,
the Kotwali Darwaza, the Dakhil
Darwaza and the tomb of Sultan
Jalaluddin Mohammed Shah (1414-1431
AD), known as the Eklakhi Tomb,
served as prototypes for the subsequent
Islamic architecture of Bengal. The other
important buildings of Bengal include
Tantipara Masjid ( 1475 AD), Chamkatti
Masjid (1475 AD), Lotan Masjid (1480
AD), and Chota Sona Masjid (1510 AD).
JAUNPUR ARCHITECTURE
Under the Sharqi dynasty, Jaunpur
became a great centre of art, culture and
architectural activity. During the rule of
Shamsuddin Ibrahim (1402-1436 AD)
several palaces, mosques, tombs and
other buildings came up, the most
prominent being the Atala Masjid built in
1378.
Later, other important buildings were
produced that include a Khalis Mukhlis
Masjid (1430 AD), Jhangiri Masjid (1430
AD) Lal Darwaja Masjid (1450 AD) and
the Jami Masjid (1470 AD).
MALWA ARCHITECTURE
This is a very unique and adaptive
architecture form of 15th century. They
used stones and marbles of different
colours in their buildings and decorated
with arches and pillars. They used locally
available materials. Few important
features of their architecture are
presence of large windows, use of
artificial reservoirs and no use of minars.
Some of their prominent buildings are
Jahaz Mahal, Raani Roopmati Pavillion
etc.
BIJAPUR ARCHITECTURE
This style developed under Adil Shah,
one of the prominent kings of Bahamani
dynasty/kingdom. He built various
tombs, palaces and mosques.
Some important features of their
buildings are bulbous dome, use of
cornice, three arched facade and use of
iron clamps for providing support to the
ceilings. Some of the prominent buildings
are Gol Gumbaj, Bijapur Fort etc.
1-309
MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE
The art and architecture of this period
have a characteristic of Indo-Islamic-
Persian style that flourished on the
Indian sub-continent during the Mughal
empire (1526-1857).
This new style combined elements of
Islamic art and architecture, which had
been introduced to India during the Delhi
Sultanate (1192–1398) and had produced
great monuments such as the Qutub
Minar, with features of Persian art and
architecture. Mughal monuments are
found chiefly in Northern India, but
there are also many remains in Pakistan.
BABUR
The Mughal dynasty was established
with the crushing victory of Babur at
Panipat in 1526. During his short
five-year reign, Babur took considerable
interest in erecting buildings, though few
have survived. He constructed the
mosque at Rohilakhand and Panipat.
HUMAYUN
Humayun’s era was very turbulant even
then he built some famous buildings like
Mosques of Agra and Fatehabad and
most importantly Din-Panah city which
is also known as Fifth Delhi.
AKBAR
In architecture, the first great Mughal
monument was the mausoleum of
Humayun, erected during the reign of
Akbar (1556–1605).
The tomb, which was built in the 1560s,
was designed by a Persian architect
Mirak Mirza Ghiyas. It was set in a
garden at Delhi, and has an intricate
ground plan with central octagonal
chambers, joined by an archway with an
elegant facade and surmounted by
Cupolas, Kiosks and Pinnacles. At the
same time Akbar was building his
fortress-palace in his capital, Agra.
Native red sandstone was inlaid with
white marble, and all the surfaces were
ornately carved on the outside and
sumptuously painted inside. Akbar went
on to build the entire city of Fatehpur
Sikri (City of Victory) in which extensive
use was made of the low arches and
bulbous domes that characterise the
Mughal style.
1-310
Built in 1571 the choice of the site of
Sikri reflected Akbar’s gratitude to a
Muslim saint at Sikri for the birth of
his son. Courtiers soon followed suit
and built homes surrounding the
palace and mosque. The new city
became the capital of the empire, but in
1585 it was abandoned.
JAHANGIR
Though Jahangir was more interested
in paintings. Under his reign more
emphasis was given to album and
individual portrait than illustrated
manuscript. Some important buildings
were made during his rule. First of
such buildings is Mausoleum of Akbar
in Sikandara near Agra, which does
have a dome and has features of
Buddhist architecture. It was started
by Akbar himself. Another important
building is tomb of I’timed-ud-Daulah
built by Noorjahan, in this building for
first time Pietra Dura style was used.
SHAHJAHAN
It was Shahjahan (1628–58) who
perfected Mughal architecture and
erected at Agra, its most noble and
famous building, the tomb of his
favourite wife, which is known as the
Taj Mahal. A huge white marble
building of simple, symmetrical plan, it
is inlaid with colourful semiprecious
materials and is set in an equally
beautiful and symmetrical garden.
The Taj Mahal continues the tradition
of Mughal garden tombs, of which
Humayun’s tomb was the first.
Shahjahan established (1638) Delhi as
his capital and built there the famous
Red Fort, which contained the imperial
Mughal palace. Paintings also
flourished during Shahjahan’s reign.
Portraiture was most highly developed
at his sophisticated court and ink
drawings were of high quality.
AURANGZEB
Under the orthodox Aurangzeb
(1659–1707) the decline of the arts
began, although his ornate Pearl
Mosque (1662) at Delhi is worthy of
mention. During his reign, the Mughal
academy was dispersed.
Many artists then joined the Rajput
courts, where their influence on Hindu
painting is clearly evident. He was not
so aspiring to spend time and resources
to erect huge buildings and therefore
he has the credit of constructing very
few buildings such as Bibi Ka
Maqbara (Rabia Durani). It is an
imitation of Taj Mahal at Aurangabad,
Maharashtra.
Apart from this the Badshahi Mosque
at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Lal
Quila, Delhi are other two specimens
of his contribution towards Mughal
architecture.
POST-MUGHAL
ARCHITECTURE
After Aurangzeb, there is a witness of
Zinat-un-Nissa Begum, daughter of
Aurangzeb, who built the Zinat-ul-
Masjid in Daryaganj, Delhi which
consisted of large courtyard above a
number of rooms in the basement.
The mosque had two gateways at
opposite directions; the Southern one
serving as the main basement.
This masjid although was based on the
architectural style of Jama Masjid, yet
it failed to imitate the magnificence
and coherence of the latter. Other
specimens of this type of poor
caricature of Mughal architecture are
the Sunehri Masjid, built by Nawad
Qudsiya Begum in 1751, Safdar-Jung
tomb of Delhi built by Mirza Muquim
Abdul Mansoor Khan etc.
AVADH (OUDH) STYLE
During the later half of the 18th
century and the first half of the 19th
century, a distinct form of architecture
came into existence under the Nawabs
of Avadh (Oudh), whose first
exposition was noticed in the form of
Safdar Jung’s tomb, built in the
honour of Safdar Jung (1739-1753),
who was the nephew of the first
Nawab of Oudh.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The city of Lucknow witnessed large
building enterprises under Nawab
Asaf-ud-Daulah (1775-1795).
The most representative
˜
architectural achievement of this
period is the Bara Imambara built
by the Nawab in 1784. Absence of
pillars in the main hall and
simplicity of style and symmetry are
its unique features.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
˜
The Chota Imambara or Husainabad
Imambara, built by Muhammed Ali
Shah as his tomb and the Shahnajaf
Imambara, housing the tomb of
Nawab Ghaziuddin Haidar are other
note-worthy buildings following this
style of architecture.
˜
Major General Claude Martin
(1735-1800) built a large and
pretentious building at Lucknow, then
known as Constantia, which was one
of the first large buildings of the
European style built in North
India. This building, which had
several Palladian elements, set the
tone for the development of a hybrid
style of architecture in Lucknow
depicting a degenerative combination
of Mughal and Gothic styles.
˜
The best examples of this style of
architecture are the Chattar Manzil
built by Nawab Naziruddin Haider
and the Kaiser Bagh built by Nawab
Wajid Ali Shah between 1845 and
1850. The Chattar Manzil is an
imposing building, whose main
attractions are the underground
rooms and a beautiful dome
surrounded by a gilt umbrella.
PUNJAB STYLES
In Punjab, a discrete style of
architecture developed under the
influence of the Mughal style. It was
distinguished by certain primordial
features like the multiplicity of chattris
or kiosks, the use of fluted dome
generally covered with copper or
brass-gilt and enrichment of arches by
numerous foliations. This architecture
was best manifested in the construction
of the Golden Temple at Amritsar in
1764 built by the fourth Sikh Guru
Ramdas.
JAIN ART
The contribution of Jain art to the
mainstream art in India has been
considerable. Every phase of Indian art
is represented by a Jain version and
each one of them is worthy of
meticulous study and understanding.
Jain architecture cannot be accredited
with a style of its own, for in the first
place, it was almost an offshoot of
Hindu and Buddhist styles. In the
initial years, many Jain temples were
made adjoining the Buddhist temples
following the Buddhist rock-cut style.
ART AND CULTURE
Initially these temples were mainly carved out of rock faces and the
use of bricks was almost negligible, however, in later years, the
Jains started building temple cities on hills based on the concept of
mountains of immortality.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
Compared to the number of Hindu temples in India, Jain temples
are a few and spaced out. Surrounded by embattled walls, the
temples are divided into wards, guarded by massive bastions at its
ends, with fortified gateways as the main entrances.
˜
These temple cities were not built on a specific plan; instead they
were the results of sporadic construction.
˜
Natural levels of the hills, on which the ‘city’ was being builts,
accommodated various levels so that as one goes higher the
architecture, the grandeur increases.
˜
The only variation in these temples was in the form of frequent
chamukhs or four-faced temples. In these, the image of a
Tirthankara faces the four sides, or four Tirthankars are placed
back to back to face the four cardinal points.
˜
Entry into this temple is also from the four doors. The Chamukh
temple of Adi Nath (1618 AD) is a characteristic example of the
four-door temple.
˜
The great Jain temples and sculptured monuments of Karnataka,
Maharashtra and Rajasthan are world-renowned.
˜
The most spectacular of all the Jain temples are found at
Ranakpur and Mount Abu in Rajasthan; Deogarh (Lalitpur, Uttar
Pradesh), Ellora, Badami and Aihole also have some of the
important specimens of Jain Art.
RAJPUT ART
The Rajputs were great patrons of art and architecture, the finest
examples being their forts and palaces. The Rajput palaces are
complex compositions built as inner citadels surrounded by the city
and enclosed by a fortified wall as at Chittorgarh and Jaisalmer.
Some forts, such as those at Bharatpur and Deeg, were protected
by wide moats.
MAIN FEATURES
˜
The oldest surviving palaces date from the mid 15th century and
are found at Chittor and Gwalior.
˜
The Man Mandir, the largest palace in Gwalior, was built by Raja
Man Singh Tomar (1486-1516). The Man Mandir has two storeys
above and two below, ground level overhanging a sandstone cliff.
This gigantic cliff is punctuated by five massive round towers,
crowned by domed Cupolas and linked by delicately carved
parapets. The whole facade is enriched with brilliant blue tiles.
˜
The palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota
represent the maturity of the Rajput style. All of these palaces
were built predominantly in the 17th and early 18th centuries.
˜
The huge fortified city of Jaisalmer is situated far out in the Thar
desert. The buildings are constructed with the local yellow-brown
stone and they have been remarkably preserved owing to their
remote locations.
˜
The city of Bikaner is encircled by 5.63 km long stone wall in rich
pink sandstone. There are five gates and three sally ports. The
Jodhpur Fort dominates the city, which is surrounded by a huge
wall with 101 bastions, nearly 9.5 km long.
1-311
˜
The foundation of Jaipur, the fabled ‘pink city’, in
1727 AD, represents the final phase of the Rajput
architecture. Built by Jai Singh, Jaipur represents a
fusion of Eastern and Western ideas of town
planning.
˜
The city is enclosed by a wall and has bastions and
towers at regular intervals. The City Palace is at the
center of the walled city and is a spectacular
synthesis of Rajput and Mughal architectural styles.
˜
The famous building Hawa Mahal, or A Palace of
Winds, (1799), which, has a five-storeyed
symmetrical facades composed of 953 small
casements in a huge curve, each with a projecting
balcony and crowning arch.
˜
The Jantar Mantar, the largest of five observatories
built by Jai Singh II in the early 18th century, is
another interesting example of Rajput architecture.
EUROPEAN INFLUENCE
ON INDIAN ART
The European colonists brought with them to India,
concepts of their World View and a whole baggage
of the history of European architecture—
Neo-Classical, Romanesque, Gothic and Renaissance.
The initial structures were utilitarian warehouses and
walled trading posts, giving way to fortified towns
along the coastline.
THE PORTUGUESE INFLUENCE
They adapted to India the climatically appropriate
Iberian galleried patio house and the Baroque
churches of Goa. St Cathedral and the Arch of
Conception of Goa were built in the typical
Portuguese-Gothic style.
˜
The St Francis Church at Cochin, built by the
Portuguese in 1510, is believed to be the first church
built by the Europeans in India.
˜
The Portuguese also built the Fort of Castella de
Aguanda near Mumbai and added fortifications to
the Bassein fort built by Bahadur Shah, the Sultan
of Gujarat, in 1532 AD. The Bassein fort is famous
for the Matriz (Cathedral of St Joseph), the
Corinthian pillared hall and the Porte da Mer (sea
gate).
THE DANISH INFLUENCE
It is evident in Nagapattnam, which was laid out in
squares and canals and also in Tranquebar and
Serampore. The French gave a distinct urban design to
its settlement in Pondicherry by applying the
Cartesian grid plans and classical architectural
patterns. The Church of Sacred Heart of Jesus (Eglise
de Sacre Coeur de Jesus), the Eglise de Notre Dame
des Anges and the Eglise de Notre Dame de Lourdes at
Pondicherry have a distinct French influence.
1-312 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

THE BRITISH INFLUENCE THE INDO-SARACENIC STYLE

It were the British who left a lasting impact on India’s architecture. ˜
The Chepauk Palace in Chennai designed by Paul
They saw themselves as the successors to the Mughals and used Benfield is said to be the first Indo-Saracenic
architecture as a symbol of power. The British followed various building in India.
architectural styles–Gothic, Imperial, Christian, English Renaissance ˜
Other outstanding examples of this style of
and Victorian being the essentials. architecture include the Law Courts, Victoria
˜
The first buildings were factories but later courts, schools, municipal Memorial Hall, Presidency College and Senate
halls and dak bungalows came up later, which were ordinary House of Chennai, Muir College at Allahabad,
structures built by garrison engineers. Napier Museum at Thiruvananthapuram, the Post
˜
The Church of St John at Calcutta was built in 1787 inspired by St Office, Prince of Wales Museum and the Gateway
Stephens Church at Walbrooks. of India in Mumbai, the Maharaja’s Palace at
˜
The Government House in Calcutta was built by Captain Charles Mysore and MS University and Lakshmi Villas
Wyatt modelled on the Kedleston hall of Derbyshire. Palace at Baroda.
˜
The Indian Government Mint in Calcutta is a half-scale replica of
˜
The architecture of New Delhi was the crowning
the Temple of Minerva at Athens and the Pachaiyappa’s Hall in glory of the British Raj. Robert Byron described
Chennai was modelled on the Athenium Temple of Theseus. New Delhi as The Rome of Hindustan.
˜
The Secretariat, University Library, Rajabai Tower, Telegraph
˜
The British built New Delhi as a systematically
Office and the Victoria Terminus all followed the Victorian Gothic planned city after it was made the capital in 1911.
style. ˜
The British Viceroy made Sir Edward Lutyens
˜
In Varanasi, one of the true Gothic monuments is the Queen’s responsible for the overall plan of Delhi. He was
College, built in a perpendicular style by Major Kitoe from 1847 to specifically directed to “harmonise externally with
1852. the traditions of Indian art”. Thus, the Western
architecture with Oriental motif was realised with
˜
In Calcutta, a High Court was constructed following the Gothic style.
chajjas, jalis and chhattris, as stylistic devices in
˜
The Howrah Bridge (1943), with its red brick facade surrounded by the Viceroy’s House (now the Rashtrapati
eight square towers represents a combination of the Oriental and Bhawan).
Roman styles. ˜
Herbert Baker added the imposing buildings of the
˜
Fort William, the stronghold of the British in mid 19th century that South Block and the North Block, which flank the
took 13 years to construct at a cost of more than $3.5 million and the Rashtrapati Bhawan.
Victoria Memorial in Calcutta (1921), designed by Sir William ˜
Another Englishman called Robert Tor Tussell
Emerson, are probably the most imposing of all the British
built the Connaught Place and the Eastern and
structures in India.
Western Courts.
UNESCO’s Cultural World Heritage Sites In India
Name of Cultural Year of Name of Cultural Year of
No. State No. State
World Heritage Site Notification World Heritage Site Notification
1. Agra Fort Uttar Pradesh 1983 15. Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi Delhi 1993
2. Ajanta Caves Maharashtra 1983 16. Khajuraho Group of Monuments Madhya Pradesh 1986
3. Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi Madhya Pradesh 1989 17. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bihar 2002
Bodhgaya
4. Champaner-Pavagadh Gujarat 2004 18. Mountain Railways of India Tamil Nadu 1999
Archaeological Park
5. Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Maharashtra 2004 19. Qutub Minar and its Monuments, Delhi 1993
(Formerly Victoria Terminus) Delhi
6. Churches and Convents of Goa Goa 1986 20. Rani-Ki-Vav (the Queen’s Stepwell) Gujarat 2014
at Patan, Gujarat
7. Elephanta Caves Maharashtra 1987 21. Red Fort Complex Delhi 2007
8. Ellora Caves Maharashtra 1983 22. Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka Madhya Pradesh 2003
9. Fatehpur Sikri Uttar Pradesh 1986 23. Sun Temple, Konarak Orissha 1984
10. Great Living Chola Temples Tamil Nadu 1987 24. Taj Mahal Uttar Pradesh 1983
11. Group of Monuments at Hampi Karnataka 1986 25. The Jantar Mantar, Jaipur Rajasthan 2010
12. Group of Monuments at Tamil Nadu 1984 26. Archaeological Site of Nalanda Bihar 2016
Mahablipuram Mahavihara (Nalanda University) at
Nalanda
13. Group of Monuments at Karnataka 1987 27. The Architectural Work of Corbusier, Chandigarh 2016
Pattadakal an Outstanding Contribution to the
Modern Movement
14. Hill Forts of Rajashtan Rajasthan (Chittorgarh, Kumbhalgarh, 2013
Ranthambhore, Amber Sub-Cluster,
Jaisalmer, Gagron)
ART AND CULTURE 1-313

Indian Arts in the UNESCO’s Representative List of the Intangible There are many types of traditional Indian
Cultural Heritage of Humanity folk paintings such as Madhubani
1. 2008 : Ramlila, the traditional performance of the Ramayan paintings from Bihar, Patachitra
2. 2008 : Tradition of Vedic chanting paintings from Orissa, Pithora paintings
from Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, Nirmal
3. 2008 : Kutiyattam, Sanskrit theatre of Kerala
paintings from Andhra Pradesh, Warli
4. 2009 : Ramman, religious festival and ritual theatre of the Garhwal paintings of Maharashtra, Phad paintings
Himalayas, India originating in Rajasthan and so on.
5. 2010 : Mudiyettu, ritual theatre and dance drama of Kerala
What makes these paintings special is that
6. 2010 : Kalbelia, folk songs and dances of Rajasthan each of these types of paintings uniquely
7. 2010 : Chhau dance, a classical Indian (martial arts) reflects the cultural and socio-economic
dance originated in the eastern Indian states. milieu in that particular territory of India,
8. 2012 : Buddhist chanting of Ladakh recitation of sacred Buddhist giving us a clear idea about the life and
texts in the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region, Jammu and work in that particular region. The
Kashmir treatment of each type of painting vastly
9. 2013 : Sankirtana, ritual singing, drumming and dancing of Mainpur differed in the different states of India, so
did the colours and combinations used and
10. 2014 : Traditional brass and copper craft of utensil making among the
even the general approach to the art itself.
Thatheras of Jandiala Guru, Punjab, India
For instance, Warli paintings used clever
stick figures to depict everyday life in rural
Maharashtra. Madhubani paintings, on the
other hand, mostly depicted mythological
figures, the different seasons and major
INDIAN PAINTING events such as marriages and so on. Indian
folk paintings are as vast and diverse as the
Indian culture itself. A detailed study of this
The tradition of painting has been carried on in the Indian subject is very interesting and can take a
sub-continent since the ancient times. Standing as a testimony to researcher a whole lifetime to understand
this fact are the exquisite murals of Ajanta and Ellora, Buddhist and work on. Some of the most important of
the Indian folk paintings and arts will now
palm leaf manuscripts, Mughal and Kangra schools of miniature be dealt with.
Indian paintings etc. Some traditional Indian paintings, like those CAVE PAINTINGS
of Ajanta, Bagh and Sittanavasal, depict a love for nature and its The origin of cave paintings of India date
forces. Even the folk painting of India has become quite popular back to the Prehistoric times. Earliest
amongst art lovers. evidence of paintings in India are rock
paintings in Bhimbetka which are believed
to be made around 5000 BC. Paintings of
PAINTINGS Mirzapur and Panchmarhi are other such
examples.
The roots of the Indian painting can be traced back to the days of the Indus
Valley Civilisation. Paintings on pottery reflected a keen sense of painting The finest examples of these paintings
among the Indus valley people. The paintings of the Ajanta and Ellora caves comprise of the murals of Ajanta, Ellora,
exhibit the creative genius of the artists of that period. Bagh, Sittanavasal etc which reflect an
emphasis on naturalism. Ancient cave
Enduring tough weather conditions, these paintings have surprisingly,
paintings of India serve as a window to our
survived for such a long period of time. A better perspective to study the
ancestors, who used to inhabit these caves.
painting forms of the whole of the nation is to divide it into two heads such as
the Mural paintings and Miniature paintings. AJANTA PAINTINGS
Indian folk paintings are veritably India’s pride. They truly reflect its ancient Most of the paintings seen in the Ajanta
tradition and heritage. Since time immemorial, these paintings that caves date back to the period of the
ornamented the walls, homes and courtyards of the villagers and tribals, were Mahayana sect of Buddhism. The themes of
generally ignored as primitive forms of expression. These paintings lacked most of these paintings revolve around the
refinement and richness, so elitist groups who supposedly associated with life and teachings of the Lord Buddha. This
sophisticated pure art did not bother to give them much exposure. Only in the includes the Jataka stories related to the
start of the 20th century scholars began their research on the subject and various lives and incarnations of Buddha.
begin to realise the true value of Indian folk paintings.
1-314
The Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of
Waghora river in Aurangabad,
Maharashtra. This World Heritage Site
is famous for Buddhist monuments and
paintings.
Calligraphic lines characterise these
paintings, which can be classified into
portraits, narrative illustrations and
ornamental decoration. There are 29
caves in Ajanta. Mural and fresco
paintings are made on walls of caves.
In these expressions of emotions is
done through hand postures, hairstyle
is different for each female and even
birds and animals show emotions. The
technique employed is fresco painting.
Tempra style i.e. use of pigment is used
in these paintings.
ELLORA PAINTINGS
Ellora caves are nestled amidst the
Chamadari hills, lying approximately
18 miles to the North-East of
Aurangabad city. The paintings can be
found in five caves. However, all of
them are today preserved only in the
Kailasa temple. The rock paintings of
Ellora were painted in two different
series.
The first series, which were done when
the caves were carved, revolve around
Lord Vishnu and Goddess Lakshmi.
The second series, painted centuries
later, illustrate procession of Shaiva
holymen, Apsaras etc.
BAGH PAINTINGS
The Bagh caves, situated on the banks
of the Bagh river, have been excavated
on the rock face of a lofty hill. The wall
paintings of these caves date back to
the period between the 5th and the 7th
century. These paintings represent the
most exquisite traditions of Indian art
forms and predate the Ajanta frescoes.
There are nine sandstone Buddhist
caves with beautiful frescoes and
sculptured stonework.
SITTANAVASAL PAINTINGS
Sittanavasal is the site of an ancient
Jaina Monastery, located at a distance
of around 58 km from Trichy. The
monastery is known for housing some
of the most exquisite frescoes in a rock
cave. These were initiated by
Mahendra Verman and Narsimha
Verman. Most of these cave paintings
are based on the Pandyan period of
the 9th century.
These paintings include animals,
fish, ducks, people collecting lotuses
from a pond, two dancing figures etc.
Apart from these, one can also find in
them, inscriptions dating back to the
9th and the 10th centuries. The
ceiling of the Ardhamandapam is
adorned with murals from the 7th
century.
MINIATURE PAINTINGS
Miniature paintings are special
works of art because they are
delicate handmade paintings, much
smaller in size than a normal
painting.
This is indeed the hallmark of these
paintings, the intricate and delicate
brushwork, which lends them their
unique identity, requires much
patience and skill on the part of the
artist making them.
It is indeed difficult even to create a
normal painting or a portrait, so one
can imagine just how much more
difficult it would be to create a
miniature painting.
FEATURES OF MINIATURE
PAINTINGS
The colours used in miniature
painting are handmade, acquired
from vegetables, minerals, indigo,
conch shells, precious stones, pure
gold and silver. The most common
theme of Indian miniature painting
comprises the Ragas i.e. the
melodies of Indian classical music.
Miniature painting is an ancient art
in India and there were many
schools for the same, including those
of the Rajputs, Deccans and the
Mughals.
EVOLUTION OF MINIATURE
PAINTING IN INDIA
The art of Indian Miniature painting
started in the Western Himalayas,
round about the 17th century. These
paintings were very much
influenced by the mural paintings
that originated during the later half
of the 8th century. This art further
flourished during the Mughal rule.
Muslim kings of the Deccan and
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Malwa and also the Hindu Rajas of
Rajasthan were the patrons of this great
tradition. In fact, the Mughals were even
responsible for introducing the unique
Persian flavour in the miniature paintings
of India.
The concept of illustrated palm leaf
manuscripts came into being during the
11th and 12th centuries. Since the
manuscripts were diminutive in size, the
paintings done on it had to be much
smaller. This in itself could have given
rise to the concept of miniature painting.
Miniature paintings are also done on
wooden tables, ivory panels, paper,
marble, leather, on walls and even on
cloth. Some of the special miniature
paintings show the flourishing of the
Mughal period, illustrated manuscripts of
Jains and Buddhists, scenes from the
Rajput history and also Deccan
miniatures. Additionally, miniature
paintings also included themes from
Indian epics such as Ramayana,
Mahabharata, Bhagvata Purana,
Rasikpriya, Rasamanjari and the ragas of
Indian classical music.
SCHOOLS OF MINIATURE PAINTING
The schools of Indian Miniature Painting
include the Orissa school, the Pala school,
the Mughal school, the Jaina school, the
Rajasthani school and the Nepali school.
PALA SCHOOL
The earliest specimens of the Indian
Miniature painting are those attached to
the Pala school and date back as early as
the 11th century. This school was
characterised by its symbolic use of colour
in the paintings, which took its inspiration
from the age-old tantric rituals in vogue
then. Yet other characteristics of the Pala
school included the use of graceful lines,
modelling forms with the delicate
manipulation of variation of pressure, use
of natural colours and so on.
JAIN SCHOOL
The Jain School of Miniature Paintings
mainly concentrated on style. This school
used strong pure colours, heavy gold
outlines, stylish figures of ladies,
diminution of dress to angular segments,
square-shaped hands and enlarged eyes.
One can get to see the influence of Jain
miniature paintings on Rajasthani and
Mughal paintings as well.
ART AND CULTURE
MUGHAL SCHOOL
The Mughal School of Miniature
Paintings mostly depicts amorous
scenes, Mughal Royal courts and the
battlefields, using gold and stone
colours.
Mughal paintings feature stylised
imagery in rich draped figures with a
blend of Indian and Persian styles.
˜
The primary difference between the
Rajput and the Mughal miniature
paintings lay in the use of colours. The
Mughal school used muted colours,
giving its paintings a shadow and
depth, while the Rajasthan school
uses bold primary colours, which
ended up giving the painting a more
abstract look.
Mughal paintings reflect an exclusive
combination of Indian, Persian and
Islamic styles. As the name suggests,
these paintings evolved as well as
developed during the rule of Mughal
emperors in India, between the 16th
century and 19th century.
The origin of the Mughal school of
painting is considered to be a landmark
in the history of painting in India.
With the establishment of the Mughal
empire, the Mughal School of
Painting originated in the reign of
Akbar in 1560 AD.
Emperor Akbar was keenly interested
in the art of painting and architecture.
While he was a boy he had taken
lessons in drawing.
In the beginning of his rule an atelier of
painting was established under the
supervision of the two Persian masters,
Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad
Khan, who were originally employed by
his father Humayun.
A large number of Indian artists from
all over India were recruited to work
under the Persian masters.
The list of Akbar’s court painters
includes a large number of names.
Some of the famous painters, other than
the two Persian masters already
mentioned, are Dasvanth, Miskina,
Nanha, Knha, Basawan.
The well-known artists of Shahjahan’s
period are Bichiter, Chaitaraman, Anup
Chattar, Mohammed Nadir of
Samarquand, Inayat and Makr.
DURING AKBAR’S REIGN
Akbar established a different
department for paintings and
Karkhanas were developed. He looked
upon paintings as a means of study
and amusement, hence he regularly
gave awards to the painters.
The participation of Indian painters
started through their invitation to
work in Karkhana of Akbar, thus
Indian influence started in Mughal
painting.
Paintings of this era had features like
use of foresightening, 3D figures, use
of calligraphy in the paintings, most
common themes are fairs and festivals,
combined efforts of painters began
here. Similarly transformation from
popular art to court art can be seen
here. Daswant, Basavan and Kesu
were famous painters of this time.
DURING JAHANGIR’S REIGN
During Jahangir’s rule Mughal
paintings reached its zenith. Jahangir
was a naturalist (Lover of Nature)
hence preferred the pictures of flora
and fauna i.e. birds, animals, trees,
flowers etc.
He also emphasised on portrait
paintings. Painting of this period had
decorated margins, and most of the
paintings are miniature paintings.
Jahangir was himself an artist and
had his own workshop. When he was a
young prince, he established a
workshop under supervision of Aka
Riza. Famous painter of this period
were Ustad Mansur and Abul Hasan.
The portrait of Jahangir illustrated is
a typical example of miniature
executed during the period of
Jahangir. This miniature is in the
collection of the National Museum,
New Delhi.
It shows Jahangir holding a picture of
the Virgin Mary in his right hand.
The portrait is remarkable for its
superb drawing and fine modelling
and realism.
DURING SHAHJAHAN’S REIGN
Shanjahan’s rule is marked by
outstanding achievements in the field
of architecture though paintings also
flourished during his rule.
1-315
Prominent features of paintings of this
period include too much use of gold,
silver, and bright colours in paintings;
reduced liveliness (Artificial and
Unnaturalness due to increasing
European influence) pencil sketching
was also used during this period.
DURING AURANGZEB’S REIGN
Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore,
did not encourage art. Painting
declined during his period and lost
much of its earlier quality. A large
number of court painters migrated to
the provincial courts.
DURING THE PERIOD OF BAHADUR
SHAH
There was a revival of the Mughal
painting after the neglect shown by
Aurangzeb. The style so employed
showed an improvement in quality.
After 1712 AD, the Mughal painting
again started deteriorating under the
later Mughals. Though retaining the
outer form, it became lifeless and lost
the inherent quality of the earlier
Mughal art.
FEATURES OF THE MUGHAL
PAINTINGS
The Mughal style evolved as a result of
a synthesis of the indigenous Indian
style of painting and the Safavid
School of Persian painting. The
Mughal style is marked by supple
naturalism based on close observation
of nature and on fine and delicate
drawing. It is of an high aesthetic
merit. It is primarily aristocratic and
secular.
TUTINAMA
The manuscripts at the time of Mughal
were illustrated a lot about the
paintings. Some important manuscripts
are given below An illustrated
manuscript of the Tutinama in the
Cleveland Museum of Art (USA)
appears to be the first work of the
Mughal school.
The style of painting in this manuscript
shows the Mughal style in its formative
stage. Shortly after that, between
1564-69 AD, was completed a very
ambitious project in the form of the
Hamzanama illustrations on cloth,
originally consisting of 1400 leaves in
17 volumes.
1-316
HAMZANAMA
The Hamzanama illustrations are in a
private collection in Switzerland. It
shows Mihrdukht shooting arrows at
the bird on a multi-staged minaret,
from the upper storey of a pavilion. In
this miniature, one can observe that
the architecture is Indo-Persian, the
tree types are mainly derived from the
Deccani painting and female types are
adapted from the earlier Rajasthani
paintings. Women are wearing four
cornered pointed skirts and
transparent muslim veils. Turbans
worn by men are small and tight,
typical of the Akbar period. The
Mughal style was further influenced by
the European paintings, which came in
the Mughal court and absorbed some of
the Western techniques like shading
and perspective.
RAJPUT PAINTINGS
Rajput paintings originated in the royal
states of Rajasthan, somewhere around
the late 16th and early 17th century.
The Mughals ruled almost all the
Princely States of Rajasthan at that
time and because of this most of the
schools of Rajput painting in India
reflect strong Mughal influence. In
1916, the famous ceylonese historian
Coomaraswamy did the first
remarkable scholarly work on the
classification and nomenclature of
Indian paintings. He concluded that
the theme of the Rajput paintings is
related to the Rajputana as well as the
hill state of Punjab (of that time). Thus,
he divided the Rajput paintings in two
parts i.e. Rajasthani (concerning to the
Rajputana) and Pahari (concerned to
Jammu, Kangra, Garhwal, Basholi and
Chamba).
RAJASTHAN SCHOOL
The very essence of miniature
paintings is found in Rajasthan and
can be traced back to its schools of
Jodhpur, Jaipur, Mughal, Kangra and
Mewar. The Jodhpur School of
Miniature Paintings depict legendary
lovers such as Dholu and Maru on
camel back. They also depict hunting
scenes with elephants and horses. This
school of miniature painting mostly
uses gold and stone colours. These
paintings are miniature paintings of
the finest quality, made both on paper
and on large pieces of cloth. Different
parts of the state stick to their own
style and are thus, recognised as
different schools of paintings. A
number of famous schools of Rajasthani
painting are in Mewar, Hadoti,
Marwar, Kishangarh, Alwar and
Dhundhar. Rajasthani paintings have
clear influences of Mughal paintings,
though they are quite distinct in own
ways.
Bani Thani
Bani Thani is an Indian miniature
painting painted by Nihal Chand from
the Marwar school of Kishangarh. It
portrays a woman who is elegant and
graceful. The painting’s subject, Bani
Thani, was a singer and poet in
Kishangarh in the time of king Sawant
Singh (1748-1764). She has been
compared to the Mona Lisa. Inspired by
Radha, Bani Thani is characterised by
idealised distinct features such as
arched eyebrows, lotus-like elongated
eyes and pointed chin. This painting
was featured in an Indian stamp issued
in 1973.
PAHARI PAINTINGS
Pahari painting is the name given to
the Rajput paintings, made in
Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and
Kashmir. These paintings developed
as well as flourished during the period
of the 17th to the 19th centuries.
Indian Pahari paintings have been
done mostly in miniature forms.
CENTRES OF THE PAHARI
SCHOOL OF PAINTING
BASOHLI
The earliest centre of painting in the
Pahari region was Basohli, where
under the patronage of Raja Kripal
Pal, an artist named Devidasa
executed miniatures in the form of the
Rasamanjari illustrations in 1694 AD.
There is one more series of the
Rasamanjari miniatures painted in the
same style and almost of the same
period, but appears to be in a different
hand. The illustrations of the two
Rasamanjari series are scattered in a
number of Indian and foreign
museums. The Basohli style of painting
is characterised by vigorous strong
glowing colours. The Basohli style
spread to the various neighbouring
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
states and continued till the middle of
the 18th century.
GULER
The last phase of the Basohli style was
closely followed by the Jammu group of
paintings mainly consisting of portraits
of Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota (a
small place near Jammu) by Nainsukh,
an artist who originally belonged to
Guler but had settled at Jasrota. He
worked both at Jasrota and at Guler.
These paintings are in a new naturalistic
and delicate style marking a change from
the earlier traditions of the Basohli art.
The colours used are soft and cool. The
style appears to have been inspired by
the naturalistic style of the Mughal
painting of the Muhammad period.
KANGRA
The Guler style was followed by another
style of painting termed as the Kangra
style, representing the third phase of
the Pahari paintings in the last quarter
of the 18th century. The Kangra style
developed out of the Guler style. It
possessed the main characteristics of
the Guler style, like the delicacy of
drawing and quality of naturalism. The
name Kangra style is given to this group
of painting for the very reason that they
are identical in style to the portraits of
Raja Sansar Chand of Kangra. In these
paintings, the faces of women in profile
have the nose almost in line with the
forehead, the eyes are long and narrow
and the chin is sharp.
MYSORE PAINTINGS
These paintings are a form of classical
South Indian painting, which evolved in
the Mysore city of Karnataka. During
that time, Mysore was under the reign
of the Wodeyars and it was under their
patronage that this school of painting
reached its zenith. Centres of the
Mysore school of paintings exist in
Mysore, Bangalore, Narasipura,
Tumkur, Shravanabelagola and
Nanjangud.
FEATURES OF MYSORE PAINTINGS
Mysore paintings are characterised by
delicate lines, intricate brush strokes,
graceful delineation of figures and the
discreet use of bright vegetable colours
and lustrous gold leaf. The paintings are
designed to inspire feelings of devotion
and humility in the viewer.
ART AND CULTURE
TANJORE PAINTINGS
These are one of the most popular forms
of classical South Indian painting. It is
the native art form of Thanjavur (also
known as Tanjore) city of Tamil Nadu.
The dense composition, surface richness
and vibrant colours of Indian
Thanjavur Paintings distinguish them
from the other types of paintings.
FEATURES OF TANJORE PAINTINGS
These paintings are notable for their
adornment in the form of semi-precious
stones, pearls, glass pieces and gold.
The rich vibrant colours, dashes of gold,
semi-precious stones and fine artistic
work are characteristics of these
paintings. They add beauty and culture
to a variety of surroundings and decor.
The paintings so made are mostly of
Gods and Goddesses because this art of
painting flourished at a time when fine
looking and striking temples were being
constructed by the rulers of several
dynasties. It uses gesso work in
traditional paintings which has
embossing material and covered with
gold foil.
FOLK PAINTINGS
Indian folk paintings are veritably
India’s pride. They truly reflect its
ancient tradition and heritage. Since
time immemorial, these paintings that
ornamented the walls, homes and
courtyards of the villagers and tribals,
were generally ignored as primitive
forms of expression.
These paintings lacked refinement
and richness, so elitist groups who
supposedly associated with
sophisticated pure art did not bother to
give them much exposure. Only in the
start of the 20th century scholars began
their research on the subject and begin
to realise the true value of Indian folk
paintings.
There are many types of traditional
Indian folk paintings such as
Madhubani paintings from Bihar,
Patachitra paintings from Orissa,
Pithora paintings from Gujarat and
Madhya Pradesh, Nirmal paintings
from Andhra Pradesh, Warli paintings
of Maharashtra, Phad paintings
originating in Rajasthan and so on.
What makes these paintings special is
that each of these types of paintings
uniquely reflects the cultural and
socio-economic milieu in that
particular territory of India, giving us
a clear idea about the life and work in
that particular region.
The treatment of each type of painting
vastly differed in the different states of
India, so did the colours and
combinations used and even the
general approach to the art itself.
For instance, Warli paintings used
clever stick figures to depict everyday
life in rural Maharashtra. Madhubani
paintings, on the other hand, mostly
depicted mythological figures, the
different seasons and major events
such as marriages and so on. Indian
folk paintings are as vast and diverse
as the Indian culture itself.
MADHUBANI PAINTINGS
The Madhubani painting originated
from the Mithila region in the state of
Bihar, India and is thus also known as
Mithila Painting.
The term madhu literally means
honey and bani refers to forest. So,
those living in the hilly wooded
terrains of Bihar gave birth to this
wonderful art.
FEATURES OF MADHUBANI
PAINTINGS
These paintings were originally made
by the women of the village, on the
walls of their homes. Influenced by the
tradition and culture of those times,
they painted popular mythological
figures such as Ram, Sita, Krishna,
Radha, Durga, Shiva, Lakshmi and
Saraswati; pictures of nature such as
the sun, moon, starry nights and
religious plants such as the Tulsi
(sage); seasonal festivals and so on.
˜
The techniques used in Madhubani
painting were guarded by the women
in the family and were passed on
from generation to generation and
from mothers to their daughters.
˜
The artisans who created
Madhubani paintings would invoke
holy spirits, divine blessings and
mother nature herself, before
proceeding to create a work of art.
1-317
This seems one of the plausible
˜
reasons why their paintings mostly
revealed the blissful creative side of
nature, including flora and fauna,
animals, fishes, birds, the natural
cycle of life and death and many other
aspects of creation, even geometrical
figures. Using bright, vibrant colours,
Madhubani paintings verily pulsate
with life and verve.
˜
Though these women carried on with
their paintings for centuries, this art
was known and acknowledged only as
late as the 1960s, when the area was
affected by severe drought.
˜
Looking for a different,
non-agricultural way of earning
money, they began to bring their
paintings out into the open in a bid to
sell them and earn a livelihood.
˜
Originally depicted on freshly
plastered mud walls of huts and
displayed during family functions,
sacred rituals, ceremonies and
marriages, the same gradually began
to be done on handmade paper, fabric
and canvas.
˜
Incidentally, there is one version that
talks about Madhubani paintings
being as ancient as the
Mahabharata itself. It relates how
king Janaka hired artists to paint on
the walls of the palace at the time of
his daughter, Sita’s marriage to Lord
Rama.
˜
Madhubani paintings use
two-dimensional imagery and uses
natural colours derived from plants.
Ochre and lampblack are also used
to get reddish-brown and black hues
respectively. Because the art has been
confined to a single geographical
region and has been passed down
through generations of families, the
style and content of the painting has
mostly remained the same.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE EVOLUTION
OF
MADHUBANI PAINTINGS
Sita Devi of Jitwarpur village, Ganga
Devi and Baua Devi were the ones
who were responsible to transform the
Mithila paintings from village walls
onto canvas and paper. The todays’
artists such as Pushpa Kumari, Karpuri
Devi, Jamuna Devi, Lalita Devi, Sarita
Devi, Godawari Dutta and
Mahasundari Devi are among the
foremost contributors of the art.
1-318
KALAMKARI ART
Kalamkari or Qalamkari art, literally
means ‘pen-art’. The Persian term
kalam means pen, and kari means
craftsmanship.
This is a form of hand-painted or
block-printed painting on cotton fabric
and is done in many different parts of
India. Kalamkari work developed and
evolved in Machilipatnam, Andhra
Pradesh, largely due to the patronage
of the Golconda sultans during the
Mughal era. It had many business ties
with Persia, due to which the
Kalamkari industry came up in a huge
way in India.
It is said that in the olden days, there
used to be large groups of painters,
singers and musicians (popularly
known as chitrakathi), who moved
around each village, telling people
great stories from Hindu mythology.
With time, they started illustrating
these stories with impromptu paintings
made on canvas sheets. This is how
Kalamkari was born. Then it went on
to evolve steadily through the
centuries. There are predominantly two
types of Kalamkari art in India. The
first is the Srikalahasti style and the
other, the Machilipatnam style.
The Srikalahasti style of this art
involves using the pen or kalam for
freehand drawing and then filling the
colours inside. The piece here is
developed entirely by hand. This style
of Kalamkari is woven around temples
and deities and depicts all religious
objects, such as temple hangings,
scrolls, chariot banners and so on and
mythological scenes based on great
epics like Ramayana, Mahabharata,
Puranas and so on.
Kalamkari paintings incorporate only
natural dyes taken from plants and
require the artisan to undertake 17
complex procedures to complete one
work of art. Smt Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyay is mainly responsible to
maintain and develop the art of
Kalamkari, as the First Chairperson
of the All India Handicrafts Board.
At present, the JJ School of Art in
Mumbai is experimenting with the
potential of Kalamkari art on Silk Ikat
(a form of tie-and-dye textile popular in
Pochampally, Andhra Pradesh.
FEATURES OF KALAMKARI ART
The fabric used in Kalamkari acquires a
certain gloss due to being treated by
various natural mixtures and dyes. It is
first immersed in a mixture of resin
(myrabalam) and cow’s milk for about an
hour.
˜
Then contours are marked on it with a
bamboo soaked in a mixture of
fermented jaggery and water. Then
vegetable dyes are used on the same.
The fabric is washed after each colour
treatment, so each fabric undergoes
about 15-20 washings. Tints and shades
are obtained with the help of plants,
seeds, crushed flowers and cow dung.
˜
Even today, Kalamkari craft is practiced
in many families of Andhra Pradesh and
forms a major part of their livelihood.
˜
Though Kalamkari art witnessed a
slight, temporary decline in between, it
was revived in India and abroad and has
been given tremendous worldwide
exposure since the 18th century,
especially by the English during the
British Raj in India.
PATACHITRA PAINTINGS
Pata or Patachitra is a form of painting
that is very distinct and is set apart from
the rest. Originated in Orissa, the themes
of these paintings mainly revolve around
Lord Jagannath, the prime deity at the
Jagannath temple of Puri, a beach town in
the East Indian state of Orissa.
Patachitras are painted by artists of
Orissa, called Chitrakars. They use bold,
vibrant and very Indian colours to depict
their images.
It originated in the 8th century and is
supposed to have been the earliest form of
indigenous art. It thrived on the
patronage of the royalty and their kins.
When the popular Bhakti Movement
evolved in the 16th century, the paintings
of Radha and Krishna were included in a
riot of colours and shades of orange,
yellow and red.
Important instances from Krishna’s life
and Krishna Leela, especially, Raas Leela,
were depicted through the medium of
these paintings.
Additionally, aspects of nature, such as
birds and animals, flora and fauna, were
also included in the paintings. Krishna
would invariably be depicted in blue,
while the gopis would be shown attired in
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
bright shades of purple, pink and
brown with a touch of gold and silver
colours. This colour scheme is what
makes the Patachitra stand out from
the rest of the folk art.
How the Pata Paintings
came into Existence
Every year, the painted wooden
images of Jagannath, Balabhadra and
Subhadra, the deities of the Puri
Jagannath temple, are offered the
traditional Abhisheka (holy bath
ritual). This invariably leads to the
discoloration of the images, due to
which they have to be removed from
the Garbhagriha (sanctum
sanctorum) and taken for repainting.
It is at this time that the temple
substitutes three paintings for the
images. In Sanskrit, the word pata
means cloth and chitra means
painting.
FEATURES OF THE PATACHITRA
PAINTINGS
˜
Pata paintings are very popular
with tourists, especially foreign
visitors, who take them back as a
souvenir.
˜
Patachitras depicting the utsava
image of Puri Jagannath are
considered to be extremely special.
These can also be found at several
ethnic stores and handicraft expos
across the country.
˜
Patachitra art is traditionally
practised by a certain family of
artists living around the
Jagannath temple area at Puri.
Starting off as a ritual, Patachitra
art is now considered to be one of
the most cherished collectors
items.
˜
Along with these cloth paintings,
the Chitrakars also often etched
images of the deities on dried palm
leaves. This art is known as
Talapatachitra. Rectangular
pieces of palm leaves are dried and
stitched together by means of thin
black thread. The desired designs
are then etched on the leaves with
a needle.
˜
The art of Patachitra thrives even
today and has attained
international status as one of the
finest art forms.
ART AND CULTURE
KALIGHAT PAINTINGS
Kalighat paintings first came into being during the
19th century at Kolkata, Bengal, in the market area
close to the Kalighat temple there. It first appeared
as a souvenir associated with the Kali temple at
Kalighat. In the beginning, Kalighat temples only
treated Hindu mythological themes, but gradually
initiated including everyday themes, secular, social
and the current political themes as well.
So, the art that had till then been within the
boundary of religion alone, stepped outside it and
commented on contemporary issues affecting the
social, cultural and societal milieu.
These paintings started reflecting the new values and
new ethics of a modern society. Some artists even
painted Imam Hussain’s horse, Duldul and certain
other aspects of Islam, in order to please their
Muslim clients. With time, Hindu artisans from
several parts of Bengal migrated into Kalighat and
established their profession there. That entire area
around the temple, soon came to be known as
Pata-Para or the artists’ locality. The artists who
created Kalighat paintings came from several areas
of rural Bengal.
Their paintings, hence, were an impression of their
own perception of urban life and society in their
times. They would, for instance, show their derision
towards the Babu culture which raised its hood then,
the rise of feminism and liberal attitudes, religious
hypocrisy, social debauchery and so on. The paintings
did not stop with being mute works of art. They
actually portrayed a dynamic society, evolving each
and every day.
FEATURES OF THE KALIGHAT PAINTINGS
The Kalighat paintings actually reflected the
painters’ own orthodoxy and fear of the rapid social
changes taking place at the time.
˜
Popular themes portrayed then would be of the Rani
of Jhansi on horseback, babus wooing their
concubines, cats bearing Hindu holy marks on the
forehead as allusion to debauchery,
good-for-nothing, dandies and so on.
˜
There was a general wave of resentment against the
British Raj, so they would try to portray the victory
of good over evil, symbolising the ultimate victory of
India over the British rule.
˜
The most important and attractive aspect of the
Kalighat paintings was that they were simple
drawings and paintings, which could easily be
reproduced by lithography. Such prints were
hand-coloured, giving the entire picture a beautiful,
raw look. This trend continued up to the early part
of the 20th century and these paintings ended up in
museums and private collections.
˜
Kalighat paintings varily captured the essence of
daily life and they influenced modern artists like the
late Jamini Roy.
1-319
Kalighat paintings got hugely popular in the 20th century, when
Parsi based families lived with each other to acquire them. The main
aim of Kalighat paintings was to create a dynamic picture that
would intuitively apprehend the subject rather than simply
represent it. The general treatment of figures and planes forged the
two dimensional quality of the pictorial space. The broad planes, the
bold lines, the linear tensions, the vibrant colours used and the
symmetrical curves smoothly blended in together to create a visual
poetry of sorts. Sadly, since the painters left their portraits
unsigned, vital information about them is not available.
BATIK PAINTINGS
Batik is a wax-resistive dyeing technique used on fabric. Batik is an
important aspect of Indonesia and is actually considered as a
national art there. Interestingly, similar patterns of the Batik art is
also found in several countries such as Ghana, Cameroon, Nigeria,
Mali, the Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Iran,
Bangladesh and India. The commonest Batik fabrics used to
excellent Batik prints are poplin, cambric, voiles and pure silk.
Natural colours derived from barks of trees, leaves, flowers and
minerals were used for Batik printing. Batik art in India is actively
propagated and promoted mainly by the University of Shantiniketan
in Calcutta and Chola Mandalam in Chennai.
LEPAKSHI PAINTINGS
Another type of Indian painting is the Lepakshi painting; a wall
painting made on the walls of the temple of Lepakshi, a small village
in Anantpur, district of Andhra Pradesh. The theme behind there
paintings was secular despite being depicted on temple walls.
MUSIC, DANCE AND
DRAMA
India, the land of a rich culture and heritage, since its
inception, has music, dance and drama as an integral aspect
of its culture. Earlier used as a medium of propagating
religion and social reforms, these performing arts have
immensely contributed in educating the masses as well.
These arts now also serve as a means of entertainment.
DEVELOPMENT OF MUSIC IN INDIA
The melodies of Samaveda can be considered to be the earliest
examples of Indian music. The science of music called
Gandharvaveda, is an Upaveda of Samaveda. Bharata’s
Natyashastra is the earliest known treatise on dance, drama and
music. Even earlier, the statues found from the Indus Valley
Civilisation period depict elements of music. Some of the statues
show a performer in a dance form, while some others show a type of
musical instrument, which looks like a flute. Even the Rigveda
contains description of musical instruments like veena, mridangam
and bansuri.
1-320
Some date the advent of the system of
classical Indian music to Amir
Khusrow. Muslim rulers and noble
men freely extended their patronage to
music. In the courts of the Mughal
emperors, music is said to have
flourished and Tansen was one of the
Navratnas (nine jewels) of Akbar’s
court. For the first time in 13th
century, the division between North
Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian
(Carnatic) music was also being more
sharply delineated by Haripaladeva in
his text sangeet sudakara. Classical
music, both Hindustani and Carnatic,
may be either instrumental or vocal.
INDIAN CLASSICAL MUSIC
Indian Classical Music originated from
Vedic chants or Sama music. This
music chiefly consisted of chanting of
hymns in praise of the Vedic Gods. The
musical structure of the chants was
characterised by descending order of
nodes, initially two to five, which later
was increased to seven nodes. The
Raga (structure of melody) and Tal
(structure of rhythm) are the two major
characteristics of Indian classical
music. The melody deals with the rise
and fall of sounds and the latter deals
with the pattern of time beats of Ragas.
Tala is the pulse of Indian music. The
term tal is derived from the Sanskrit
word, tala which means ‘to strike with
palms’. Early musicians may have
employed claps or palm strokes to
mark time in dance and music which
later developed into a complicated
system of 108 tals of classical music. It
is a time cycle that remains fixed
throughout a particular rendering tal,
binds music together and offers a
regularity that calms the mind. The
tala and raga varies in each
composition. Sometimes, tala is more
active and controls the other or
vice-versa. This depends on the person
performing the music.
Raga is the basic scale or note pattern
of a melody formed by selecting notes
from the thirteen tonal intervals
conventionally established in the
octave space. The nodes are selected
from ascending as well as descending
progressions.
They are as follows
˜
Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni, Sa (in the
ascending order).
˜
Sa, Ni, Dha, Pa, Ma, Ga, Re, Sa (in the
descending order).
Musicians can elaborate ragas on the
basis of this plan and create more tonal
patterns pleasing to the ears of the
listeners. Ragas in the South mostly
have Sanskrit names, unlike in the
North, where their names often come
from specific regions or from the
dialects of regions.
SOME FAMOUS RAGAS
There are six principal ragas, which
have their off shoots known as
Ragapatnis and Ragaputras; which
vary from 84 to 108. Some of the famous
ragas are as follow
˜
Raga Bhairavi It is a morning raga.
It is also considered as the Lord of
Ragas. It is thought to have originated
from the throat of Shiva.
˜
Raga Megha It is a melody of clouds
and rains.
˜
Raga Durga It is a very popular late
evening raga.
˜
Raga Bilaval It is one of the ragas
that appears in the Sikh tradition and
is part of the Sikh holy scripture Sri
Guru Granth Sahib. It is a morning
raga and is sung with a feeling of deep
devotion and repose and is performed
during the hot months.
HINDUSTANI MUSIC
The origin of Hindustani classical music
may be traced back to the period of the
Delhi Sultanate and to Amir Khusrow
(1253-1325 AD), who encouraged the
practice of musical performance with
particular instruments. He is believed
to have invented the sitar and the
tabla and is said to have introduced
new ragas. Most of the Hindustani
musicians trace their descent to
Tansen.
It is said that Tansen’s music had a
magical effect. He could stop the rising
waves of the Yamuna and by the force
of his Megha Raga, he could cause the
rain to fall. There are 10 main styles of
singing and composition in Hindustani
music. Dhrupad, Dhamar, Hori, Khayal,
Tappa, Chaturang, Rayasagar, Tarana,
Sargam and Thumri.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
The most popular ragas are Bahar
Bhairavi, Sindhu Bhairavi, Bhim
Palasi, Darbart, Desh, Hamsadhwani,
Jai Jayanti, Megha Malhar, Todi,
Yaman, Pilu, Shyam Kalyan and
Khambaj.
Dhrupad This style of singing is
traditionally performed by men with
a Tanpura and Pakhawaj. The lyrics
sung in Dhrupad are in a medieval
form of Hindi and typically heroic in
theme or in praise of a particular
deity. Dhrupads are sung in four
styles called Bans Gaurhar, Dagur,
Khandhar and Nauhar, initially
named after the language or dialect
in which the verse was written.
Pandit Uday Bhawalkar, Pandit
Ritwik Sanyal and the Umakant
Gundecha and Ramakant Gundecha
(Gundecha Brothers) are some
famous Dhrupad vocalists.
Khayal It consists of about 4-8 lines of
lyrics set to a tune. The performer
uses these few lines as the base for
improvisation. Generally the theme
of Khayal is romantic in nature. They
sing about love, even if they are
related to the divine creatures. One of
the most important/unique features
of Khayal is the use of taan in the
compositions. The Khayal form of
Hindustani classical music is
ascribed to Hussain Shah Sharqui,
the 15th century ruler of the Sharqui
dynasty. It was made popular by the
18th century Mughal ruler
Mohammed Shah. Some of the
modern day vocalists are late
Bhimsen Joshi, Nagraj Havaldar,
Kishori Amonkar, Ulhas and
Kashalkar, Prabhakar Karekar,
Pandit Jasraj etc.
Hori It is a genre of semi-classical
singing, which is popular in Uttar
Pradesh and Bihar. It comes under
the category of seasonal songs.
Dhamar These compositions are
similar to Dhrupad, but are chiefly
associated with the festival of Holi.
Here, the compositions are
specifically in praise of Lord Krishna.
This music, sung in the Dhamar Tal
is chiefly used in festivals like
Janmashtami, Ramnavami and Holi.
ART AND CULTURE
Chaturang It denotes four colours or a
composition of a song in four parts;
Fast Khayal, Tarana, Sargam and a
Paran of Tabla or Pakhawaj.
Tarana Another vocal form of the
Hindustani music is Tarana. Tarana
are songs that are used to convey a
feel of joy and are usually performed
towards the end of a concert.
Thumri It is an informal vocal form of
Hindustani classical music and is
said to have begun with the court of
Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of
Oudh. The compositions are either
devotional or romantic in nature. It
was inspired by Bhakti movement. It
used mainly Hindi dialects like
Awadhi or Braj Bhasha.
Raga Sagara It consists of different
parts of musical passages in different
ragas as one song composition. These
compositions have 8 to 12 different
ragas and the lyrics indicate the
change of the ragas. The peculiarity
of this style depends on how smoothly
the musical passages change
alongwith the change of ragas.
Sargam It is a type of composition that
has swaras in their lyrics as well.
Sargams are composed in different
ragas and tals. These are also
prominent in initial learning stage of
Hindustani classical music.
Ghazal It is a poetic form consisting of
rhyming couplets and a refrain, with
each line sharing the same metre. It
is an ancient form originating in 6th
century Arabic verse. It spread into
South Asia during the 12th century,
due to the influence of Sufi mystics.
Originally, Ghazal was part of Dari and
Urdu, but gradually it has been
written in many languages of the
Indian sub-continent. Some of the
important poets of Urdu Ghazal are
Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Mirza Ghalib and
Firaq Gorakhpuri.
SOME FAMOUS GHARANAS
GWALIOR GHARANA
This is the oldest among all the Khayal
Gayaki (vocal) styles. The distinctive
feature of this style of singing has been
noted for its lucidity and simplicity.
Founders Ustad Hassu Khan, Ustad
Haddu Khan, Ustad Nathu Khan.
Exponents Bal Krishna Ealchal
Karanjikar, Vishnu Digambar
Paluskar, Pandit Omkarnath Thakur,
Veena Sahasrabuddhe and Malini
Rajurkar.
AGRA GHARANA
The Agra Gharana places great
importance on developing forcefulness
and depth in the voice, so that the nodes
are powerful and resonant.
Founders Haji Sujan Khan, Ustad
Ghagghe Khuda Baksh.
Exponents The important singers of
this gharana are Faiyaz Khan, Latafat
Hussain Khan and Dinkar Kaikini.
KIRANA GHARANA
It derives its name from the birth place
of Abdul Kharim Khan of Kirana, near
Kurukshetra. In the Kirana style of
singing, the swara is used to create an
emotional mood by means of elongation
and use of Kanas.
Founders Abdul Karim Khan and
Abdul Wahid Khan.
Exponents Hirabhai Barodekar,
Begum Akhtar, Bhimsen Joshi,
Gangubai Hangal and Prabha Atre.
JAIPUR GHARANA
The most distinctive feature of the
Jaipur gharana can be best described
through its complex and melodic form,
which arises out of the involutedly and
undulating phrases that comprise the
piece.
Founder Ustad Alladiya Khan.
Exponents Alladiya Khan,
Mallikarjun Mansur, Kesarbhai
Kerkar, Kishori Amonkar, Shruti
Sadolikar, Padma Talwalkar and
Ashwini Bhide Deshpande.
RAMPUR SAHASWAN GHARANA
In the Rampur Sahaswan Gharana,
there is a stress on the clarity of swara
and the development and elaboration of
the raga is done through a stepwise
progression.
MEWATI GHARANA
The Mewati Gharana gives importance
to developing the mood of the raga
through the notes forming it and its
style is Bhava Pradhan. It also gives
equal importance to the meaning of
the text.
Founder Ghagge Nazir Khan.
1-321
Exponents Pandit Jasraj, Moti Ram,
Mani Ram, Sanjeev Abhyankar and
others.
CARNATIC MUSIC
Carnatic music is a system of music
commonly associated with the Southern
part of the Indian sub-continent, with
its area roughly confined to four
states–Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
In contrast to Hindustani music, the
main emphasis in Carnatic music is on
vocal music; most compositions are
written to be sung and even when
played on instruments, they are meant
to be performed in gayaki (singing)
style. Also the Carnatic music is
precomposed with the scope for
improvisation being very little
compared to Hindustani music.
Purandardas is considered the
Father of Carnatic Music. He is
credited for the codification of Carnatic
music. The system for classifying
South Indian ragas, Melankara was
developed by Venkat Mukhi Swami.
The present form of Carnatic music
was acquired in 18th century, when
the trio of Thyagaraja, Shamashastri
and Muthuswami Dikshitar made
their compositions.
Saint Tyagaraj was one of the greatest
composers of Carnatic music, a form of
Indian classical music. Tyagaraj was
an ardent devotee of Lord Rama. In his
praise and honour he wrote numerous
kritis. Tyagaraj composed many new
janya ragas as well as melakarta raga.
He is said to have invented 66 new
ragas in his time.
COMPOSITION OF
CARNATIC MUSIC
Most compositions in Carnatic music
have three parts to their body. The
first two lines of the song (sometimes
just one) are called Pallavi. They occur
over and over, especially after each
stanza. Usually, the Pallavi is followed
by two more lines or sometimes just
one more. This portion is called Anu
Pallavi. This is sung at the beginning
for sure, but sometimes even during
the end of the song, but not necessarily
after each stanza. The stanzas of a
song are called Charanam.
1-322 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

Varnam It is a composition usually sung or played at the There is no formal apprenticeship, where the student
beginning of a recital and reveals the general form of the raga. learns the music. It is learnt by absorbing through
The two halves are almost equal in length. regular contact.
The Varnam is made up of two parts as follow Folk music is an essential component of weddings,
1. The Purvanga or first-half. 2. The Uttaranga or second-half. engagements and births. Musical instruments used are
Kriti It is a highly evolved musical song set to a certain raga and also different from classical music.
fixed tala or rhythmic cycle. They are not as refined and are often in a crude form.
Ragam It is a melodic improvisation in free rhythm played Folk instruments are usually crafted by the musicians
without mridangam accompaniment. themselves and from commonly available materials, such
Tanam It is another style of melodic improvisation in free as bamboo, coconut shells, pots etc.
rhythm. Bhavageet It literally means emotional poetry and is a
form of expressionist poetry and light music.Most of the
Pallavi This is a short pre-composed melodic theme with words
poetry sung in this genre pertain to subjects like love,
and set to one cycle of tal. Here, the soloist improvises new
nature, philosophy etc and the genre itself is not much
melodies built around the word Pallavi.
different from ghazals.
Trikalam It is the section where the Pallavi is played in three
This genre is quite popular in many parts of India,
tempos keeping the tal constant.
notably in Karnataka.
Swara-Kalpana It is the improvised section performed with
Bihugeet It is a traditional folk music of Assam
the drummer in medium and fast speeds.
performed through Bihu dance in the festival of Bihu.
Ragamalika This is the final part of the Pallavi, where the The songs have themes of romance, love, nature and
soloist improvises freely and comes back to the original theme at incidents.
the end.
Lavani It is a popular folk form of Maharashtra
Difference between Hindustani and Carnatic music styles traditionally, the songs are sung by female artists, but
male artists may occasionally sing Lavanis. The dance
No. Hindustani Music Carnatic Music
format associated with Lavani is known as Tamasha.
1. Mainly practised in North India. In South India
2. It is influenced by Arabic and Quite indigenous in nature
Dandiya It is a dance oriented folk music from Gujarat
Persian music styles. that has also been adapted for pop music worldwide,
3. Artists are provided with the scope No such freedom is enjoyed by popular in Western India, especially during Navratri.
of improvisation. these artists The present musical style is derived from the traditional
4. It has strict adherence to time and No strict time adherence and musical accompaniment to the folk dance of Dandiya
performed on 6 major ragas performed on 72 major ragas. called by the same name.
5. Various sub-styles emerged due to No sub-styles are there.
Pandavani It is a folk singing style of musical narration
the practise of improvisation,
which are named as gharana. of tales from ancient epic Mahabharata with musical
6. Instruments and vocals are given Vocals are given more importance accompaniment and Bhima as hero. This form of folk
equal importance. are used. theatre is popular in the State of Chhattisgarh and in
7. Tabla, Sarangi, Sitar etc are major Veena, Violen and Mrindangum are the neighbouring tribal areas of Odisha and Andhra
instruments used. used. Pradesh.
Naatupura Patu It is Tamil folk music. It consists of
Modern Indian Music Gramathisai (village folk music) and Gana (city folk
With the British rule came Western music. Indians adopted some of music).
their instruments such as violin and clarinet to suit the demands of Garba It is sung in honour of Hindu Gods and
Indian music. Orchestration of music on stage is a new development. Goddesses during Navratri. They are sung in the honour
Use of cassettes replaced oral transmission of tunes and ragas. of Lord Krishna, Hanuman, Rama etc.
Performances, which were earlier limited to a privileged few, have now
been thrown open to the public and can be viewed by thousands of Tappa The Tappa is said to have developed in the late
music lovers throughout the country. Music education no longer 18th century AD in Rajasthan from the folk songs of
depends on the master-disciple system but can be imparted through camel riders. The credit for its development goes to
institutions teaching music. Shorey Mian or Ghulam Nabi of Multan. Tappa
literally means ‘jump’ in Persian. They are essentially
folk– lores of love and passion and are written in Punjabi.
FOLK MUSIC Its beauty lies in the quick and intricate display of
India has a rich legacy of folk or popular music. This music is a various permutations and combinations of nodes.
rustic reflection of the larger Indian society. Due to the extreme The compositions are very short and are based on
cultural diversity across India, there are a variety of folk styles. Shringara Rasa. It is rather strange that even though
Folk music is not taught in the same way as classical music. the Tappa lyrics are in Punjabi, Tappa is not sung in
Punjab.
ART AND CULTURE 1-323

FAMOUS CLASSICAL Famous Personalities of Instrumental Music

SINGERS OF INDIA Sarod Veena

Ustad Alauddin Khan Dr Balamuralikrishna
USTAD BADE GHULAM ALI KHAN
Ali Akbar Khan Shehnai
One name that truly epitomises the 20th
Ahmad Ali Khan Bismillah Khan
century Hindustani classical music tradition
Amjad Ali Khan Ali Bor ‘Vilayati’
is that of Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan.
Tabla Flute
DR BALAMURALIKRISHNA Ustad Allah Rakha Hariprasad Chaurasia
One of the most famous names associated Lal Ahmad
with classical Carnatic music is that of
Mian Kader Baksh Pandit Bholanath
Dr Balamuralikrishna. This legendary
Ashiq Ali Khan Pannalal Ghosh
musician and Padma Bhushan Award is an
Ustad Zakir Hussain Sarangi
able composer, singer, poet and
instrumentalist, who can sing perfectly in Sitar Bundu Khan
three octaves. Pandit Ravi Shankar Pandit Ram Narayan
Sital Nawaz Abdul Halim Jaffar Khan Ustad Mehboob Khan
BHIMSEN JOSHI
Akshay Kumar Ghosh Pandit Udayalal
One of the most prominent and legendary
Ustad Vilayat Khan Pandit Madhav Prasad
Hindustani vocalist was Pandit Bhimsen
Mandolin Ustad Abdul Wahid Khan
Joshi. He can very easily be called as
someone, who has not just earned true fans, Upalappu Srinivas Sabri Khan
but has also won over critics. Subbaraju Mridangam
Violin TV Gopala Krishna
PANDIT KUMAR GANDHARVA Dr Balamuralikrishna Dr Balamuralikrishna
One of the most famous classical musicians in
VG Jog Khanjira
India was Pandit Kumar Gandharva. His real
Lal Gudie Jay Araman Dr Balamuralikrishna
name was Shivaputra Siddaramaiah
Komkali. Pandit Kumar Gandharva was born Ariyakkudi Sri Ramanya lyengar Santoor
on 8th April, 1924 in a place called Dharwad Semmangudi Sri Srinivasa lyer Shiv Kumar Sharma
located in Karnataka. Sri GN Balasubramaniam Drum
Karaikudi Sambasiva lyer TH Vinayakaram
Yehudi Menuhin
Pandit Shivkumar Sharma
Dr L Subramaniam
He is a very famous classical musician, who has
acquired international fame by playing the
classical instrument, Santoor. The Santoor is a
trapezoid shaped hammered dulcimer often EMERGENCE OF DANCE IN INDIA
made of walnut wood and has 72 strings, which In India, dance is considered to be divine in origin. The Gods and Goddesses
are struck with two delicate caved wooden not only take great delight in dance, drama and mime, but many are great
mallets.
dancers themselves. Shiva’s cosmic dance, Tandava is believed to encompass
Ustad Zakir Hussain creation, preservation and destruction and this idea has been embedded in
Popularly known as Tabla Maestro, Ustad Zakir Hindu thought and ritual, since the dawn of civilisation. The dance of Kali,
Hussain is the son of the renowned tabla player the dark and fierce Goddess of destruction are very significant. Krishna is
Ustad Allah Rakha. He was born on 9th March, one of the most popular dancing divinities of the Hindus.
1951 and showed much interest in tabla since a According to the Natyashastra, Brahma the creator had created drama. He
very young age.
then took pathya (words) from the Rigveda, Abhinaya (gesture) from the
Ustad Amjad Ali Khan Yajurveda, geet (music and chant) from Samaveda and rasa (sentiment and
A distinguished maestro in the field of playing emotional element) from Atharvaveda to form the fifth Veda, Natyaveda.
Sarod, Ustad Amjad Ali Khan is popularly known The first and the oldest of evidences to date are the discovery of the bronze
as the Sarod Samrat. He is the 6th generation figurine of a dancer from the Indus Valley Civilisation excavations at
Sarod player in his renowned family. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.Dancing figures are also commonly seen in
many primitive cave paintings and sculptures at temples and stupas.
1-324
BASIC ASPECTS OF DANCE
RASA AND BHAVA
According to Bharata’s Natyashastra, there are
eight fundamental feelings or mental states referred
to as Sthayi Bhavas which can be experienced by
human beings. Corresponding to these mental
states, there are eight Rasas also.
Sthayi Bhavas Rasas
Delight (Rati) The Erotic (Sringara)
Laughter (Hasya) The Comic (Hasya)
Sorrow (Soka) The Pathetic (Karuna)
Anger (Krodha) The Furious (Rudra)
Heroism (Utsaha) The Heroic (Vira)
Fear (Bhaya) The Terrible (Bhayanaka)
Disgust (Jugupsa) The Odious (Bhibhatsa)
Wonder (Vismaya) The Marvellous (Adbhuta)
MARGI AND DESI
The Natyashastra divides dance into various
categories. On one hand, we have the classical dance
forms such as Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kathak
and so on and on the other hand, we have dances
like Garba, Bhangra, Chhau and so on. Although,
these are all dances, they fall into two distinct
categories i.e. Margi (classical) and Desi (folk or
regional).
CLASSICAL DANCES
The literal meaning of shastra is– holy books
incorporated to principles, laws and regulations. In
this dance form there is a certain order and balance
between body and music. The essential theme of
classical dances is devotion to the God. The impulses
of soul are reflected through the dances. ‘Sangita
Ratnakara’ written by Sharangdeva divided
classical dances into three forms
(i) Nritta It corresponds to pure dance steps
performed rhythmically. Here the movements
of the body do not convey any mood and its
purpose is just creating beauty by making
various patterns.
(ii) Nritya It corresponds to the song. In other
words it is the interpretative dance and is
essentially expressional.
(iii) Natya It means dramatic representation with
speech, music and dance.
In classical dances there is very importance of rasa
(pleasure) and bhava (emotion) and create joy,
vigour and happiness.
RASA
It is explained as quality of art between the dancer
and spectators. Any art without a rasa is incomplete.
Dance without rasa will be purely a mechanical
exercise of body motions and physical movements.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
BHAVA
Bhavas are the imitations of emotions that the actors perform. The
artists experience an emotion and is so overwhelmed by it that he
seeks a medium with it to express those feelings.
BHAVA OF DANCES
There are two fundamental bhava of classical dances –Tandava and
Lasya. It is considered that these bhava had originated from the
dance of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati.
Tandava is the exotic dance of Lord Shiva and shows the construction,
destruction and sensation of life.
Lasya Every dance form in India finds its root in Lasya. Goddess
Parvati is creator of Lasya. The steps of the dance (Mudra) in Lasya is
very gentle, natural and affectionate. ‘Taal’ word is derived from two
words ‘Ta’ and ‘La’. ‘Ta’ stands for Tandava dance and ‘La’ for Lasya.
Tandava is furious (Raudra) dance of Lord Shiva, whereas Lasya
represent love and affection. All the classical dances of India is based
upon these two bhavas. Bharatnatyam, Manipuri, Kuchipudi, Odissi,
and Kathak are related to Lasya bhava and Kathakali is with
Tandava.
Tandava Dance
There are two dance forms of Lord Shiva — Lasya (soft and affectionate)
and Tandava (anger or furious). The demon beneath the feet of Lord
Nataraja signifies the darkness of knowledge. Tandava dance signifies the
creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. Lord Shiva is therefore
called as Nataraja means king of dancers.
Tandu is an agent of Lord Shiva and the name of Tandava signifies him.
Tandava dance is source of eternal energy and Rupak (dramatic
composition). There are five dramatic compositions––Shrishti, Sthithi,
Samhara, Tirobhava, Anugraha. Hence, Tandava reflects the universal
pathway of life and death.
NRITYA MUDRA (POSTURES OF DANCES)
Abhinaya Darpana, the book written by Nandikeshwara describes
about the postures of dance. According to him there may be 28
postures from uncombined hand (Asamyuta Hasta) and 24 postures
from combined hand (Sanmyukta Hasta). Physical expressions may
be of different types e.g. Tribhanga Mudra, in which neck, waist and
knee are so bended, the body shape seems to be ‘S’ letter of alphabet.
CLASSICAL DANCES OF INDIA
According to tradition, Indian classical dance has 4 famous styles:
Bharatnatyam, Kathakali, Kathak and Manipuri, some other dances
got Classical dance position later.
At present, in Sangeet Natak Academy, Indian government has given
8 dances the position of classical dance. These are Bharatnatyam,
Kuchipudi, Kathakali, Manipuri, Sattriya, Kathak and Mohiniattam.
1. BHARATNATYAM
Bharata Muni is propounder of this dance. It is very traditional dance
and is considered to be over 2000 years old. The development of this
dance form can be seen in Madras and Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu.
There are three fundamental elements of this dance. These are
––Bhava (Imitations of emotions), Raga (Music) and Taal (Rhythm
time). In this form of dance the three fundamental essence of life is
present ––Philosophy, Religion and Science.
ART AND CULTURE
It is believed that this dance form
was evolved from ‘Sadir dance’
which was performed by Devdasis
(temple dancer). The teacher of this
dance art was called ‘Nattuvanar’.
There are many elements of
Bharatnatyam like
Alaripu An invocation to the Gods to
bless the performance.
Jatiswaram An abstract dance where
the drums set the beat and
dancer elaborate foot work and
graceful movement of the body.
Shabdam The dancing is
accompanied by a poem or song
with a devotional or amorous
themes.
Varnam The centre piece of the
performance. It is the longest
section of the dance punctuated
with the most complex and
difficult movements. Positions of
the hands and body tell a story,
usually of love and the longing
for the lover.
Tillana The final section is a pure
dance (Nritta) when the virtuosity
of the music is reflected in the
complex footwork and captivating
poses of the dancer.
˜
It is female dominated dance.
They form their postures like
idols and goddess. Emphasis is on
hand movement to convey
different kinds of emotions or
rasa. In this artists visualise his
or her body as made up of
triangles.
˜
Rukmini Devi Arundale nurtured
this dance. T Balasaraswati is an
excellent dancer. Yamini
Krishnamurthy, Sonal
Mansingh, Padma
Subrahmanyam, Leela Samson
etc are some excellent artists.
2. KUCHIPUDI
This is a famous classical dance of
Andhra Pradesh. The name of this
dance is derived from a village
name ‘Kuchelapuram’ of Andhra
Pradesh. It is a male dominated
dance form. Chinta Krishnamurthy
and Tadepalli Peraiah nurtured
this dance. In this dance there is
special focus on movements of feet,
hand, neck and other body parts.
SOME FACTS ABOUT
KUCHIPUDI DANCE
˜
Kuchipudi dance is related to a Telugu
short drama known as Atabhagavatam.
based on religious narrative story or
conversation.
˜
‘Bhamakalapam’ and ‘Gollakalapam’ are
related to Kuchipudi dance.
˜
The dance form was initially performed in
groups by male artists moving from
village to village. These male artists were
called ‘Bhagavatalu’. It was under the
impact of Vaishnavism that the themes
began to be based on Bhagavata Purana.
˜
In this dance each principle character
introduces itself on the stage with a daarn
which is a small composition of dance and
song especially designed to help him or
her to reveal own identity or skills.
˜
In Kuchipudi, there are parts of Lasya
and Tandava dance or Folk dance and
Classical dance. From there some in parts
paintings are made like— ‘Manduka
shabdam’ the story of the frog. ‘Bala
gopala tarangam’ involving dancing with
the feet on the edges of a brass plate. ‘Tala
chitra nritya’ dancers drawing pictures on
the floor with their dancing toes.
˜
The most popular form of Kuchipudi is
Matka in which the dancer dances on a
bronze plate with earthen pot (matka)on
his head.
˜
Dashavatar Shabdam, Manduka
Shabdam, Prahlada Shabdam, Sri Rama
Pattabhishekam are some dancing styles
of Kuchipudi.
˜
Lakshminarayana Sastry’s honoured
Kuchipudi in 20th century. The most
prominent teacher of this dance is Chenna
Satyam.
˜
Famous exponents of Kuchipudi are
Vempati Chenna Satyam, Radha Reddy,
Yamini Krishnamurthy, Swapnasundari,
Chinta Krishnamurthy, Vijaya
Prasad etc.
3. KATHAKALI
This is a famous classical dance of Kerala.
It is a combination of dance and theatre. It
is one of the oldest form of dances in the
world. The only sanskrit theatre style,
called ‘Taiyam’ performed by Chakyar caste
of Kerala.
The main sources of Kathakali (‘katha’
means ‘story’ and ‘kali’ means ‘drama’)
were Kudiattam and Krishnattam folk
drama traditions.
1-325
The theme involves mythological
presentation on eternal conflict between
the good and evil in a good manner.
SOME FACTS ABOUT
KATHAKALI DANCE
˜
It is an exciting dance and dancers
have a perfect control and
coordination with their sensation and
mechanical movements.
˜
Kathakali dance starts with Kelikott
which attracts spectators. Further it
proceeds with Todyam with an
invocation to the Gods to bless the
perfomance. Purapada is pure dance
form after this Melappadam plays.
˜
The story of Kathakali is based on
epics and puranas. The drama was
expanded with episodes from the
Mahabharata and Shiva Purana.
˜
With the breakdown of the old feudal
set up the dance drama began to
decline due to lack of patronage.
˜
The great Malayalam poet Vallathol
Narayana Menon made it his mission
to revive the ancient dance form.
˜
Kathakali also called as the ‘Ballet of
East’. No other dance in India is
similar to the Kathakali. The reason
behind is that in this dance, fingers,
eyes, pupils all have movement. The
expression of this dance comprises a
rasa and 64 postures.
4. ODISSI
It presents the earliest evidence of
dance in India. It derives its name from
Odra Nritya which is mentioned in
Natyashastra of Bharata Muni. Initially
this dance was performed by Devdasi or
Maharish. The Jain King Kharvela
patronised this dance.
SOME FACTS ABOUT ODISSI DANCE
˜
The themes of Odissi include Radha -
Krishna’s love, Dashavatar and
Jagannath’s philosophy. The extract
of Gita Govinda is played by dancers.
˜
The dancing of Maharis was an
indispensible part of religious rituals
in temples.
˜
The ascetic followers of Vaishnavism
disapproving of the immoralities of
the devdasi system, introduced the
practice of getting young boys to
dance on the ritual dances in temples.
The boy dancers were known as
Gotipuas.
1-326
˜
Thus over time three schools of
Odissi dance developed
Mahari – Devdasi tradition
Naratala – In royal courts
Gotipua – Young boys dressed up in
female attire and enacting female
roles
˜
It is similar to Bharatnatyam in
terms of mudras and facial
expressions. Odissi has been aptly
termed as ‘mobile sculptures’
because of its graceful, sensuous and
lyrical dance style.
˜
The concept of Tribhanga (three
bends) expressed in Indian sculpture
is innate to it. The dancer move
either in front or back or in a circular
pattern creating intricate
geometrical shapes.
˜
This dance is characterised by
various Bhangas (stances) which
involves stamping of the feet and
striking various postures as seen in
Indian sculputres. The common
Bhanga are –Bhanga, Abhanga,
Atibhanga and Tribhanga.
˜
Hindustani music is popular in
Odissi dance.
˜
Bhangi and Karan are two elements
of this dance.
˜
Some of the famous Odissi dancers
are Guru Pankaj Charan Das,
Kelucharan Mohapatra, Sonal
Mansingh, Sanjukta Panigrahi etc.
5. MANIPURI
Manipuri dance, being indigenous to
Manipur is inextricably woven into the
life pattern of the people. It is
influenced by Vaishnavism. In this
Radha Krishna’s love is played by
actors. It is one of the most beautiful
dance of India. ‘King Bhagya Chandra’
and ‘Kirti Chandra’ patronaged this
dance. Lai Haraoba which is
pertaining to the universe is
considered as primary phase of this
dance.
The Manipuri style emphasises
Bhakti, not the sensuous aspect. Both
Tandava and Lasya are involved in
this dance but Lasya predominates.
The most striking part of Manipuri
dance is its colourful decoration,
lightness of dancing foot, delicacy
of drama, lifting music and poetic
charm.
SOME FACTS ABOUT
MANIPURI DANCE
˜
There are 64 types of rasa present in the
dance.
˜
The main musical instrument is the
Pung or the Manipuri classical drum.
Besides this Kartal Cholam and Dhol
Cholam is another form of this dance.
˜
Rabindranath Tagore introduced this
dance in Shantiniketan in 19th century.
˜
The ‘pena’ a stringed instrument is used
in Lai Haraoba and Pena singing.
˜
Women dancers use Lehanga, called
Kumin. It is made by a transparent silk
cloth called ‘Pason’.
˜
The martial dancers of Manipur, the
Thang-ta have their origins in the days
when man’s survival depended on his
ability to defend himself from wild
animals.
˜
Today, Manipur has an evolved and
sophisticated repertoire of martial
dances, the dancers use swords, spears
and shields.
˜
‘On Life of Vishnu’ is the theme of
Manipuri dance.
˜
The famous Manipuri dancers are:
Jhaveri Sister, Guru Bipin Singh,
Poushali Chatterjee, Sohini Roy,
Suvarna, Ranjana, Darshana, Charu
Mathur etc.
6. KATHAK
It is a dance form born in Uttar Pradesh.
Its origin can be traced in Rasleela of
Braj Bhumi. It derives its name from
‘kathika’ or story tellers, who presented
with gestures verses from the epics. The
dance was originally associated with
temples with the central concept of
Krishna as the divine dancer and Radha
as his partner. It was influenced by
Vaishnavism and accompained by
keertans. Kathak branched off into the
courtly stream under the Mughal rulers
and was influenced by persian costumes
and style of dancing.
SOME FACTS ABOUT KATHAK DANCE
˜
In modern time Leela Sokhe (Menka)
revived and honoured this dance and
established a Kathak training centre at
Khandala.
˜
Kathak dance involves intricate
footwork and pirouettes. The themes of
song range from Dhrupads to Tarana,
Thumris and Ghazals. Kathak is very
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
principled and pure classical form. It
is interesting that Kathak dance
involves without bending or flexing
of knees. Tandava and Lasya are
two important parts of this dance.
˜
Kathak dance starts with prayer of
Lord Ganesha and ‘Salami’. Salami
is a Mughal tradition. Further it
proceeds with Aamad in which male
and female dancers come on the
stage. Thaat is characterised by slow
dance while Toda is lyrical dance.
Gaat Nikas introduces about the
context of dance.
˜
The most significant feature of this
dance is the single saying or dialogue
is performed by different postures
and mechanical movement of hands.
Dancer uses more than 100 ankle bell
and dances in circular path.
Sometimes they become faint during
this dance. These are some
characteristic features of this dance.
˜
Some of the famous Kathak dancers
are Birju Maharaj, Sitara Devi,
Damyanti Joshi, Kartik Ram, Gopi
Krishna etc.
Famous gharanas of Kathak dance
Lucknow gharana Kathak achieved a
peak in the reign of Nawab Wajid
Ali Shah in Lucknow, who himself
was a student of Kathak. This
gharana emphasised dramatic and
sensuous expression.
Jaipur gharana It was launched by
Bhanuji. It emphasises fluency,
speed and long rhythmic patterns as
it emphasises technical mastery of
pure dance.
Varanasi gharana The gharana of
Varanasi is said to have evolved in
Rajasthan and it developed a style
of its own characterised by moderate
tempo, grace and precision.
Rajgarh gharana It is not so well-known
and is said to have developed under
the patronage of Raja Chakradhar
Singh.
7. SATTRIYA
The Sattriya dance form was
introduced in the 15th century AD by
great Vaishnav saint and reformer of
Asom, Mahapurusha Shankardev for
propagation of Vaishnava faith. It was
recognised as classical dance by
Government of India in year 2000.
ART AND CULTURE
SOME FACTS ABOUT
SATTRIYA DANCE
˜
Sattriya, is derived from the word
‘Satra.’ In Assamese ‘Satra’ means,
a hermitage. Initially this dance
was associated with ‘Ankia’ drama
propounded and evolved by
Shankardev.
˜
The theme of Sattriya dance is story
of puranas, which was composed
and expanded by Shankardev and
his pupil Mahadev. It is called
‘Borgeet’. Traditionally this dance
was performed by ‘Bhogot’ (male
hermit) only on religious
ceremonies. Later women, also
entered into it.
˜
Sattriya dance has many forms—
Apsara dance, Behar dance, Chali
dance, Dashavatar dance.
Toor Geet is based on classical ragas.
˜
˜
Famous Sattriya dancers are Jatin
Goswami, Maniram Muktiyar,
Bapu Ram Muktiyar, Manik
Barbian.
8. MOHINIATTAM
Mohiniattam from Kerala is a solo
female dance and is known for its
rhythmic and unbroken flow of the
body movements. Mohiniattam is
derived from the words-Mohini
(meaning beautiful women) and
Attam (meaning dance).
It developed in the tradition of
Devadasi system, which later grew
and developed a classical status.
Mohiniattam has the grace and
elegance of Bharatnatyam and vigour
of Kathakali.
Famous Exponents of
Mohiniattam are Kalyani Amma,
Vaijayanthimala, Bharati Shivaji and
Hema Malini.
FOLK DANCES OF INDIA
Folk dance can be defined in the
simplest words as a form of dance,
developed by group of people, which
reflects the traditional life of the
people of a certain country or region.
This form of dancing involves a group
of happy people, following dance
instructions given by an experienced
caller.
CENTRAL INDIA
GAUR
It is a popular folk dance of Madhya
Pradesh and is popular in the Sing
Marias or Tallaguda Marias of South
Bastar. It involves men wearing
head-dresses, with stringed cowries and
plumes of peacock feathers, making their
way to the dancing ground.
MURIA
The Muria tribals of North Bastar area
are known for performing the folk dances
of Muria. These dances start with an
invocation or prayer to the phallic deity
of their tribe and the founder of the
Ghotul institution. One of the popular
Muria dances comprises of Har Endanna
dance, performed by boys and girls
during marriages.
SAILA
This dance is the dance form of
Chhattisgarh and is performed by
young boys in the post-harvest time. It is
basically a stick-dance, in which dancers
(each standing on one leg and supporting
himself by holding on to the man in front)
form a circle. Then, all of them jump
together, going round and round.
KARMA
Popular among the Gonds and Baigas of
Chhattisgarh and the Oraons of
Madhya Pradesh, Karma dance is
associated with the fertility cult. These
dance forms represents the coming of
green branches on trees, during the
spring season. It is related to the Karma
festival, which falls in the month of
August.
KAKSAR
This dance is performed by people in
hope of reaping a rich harvest and is
popular among the Abhujmarias of
Bastar. It is mainly undertaken by
young boys and girls, in order to invoke
the blessings of the deity.
NORTHERN INDIA
GHOOMAR
The performers carry earthen pots and
dance with slick movements of the hands
and feet. Although, this is essentially a
group dance, sometimes performers show
their skills by dancing independently.
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This is basically a community dance for
women and performed on auspicious
occasions. In Haryana, the songs sung
for Ghoomar are high-pitched and rich
in humour and satire. In Rajasthan,
Ghoomar is performed to the songs of
valour and victory.
DUMHAL
The dance of the Kashmiri is called as
Dumhal. It is performed by dancers
wearing long colourful robes and tall
conical caps, studded with beads and
shells. It is mainly the men folk of
Wattal, who perform this dance, that
too on specific occasions.
HIKAT
It is performed by women and comes
across as a modification of a game
played by children. Forming pairs, the
participants extend their arms to the
front, gripping each other’s wrists.
With their body inclined back, they go
round and round at the same spot.
Namagen is another folk dance, that is
specific to the State of Himachal
Pradesh.
HURKA BAUL
It is performed during paddy and maize
cultivation, in different fields, by turns.
Its name has been derived from the
terms Hurka, the drum which
constitutes the only musical
accompaniment to the dance and baul,
the song. The singer narrates the story
of battles and heroic deeds, while the
dancers enter from two opposite sides
and enact the stories, in a series of
crisp movements.
CHHOLIYA
A famous dance of Kumaon region,
Chholiya is mainly performed during
marriages. As the groom’s procession
proceeds to the bride’s house, male
dancers, armed with swords and
shields, dance spiritedly.
BHANGRA
One of the most popular dances of
North India, performed during the
festival of Baisakhi is the Bhangra.
Among the most virile and captivating
dances of India, it is undertaken by
men and includes tricks and acrobatic
feats. It is performed in Punjab.
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GIDDHA
The dance performed by the women folk of Punjab is called the
Giddha. In this dance form, a woman or a pair of women dances
at a time, while the others surround them and clap in rhythm.
The dance is mainly performed during the festival of Teeyan to
welcome the rains.
DHAMYAL
The folk dance of Haryana is known as the Dhamyal or the
Duph. The dance can be performed by men alone as well as with
women. The Duph, after which the dance form is named, is a
circular drum, played nimbly by the male dancers, as they
dance.
NORTH-EASTERN INDIA
BIHU (ASSAM)
The folk dance of Assam is called Bihu. Every Assamese, young
or old, rich or poor, takes delight in the dance, which forms a
part of the Bihu festival. The festival comes in mid-April,
during the harvesting time (which lasts for a month).
HOJAGIRI (TRIPURA)
Hojagiri is the folk dance of Tripura, the land of a large tribal
population. The dance is performed by young girls, who
demonstrate a series of balancing skills and uses instruments
of its kind.
The dances are a part of the ceremony to appease the Goddess
Lakshmi, to ensure a happy harvest, as cultivation forms a
main source of the tribe’s livelihood.
THANGTA AND DHOL-CHOLOM (MANIPUR)
The Thangta dance of Manipur was an evolution from the
martial arts exercises encouraged by the kings of Manipur. The
dance is exciting in nature and is performed by young men
holding swords and shields. One of the instruments that
dominate Manipuri dances is the drum. Dhol Cholom, a drum
dance, is one of the dances performed during Holi.
NONGKREM (MEGHALAYA)
To celebrate the remembrance of the evolution of Khasis and
their indigenous democratic state called Hima, Nongkrem
dance is performed in Meghalaya, during autumn. The Khasis
are a tribe of Meghalaya, who also celebrate the ripening of
paddy for threshing by dances and songs.
FOLK DANCE OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH
In Arunachal Pradesh, an organised group of tribal performers
perform dances, plays, musical scripts and dance-dramas,
based on stories of Lord Buddha. The dancers wear masks of
demons or animals, as described in the tales of Buddha,
alongwith splendid costumes. These dances are mostly
performed in monasteries, during festivals.
FOLK DANCES OF SIKKIM
In Sikkim, the men are attracted more towards the monastic
style of dancing, while the women have their own folk dance
style. The dances of Sikkim are different than those of Indian
traditions. Masks used in dances are something close to Indian
cultural dances.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
NORTH-WEST INDIAN FOLK DANCES
KALBELIA DANCE
One of the most sensuous dance forms of Rajasthan,
performed by the Kalbelia snakecharmers community.
The Kalbelia dancers wear long black skirts embroidered
with silver ribbons. As they spin in circle, their body sways
acrobatically, sway sinuously to the accompaniment of
pungi, dufli and plaintive notes of the been, the wooden
instrument of the snake charmers. So that, it is impossible
to believe that they are made of anything other than
rubber. As the beat increases to such high pitch, free
flowing voice, while others join in the dance. The vigorous
and zestful display of their perfect movements to the
enchanting tune of musical instruments is a treat to the
eyes. In 2010, the Kalbelia folk songs and dances of
Rajasthan were declared a part of its intangible heritage
list by the UNESCO.
DANDIYA (GUJARAT)
Dandiya is the folk dance of Gujarat, which shows the
great vigour and joy of the inhabitants of the North-West
states of India. Dressed in colourful costumes, the people
of the desert play Dandiya gracefully, by holding big sticks
in their hands. Apart from being a traditional dance form
of the state, Dandiya also features in the Navratras, a
9-day festival that is observed with pomp and gaiety
across many parts of the country.
TARPHA NACH OR PAVRI NACH
It is the dance of the Kokna tribals native to the hilly
regions of the North-West India. These dances derive their
names from the wind instruments of Tharpa or Pavri,
which are made of dried gourd, played during the dance
performance.
TERA TALI (RAJASTHAN)
Native to the Kamar tribe of North-West India, Tera Tali
is performed by two or three women. The performers sit on
the ground, while performing the Tera Tali, which is an
elaborate ritual followed in the region. Small metal
cymbals called Manjiras are tied to different parts of the
body, mostly on the legs of the dance performer.
SOUTH INDIA
PADAYANI OR PADDENI (KERALA)
One of the most colourful and enchanting dances of
Kerala, Padayani or Paddeni is associated with the
festivals of certain temples. These temples are found in the
districts of Alleppey, Quilon, Pathanamthitta and
Kottayam districts. The literal meaning of Padayani in
folk art is military formations or rows of army.
KUMMI AND KOLATTAM (TAMIL NADU)
Kummi and Kolattam are the dances performed by the
tribal women of Tamil Nadu, during certain festivals.
Kummi is a very simple form of dance, where dancers form
circles and clap as they dance. Kolattam is also quite
similar, the only difference being the use of small wooden
rods by the dancers.
ART AND CULTURE
KARGAM AND PULI VESHAM
(TAMIL NADU)
One of the most essential parts of a ritual dedicated
to Mariamma, the Goddess of health and rain in the
state of Tamil Nadu is the Kargam dance. It is
performed by men, wherein they balance pots, filled
with uncooked rice and surrounded by a tall conical
bamboo frame covered with flowers, on their head.
Mridangam and nathaswaram form the musical
instruments that accompany the dance. Puli Vesham
is another very interesting dance of Tamil Nadu,
which is performed by men during a specific festival.
In this dance form, the men disguise themselves in
tiger costumes and move around the streets.
SOUTH-WEST INDIA DOLLU KUNITHA
(KARNATAKA)
It is a popular drum dance of Karnataka in which,
large drums are decorated with coloured cloth and
slung around the necks of men. The tribes of
Karnataka, basically comprising of hunters and food
gatherers, stocked with a regular précis of songs and
dances related to hunting, food gathering and burial
funeral rites.
RITUAL DANCES (KARNATAKA)
Amongst the ritual dances of Karnataka, Kavadis
performed for the worship of Lord Subramanya.
Then, at harvest time, the Dodavas of Karnataka
perform the Balakat dance. Apart from that, we have
Devare Thatte Kunitha, Yell-Ammana Kunitha and
Suggikunitha, which are dances related to the name
of a deity or instrument balanced on the head or held
in the hand.
GHODE MODNI (GOA)
Goa was ruled by the Portuguese for many years.
Hence, the European influence is quite evident in the
annual carnival and the folk dance performed
therein, known as Ghode Modni (dummy horse
presentation). The dance brings forth the brave deeds
of the Goan warriors, where the attractively dressed
dancers perform armed with swords.
TARANGMEL (GOA)
While performing Tarangmel, the energetic young
girls and boys crowd the streets in colourful group,
with flags and streamers or tarang in their hands.
This group of young dancers invites everyone to join
the festive spirit.
LAVA DANCE OF MINICOY (LAKSHADWEEP)
Minicoy is renowned for its tradition of the Lava
dance, performed during the festive occasions on the
island. Lava dance is a very colourful and energetic
dance of Lakshadweep, in which the dancers are
dressed in multi-hued costumes and headgears. They
also carry a drum while dancing. In this form of
dance, the participants perform to the rhythmic beats
of drums and songs. Nurtured in temples, princely
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courts or villages, dance has moved into the auditorium of today,
bringing pleasure to many more people, in far-flung regions. This
vast sub-continent has given birth to varied forms of dancing, each
shaped by the influences of a particular period and environment.
These pristine forms have been preserved through the centuries, to
become a part of our present culture, a living heritage, our pride and
delight.
Folk Dances and Tribal Dances in India
State Dance (s)
Maharashtra Kathakeertan, Lezin, Dandaniya, Tamasha, Gafa, Dahikala,
Lavani, Mauni, Dasavtar
Karnataka Huttari, Suggi Kunitha, Yakshagana
Kerala Kaikottikali, Kaliyattam, Tappatikkali
Tamil Nadu Kolattam, Pinnal Kolattam, Kummi, Kavadi, Karagam
Andhra Pradesh Ghanta Mardala, Veedhi Natakam, Burrakatha
Odisha Ghumara Sanchar, Chadya Dandanata, Chhau
West Bengal Kathi, Chhau, Baul, Kirtan, Jatra, Lama
Assam Bihu, Khel Gopal, Rasalila, Tabal Chongli, Canoe
Punjab Giddha (women), Bhangra (men)
Jammu and Kashmir Rauf, Hikat
Himachal Pradesh Jhora, Jhali, Dangli, Mahasu, Jadda, Jhainta, Chharhi
Haryana Jhumar, Rasalila, Phag dance, Daph, Dhamal, Loor, Gugga,
Khoria, Gagor, Swang
Gujarat Garba, Dandiya Raas, Tippani, Gomph
Rajasthan Ginad, Chakri, Gangore, Terah Taal, Khayal, Jhulan Leela,
Jhuma, Suisini
Bihar Jata Jatin, Jadur, Chhau, Kathaputli, Bakho, Jhijhiya,
Samochakwa, Karma, Jatra, Natna
Uttar Pradesh Nautanki, Thora, Chappeli, Rasalila, Kajri
Madhya Pradesh Karma
Meghalaya Laho
Goa Mando
Mizoram Khantumm
Uttarakhand Garhwali
DRAMA AND THEATRE
Drama has also been practised since times immemorial. The word,
Drama, could spring from a child’s play. Theatre in India started as
a narrative form, with recitation, singing and dancing becoming
integral elements of the theatre. This emphasis on narrative
elements made our theatre essentially theatrical right from the
beginning. While drama is a broad term consisting of both written
plays and performances, theatre is a specific form which involves
live performances in front of an audience.
HISTORY OF THEATRE IN INDIA
India has a long and rich tradition in theatre going back to 5000
years. The origin of Indian theatre is closely related to ancient
rituals and seasonal festivities of the country. Bharata’s
Natyashastra (2000 BC to 4th century AD) was the earliest and
most elaborate treatise on dramaturgy written anywhere in the
world. The traditional account in Bharata’s Natyashastra gives a
divine origin to Indian theatre, attributing it to the Natyaveda, the
holy book of dramaturgy created by Lord Brahma.
In Natyashastra, Bharata Muni consolidated and codified various
traditions in dance, mime and drama.
1-330
Natyashastra describes ten classifications
of dramas ranging from one act to ten
acts. No book of ancient times in the
world contains such an exhaustive study
on dramaturgy as the Natyashastra. It is
addressed to the playwright, the director
and the actor because, to Bharata Muni
these three were inseparable in the
creation of a drama. The Sanskrit word
for drama nataka, derives from the word
meaning ‘dance’. In traditional Hindu
drama, expression was achieved through
music and dancing as well as through
acting, so that a play was a combination
of opera, ballet and drama.
TYPES OF THEATRE IN INDIA
The theatre in India has encompassed all
the other forms of literature and fine arts
into its physical presentation. Literature,
mime, music, dance, movement, painting,
sculpture and architecture, all mixed into
one and being called Natya or Theatre in
English. Roughly the Indian theatre can
be divided into three distinctive kinds:
the Classical or the Sanskrit theatre,
the Traditional or the Folk theatre and
the Modern theatre.
SANSKRIT PLAYS
It is difficult to determine the precise
origins of the Sanskrit drama. Fragments
of the earliest known plays have been
traced from the 1st century AD. However,
scholars believe that a living theatre
tradition must have existed in India
much earlier. The earliest phase of
Sanskrit theatre includes the writing and
practice of theatre up to about 1000 AD
based almost entirely on the rules,
regulations and modifications laid down
in the Natyashastra.
Bhasa was the earliest dramatist while
the climax of Sanskrit drama reached in
Abhigyan Shakuntalam of Kalidasa and
Mrichchhkatikam of Shudrak. The
Sanskrit plays were limited by certain
conventions. Tragedy was taboo and the
end was always happy. There was no
place for plays that raised controversies
(although Bhasa has shown death on the
stage in one of his plays).
The basic plot in most Sanskrit plays
centre around the hero who struggles for
(and finally obtains) the object of his
desire. The realisation of this goal is
closely entwined with the three ends of
Hindu life–duty, pleasure and wealth.
Sanskrit theatre was characterised
by its high degree of refinement in
performance technique. It followed
well-atriculated, aesthetic principles,
usually those laid out in the ancient
dramatics texts. It depended on a
high degree of audience knowledge
and expertise i.e. only the refined
sensibility could appreciate it.
Religion played an important role in
drama as certain rituals accompanied
most plays and even the stage was
consecrated before a performance.
Thus, the Sanskrit drama could be
called an Amalgamation of the
religious, deductional and
entertaining elements.
TRADITIONAL THEATRE
In different regions of India, there
are religious festivals, fairs,
gatherings, ritual offerings, prayers,
almost throughout the year.
During these occasions, traditional
theatre forms are presented. They
reflect the common man’s social
attitudes and perceptions. In this
social portrayal, there is also the
individual’s role, which is given due
importance.
In traditional theatre forms, there
are special styles of dance portraying
the entry on to the stage or platform,
narrative and descriptive roles. The
best example of descriptive acting is
the Vidyapati naach.
In this traditional theatre form,
emphasis is not on beauty, but on
acting itself and on narrative and
descriptive skills. Dance as a
narrative art is the base of theatre
form,which can be seen in the
traditional theatre form of Bhavai of
Gujarat. In this form, quick or slow
foot movement is a means of
narration. The art of making the
entry by dancing has been perfected
in the traditional Kashmiri theatre
form, Bhand Jashn.
The way each character walks and
enters the platform, identifies him.
In Koodiyaattam and Ankia Naat,
the entry by dancing itself is
complicated and artistic. In the
forms, the tempo and basic posture
and gesture identifies the role of the
character.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
FORMS OF TRADITIONAL
THEATRE
BHAND PATHER
It is the traditional theatre form of
Kashmir and a unique combination of
dance, music and acting. Satire, wit
and parody are preferred for inducing
laughter. In this theatre form, music is
provided with Surnai, Nagaara and
Dhol.
KRISHNATTAM
It is the folk theatre of Kerala which
came into existence in the middle of
17th century AD under the patronage
of King Manavada of Calicut.
MUDIYETTU
It is the traditional folk theatre form of
Kerala and is celebrated in the month
of Vrischikam (November-December).
It is usually performed only in the
Khali temples of Kerala.
SWANG
Traditionally, this form was mainly
music-based. Gradually, prose too,
played its role in the dialogues. The
softness of emotions, accomplishment
of rasa alongwith the development of
character can be seen in this theatre
form.
NAUTANKI
It is usually associated with Uttar
Pradesh. The most popular centres of
this traditional theatre form are
Kanpur, Lucknow and Hathras. Gulab
Bai of Kanpur gave a new dimension
to this old theatre form.
RASALILA
It is based exclusively on Lord
Krishna’s legends. It is believed that
Nand Das wrote the initial plays based
or the life of Krishna.In this theatre
form, the dialogues in prose combine
beautifully with songs and scenes from
Krishna’s pranks.
BHAVAI
It is the traditional theatre form of
Gujarat. The centres of this form are
Kutch and Kathiawar.
JATRA
This form was born and nurtured in
Bengal. It is a musical play which was
part of fairs in honour of Gods or
religious rituals and ceremonies.
ART AND CULTURE
Krishna Jatra became popular due to
Chaitanya’s influence. Later,
however, worldly love stories too,
found a place in Jatra.
MAACH
It is the traditional theatre form of
Madhya Pradesh. The term Maach
is used for the stage itself as also for
the play. In this theatre form, songs
are given prominence in between the
dialogues.
BHAONA
It is a presentation of the Ankia Naat
of Assam. In Bhaona, cultural
glimpses of Assam, Bengal, Odisha,
Mathura and Brindavan can be seen.
The Sutradhaar or narrator begins
the story, first in Sanskrit and then
in either Brajboli or Assamese.
TAMAASHA
It is a traditional folk theatre form of
Maharashtra. It has evolved from
the folk forms such as Gondhal,
Jagran and Kirtan.
Unlike other theatre forms, in
Tamaasha, the female actress is the
chief exponent of dance movements in
the play. She is known as Murki.
DASHAVATAR
It is the most developed theatre form
of the Konkan and Goa regions.
The performers personify the 10
incarnations of Lord Vishnu the God
of Preservation and Creativity.
THEYYAM
It is a traditional and extremely
popular folk theatre form of Kerala.
The word Theyyam is derived from
the Sanskrit word, Daivam meaning
‘God’.
KOODIYATTAM
It is one of the oldest traditional
theatre forms of Kerala. It is based
on Sanskrit theatre traditions.
YAKSHAGAANA
It is the traditional theatre form of
Karnataka. It is based on mytholo-
gical stories and Puranas.
THERUKOOTHU
It is the most popular form of folk
drama of Tamil Nadu. It literally
means street play.
MODERN INDIAN THEATRE
Modern Indian theatre, as we know it
today, has a legacy that is influenced
by and draws inspiration from various
sources. Modern theatre or
historically, what can be clearly
identified as the Western
Proscenium Style of theatre, was
not introduced in India before the late
18th century at time of the
consolidation of the British empire in
various parts of India.
It was through the British that
Western Proscenium Style Theatre
reached Indian shores. In the 1830s,
under the patronage of the rich native
families, we had the first Bengali
language theatre, which was outside
the traditional format of indigenous
folk performance genres.
NATIONAL SCHOOL OF
DRAMA (NSD)
It is a theatre training institute
situated at New Delhi, India. It is an
autonomous organisation under
Ministry of Culture, Government of
India. It was set up in 1959 by the
Sangeet Natak Akademi and became
an independent school in 1975. In
2005, it was granted deemed
university status, but in 2011, it was
revoked on the institute’s request.
In a bid to decentralise its activities,
NSD opened Regional Resource Centres
(RRC) across India, the first of which
was opened at Bengaluru in 1994.
SANSKAAR RANG TOLI
In 1989, NSD established the
Theatre-In- Education Company
(TIE), also called Sanskaar Rang Toli.
Today, it has become India’s premier
educational resource centres and
coaches children aged 8 to 16 years.
Theatre Festivals in India
¢
Bharat Rang Mahotsav, New Delhi
¢
International Theatre Festival of
Kerala
Qadir Ali Baire Theatre Festival
¢
¢
Kalidas Samaroh, Ujjain
¢
Prithvi Theatre Festival, Mumbai
¢
Nandikar Festival, Kolkata
¢
Nehru Centre’s National Theatre
Festival, Mumbai
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PUPPETRY
The early puppet shows in India dealt
mostly with histories of great kings,
princes and heroes and also political
satire in rural areas. Slowly, this art form
emerged from the precincts of the temples
and villages to reach out to the outside
world performing on various social and
contemporary themes in Indian towns and
cities.
TYPES OF TRADITIONAL
INDIAN PUPPETS
The different traditional forms are glove,
rod, string and shadow puppets. The local
name given to puppetry varies from state
to state within India.
GLOVE
The glove puppet, also known as Hand
Puppets, is a small figure having head
and arms with a long skirt as part of its
costume. The puppeteer wears the puppet
like a glove and fits the index finger into
the hollow head of the puppet.
ROD
The rod puppets, often larger than glove
puppets are supported and manipulated
by rods of various types and sizes. In rod
puppets, the action of the rods are
concealed in many ways. The main
holding rod that supports the puppet may
be hidden by a robe or costume of the
puppet. The action rods are usually
connected to the hands of the puppet and
manipulated by the puppeteer to show
action.
SHADOW
The shadow puppets are flat puppets, that
are operated against the rear of a tightly
stretched white cloth screen with a light
behind it, so that the audience looks at the
shadow of the puppet on the screen.
Traditional shadow puppets are two
dimensional and are made of animal skin.
The puppet shapes or cutouts are
perforated and split bamboo or cane sticks
are attached vertically to the puppet for
handling and manipulation. The shadow
puppet performance is known as shadow
(leather) play or shadow theatre.
STRING
The string puppet also known as
Marionettes has jointed body and limbs
that allow movement. String puppets are
made of wood or wire or cloth stuffed with
cotton, rags or saw dust.
1-332
The puppet is suspended from a hand held control strings,
that are attached to different parts of the puppet’s body. The
puppet is manipulated by operating the control as well as by
loosening or pulling the relevant string(s). Some of the
traditional string puppets are very heavy.
POPULAR EXAMPLES OF PUPPETRY
FORMS
Togalu Gombeyatta, Karnataka These puppets are mostly
small in size. The puppets, however differ in size, according to
their social status.
Tholu Bommalata, Andhra Pradesh This Shadow
theatre has the richest and strongest tradition. The puppets
are large in size and have a jointed waist, shoulders, elbows
and knees. They are coloured on both sides.
Ravanachhaya, Odisha The most theatrically exciting is the
Ravanachhaya of Odisha. The puppets are in one piece and
have no joints. They are not coloured, hence, throw opaque
shadows on the screen.
Putul Nautch, West Bengal The traditional rod puppet form
of West Bengal is known as Putul Nautch. They are carved
from wood and follow the various artistic styles of a particular
region. The puppets of Odisha are smaller than those from
Bengal or Andhra Pradesh. Rod puppet shows of Odisha are
more operatic and prose dialogues are seldom used.
Yampuri, Bihar The traditional rod puppet of Bihar is
known as Yampuri. These puppets are made of wood. Unlike
the traditional rod puppets of West Bengal and Odisha, these
puppets are in one piece and have no joints.
Major Puppetry Traditions of Various States
Andhra Tholu Bommalata (shadow) and Koyya Bommalata (string)
Pradesh
Assam Putul Nach (string, rod)
Karnataka Gombeyatta (string), Togalu (shadow)
Kerala Tholpavakoothu (shadow)
Maharashtra Kalasutri Bahulya (string), Chammadyache Bahulya
(shadow)
Odisha Kandel Nach (glove), Rabana Chhaya (shadow), Kathi Kundi
(rod), Gopalila Kamdhei (string)
Rajasthan Kathputli (string)
Tamil Nadu Bommalatam (string), Bommalatam (shadow)
West Bengal Putul Nach (rod), Tarer or Sutor Putul (string), Beni Putul
(glove)
NATIONAL CULTURAL INSTITUTIONS
LALIT KALA AKADEMI
The Lalit Kala Akademi or National Academy of Art is
India’s national academy of fine arts. It is an autonomous
organisation, established in New Delhi in 1954 by government
of India to promote and propagate understanding of Indian
art, in and outside the country. Lalit Kala Akademi provides
scholarships and a fellow program, and sponsors and
organises exhibitions in India and overseas. It publishes a
bilingual journal. It is funded by the Union Ministry of
Culture. Its headquarters are at Ravindra Bhawan, Ferozshah
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Road, New Delhi. In April 2015, Government of India took
over management control of Lalit Kala Akademi citing
complaints regarding alleged administrative and financial
irregularities in its functioning.
SAHITYA AKADEMI
The Sahitya Akademi, India’s National Academy of
Letters, is an organisation dedicated to the promotion of
literature in the languages of India. It was founded on 12th
March, 1954. The Sahitya Akademi organises national and
regional workshops and seminars; provides research and
travel grants to authors; publishes books and journals,
including the Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature; and
presents the annual Sahitya Akademi Award of ` 100,000
(approx. USD 1.500 (as in year 2013)) in each of the 24
languages it supports, as well as the Sahitya Akademi
Fellowship for lifetime achievement.
Sahitya Akademi is the central institution in India for
˜
literary dialogue, publication and promotion in the country
˜
promoting Indian literature throughout the world
˜
keeping alive the intimate dialogue among the various
linguistic and literary zones and groups thought
˜
seminars, lectures, symposia, discussions, readings and
performances
˜
providing research and travel grants to authors
˜
publishes books and journals, including the Encyclopaedia
of Indian Literature
Other than its headquarters of New Delhi, the Akademi has
four regional offices in Kolkata, Mumbai, Bengaluru and
Chennai. It has two Translation Centres at Bengaluru and
Kolkata, besides a Project.
SANGEET NATAK AKADEMI
The Sangeet Natak Akademi was set up in 1953 for the
promotion of performing arts. Setting up of Sangeet Natak
Akademi is one of the main recommendations of the
National conference on dance, drama, and music, held in
New Delhi in 1951.
Functions and Powers The Sangeet Natak Akademi is an
autonomous body under the Ministry of Culture. It acts at
the national level for the
˜
promotion and growth of Indian music, dance and drama;
˜
maintenance of standards of training in the performing
art;
˜
revival, preservation, documentation and dissemination of
materials as well as instruments relating to various forms
of music, dance and drama recognition of outstanding
artists.
The Akademi is also responsible for the establishment and
maintenance of institutions and projects of national
importance in the field of performing arts. Important
institutions established by the akademi are
The Jawaharlal Nehru Manipuri Dance Academy in
Imphal, the premier institution in Manipuri dance and
music, was established in 1954. The Sattriya Kendra,
Guwahati was established in 2001. Projects of National
importance supported by the Akademi are: Kuttiyattam the
age-old Sanskrit theatre of Kerala Chhau dances of Eastern
India and Sattriya traditions of Assam.
ART AND CULTURE
FESTIVALS AND FAIRS
Our country has a rich cultural heritage and is home
to people from diverse religions. It is a universally
acknowledged truth that every religion gets its own
unique expression from the fairs and festivals
celebrated by its followers on various occasions. These
fairs and festivals reflect the traditional spirit and
culture of the people of India and are a unique symbol
of National Integrity.
FESTIVALS AND FAIRS
A festival is a time for celebration, marked by feasting,
ceremonies or other observances. However, fairs are periodic
gatherings of people away from their place of residence, often
with entertainment. The fairs and festivals in India are a
wonderful statement of the country’s diversity and multi-ethnic
character.
FESTIVALS OF HINDUS
MAKAR SANKRANTI
In the month of January, the festival of Sankranti or Makar
Sankranti , is celebrated as Pongal in South India. According to
the solar calendar, the festival traditionally coincides with the
beginning of the Sun’s Northward journey (Uttarayan) and falls
on the 14th of January.
In some states, this festival is celebrated by special offering of
rice and pulses cooked together with and without jaggery and
clarified butter.
VASANT PANCHAMI
This festival is celebrated in the Northern parts of India to
celebrate the arrival of spring, whereas in Eastern India, this
day is celebrated as Saraswati Puja, by offering prayers to the
Goddess of learning and wisdom. The 5th day of bright half of
the month of Magha, (January-February) is reserved for the
worship of Saraswati, the Goddess of learning.
HOLI
It is celebrated on the day of Full Moon in Falgun
(February-March). It is an ancient festival of India and was
originally known an ‘Holika’. Then on the eve of Holi, Holika
Dahan takes place, in which, an effigy of Holika, the
devil-minded sister of demon king Hiranyakashyap, is placed in
the woods and burnt. For Holika tried to kill Hiranyakashyap’s
son Prahlad, an ardent devotee of Lord Narayana.
The ritual symbolises the victory of good over evil and also the
triumph of a true devotee. Holi is also associated with the
divine love of Radha and Krishna and is celebrated with
particular vigour in Mathura, the birth place of Krishna.
1-333
RAM NAVAMI
The month of April brings with it the occasion of Baisakhi
and Ram Navami. The birth anniversary of Lord Rama is
in the Hindu month of Chaitra (March-April). This
household festival is celebrated with pomp in Northern
parts to celebrate the new crop season.
NAG PANCHAMI
It is celebrated on the 5th day of the Full Moon fortnight
during the Hindu month of Shravana as per the Hindu
calender. Nag Panchami is celebrated as the victory of
Krishna on Kaliya, the most dangerous snake.
RAKSHA BANDHAN
The festival is all about affection, fraternity and sublime
sentiments which brothers and sisters all over the country
share with each other. It is celebrated on the Full Moon of
the month of Shravana (Shravan Purnima), which falls in
the Gregorian month of August. Raksha Bandhan means
the ‘Bond of Protection’ or ‘Knot of Protection’, which all
brothers vows to their respective sisters.
GANESH CHATURTHI
This festival is celebrated on the 4th day of the waxing
Moon of Hindu month-Bhadra (August-September). It is a
festival totally dedicated to Lord Ganesha. Popularised by
Tilak, it has achieved the status of the most important of
festival of Maharashtra.
JANMASHTAMI
The Janmashtami festival celebrates the birth of Lord
Krishna, a revered Hindu deity. In Maharashtra, the
celebration is in the form of a two-day festival called
Govinda. During the festival, an Earthen pot is tied high
up on different streets and groups of people create
pyramid-like structures to get their hands on this pot.
DUSSEHRA/NAVRATRI
According to the Hindu calendar, it is celebrated on the
10th day of the Shukla Paksha bright half of the month of
Ashvin (Ashwayuja). The word dashhara comes from
‘Dussehra’ where ‘dash’ means Ten (headed) and ‘hara’
means defeated. Dussehra celebrates the victory of good
over evil. It is celebrated in different ways. It is done
through worshipping the Goddess Chamundeshwari
(Durga). Chamunda (Chamundi or Charchika) got her
name as a combination of Chanda and Munda, the two
monsters she killed.
DIWALI
Deepawali or Diwali is certainly the biggest and the
brightest of all the Hindu festivals. It is the festival of
lights (deep meaning, light and avail meaning, a row i.e. a
row of lights) that is marked by 4 days of celebration,
which literally illumines the country with its brilliance
and dazzles all with its joy. There are various legends
pointing to the origin of Diwali or ‘Deepawali’. Some
believe it to be the celebration of the marriage of Lakshmi
with Lord Vishnu.
1-334
Whereas in Bengal, the festival is
dedicated to the worship of Mother
Kali, the Dark Goddess of Strength.
Lord Ganesha, the elephant headed
God, the symbol of auspiciousness and
wisdom, is also worshipped in most
Hindu homes on this day.
In Jainism, Deepawali has an added
significance to the great event of Lord
Mahavira, attaining the eternal bliss of
Nirvana. Diwali also commemorates
the return of Lord Rama alongwith Sita
and Lakshman, from his 14-year
long exile and vanquishing the demon
king Ravana.
FESTIVALS OF MUSLIMS
SHAB-E-BARAT
Literally, Shab-e-Barat means the
Night of Salvation or the Night of
Freedom from the Fire of Hell. It occurs
in Mid-Shaban between the 14th and
15th day of Shaban, as per the Islamic
Calendar.
This night, known as Shab-e-Barat or
Laylat-ul-Baraa, is called Laylatul
Nisf min Shaban in Arabic. The
blessed night starts at sunset on the
14th and ends at dawn on the 15th. The
Muslims observe Mid-Shaban as a
night of worship and salvation. Some
spend the whole night awake and some
worship half of it.
ID-UL-FITR
It is one of the major holidays of Islam.
It comes at the end of the holy month of
Ramzan and celebrates the end of the
fasting. The holiday comes on the 1st
day of the 10th month in the Islamic
Lunar Calendar. Because the month of
Ramzan is all about fasting, Id-ul-Fitr
is all about celebration. On Id-ul-Fitr,
they celebrate the end of Ramazan with
a sweet snack and then get ready for a
day of celebration.
ID-UL-AZHA (BAKR-ID)
Id-ul-Azha takes place on the 10th of
Zil-Hajj to commemorate the great
incident in our history as well as the
event of Hajj itself. Ofcourse Id has a
greater meaning for those who actually
perform Hajj, as they visit all those
Holy sites while residing in Makkah
and also give sacrifice there. And it is
that very sacrifice, that connects
Muslims all over the world.
During the celebration of Id-ul-Azha, the
Muslims remember Hazrat- lbrahim’s
trial by slaughtering an animal such as
sheep, camel, cow and goat.
People think that Allah has given them
power over the animal and allowed them
to eat its meat, but only if they
pronounce his name at the sole act of
taking life.
MUHARRAM
The 10th of Muharram (the day of
Ashura-Ashoora) is observed as an
important day by both Sunni and Shia
Muslims, however, for different reasons.
Based on the Hadith of Prophet
Mohammed, Sunni Muslims celebrate
Ashura as the day when Prophet Moses
(Moosa) fasted, because Allah saved the
Israelites from their enemy in Egypt.
Shia Muslim’s observance of Ashura is
different altogether.
They observe Ashura as the day of
martyrdom of Hussein Ibn Ali, the
grandson of Prophet Mohammed at the
Battle of Karbala.
Shia Muslims, therefore, consider this a
day of sorrow and observe it as such by
refraining from music, listening to
sorrowful poetic recitations, wearing
mourning attire and refraining from all
joyous events (e.g. weddings), that in
anyway distract them from the
sorrowful remembrance of that day.
ID-E-MILAD NABI
The Prophet’s birthday or Milad un Nabi
as it is commonly known in Muslim
culture, is celebrated in most of the
Muslim countries and in India as well.
The day is celebrated to commemorate
the birth of the Prophet Mohammed.
It is celebrated in the 3rd month of the
Islamic calendar. While the Shias
celebrate it on the 17th of the month, the
Sunnis celebrate on the 12th of the
month, according to the Islamic
calendar. The date of this festival varies
in the Gregorian calendar.
FESTIVALS OF SIKHS
BAISAKHI
The origin of Baisakhi festival began
with the martyrdom of Guru Tegh
Bahadur, the 9th Sikh guru who was
publically beheaded by Aurangzeb, the
Muslim ruler, on 11th November, 1675.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Baisakhi falls on the 1st day of
Baisakh month (April-May), according
to Nanakshahi or Sikh calendar.
Baisakhi is a seasonal festival
celebrated all over the state of Punjab
and few other parts of India.
GURPURAB
Guru Nanak Jayanti or Gurpurab is
the most auspicious festival of Sikh
community in India. Nanakpanthi
Hindus and other followers of Guru
Nanak’s philosophy also celebrated
this festival. This festival is celebrated
on Kartik Purnima, which is a very
auspicious day for Hindus.
FESTIVALS OF CHRISTIANS
GOOD FRIDAY
The Good Friday is also referred as
Holy Friday, Black Friday, Great
Friday, Long Friday and Silent
Friday. Good Friday is a fast day
created by the Roman Catholic
Church in the 4th century AD (long
after Jesus died). Its purpose is to
commemorate the crucifixion and
death of Jesus.
EASTER
It is one of the most popular religious
celebrations in the World. Easter isn’t
a Christian or directly Biblical term,
but comes from a form of the name
Astarte, a Chaldean (Babylonian)
Goddess known as the Queen of
Heaven.
CHRISTMAS
It is a holiday shared and celebrated
by many religions. The date of 25th
December comes from Rome and was
a celebration of the Italic God, Saturn
and the rebirth of the Sun God.
This was done long before the birth of
Jesus. To many people, it is a favourite
time of the year involving gift giving,
parties and feasting. Christmas is a
holiday that unifies almost all those
professing Christendom.
FESTIVALS OF PARSIS
The Parsi community, small in
number, is confined by and large, to
the city of Mumbai and to some extent
in Gujarat. The Parsis have many
festivals but no pilgrimage sites as
such.
ART AND CULTURE
According to the Parsis, there are 6
seasons in a year and a significant
festival occurs in each. The
Gahambars, as the festivities are called
were originally agricultural in nature,
but as Zoroastrianism spread far and
wide, they took on a religious
significance.
PATETI
The New Year day of the older school of
the Parsis, Pateti falls somewhere in
September. Wearing new clothes, the
Parsis offer prayers at the temples,
give alms and arrange sumptuous
feasts at their homes.
KHORDAD SAL
The birth anniversary of Zoroaster,
Khordad Sal is celebrated on the 6th
day of the Parsi month, Farvardin, by
offering prayers at the temples.
ZARTHOST NO DEESO
This day is observed as the death
anniversary of the Prophet Zoroaster,
who is believed to have died in a temple
while praying. The day is an occasion of
mourning and discourses are held on
the life and works of the prophet.
JAMSHED NAVROZ
Some Parsis follow the Fasli Calendar
and their New Year commences with
the Vernal Equinox. The New Year
celebration dates back to the times of
the legendary King of Persia,
Jamshed. It is said, that King
Jamshed introduced solar reckoning
into the Persian calendar and also
determined the date when the Sun
enters the constellation of Aries, as the
beginning of the year. This day came to
be known as Navroz or Jamshed
Navroz day.
On this occasion, it was customary for
the king to be weighed in gold and
silver and the money was then
distributed to the poor.
STATEWISE FAIRS AND
FESTIVALS OF INDIA
ARUNACHAL PRADESH
SOLUNG-ADI
The Solung is the main festival and is a
manifestation of the Adis festival
culture. Solung celebration continues
for 5 days.
MOPIN-ADI FESTIVAL
It is the main festival of Gallong
Community and is normally celebrated
in order to get rid of natural calamities
and diseases, effects of evil spirits and
for good harvest, health, wealth and
prosperity. The festival lasts for 5 days
from the 8th of April, before sowing of
paddy.
MURUNG FESTIVAL
It is a festival of abundance and
richness of wealth. It is celebrated in
the month of January every year for 7
days.
BUDDHA MAHOTSAVA
The festival celebrated across the
state, showcases the ideals of
Buddhism, ushering in the much
needed values of peace, harmony and
tolerance in today’s world. The festival
highlights include monastic dances,
traditional tribal music, song and
dances, religious procession, food
festival, handloom and handicraft
exhibition, flower/ horticulture shows
and adventure sports like trekking,
rafting and hot air ballooning, cultural
nights and other special events.
OTHER FESTIVALS
Other festivals that are celebrated in
the state are Losar, Khan, Nyokum,
Gomkum Gompa, Boori Boot, Mopin,
Aran etc.
ASSAM
BIHU
It is the chief festival celebrated on
three occasions in Assam, namely
Rongali Bihu, Bhogali Bihu or Kangali
Bihu. It is most popular festival of
Assam.
RONGALI BIHU OR BHOGALI BIHU
It marks the advent of the cropping
season and also ushers in the
Assemese New Year. Bhogali Bihu or
Magh Bihu is the harvest festival and
Kati Bihu or Kangali Bihu coming in
autumn is a simple affair.
DEVADDHVANI
It is held once a year at Kamakhya and
is connected with Manasa or Maroi
puja. Manasa, the serpent Goddess, is
worshipped by many people in several
districts of Assam by Hindu religion
followers.
1-335
ANDHRA PRADESH
BRAHMOTSAVAM
It is a Hindu festival celebrated
annually at Tirumala Venkateswara
temple at Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.
The festival continues for 9 days in the
months of September and October.
SAMMAKKA JATARA
It is celebrated once in 2 years on a very
large scale for 3 days before Magha in
Warangal district of Andhra Pradesh.
Animals are sacrificed and vows are
redeemed, intoxicants are widely used.
The special offering to the deity is
jaggery which is collected in huge piles.
Those who fulfil vows offer jaggery
equal to their weight and jaggery is
distributed as prasadam.
NAGULA CHAVITI
This is observed on the 4th day of the
bright fortnight in the month of either
Shravana or Kartika. This is a
pre-historic celebration of Naga or
Serpent worship observed throughout
Andhra. Every village in Andhra has
some or other Naga idol carved in stone
or wood.
DECCAN FESTIVAL
The best feature of this festival are the
arts, crafts, dances and music.
LUMBINI FESTIVAL
The festival is observed to
commemorate the religion of Buddhism.
The event has been named after
Lumbini, which is the birthplace of Lord
Buddha.
TIRUPATI FESTIVAL
This 9 day festival is observed with
grand celebration at the Tirumala
Venkateswara temple. Tirupati
Brahmotsavam is celebrated in the
month of September and October.
VISAKHA UTSAV
This festival is the most exclusive event,
which celebrates the traditions and
culture in the form of arts, crafts, music
and dance.
UGADI FESTIVAL
It marks the celebration of New Year,
as per the Hindi Lunar Calendar.
People celebrate the occasion by
wearing new clothes and decorating
their homes.
1-336
Ugadi Pachadi is special
chutney (condiment) that is
made on this day and offered to
the deity. After the rituals, the
chutney is given to everyone as a
Prasad. This festival generally
falls in the Hindu month of
Chaitra (March or April), on the
first day of the bright half.
PONGAL FESTIVAL
Each and every household in the
state observes this day festival
with merriment. Also known
as Harvest festival, Pongal
celebrates the beginning of
harvesting crops in the fields.
Bhogi festival, Surya Pongal,
Mattu Pongal and Kaanum
Pongal are the names given to
the celebrations of 4 days.
RAYALASEEMA FOOD AND
DANCE FESTIVAL
One amongst the biggest
cultural festivals, Rayalaseema
festival is celebrated to
accentuate the art and cuisine of
the area as well as the state.
Another interesting fact about
the festival is that many famous
personalities come here to give
their performances.
‘Rayalaseema food and dance
festival’ is held in the month of
October every year.
BIHAR
CHHATTHA
It is a major festival in Bihar
and is celebrated a week after
Deepawali. Chhattha is the
worship of the Sun God.
RAMNAVAMI
It is a Hindu festival celebrated
in all parts of the country. This
is the auspicious day when Lord
Rama was born.
NAVARATRI
It is one of the major festivals
connected with the autumnal
equinox, beginning on the first
and ending on the 10th day of
Navaratri. After the idol of
Durga has been worshipped for
nine preceding days, it is taken
to the river and casted into it.
CHHATTISGARH
BHORAMDEO FESTIVAL
The architecturally brilliant Bhoramdeo
temples, built by king Ramachandra of the
Nag dynasty, in the Satpura hills on the
banks of river Sankari, form the backdrop
for the annual Bhoramdeo festival.
POLA FESTIVAL
It is celebrated by worshipping bullocks.
Children play with idols of Nandi bull made
of clay and fitted with clay wheels. A bull
race is a major event of the festival.
TEEJA FESTIVAL
This festival is celebrated by married
women, in which they pray for the welfare
of their husbands.
GUJARAT
MODHERA
It is an annual festival of Indian classical
dances at Sun temple, where classical dance
forms are presented in an atmosphere they
were originally presented in. It is celebrated
in January.
DHULETI
The next day after Holi is Dhuleti or Dhuli
Padva festival. It is celebrated in March.
HIMACHAL PRADESH
LOHRI
At the end of the month of Pausha, the
Lohri festival is celebrated with Lohadi.
Lohri known as Lohkadiyan. The people
welcome the singers and give them gifts of
food grains. On Lohri night, the boys sing
Harin (the deer) songs.
GOTSI OR GOCHI
This is the most popular festival in the
valley, which is celebrated in the month of
February in the houses of those, who have
been blessed with a son in the past year.
People gather in those houses and drink
chhang wine.
PHULAICH
In the monsoon month of Bhadrapada
comes the festival of flower-watching
(ukhyang) in the Kinnaur valley. This
festival is also known as Phulaich and it
commemorates the dead. The fair opens
with animal sacrifices and soon the entire
village collects on a hill top, and looks for
the Ladra flower. People serve rice wine
and food to the dear departed ones on a
mound of bricks.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
SUI MATA FESTIVAL
It is Chamba’s annual festival. This
festival is celebrated in the month of April
for 4 days.
OTHER FESTIVALS
Other festivals that are celebrated in
Himachal Pradesh are Holi, Baisakhi,
Gugga, Dussehra, International
Himalayan festival, Haryali, Rakhi,
Navratra, Chrewal, Jagra, Sair, Judged,
Losar Shivratri, Halda, Nawala etc.
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
PURMANDAL MELA (FEBRUARY-MARCH)
Purmandal is 39 kms from Jammu city.
On Shivratri, the town wears a festive
look and for 3 days, people continue,
celebrating the marriage of Lord Shiva to
Goddess Parvati.
JHIRI MELA (OCTOBER-NOVEMBER)
An annual fair is held in the name of Baba
Jitu, a simple and honest farmer who
preferred to kill himself rather than
submit to the unjust demands of the local
landlord to part with his crop. He killed
himself in the village of Jhiri, Jammu.
JHARKHAND
SOHRAI
It is associated with cattle and is
celebrated during the festival of Diwali,
which falls in the month of November.
During the festival celebrations, the cattle
are washed and worshipped. This is a time
for great amusement and performances of
cattle such as bullfights are organised to
multiply the fun and excitement.
SARHUL
This is the main festival of the tribal
population of Jharkhand. The verbal
meaning of ‘Sarhul is worship of the Sal
tree’. Sarhul can also be redefined as
worship of nature in which local people
worship Sita, the wife of Lord Rama as
Dhartimata.
KARNATAKA
UGADI
It is believed that the creator of the Hindu
pantheon, Lord Brahma, started the
work of creation on Chaitra Suddha
Padhyami or Ugadi day. Ugadi is
celebrated with festival fervour in
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh.
ART AND CULTURE
GOWRI FESTIVAL
This festival is celebrated a day
before Ganesh Chaturthi. It is a
significant festival in parts of
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and
Tamil Nadu.
KERALA
ONAM
It is a special festival, celebrated
at the time of cropping. Festival of
Mahashivaratri is celebrated at
the bank of the Periyar river. It is
like Kumbha. Onam, associated
with the legend of Mahabali is a
state festival. It comes in the
month of Chingam, according to
Malayalam calendar.
VISHNU
It is a festival held in the state of
Kerala (and in the adjoining areas
of Tamil Nadu) in India around
the 1st day in the Malayalam
month of Medam (March-April).
MANIPUR
YAOSANG
It is celebrated during the months
of February, March on a Full
Moon night. During this festival,
the boys and girls come together
and dance on the Thobal Chongba.
KANG
This is the Rath Yatra of Manipur;
it is quite popular among the
Manipuri Hindus. This festival is
celebrated for 10 years.
CHUMPHA
(FESTIVAL OF TANGKHUL NAGAS)
It is celebrated for 7 days in the
month of December. The
Chumpha festival is a great
festival of the Tanghkhul Nagas.
The festival is held after harvest.
NINGOL CHAKOUBA (THE
SOCIAL FESTIVAL OF MANIPURIS)
It is a remarkable social festival of
the meiteis. Married women of the
family, who were married to
distant places, come to the
parental house along with their
children and enjoy sumptuous
feasts.
MADHYA PRADESH
GHAILA AND BIDRI GHAILA
This is the Earthen pot ceremony of the Gonds
and is identical to the Akshya Tritiya of the
Hindus. It is performed in the month of
Jyaistha (May-June). This festival corresponds
to the feast of transplantation of paddy
seedlings celebrated by the Mundas and most
other settled agricultural tribes of
Chhotanagpur.
KAJRI NAVAMI
On the 9th day of the waxing moon fortnight of
the month of Shravana, falls the Kajri festival.
Only those women, who are blessed with sons,
observe this festival. Their worship ritual
continues till the Full Moon day of the same
month.
MIZORAM
MINI KUT
It is celebrated with great gaiety and
merriment expressed through singing, dancing,
feasting and drinking of homemade rice beerzu.
It is dedicated to the memory of dead relatives.
PAWL KUT
It is a harvest festival celebrated during
December to January. Mothers with their
children sit on memorial platform and feed one
another. This custom is also performed during
Chapchar Kut and is known as
Chawnghnawt. Drinking of zu is a part of this
festival.
NAGALAND
NAZU FESTIVAL
It is one of the most merry-making festivals of
the Pochury tribe of Nagaland. This gala event
is celebrated for 10 days in the month of
February, prior to the sowing of seeds for the
year. Songs and dances are performed by the
Pochury tribe during this occasion.
TULUNI FESTIVAL
The most important festival of the Sumi Nagas
in Nagaland, it is celebrated during the 2nd
week of July. Tuluni is marked with feasts as
the occasion occurs in the fruitful season of the
year. This festival is celebrated with great
pomp by the Sumi tribe of Nagaland.
YEMSHE FESTIVAL
The Pochury tribe of Nagaland celebrates
arrival of the new harvest during Yemshe
festival. All the Pochuries ceremonalise this
festival with great pomp and show expecting a
good harvest and no one is allowed to harvest,
until the whole festival is over.
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ODISHA
NUAKHAI
The festival is intended for eating
new rice of the year, it is observed as
a general festival.
On this occasion, the new rice is
cooked with milk and sugar (Kshiri)
and then offered as Bhog to Goddess
Lakshmi.
BADA OSHA
It is essentially a major occasion of
fasting. In coastal Odisha,
thousands of people gather at
Dhabaleswar, temple of Lord
Mahadeva, in rocky islands in the
midst of the river Mahanadi near
Cuttack for fulfilment of boons.
It is celebrated on the 14th of
Kartika (September-October). This
fast is also observed by men.
PUNJAB
CHAPPAR MELA
The popular Chappar mela is
organised every year at Chappar,
Ludhiana. People mainly worship
snake embodiment of Guga in this
fair. The fair falls on the 4th day of
the month of Bhadas every year.
Other festivals that are celebrated
in the state are: Lohri, Baisakhi,
Hola Mohalla etc.
PONDICHERRY
MASCARADE FESTIVAL
Mascarade or Mask festival is
celebrated sometime during
March-April in Pondicherry. It
reflects one more fact of the French
sense of humour.
With unique masks and fancy
costumes, revelers go round the
streets in joyous merriment
indulging in a kind of gimmick
dance, to the accompaniment of
beating accordion and trumpets
during the festival.
MASI MAGAM FESTIVAL
It is celebrated on the Full Moon day
of the Magam asterism in the Tamil
month of Masi (February-March).
Thousands of people in good faith go
to the seashore in the early morning
to have a holy dip in the sea for
ablution of their sins.
1-338
Deities from as many as 50 temples
in Pondicherry (Puducherry) and
from the outlying areas of Tamil
Nadu are brought in ceremonial
procession to the seashore with
accompaniment of Nadhaswaram
near Kuruchi-Kuppam in
Pondicherry, municipal area for the
symbolic immersion.
SIKKIM
SAGA DAWA
It is the holiest of the holy Buddhist
festivals to commemorate different
years of his life; Lord Buddha took
his birth, achieved enlightenment
and passed away attaining Nirvana.
This three fold auspicious day falls
on the full moon day of the 4th
month of Buddhist Lunar Calendar
around the end of May and early
June.
PHANG LHABSOL
This festival is unique to Sikkim in
which the snowy range of
Khanchenjunga is worshipped for its
unifying powers.
This festival also marks the signing
of the treaty of blood brotherhood
between the Lepchas and Bhutias by
Khye Bumsa and Tetong Tek,
when the local deities were invoked
to witness the occasion.
LOSOONG
It marks the end of the harvest
season and also the end of the 10th
month of the Tibetan Year. Taking
eve from a good harvest and praying
for even better prospects for the next
crop, the festival is marked by
Chaam dancing at the monasteries
at palace (Tsu-La-Khang), Phodong
and Rumtek.
TRIPURA
KHATARUA
This is essentially one of the most
special festivals of Tripura and is
observed by the pastoral agricultural
society with much fun and vigour in
the month of Ashwin, which falls in
mid September. This grand occasion
calls for unrestrained merriment
and on this special day people light
bonfires around which children
dance displaying multi-hued flags.
KHARCHI PUJA
This is one of the most important festivals
of Tripura and is basically celebrated by
the tribal and non-tribal groups. The term
khya signifies Earth, so the festival of
Kharchi Puja means the worship of the
Earth, which sustains life with all her
resources. It is observed in the month of
July in the region of Agartala.
TAMIL NADU
PANGUNI UTTIRAM
The marriage of the God and Goddess is
the annual event in all temples in Tamil
Nadu in the month of Panguni. For
villagers, this is a very important festival
and as it comes in the off season, they
participate in it fully and give offerings of
paddy to the temples.
PONGAL
It is celebrated on the 1st day of the Tamil
month Thai. The pot in which Pongal is
cooked is called Pongal Panai. The word
Pongal means rice cooked in milk and
jaggery. Pongal is a celebration of spring
on the occasion of the ascent of the Sun to
the North. It is the celebration of the
harvest season. It is celebrated for 4 days
in Tamil Nadu.
NADAVAVI
Vavi means a well. This is a local festival
of great importance held on the Full Moon
day in April-May, owing its origin to one
Kodi Kannikadanam Thatchachariar and
to the money he collected for Varadharaja
Perumal temple.
UTTARAKHAND
BHITAULI
This festival of Uttarakhand is feted in
the month of Chaitra, according to the
Hindu calendar and it falls on the very 1st
day of Shravana and is celebrated with
much pomp and show all over the state. It
is a grand festival of sharing gifts from
the brothers to their sisters. The religious
rites and rituals during this festival are
celebrated with much veneration.
CHHIPLA JAAT
This is one of the main festivals of
Chhiplakot situated in the heartland of
Kali and Gori rivers to express different
aspects of human faith. The religious rites
and rituals include barefoot journey, bath,
worship, traditional songs and dances,
collective food and the possession of the
body of Bonia, by the folk God are the
essential parts of this festival.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
UTTAR PRADESH
BHARAT MILAP
It is celebrated during the months of
October/ November and is carried out
at Nati Imli in Varanasi on the day
following Vijayadashmi or Dussehra. It
pertains to the episode of the return of
Lord Rama to Ayodhya after 14 years of
exile and his reunion with his brother
Bharat.
WEST BENGAL
JALPESH MELA
On the occasion of Shivaratri
(February-March), a month long fair is
held at Jalpesh near Main Guri in the
district of Jalpaiguri. The fair centres
round the age old Shiva temple
dedicated to Lord Jalpeswara.
POUSH MELA
It comes between the 7th and 9th
of Poush. Poush Mela is held at
Shantiniketan in the district of
Birbhum.
SOME FAMOUS FAIRS
KUMBH MELA
It is unique in the respect that it does
not exhibit the features associated with
a traditional Indian fair. It is basically
a religious congregation which is held
once every 12 years (Maha Kumbha) at
one of the 4 holy places (Allahabad,
Ujjain, Nasik, Haridwar) in turn. An
ardha or half Kumbha occurs every 6
years.
According to mythology, when the
Devas or Gods and the Asuras or
demons together churned the waters of
the primeval ocean, many priceless
things floated up from the ocean.
Among these was a pot (Kumbha) of
Amrit, the nectar of immortality.
During the struggle for the possession
of the amrit between the demons
and the Gods, some drops of the
precious nectar got spilt. These fell at
12 places including another world
called Patala.
Four of these 12 places, namely
Haridwar, Ujjain, Allahabad and
Nasik, are in India and a great fair is
held at each of these places in a 12
years cycle. Ujjain is also visited by
many pilgrims during eclipses when a
holy bath is considered meritorious.
ART AND CULTURE
PUSHKAR MELA (RAJASTHAN)
It is held on the day of Kartik Purnima (in
October-November). Devotees gather around Pushkar
lake and take a ceremonious bath in it. Pushkar, one of
the holy pilgrimage places of India, is said to possess the
only temple where Brahma is still worshipped.
Pushkar fair, characterised among other things by its
cattle market, has now become very well-known to the
tourists, both domestic as well as foreign. Traditionally,
a religious occasion, it is accompanied by an exchange of
camels.
Saliana (Palampur) among the non-religious fairs,
Saliana, (Palampur) is noted for its wrestling matches,
while at Sonepur mela (in Bihar), sale of elephants adds
extra colour to the occasion.
GARH MUKTESHWAR FAIR
This fair is held every year at Garh Mukteshwar in Uttar
Pradesh where besides ritual bathing in the Ganges,
brisk economic activities also take place.
URS
This is the birth or death anniversary celebrations at a
dargah. Urs are held annually at the dargah of famous
sufi saints. At the dargah of the sufi saint Qutubuddin
Bakhtiar Kaki, another unique festival, sair-i
gulfaroshan or phoolwalon ki sair is held every year.
This unique festival of flowers, known as the procession
of flowers and flower sellers, dates back to the Mughal
period. Hindus, Muslims and others participate
whole-heartedly in it.
SURAJKUND HANDICRAFT MELA
Surajkund is a small ancient kund (pond) in Haryana on
the outskirts of Delhi. This place is the venue for the
annual handicrafts fair.
MUKTSAR FAIR
It is one of the largest Sikh fairs held in Punjab and is
held on the Makar Sankranti day. The festival is in
commemoration of a battle fought in 1705-1706 by Guru
Gobind Singh, against the pursuing imperial forces
which overtook him here and cut his followers to pieces.
MINJAR FAIR
It is the most popular fair of Chamba, which is attended
by a large number of people from every nook and corner
of the district. This mela is held on the second Sunday of
the Shravana month or in the month of July-August.
Minjar fair has been declared as one of the state fairs of
Himachal Pradesh.
The fair is announced by distribution of Minjar, a silk
tassel worn on some parts of the dress by men and
women alike. This tassel symbolises the shoots of paddy
and maize, which appear around this time of the year.
This week-long fair begins, when the Minjar flag is
hoisted is historical Chaugan.
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CRAFTS
Indian crafts, quite diverse are rich in history and
religion and have been embedded as a culture and
tradition with in the rural communities. Not only have
religious beliefs and continuing heritage lead to their
production, but also the foreign and domestic trade of
these items to a great extent, contributed in their
increased production and also in the evolution of
different craft forms in the country.
CRAFTS OF INDIA
There are numerous examples of handicrafts amongst what has
been procured from the Indus Valley Civilisation. The tradition
of crafts in India has grown around religious values, needs of the
common people and also the needs of the ruling elites. In addition
to this foreign and domestic trade have also played an important
role in the evolution of different craft forms in India. The craft
traditions of India have withstood the depredation of time and
several foreign invasions and continue to flourish till date. It is
mainly due to the open-mindedness of the Indian handicraftsmen
to accept and assimilate new ideas.
CRAFTS IN VARIOUS PHASES
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
During the period of Indus Valley Civilisation we find a rich craft
tradition and a high degree of technical excellence in the field of
pottery, sculpture (metal, stone and terracotta), jewellery,
weaving etc. The Harappan craftsmen not only catered to all the
local needs but traded with the outside world.
VEDIC AGE
In the Vedic age (BC 1500), we find numerous references in the
Vedas of artisans involved in pottery-making, weaving, woodcraft
etc. The Rigveda refers to a variety of pottery made from clay,
wood and metal. There is a reference to weavers and weaving.
During Vedic age and after types of crafts increased manifold
which include metal, wood, ivory, clay, terracotta, clothes, crafts.
MAURYAN PERIOD
During the Mauryan age, we find great developments in the field
of sculpture. In this period, more than 84000 stupas are said to be
built in India, including the famous Sanchi stupa, which has
beautiful stone-carving and relief work done on it. Numerous
sculptures from Bharhut, Mathura, Amravati, Vaishali, Sanchi etc
show female figures adorned with a display of jewellery, which
continues to inspire contemporary jewellery making. The period
between 1st century BC and 1st century AD was a period of
political confusion as a result of foreign invasions. The impact of
this turmoil is visible in the amazing Buddhist sculptures from
Taxila, Begram, Bamiyan, Swat valley etc.
1-340
KUSHANA PERIOD
During the Kushana period, jewellery,
sculpture, textile making, leather
products, metal working etc were the
main handicrafts that assimilated
foreign influences and used them in
accordance with the Indian setting. The
Gupta age saw rapid advancement in
the field of handicrafts and art forms.
The murals at Ajanta and Ellora bear
testimony to it.
MEDIEVAL PERIOD
In the Medieval period, the
handicraftsmen flourished in the field of
pottery, weaving, wood carving, metal
working, jewellery etc. The contribution
of the Cholas and the Vijayanagara
empire in the field of bronze sculpture,
silk weaving, jewellery, temple carving
etc is simply unparalleled. The Mughal
period was the Golden period in the
history of Indian art, craft and culture.
The Mughals brought with them a rich
heritage. The Mughals introduced
methods like inlay work, glass
engraving, carpet weaving, brocades,
enameling etc.
BRITISH PERIOD
England flooded the Indian market with
its cheap machine-made items, which
ousted the homemade crafts. A number
of craftsmen were turned destitutes
overnight. Those who continued with
their craft had to compete with the
machine-made goods. Gandhiji’s
Swadeshi Movement focussed on the
plight of the Indian craftsmen and on
the need for maintaining the ancient
craft traditions.
AFTER INDEPENDENCE
After Independence, the Handicrafts
Board was set up to look into the plight
of the dying crafts. Slowly demand grew
for these items both at home and also
abroad. Recent export figures show that
India is lagging behind in many
handicraft commodities except in the
case of gems and jewellery items.
CLASSIFICATION
OF CRAFTS
There are three main classifications of
crafts which are as follows
1. FOLK CRAFTS
People, for their personal use or for a
limited client base, create folk crafts.
Folk embroideries done by the village
women folk of India are a good
example. There are craftsmen, who
are specialised in creating textiles or
jewellery, which meet the criteria set
up by a particular group of people,
usually a particular caste or
community. They have their own
distinctive designs and styles.
2. RELIGIOUS CRAFTS
They develop around religious centers
and themes. These craft items are
connected with religious institutions
and relevant ceremonies. Various
religious places in India specialise in
particular craft items. e.g. Varanasi
and Kanchipuram in Tamil Nadu
specialise in weaving clothes for
religious ceremonies, particularly silk
materials. Similarly, Puri in Odisha,
which is a big pilgrim center, is
connected with crafts like patacharita
a painting on cloth and wood and stone
carvings.
3. COMMERCIAL CRAFTS
Specialised craftsmen of a particular
group who are specialised in a
particular skill and who can
completely master the craft engage in
commercial crafts. They even have
sub-groups which work for particular
groups and their tools and techniques
may vary. The weavers, the dyers, the
printers, the goldsmiths and the
carpenters are some of the commercial
craftsmen.
KINDS OF HANDICRAFTS IN
INDIA
Varied kinds of handicrafts are
manufactured in India, which have
gained popularity even in
International markets. The most
known forms of handicrafts in India,
are discussed below
BAMBOO HANDICRAFTS
Being a producer of Bamboo,
handicrafts made from Bamboo are
one of the eco-friendly crafts in India.
The varied items made from bamboo
are baskets, dolls, toys, furniture,
mats, wall-hangings, umberella
handles, crossbows, khorahi, kula,
dukula, kathi, jewellery boxes and
many more. Bamboo handicrafts are
mostly made in West Bengal, Assam
and Tripura.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
CANE HANDICRAFTS
Cane products, a famous form of Indian
handicraft, include utilitarian objects
like trays, baskets, stylish furniture
etc. The district of Tamil Nadu is
famous for Cane handicrafts in India.
BONE AND HORN HANDICRAFTS
Originating in the state of Odisha, the
bone and horn handicrafts are famous
for creating birds or animal figures,
which seem alive e.g. a bird seems like
twittering.
Besides this, goods like pen stands,
ornaments, cigarette case, table lamps,
pepper and salt sets, chess sets, napkin
rings, laughing buddha etc are
prepared in Odisha, Karnataka, Kerala
and Uttar Pradesh.
CLAY HANDICRAFTS
With its origination during the Indus
Valley Civilisation, clay craft or pottery
is said to be one of the most primitive
form of handicrats in India. People
engaged in pottery are called
Kumhaars. Besides its world famous
terracotta form, pottery has got
different forms like Red Ware, Grey
Ware and Black Ware. Uttar Pradesh
is known for its painted Black Wares.
BELL METAL HANDICRAFTS
The hard form of bronze, which is
usually used to make bells, is referred
as bell metal. This kind of hard alloy
is used to make crafts like vermilion
boxes, bowls, candle stands, donari
(pendants) and many more. This bell
metal crafts are mostly prevalent in
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Assam and
Manipur.
BRASS HANDICRAFTS
Durability of brass items added on to
the fame of brassware. Items made of
brass like crawling Krishna, Lord
Ganesha’s figure in different postures,
vases, table tops, perforated lamps,
ornament boxes, hukkas, toys, wine
glasses, plates, fruit bowls and many
more are extensively used in many
Indian houses till now.
These artisans are famously known as
Kansaris. The manufacturing of
brassware is mainly done in
Rajasthan.
ART AND CULTURE
DHOKRA HANDICRAFTS
Dhokra, the oldest form of handicraft is known
for its traditional simplicity. This tribal
handicraft originated in Madhya Pradesh. The
other states involved in this are West Bengal,
Bihar and Odisha.
Dhokra is famous for its unique items portraying
folk characters. Dhokra jewellery, candle stands,
pen stands, ash trays and varied kinds of
showpieces are available at every handicraft
shops.
JUTE HANDICRAFTS
Jute craftsmen have created a worldwide niche in
the field of jute handicrafts. The huge range of
jute crafts includes bags, office stationeries,
bangles and other jewellery footwear, wall-
hangings and many more. West Bengal, Assam
and Bihar, being the leading jute producers, lead
the Jute handicrafts market in India.
PAPER HANDICRAFTS
Vibrant coloured papers are combined together to
form varied crafts like kites, masks, decorative
flowers, lamp shades, puppets, hand-fans etc.
Papier mache developed in the Mughal era is even
a famous form of paper handicraft in India.
This craft industry is mainly located in Delhi,
Rajgir, Patna, Gaya, Avadh, Ahmedabad and
Allahabad.
Geographical Indications (GI)
Geographical indications of goods are defined as that
aspect of industrial property which refer to the
Geographical Indication referring to a country or to a
place situated therein as being the country or place
of origin of that product. Typically, such a name
conveys an assurance of quality and distinctiveness
which is essentially attributable to the fact of its
origin in that defined geographical locality, region or
country.
Under Articles 1 (2) and 10 of the Paris Convention
for the Protection of Industrial Property,
Geographical Indications are covered as an element
of Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs). They are also
covered under Articles 22 to 24 of the Trade Related
Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
Agreement, which was part of the Agreements
concluding the Uruguay Round of General
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations.
Some Indian Products under GI
Darjeeling Tea (West Bengal); Chanderi Saree (Guna,
Madhya Pradesh); Kotpad Handloom Fabric (Koraput,
Odisha); Kota Doria (Kota, Rajasthan); Kanchipuram
Silk (Tamil Nadu); Mysore Agarbathi (Mysore,
Karnataka); Salem Fabric (Tamil Nadu); Solapur Terry
Towel (Maharashtra); Kangra Tea (Himachal
Pradesh); Coorg Orange (Karnataka); Mysore Betel
Leaf (Karnataka); Banaras Brocades and Sarees (Uttar
Pradesh); Tirupathi Laddu (Andhra Pradesh) etc.
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ROCK HANDICRAFTS
Prevalence of rock carving, one of the primitive rock art can be seen in the
states of Rajasthan, Odisha and Nagpur. Rajasthan Jaipur and Madhya
Pradesh are famous for marble stone carvings. Green-coloured stone art is
the speciality of Madhya Pradesh, whereas, Patharkatti is the unique rock
craft of Gaya. Age-old temples of Odisha are the world famous examples of
rock-craft in India. Numerous utensils, decorative pieces, stone jewellery and
statues are made from rocks.
SHELL HANDICRAFTS
From time immemorial, shell handicrafts are one of the demandable crafts in
India. Shell handicraft can be made out of three types of shells like conch
shell, tortoise shell and sea shell. Different kinds of goods like bangles,
forks, decorative bowls, lockets, spoons, buttons, curtains, chandeliers, mirror
frames, table mats etc are the products of shell crafting. Generally, the places
located on the sea shore like Gulf of Mannar, Goa, Odisha.
WEAVING OR EMBROIDERY HANDICRAFTS
Weaving mainly refers to the process of cloth production by two thread sets
known as Weft and Warp, crossed with each other. This traditional form of
handicraft is mostly found in the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and
Rajasthan.
INDIAN CINEMA
The Indian film industry is considered as the biggest film
industry in the world. So much so that, India’s film industry
has been popularly dubbed as Bollywood. Although the main
language in which the movies are produced in Hindi, almost
every regional language of India has its own mini film industry
catering for their respective areas.
HISTORY OF INDIAN CINEMA
When Lumiere brothers invented cinema in the last decade of the 19th
century, they did not quite realise the fact that their invention would, in
years come to entertain millions across the world in an unprecedented
manner. Only 7 months after its inauguration (premiere show) in France,
Lumiere brothers’ films were shown in Bombay for the first time on 7th July,
1896. In 1899, Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatavdekar made a film on a
wrestling match in Bombay. The honour of making the first feature film goes
to Dadasaheb Phalke (Dhundiraj Govind), who made the first silent film
Raja Harishchandra in 1913. The history of Indian cinema can be broadly
divided into three phases
1. THE ERA OF SILENT FILMS (1913-31)
A kaleidoscopic view of the History of India includes the pioneering efforts
of Save Dada (Harishchandra Sakharam Bhatavdekar). He made two
short films as early as 1897. The first short films in India were directed by
Hiralal Sen, starting with Flower of Persia (1898). In 1900, the entire
Indian entertainment sector underwent huge changes and the coming of
Dadasaheb Phalke took Indian cinema to new heights. Thus, the
pathbreaking film of the silent era, Raja Harishchandra, was released in
1913. During this time and during the era of the talkies, the main sources for
the Indian films were the mythological texts.
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Interesting Facts about Indian Cinema
India’s First Alam Ara (Light of the Universe) was
Talking released by Ardeshir Irani of Imperial
Film Movie tone. 14th March, 1931 was a
historic day for Indian cinema. The film
was based on a successful Passi play
which was written by Joseph David.
Film with Indra Sabha, with 71 songs is the film
the Most with most number of songs. The film
Number of was made in 1932 by Madan Theatres
Songs and the director of the film was
JJ Madan.
Longest LOC Kargil, at 4 hrs 25 min, is the
Indian longest Indian movie made so far. The
Movie story is of the Indian soldiers fighting in
Kargil. Mera Naam Joker at 4 hrs 14
min is a close second.
First Colour Kisan Kanya is the first colour film in
Film in India. It was a 1937 Hindi feature film
India which was directed by Moti B Gidvani
and produced by Ardeshir Irani of
imperial pictures.
First Indian Bhanu Athaiya was the first Indian to
to get an get an Oscar. She won the award for
Oscar the best costume designer for Richard
Attenborough’s film Gandhi in 1982.
Longest The song Ab Tumhare Hawale Watan
Hindi Film Saathiyo in the film by the same name
Song is the longest Hindi film song. The
length of the song is 20 minutes and
the song is featured in three
instalments in the film.
2. PRE-INDEPENDENCE
TALKIES (1931-47)
The rapid growth of the Indian cinema
led to the end of the silent era and
ushered in the era of the talkies. The
latter introduced the Indian cinema in a
completely new way to the audiences.
Now, one could hear the actors and
actresses talk, laugh, sing and cry.
Initially films were primarily made in
Hindi, Tamil, Bengali and Telugu and
proved to be phenomenal successes. The
1930s and the 1940s witnessed the rise
of film personalities, such as Debaki
Bose, Chetan Anand, SS Vasan, Nitin
Bose and others.
Their contributions helped the Indian
cinema to grow further. By this time
apart from Bombay (Mumbai), the film
industry shaped up well in the down
south as well. The Tamil, Telugu and
Kannada film industries were making
indigenous films as well. By the late
1940s, films in India were made in
various languages, but the religious
influence was predominant. With the
struggle for independence, the entire
scenario altered. Indian cinema now saw
films based on the then contemporary
social issues. Movies no longer were
limited to the periphery of
entertainment and instead started
serving as potent instruments to educate
the masses as well.
3. POST-INDEPENDENCE
FILMS (1947) (TILL TODAY)
The Golden period in the history of
Indian cinema is attributed to the 1950s.
Guru Dutt, Mehboob Khan, Raj Kapoor,
Balraj Sahni, Nargis, Bimal Roy, Meena
Kumari, Madhubala, Dilip Kumar graced
the screens. In South India, esteemed
actors like Rajkumar, Gemini Ganesan,
NT Rama Rao and several other actors
and actresses entertained the audiences.
In Bombay, while the magic of Guru
Dutt’s and Bimal Roy’s were
preponderant, Indian cinema moved one
step further with the release of K Asif’s
Mughal-e-Azam in 1960. A trail of
romantic movies followed all over India.
While the Indian commercial cinema
enjoyed popularity amidst the movie-
goers, Indian Art cinema (also known as
Parallel cinema or New Wave
cinema) did not go unnoticed. Adoor
Gopalakrishnan, Ritwik Ghatak,
Aravindan, Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen,
Shyam Benegal, Sai Paranjpe, Shaji
Karun and several other art film directors
were making movies that took India to
International fame and glory.
By the 1970s, Indian cinema enjoyed the
histrionics of superstars like Rajesh
Khanna, Sanjeev Kumar, Waheeda
Rehman, Asha Parekh, Tanuja and
others.At one hand, the Hindi cinema
was growing leaps and bounds and on the
other, the regional films were making
their presence felt too.
A number of well-established Hindi
filmstars, who became a part of the star
system in India, actually began their
career with the Indian regional films.
The 1980s saw the rise of several woman
directors, such as Aparna Sen, Prema
Karnath, Meera Nair and others. The
regional films in Malayalam, Kannada,
Telugu, Bengali and other languages
produced a number of romantic films.
Renowned film personalities like
Balachander IV, Sasi, Balu Mahendra,
Mani Ratnam, Ram Gopal Verma and
others made their marks. Stars like
Shahrukh Khan, Rajnikant, Madhuri
Dixit, Aamir Khan, Chiranjeevi, Juhi
Chawla, Hrithik Roshan and others
explored all possible techniques to enrich
Indian cinema with their performances.
Films such as Gandhi, Terrorist, Amu,
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Phir Milenge, Diksha, Taare Zameen
Par, Peepli Live etc are intended to
educate the masses. Films such as
Sarkar, Rajneeti, Page 3 and Fashion
reflect the political and social scenarios of
the contemporary society. As years fly
away, Indian cinema betters itself with
more number of films, making it to the
golden pages of its history.
VARIOUS TYPES
OF INDIAN CINEMA
PARALLEL CINEMA
The Parallel or New Cinema movement in
India began in the regional cinema first,
towards the end of the 60s, with the
production of Marinal Sen’s ‘Bhuvan
Shome’ (1996) and Uski Roti, both
financed by the Film Finance
Corporation (FFC), initiating the new
wave in Indian cinema. The New Indian
cinema was the cinema of social
significance and artistic sincerity,
presenting a modern, humanist
perspective in contrast to the fantasy
world of the popular cinema.
This phenomenon was very important
because it gave rise to a cinema
characterised by significant themes and
innovative treatment; essentially a
cinema that sought truth, did not obey
convention and did not become
subservient to popular notions of what
was good and palatable.
INDIAN COMMERCIAL CINEMA
Commercial cinema is the most popular
form of cinema in India. Ever since its
inception, the Commercial Indian movies
have seen a huge following.
Commercial or popular cinema is made
not only in Hindi, but also in many other
regional languages of East and South
India. Commercial films, in whatever
languages they are made, tend to be quite
long (approx three hours), with an
interval. Another important feature of
Commercial Cinema in India is music.
REGIONAL CINEMA IN INDIA
India is home to one of the largest film
industries in the world. Every year,
thousands of movies are produced in
India. Indian film industry comprises of
Hindi films, Regional movies and Art
cinema. The Indian film industry is
supported mainly by a vast film going
Indian public, though Indian films have
been gaining increasing popularity in the
rest of the world, especially in countries
with a large number of emigrant Indians.
ART AND CULTURE 1-343

ART AND CULTURE

PRACTICE QUESTIONS

SET 1 SECTIONWISE/TOPICWISE QUESTIONS

1. The term Apabhramsa was used in 6. There are only two known examples of Which of the statement(s) given above
Medieval Sanskrit texts to denote cave paintings of the Gupta period in are correct?
(a) Outcastes among the Rajputs Ancient India. One of these is paintings (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(b) Deviation from Vedic Rituals of Ajanta caves. Where is the other (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) Early forms of some of the modern surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh Caves (b) Ellora Caves
11. Which one of the following temples
Indian languages
figured with the Institution of
(d) Non-Sanskrit verse metres (c) Lomas Rishi Caves
Devdasis?
(d) Nasik Caves
2. Which of the following texts of Ancient (a) Jagannath temple, Puri
India allows divorce to a wife deserted 7. Consider the following statements (b) Pasupathinath temple, Kathmandu
by her husband? about Kathakali? (c) Kandariya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho
(a) Kamasutra 1. It is a dance drama of Kerala. (d) Chausath Yogini temple, Bhedaghat
(b) Manavadharam Shastra 2. Actors of Kathakali depict characters
12. Consider the following statements.
(c) Sukra Nitisara from the epics Ramayana and
Mahabharata and from the Puranas 1. Harikeli is a Sanskrit drama written by
(d) Arthashastra
(ancient scriptures). Chauhan ruler Vigrahraja.
3. Which of the following pairs is 2. Adhai din ka Jhopada which is a
3. Ritual traditions like Theyyams
correctly matched? Mudiyetlu and the Martial Arts of Kerala mosque in Ajmer contains lines of
Folk Dance State played a major role in shaping the Harikeli on its walls.
(a) Naqqual : Bihar dance into its present form. Which of the statement(s) given above
(b) Tamasha : Odisha is/are correct?
(c) Ankia Nat : Assam
Which of the statements given above are
correct? (a) Only 1
(d) Baha : Punjab
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 (b) Only 2
4. Consider the following statements (c) Both 1 and 2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
about Kathak, the North Indian classical (d) Neither 1 nor 2
dance. 8. The Mathura School of Art was
1. The word ‘Kathak’ derived from ‘Katha’ influenced by. 13. Which of the following statements is
literally means story teller. (a) Amaravati School of Art true about Tamasha?
2. Kathak originated in the North, but (b) Roman School of Art (a) Tamasha is a traditional folk theatre

ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

Persian and Muslim influences later
altered the dance from a temple ritual to
a courtly entitlement.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
5. Which one of the following statements
is incorrect about Bharatnatyam?
(a) Bharatnatyam is one of the most
popular Indian dances of Tamil Nadu
(b) The name is derived from the word
‘Bharatha’ and is associated with the
Natyashastra
(c) It skilfully embodies the three primary
ingredients of dancing
(d) The technique of Bharatnatyam
consists of 54 principles 8 of
coordinated hand, foot, face and body
movements
(c) Gandhara School of Art form of Maharashtra
(d) Bodhgaya School of Art (b) It has evolved from the folk forms such
as Gondhal, Jagran and Kirtan
9. Consider the following statements
about Indian Classical Dances. (c) In this theatre form the female actress
is the chief exponent if dance
1. All the Classical Dances of India have
their origin in Bharata’s Natyashastra. movements in the pali
(d) She is known as Murki
2. They have three basic aspects Nritta,
Nrittya and Natya. 14. Which one of the following pairs of
Which of the statement(s) given above composers in different languages and
is/are correct? their works on the Mahabharata theme
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 is correctly matched?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) Sarladasa : Bengali
(b) Kasirama : Oriya
10. Consider the following statements (c) Tikkana : Marathi
regarding Sanchi stupas (d) Pampa : Kannada
1. Sanchi stupa is located in Sanchi,
Madhya Pradesh, 14 km from Vidisha. 15. Consider the following statements.
2. It has three stupas all the gateway 1. Maach is the traditional theatre form of
around them but the most famous is the Madhya Pradesh.
great stupa which was originally made 2. In this theatre form, dialogues are given
of brick in Ashoka’s time. prominence in between the songs.
 1-344 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

Which of the statement(s) given above Codes 26. Consider the following statements.
is/are correct? A B C D 1. The Elephanta cave is a
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) 4 2 3 1 conglomeration of seven caves, out of
(b) 3 1 4 2 which the most important is the
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(c) 4 1 3 2 Mahesha Murti cave.
16. Which of the following pairs of folk (d) 3 2 4 1 2. The cave complex has been given
dance form and states is not correctly the status of World Heritage by UNESCO.
matched? 21. Which of following was one of the main
effect of Vedic culture in Indian Which of the statement(s) given above
(a) Korku : Maharashtra is/are correct?
(b) Jhummar : Haryana history?
(a) Progress of Metaphysics (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) Thali : Himachal Pradesh
(d) Mukna : Manipur (b) Development of Sanskrit (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

17. With reference to the Bagh Paintings, (c) Solidification of race 27. Consider the following statements
consider the following statements. (d) None of the above about Ajanta paintings.
1. Bagh Painting is on the same line of 1. These are frescoes paintings painted
22. Consider the following with reference to
Ajanta. on the rocks of its caves.
Jaina-miniature paintings (Apbhramsa
2. There are 9 caves at Bagh, the 4th cave School). 2. These belong to the period of
Rang Mahal has got the maximum 3rd century BC to 7th century BC.
1. Bulging fish-shaped eyes
number of paintings. 2. Pointed nose 3. The theme is concerned with the
Which of the statement(s) given above Buddha and Bodhisatva.
3. Double chin
is/are correct? Which of the statements given above are
Which of the statement(s) given above
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 correct?
is/are true?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
18. Match the following. (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
28. Consider the following statements
List I List II 23. Which one of the following statements
about Amir Khusrow.
A. Pandit Vishnu 1. Introduced raga is not correct? 1. He was disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya.
Digambar classification in (a) The statue of Gomateshwara at 2. He was the founder of both Hindustani
Paluskar Indian music Sravanabelagola represents the last classical music and qawwali.
B. Venkatamakhi 2. Proponent of the Tirthankara of Jains Which of the statement(s) given above
Carnatic music (b) India’s largest Buddhist monastery is is/are correct?
C. Syama Sastri 3. Proponent of the in Arunachal Pradesh
Khayal form of (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) The Khajuraho temples were built (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Hindustani music
under Chandela kings
D. Amir Khusrow 4. Composed the 29. Lord Buddha preached the following
music for song (d) The Hoysaleshwara temple is
dedicated to Shiva four Noble Truths. Put them in correct
Vande-Mataram
order.
Codes 24. Match the following. 1. There is suffering.
A B C D A B C D 2. There is cessation of suffering.
List I List II
(a) 4 1 3 2 (b) 4 1 2 3 3. There is a path leading to cessation of
(Artist) (Art)
(c) 1 4 3 2 (d) 1 4 2 3 suffering.
A. Hiren 1. Bharatnatyam
ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

19. Consider the following statements 4. There is cause of suffering.

Bhattacharya dance
regarding Pala School of Paintings. B. Malini Rajurkar 2. Hindustani Select the correct answer using the codes
1. The main patrons of the school was vocal music given below.
Raja Dharmapala and Devapala. C. Pratibha Prahlad 3. Kuchipudi (a) 1, 4, 2 and 3 (b) 1, 4, 3 and 2
2. The main artist of this school were dance (c) 1, 3, 2 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 4 and 3
Dhimnan and Vidopala. D. Vempati Chinna 4. Puppetry
30. Consider the following statements.
Satyam
Which of the statement(s) given above 1. The art of miniature painting was
is/are correct? Codes introduced to India by the Mughals.
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 A B C D A B C D 2. In the 16th century, the Mughal ruler
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) 4 2 1 3 (b) 3 1 2 4 Humayun brought artists from Persia,
(c) 4 1 2 3 (d) 3 2 1 4 who specialised in Miniature paintings.
20. Match the following.
25. Consider the following statements. Which of the statement(s) given is/are
List I List II correct?
1. The Dilwara Jain temple in Mount Abu
A. Dakshinaarka 1. Goalpara (Assam) constructed out of white marble. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
temple (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
2. Dilwara Jain temple enshrines various
B. Surya Pahar 2. Arasavilli (Andhra Jain Tirthankars.
temple Pradesh) 31. The Sufi saint who maintained that
C. Suryanar 3. Kumbhkonam Which of the statement(s) given above devotional music was one way of
temple (Tamil Nadu) is/are correct? coming close to God was
D. Surya Narayan 4. Gaya (Bihar) (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) Mouinuddin Chishti
temple (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(b) Baba Farid
ART AND CULTURE 1-345

(c) Sayyid Muhammad Gesudaraz Which of the statement(s) given above 3. Women are mainly engaged in the
(d) Shah Alam Bukhari is/are correct? creation of warli folk paintings.

32. Nastaliq was (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Which of the statements given above are
(a) a Persian script used in Medieval India (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 correct?
(b) a raga composed by Tansen 39. Consider the following statements. (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3
(c) a cess levied by the Mughal rulers (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
1. Malwa architecture is notable for the
(d) a type of puppetry excellent combination of arch and lintel 44. Consider the following statements.
construction of stairs of flight, the use of 1. The Brihadeeswara temple is situated
33. The Nagara, the Dravida and the Vesara coloured titles and lofty plinth for the
are at Tanjore, the ancient capital of the
buildings. Chola kings.
(a) the three main racial group of the 2. Malwa boasts of Hussain Shah’s Tomb,
Indian sub-continent 2. King Rajaraja Chola constructed this
Jama Masjid, Jahaz Mahal, Hindola temple in 10th century BC, designed by
(b) the three main linguistic division Mahal. the famous architect Sama Verma.
(c) the three main styles of Indian temple Which of the statement(s) given above
architecture
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct? is/are correct?
(d) the three main musical gharanas (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
prevalent in India (a) Only 1
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (b) Only 2
34. Which of the following statements 40. Consider the following statements. (c) Both 1 and 2
is/are correct about Gupta architecture? (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Sittanavasal paintings is situated at
1. It widely used red sandstone Puddukota in Tanjore.
2. The background was made more 45. Consider the following statements.
2. These caves were built by Mahendra
refined and decorative 1. Pattachitra style of painting is one of the
Varman and his son Narasimha Varman.
oldest and most popular art forms of
3. Naked figures was mostly absent 3. These caves have Jain paintings. Odisha.
Select the correct answer using the codes Which of the statements given above are 2. Pattachitra is done on canvas and is
given below. correct? manifested by rich colourful
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 appreciation creative motifs and
(c) 1 and 2 (d) Only 2 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these design and portrayal of simple themes
mostly mythological in dipiction.
35. Which of the following were common 41. Consider the following statements
to both Buddhism and Jainism? Which of the statement(s) given above
regarding policy of Sulah-kul.
1. Avoidance of extremities in penance
is/are correct?
1. Sulah-kul means universal tolerance.
and enjoyment. (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
2. The policy of Sulah-kul was state
2. Indifference to the authority of the Vedas. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
principle of Akbar.
3. Denial of efficacy of rituals. 46. Consider the following pairs.
3. Din-i-llahi was a result of the policy of
4. Non-injury to animal life. Sulah-kul policy. Tradition State
Codes 1. Gatka, a traditional : Kerala
Which of the statement(s) given above
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2, 3 and 4 is/are correct? Martial Art
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) All of these (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 2. Madhubani, a : Bihar
traditional painting
36. Which one of the following pairs is (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
3. Singhey Khabar : Jammu and
correctly matched? 42. Match the following.

ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

Sindhu Darshan Kashmir
(a) Harappan : Painted Grey festival
List I List II
Civilisation Ware Which of the pair(s) given above is/are
(Famous Temple) (State)
(b) The Kushanas : Gandhara School correctly matched?
of Art A. Vidyashankara 1. Andhra
temple Pradesh (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
(c) The Mughals : Ajanta Paintings
B. Rajarani temple 2. Karnataka (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
(d) The Marathas : Pahari School of
Painting C. Kandariya 3. Madhya 47. Match the following.
Mahadeva temple Pradesh
37. What does Budhayam theorem D. Bheemeshwara 4. Odisha List I List II
(Baudhayan Sulva Sutra) relate to? temple (Famous Person) (Known as)
(a) Lengths of sides of a right-angled A. Amrita Shergil 1. Dancer
triangle Codes
B. Bhimsen Joshi 2. Painter
(b) Calculation of the value of Pie A B C D A B C D
C. Rukmini Devi Arundale 3. Poet
(c) Logarithmic calculation (a) 2 4 3 1 (b) 2 3 4 1
D. Suryakant Tripathi 4. Singer
(d) Normal distribution curve (c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 3 2 1 4
Nirala
38. Consider the following statements. 43. Consider the following statements. Codes
1. Mohiniyattam is the female 1. Maharashtra is known for its warli folk A B C D
semi-classical dance form of Kerala. paintings. (a) 2 1 4 3
2. Warli is the name of the largest tribe (b) 2 4 1 3
2. Laterally, the dance of the enchantress,
found on the Northern outskirt of (c) 3 1 2 4
Mohiniyattam was mainly performed in
Mumbai. (d) 2 3 1 4
the temple premises of Kerala.
 1-346 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

48. Match the following. 3. Each part of the city was made up of 60. The tank of the Great Bath complex at
walled sections Mohenjo-daro had stairs on
List I List II
Select the correct answer using the codes 1. Northern side. 2. Southern side.
(Architect) (Monument)
given below. 3. Eastern side. 4. Western side.
A. Thomas 1. Gateway of India
(a) Only 3 (b) 1 and 2 Codes
Metcalfe
B. G Wittet 2. Victoria Hall (c) Only 2 (d) All of these (a) Only 1 (b) Only 3
C. William 3. Metcalfe House 53. With reference to Indian rock cut (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 and 4
Emerson architecture, consider the following 61. Consider the following pairs.
D. Herbert 4. Secretariat and statements?
Baker Legislative Council Famous Work of
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest Reign
Building (Delhi) Architecture
rock-cut caves in India
1. Virupaksha temple Chalukyas
Codes 2. The kanheri caves marks the beginning of Badami
A B C D A B C D of a long tradition of colossal Buddha 2. Kailasnath temple of Ellora Mauryas
(a) 3 1 2 4 (b) 1 2 3 4 3. At Ellora, caves were made for different 3. Brihadeeshwar temple Pallavas
(c) 4 3 2 1 (d) 2 1 4 3 faiths
Select the correct answer using the codes Which of the pairs given above are
49. Match the following. correct?
given below.
List I List II (a) 1 and 3 (b) Only 3
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(Dancer) (Dance) (c) Only 1 (d) 1 and 2
(c) Only 3 (d) All of these
A. Kalamandalam 1. Kathakali
54. The dance encouraged and performed 62. Consider the following statements
Kshemavathy
regarding Neo-Gothic style of
B. Kottakkal 2. Manipuri from the temple of Tanjore was
architecture.
Sivaraman (a) Bharatnatyam (b) Kathakali
1. Its characteristics included high
C. Lakshmi 3. Mohiniyattam (c) Odissi (d) Mohiniattam pitched roofs, pointed arches and
Viswanathan
55. Koodiyattam is a detailed decoration.
D. N Madhavi Devi 4. Bharatnatyam
(a) dress prepared in Goa 2. The Gothic style had its roots in
Codes (b) traditional dance of Kerala buildings especially, churches built in
A B C D A B C D (c) festival of Andhra Pradesh Northern Europe during the medieval
(a) 1 3 2 4 (b) 3 1 4 2 (d) folk dance of Tamil Nadu period.
(c) 1 3 2 4 (d) 4 3 1 2 Which of the statement(s) given above
56. Arrange the following monuments in a is/are correct?
50. Consider the following statements. chronological order (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
1. The magnificent ‘Ratha’ cave temples of 1. Brihadeeswara temple, Tanjore
2. Draupadipath, Mamallapuram (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Mahabalipuram were built by the
Pallava king Narasimha in the 7th and 3. Kailasa temple, Ellora 63. Consider the following places.
8th centuries. 4. Meenakshi temple, Madurai 1. Ahiraura 2. Dhauli 3. Girnar
2. There are eight Rathas at Codes
At which of the above place/places do
Mahabalipuram out of which five are (a) 1, 4, 2, 3 (b) 2, 3, 1, 4
Ashoka's rock edicts occur?
named after the Pandavas of (c) 3, 1, 4, 2 (d) 4, 2, 3, 1 (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
Mahabharata and one after Draupadi.
57. Amir Khusrow’s name is associated with (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
Which of the statement(s) given above the invention of which of the following
ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

is/are correct? 64. Consider the following statements.

instrument?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 1. The Hill Palace, the official residence of
(a) Sarod (b) Sitar
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 the Kochi Royal Family is the largest
(c) Veena (d) Shehnai
archaeological museum in Kerala.
51. Match the following. 58. Consider the following statements 2. It was built in 1835, the palace
List I List II regarding Kota paintings. complex consists of 69 buildings.
1. It excelled in portrayal of hunting
A. Tabla 1. Latif Khan Which of the statement(s) given above
scenes and elephant fight.
B. Sitar 2. Kartik Kumar is/are correct?
2. Scenes of worshipping darbar and (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
C. Shehnai 3. Ali Hussain
processional scenes also formed the
D. Flute 4. Pannalal Ghosh subject matter of this style. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Codes Which of the statement(s) given above 65. Which one of the following statements
A B C D A B C D is/are correct? is not correct?
(a) 2 3 1 4 (b) 4 3 1 2 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 (a) The role of Abul Fazal in the debates of
(c) 1 2 3 4 (d) 3 2 1 4 Ibadat Khana was important
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
52. Which of the following is/are correct (b) The religious debates of Ibadat Khana
about town planning during Harappa 59. With reference to the cultural history of did not play any role in the
civilisation? India, the term sarvatobhadra refers to development of religious view of Akbar
(a) A religious sect (c) The Ibadat Khana was opened for all
1. The streets were laid from east to west
in a grid pattern (b) A style of temple construction the religious leaders in the later period
(c) An assembly of Brahmins (d) The Ibadat Khana was established in
2. Buildings were made of standardised
baked bricks and stones (d) An administrative functionary 1575 AD
ART AND CULTURE 1-347

66. The Pashupati seal, discovered at 72. Which of the following are not part of 2. The Gateway of India built in the
Mohenjo-daro archaeological site by Qutub complex in Delhi? traditional Gujarati style is the most
Sir John Marshall, which has given rise 1. Alai Darwaza 2. Qutb Minar famous example of Indo-Saracenic
to the Proto-Shiva theory, has the style.
3. Mehrauli Pillar
following characteristics. Which of the statement(s) given above
4. Alauddin Khilji’s tomb
1. Yogic posture in possibly Hath Yoga. is/are correct?
2. Surrounded by animals. Select the correct answer using the codes (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. Sitting on a lotus. given below?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1, 3 and 4
Select the correct answer using the codes 78. Consider the following statements with
given below. (c) 3 and 4 (d) None of these
reference to the Pallava architecture in
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 73. Consider the following statements. India.
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these 1. Sarod, a plucked instrument, it is a
1. It shows the transition from rock-cut
modification of rabeb.
67. One of the observatories established by architecture to stone built ones
Sawai Jai Singh was at 2. In Sarod, there are seven strings for 2. The sculptures of Dwarapalas at
(a) Agra (b) Indore playing the melody and ten strings for entrance of the mandapa was started
(c) Ujjain (d) Jodhpur resonating. by Pallavas
Which of the statement(s) given above 3. The tradition of direct patronisation of
68. Which of the following Harappan sites is/are correct?
are located in the Kutch region? temples began with Pallavas
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Which of the statement(s) given above
1. Desalpur 2. Dholavira
3. Lothal 4. Rojdi (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 is/are correct?
Select the correct answer using the codes 74. Consider the following statements. (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
given below. 1. Raja Ravi Verma (of Travancore State), (c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 3 and 4 a product of Madras Art School studied 79. Consider the following statements.
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these oil paintings and specialised in
1. Abhigyan Shakuntalam which is
portraiture.
69. With reference to the Indo-Islamic considered as epitome of Sanskrit
2. He welded Royal Academy of
architecture, choose the correct drama by many scholars is based on
Naturalism with Indian myths and
the life of Sunga ruler Agnimitra.
statements. legends and created lively images of
1. The dome architecture was one of the Indian past. 2. Mrichchhkatikam clarifies the fact that
important characterstics of in ancient India the constraints of Varna
Which of the statement(s) given above system were not as rigid as is generally
Indo-Islamic architecture
is/are correct? perceived.
2. They introduced the art of inlay
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Which of the statement(s) given is/are
decoration and challigraphy in India
3. Bricks were never used in the (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 correct?
Indo-Islamic architecture 75. Which of the following classical works (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
Select the correct answer using the codes of literature were written during the (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
given below. Gupta era?
80. Consider the following, with reference
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 1 1. Amarkosh 2. Kamasutra
to new elements introduced by
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 3. Maghduta 4. Mudrarakshasa
Mughals in Architecture.
Select the correct answer using the codes 1. Charbagh style by Babur.
70. Consider the following statements
regarding Suka-Saptati. given below. 2. Artificial sands and gardens.

ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

1. Suka-Saptati is a book of folk tales, (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
Which of the statement(s) given above
which has a collection of folk tales told (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
is/are correct?
by a parrot. 76. With reference to the Ajanta caves, (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
2. Its translation into Persian is called consider the following statements. (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Tutinamah.
1. At Ajanta, caves were made for 81. Consider the following statements.
Which of the statement(s) given above different faith
is/are correct? 1. Tughlaq influence on the Sharqi
2. It has both Chaityas and Viharas architecture is seen in the use of arch
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
3. Seated Buddha in and beam and battering walls.
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 Dharmachakrapravartana is a notable 2. Propylones have been used in Atala
71. Consider the following statements. sculpture here Masjid and Jama Masjid.
1. Dashavatar is the most developed Select the correct answer using the codes Which of the statement(s) given above
theatre form of the Konkan and Goa given below. is/are correct?
regions. (a) 1 and 3 (b) Only 2 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
2. The performers personify the ten (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2 (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
incarnations of Lord Vishnu.
77. Consider the following statements. 82. Which of the following performing arts
Which of the statement(s) given above is associated with Sumyukta Panigrahi?
1. Indo-Saracenic style of architecture
is/are correct? (a) Painting (b) Violin
combined the Indian architecture with
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 European. (c) Dance (d) Sports
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
 1-348
83. Consider the following statements
about Indus Valley Civilisation.
1. The layouts of Harappan cities were
much planned and the streets were
narrow.
2. The houses of the earlier settlements
were with an upper storey, made of mud
and baked brick in standardised sizes.
3. The granaries and the Great Bath at
Mohenjo-daro seem for special rituals.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) All of these (d) None of these
84. Consider the following statements
about stupas.
1. Buddha’s relics were placed in a casket
chamber in the one of the pillar of the
Sanchi stupa.
2. It is presumed that the elaborately
carved Toranas were built by ivory or
metal workers in the 1st century BC
during the reign of King Satakarni of the
Satavahana dynasty.
3. The last addition to the stupa was made
during the reign of Harsha when four
images of Buddha sitting in the dhyana
mudra or meditation were installed at
the four entrances.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these
85. Consider the following statements
about Mauryan period.
1. It is said that one of the caves in the
Barabar hills called the Sudama Cave
was dedicated by Ashoka to the Ajivika
monks of the Ajivika sect.
2. The monolithic rail at Sarnath in grey
and polished Chunar sandstone has
ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions
been erected under the patronage of
Emperor Chandragupta Mauryan
himself.
3. It has rightly been said that Ashoka
inaugurated a style of architecture
which spread in different parts of the
country and itself at its best in the
magnificent masterpiece of Karla,
Ajanta, Ellora and Elephanta.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
86. Consider the following statements
about Gupta Art.
1. Both the Nagara and Dravidian styles of
art evolved during this period.
2. The temple at Deogarh near Jhansi and
the sculptures in the temple at Garhwa
near Allahabad remain important
specimen of the Gupta Art.
3. Metallurgy had also made a wonderful
progress during the Gupta period.
The craftsmen were efficient in the art
of casting metal statues and pillars.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
87. Consider the following statements
about Hoysala architecture.
1. The most notable temples of this
period are those constructed in Belur,
Halebidu and Somnathpur.
2. The Kirtinarayan temple was built by
Hoysala King Vishnuvardhana.
3. Chennakesava temple is located in
Belur and was built by
Vishnuvardhana of the Hoysala
dynasty in 1117 AD to commemorate
a victory won over the Chalukyas.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
88. Consider the following statements
regarding sankhya school.
1. It strongly propounds dualism
2. Sankhya philosophy does not believe
in the existence of god
3. Sankhya does not accept the theory
of rebirth and transmigration of soul
Which of the statements given is/are
correct?
(a) 1and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
89. Consider the following statements
about Indian folk music.
1. The female dance of Punjab region is
known as Giddha.
2. Lavani is a popular folk form of
Maharashtra and the dance format
associated with it known as Tamasha.
3. Naatupura Patu is a Tamil folk music
consists of Gramathisai (village folk
music) and Gana (city folk music),
also sung in Rajasthan.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
90. Consider the following statements
about Indian Classical music.
1. Mohiniyattam has the grace and
elegance of Bharatnatyam and vigour
of Kathakali.
2. In Odissi the tribhanga (three bends)
symbolise the means to escape the
limitations of the body.
3. Sattriya dance is classified into two
style namely—Paurashik Bhangi i.e.
tandav or masculine style and Shtri
Bhangi i.e. lasya or feminine style.
GSP General Studies (Paper 1)
Which of the statements given above are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
91. Consider the following statements about
North-Indian music forms.
1. Ghoomar is basically a community
dance for males and performed during
marriages.
2. Dhumhal is mainly the men folk of Wattal,
who perform this dance on specific
occasions.
3. Dhamyal is the folk dance of Haryana
can be performed by men alone as well
as with women.
Which of the statements given above are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
92. Consider the following statements about
Religious Movement.
1. A sutra in Panini’s Ashtadhyayi refers to
the worshippers of Shiva.
2. The Shaiva Movement in the South
flourished at the beginning through the
activities of many of 63 saints known in
Tamil as Alvars.
3. Vaishnava poet saints known as alvars
preached single-minded devotion
(Ekatmika Bhakti) for Vishnu and their
songs were collectively known as
Prabandhas.
Which of the statement(s) given is/are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
(c) Only 2 (d) All of these
93. Consider the following statements about
religious tradition.
1. In Christianity, Trinity refers to the
teaching that God comprises three
distinct persons i.e. the Father, the Son
and the Holy Spirit.
2. Sufism originated in India and found a
congenial atmosphere in Iran and
Afghanistan.
3. The key scriptures of Judaism are
Kitab-i-Aqdas and Kitab-i-lqan.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
94. Consider the following statements about
architect of Delhi.
1. The British Viceroy made Sir Edward
Lutyens responsible for the overall plan
of Delhi. He was specifically directed to
harmonise externally with the traditions
of Indian art.
2. Another Englishman called Robert Tor
Russell built the Connaught Place and
the Eastern and Western Courts.
ART AND CULTURE 1-349

3. Herbert Baker added the imposing Which of the statements given above are Which of the statements given above
buildings of the South Block and the correct? is/are correct?
North Block, which flank the Rashtrapati (a) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
Bhawan.
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct? 98. Consider the following statements about 102. Consider the following statements
(a) Only 1
Nayaka Architecture. regarding the architectural heritage
1. Nayaka architectural style was of India.
(b) Only 2
characterised by elaborate hundred and 1. Vitthala temple with the 56 musical
(c) 1 and 2
thousand-pillared mandapas, the high pillars is located in Tamil Nadu.
(d) All of the above gopurams with painted stucco statues on 2. The Chola Age Shiva temple located
95. Consider the following statements about the surface and long corridors. in Tanjore, is granite building.
Indian architect. 2. The Nayaka dynasty is also known for its 3. The Sun temple at Konark was built
mural and wall paintings. Tanjore during Ashoka’s reign.
1. The Jantar Mantar, built by Jai Singh II in
paintings from this time are known for
the early 18th century, is an interesting Which of the statement(s) given
their surface richness, vivid colours and
example of Rajput architecture. above is/are correct?
compact composition.
2. The palaces of Jaisalmer, Bikaner, (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 2
3. The Nayaka dynasties emerged in South
Jodhpur, Udaipur and Kota represent the
India after the downfall of the (c) 2 and 3 (d) Only 3
maturity of the Rajput style.
Vijayanagara empire in 1565.
3. The most spectacular of all Jain temples 103. Consider the following statements
Which of the statements given above are regarding some of the concepts in
are found at Ranakpur and Mount Abu in
Rajasthan, important specimen of Rajput correct? Indian Classical Music.
style. (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 1. Swara refers to the notes on the
Which of the statement(s) given above (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these musical scale.
is/are correct? 99. Consider the following statements about 2. Raga refers to the melody in the
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Odishan architecture. music.
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these 1. The temples of Odisha are of the 3. Indian classical music is the same as
Indo-Aryan style, which is distinct from mode in Western music.
96. Consider the following statements about
the South Indian style. Which of the statement(s) given
Indian architect.
2. The temples consist of the main temple above is/are correct?
1. The Qutub Minar, built to commemorate
or shrine and the frontal porch. The main (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
the entry of Islam, was essentially a
temple, known as Vimana or Deula, is (c) Only 2 (d) 1 and 3
victory tower, decorated with several
the sanctum enshrining the deity.
calligraphic inscriptions. 104. Which of the following is/are not the
3. The porch or Jagamohana is a
2. Well decorated Alai Darwaza, which characteristics of the Kashmir style
congregation place for the devotees.
served as an entrance gateway to the of architecture?
mosque at the Qutub complex, marks Which of the statements given above are
1. It primarily uses granite as building
the evolution of another innovative correct? material.
feature in the Indo-lslamic architecture, (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3 2. The Mughals tried introduce wood
built by Qutub-ud-din Aibak. (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these based architecture in Kashmir.
3. One of the salient feature of Indo-lslamic 3. It has pyramidal roofs.
100. Consider the following statements about
style of architecture is arched gateways
Temple architecture. Select the correct answer using the
made beautiful with geometric,

ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

arabesque designs and calligraphic 1. Nagara has a curvilinear tower while codes given below.
inscriptions. Dravidian has its pyramidal. (a) 1 and 2
Which of the statements given above are 2. Pillars play an important part in the (b) Only 2
correct? Nagara style and not so important role in (c) Only 3
the Dravidian style. (d) 2 and 3
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 3
3. Nagara temples do not have enclosures
(c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these 105. Consider the following statements
while Dravidian temples do have.
97. Consider the following statements about regarding the structure of the
Which of the statement(s) given above
Rajasthani architecture. Mauryan pillars.
is/are correct? 1. The shaft of the pillar is cylindrical.
1. Rajasthan architecture arouses from (a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
Rajput School of Architecture, a perfect 2. The crowning animal is always a lion
(c) Only 2 (d) Only 3 in different forms.
mixture of Hindu and Mughal structural
pattern. 101. With reference to Buddhism in 3. The pedestal of the crowning animal
ancient India, consider the following is always circular.
2. The artistic builders of Rajput designed
major architectural styles which are statements. Which of the statement(s) given
located in cities like Jaisalmer, Udaipur, 1. According to Buddhism, the world is above is/are correct?
Jaipur and Jodhpur. transient and soulless. (a) Only 1
3. The Rajasthan architecture significantly 2. Buddhists does not believe in the (b) 1 and 2
depends upon Rajput architecture concept of moksha but preached to (c) Only 3
school which was mixture of Deccan and attain nirvana (d) None of the above
Hindu structural design.
 1-350 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

106. With regard to the dance form of Indian
known as Sattriya, consider the
following statements.
1. It is a classical dance form.
2. This dance form is associated with the
Shaivite tradition.
3. It was introduced by the saint
Sankaradeva.
Which of the statements given above are
correct?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these
107. How is the Mughal style of painting
different from the Rajput style of
painting?
1. Mughal painting was secular while
Rajput painting was religious.
2. Mughal painting depicted nature while
Rajput painting showed royal pomp
and show.
3. Rajput paintings depicted the theme of
love while Mughal paintings avoided it.
Select the correct answer using the codes
given below.
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 3
(c) Only 3 (d) All of these
108. With regard to the Tanjore style of
painting in India, examine the
following statements.
1. The paintings of Shiva and Parvati in
different poses are the most popular
themes of this style of painting.
2. The paintings are decorated by
semi-precious stones, pearls and glass
pieces.
3. The relief work on these paintings gives 111. Consider the following statements
them a three-dimensional effect. regarding the Manipuri dance
Which of the statement(s) given above 1. Unlike the classical dances, Manipuri
is/are correct? does not emphasise on the sensuous at
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 all.
(c) 1 and 2 (d) 2 and 3 2. Rabindranath Tagore played an important
role in popularising the dance.
109. With reference to Jatra, a performing
3. The dancers wear ankle bells during the
art form, consider the following
performance.
statements.
1. It is an art form popular in Gujarat Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
2. It is performed in religious ceremonies
(a) 1 and 2
in honour of gods
3. Earlier form of Jatra has been musical (b) Only 2
but dialogues were added at a later (c) 2 and 3
stage (d) All of the above
Which of the statement(s) given above 112. Which of the following statements
is/are correct? regarding the Mughal architecture
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 under various Mughal emperors is/are
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Both 2 and 3 correct?
110. Identify the classical dance form using 1. The architecture under Shah Jahan
was inferior in grandeur as compared
its characteristics that have been
to Akbar’s period.
mentioned below.
2. The least number of buildings were
1. It has the tribhanga posture.
built during Aurangzeb’s period.
2. Kiran Sehgal was its popular dancer.
3. Akbar borrowed architectural elements
3. It used to be danced by young boys from the Rajputs.
known as Gotipuas in temples.
4. It was Babur who brought Sinan from
4. Indrani Rehman brought the dance to Persia to construct buildings in India.
prominence.
Select the correct answer using the codes
Which of the following option is correct? given below.
(a) Kathakali (a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) Odissi (b) 2 and 4
(c) Mohiniattam (c) 3 and 4
(d) Kathak
(d) 1, 3 and 4

Answers
1. (c) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (c) 5. (d) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (c)
11. (a) 12. (c) 13. (a) 14. (d) 15. (a) 16. (a) 17. (c) 18. (b) 19. (c) 20. (c)
ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

21. (b) 22. (d) 23. (a) 24. (a) 25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (a) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (b) 32. (a) 33. (c) 34. (b) 35. (b) 36. (b) 37. (a) 38. (c) 39. (c) 40. (d)
41. (d) 42. (a) 43. (d) 44. (c) 45. (c) 46. (c) 47. (b) 48. (a) 49. (b) 50. (c)
51. (c) 52. (b) 53. (b) 54. (a) 55. (b) 56. (b) 57. (b) 58. (c) 59. (b) 60. (c)
61. (c) 62. (c) 63. (d) 64. (a) 65. (b) 66. (b) 67. (c) 68. (c) 69. (a) 70. (c)
71. (c) 72. (d) 73. (c) 74. (c) 75. (d) 76. (c) 77. (c) 78. (d) 79. (b) 80. (c)
81. (c) 82. (c) 83. (b) 84. (d) 85. (b) 86. (d) 87. (c) 88. (a) 89. (d) 90. (d)
91. (b) 92. (b) 93. (a) 94. (d) 95. (c) 96. (a) 97. (c) 98. (d) 99. (d) 100. (b)
101. (c) 102. (b) 103. (b) 104. (a) 105. (d) 106. (c) 107. (b) 108. (d) 109. (d) 110. (b)
111. (a) 112. (d)
ART AND CULTURE 1-351

SET 2 UPSC QUESTIONS (2017-2006)

2017 Select the correct answer using the (b) It is an ancient style bronze and
codes given below. brasswork still found in Southern part
1. The painting of Bodhisattva Padmapani (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 of Coromandel area
is one of the most famous and oft- (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 (c) It is an ancient form of dance drama
illustrated paintings at and a living tradition in the Northern
7. Consider the following pairs.
(a) Ajanta (b) Badami part of Malabar
Place of
(c) Bagh (d) Ellora Location (d) It is an ancient martial art and a living
Pilgrimage
tradition in some parts of South India
2. Consider the following pairs. 1. Srisailam Nallamala Hills
2. Omkareshwar Satmala Hills 12. Consider the following pairs.
Traditions Communities
3. Pushkar Mahadeo Hills 1. Garba : Gujarat
1. Chaliha Sahib Sindhis
Festival 2. Mohiniattam : Odisha
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly
2. Nanda Raj Jaat Gonds matched? 3. Yakshagana : Karnataka
Yatra (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 Which of the pair (s) given above is/are
3. Wari-Warkari Santhals correctly matched?
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
Which of the pairs given above is/are (a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
8. With reference to the art and
correctly matched? archaeological history of India, which (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 one among the following was made 13. With reference to Buddhist history,
(c) 1 and 3 (d) None of these earliest? tradition and culture in India, consider
3. Which of the following is/are famous (a) Lingaraja Temple at Bhubaneswar of the following pairs.
for Sun temples? (b) Rock-cut Elephant at Dhauli Famous Shrine Location
1. Arasavalli 2. Amarakantak (c) Rock-cut Monuments at 1. Tabo monastery and : Spiti valley
3. Omkareshwar Mahabalipuram temple complex
Select the correct answer using the code (d) Varaha Image at Udayagiri 2. Lhotsava Lhakhang : Zanskar
given below. temple, Nako valley
9. In a particular region in India, the local
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 3. Alchi temple complex : Ladakh
people train the roots of living trees
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 into robust bridges across the streams. Which of the pair(s) given above is/are
As the time passes, these bridges correctly matched?
become stronger. These unique ‘living
2016 root bridges’ are found in
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
(a) Meghalaya
4. With reference to the cultural history 14. With reference to the Indian history of
of India, the memorising of chronicles, (b) Himachal Pradesh
art and culture, consider the following
dynastic histories and epic tales (c) Jharkhand
pairs.
was the profession of who of the (d) Tamil Nadu
Famous Work
following? Site
of Sculpture
(a) Shramana (b) Parivraajaka 2014 1. A grand image of : Ajanta

ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions

(c) Agrahaarika (d) Magadha Buddha’s
10. With reference to the famous Sattriya Mahaparinirvana with
dance, consider the following numerous celestial
2015 statements. musicians above and the
1. Sattriya is a combination of music, sorrowful figures of his
5. Kalamkari painting refers to followers below
dance and drama.
(a) a hand-painted cotton textile in South 2. A huge image of Varaha : Mount
India 2. It is centuries-old living tradition of
Avatar (boar incarnation) Abu
(b) a handmade drawing on bamboo Vaishnavites of Assam.
of Vishnu, as he rescues
handicrafts in North-East India 3. It is based on classical Ragas and Goddess Earth from the
(c) a block-painted woollen cloth in Talas of devotional songs composed deep and chaotic waters,
Western Himalayan region of India by Tulsidas, Kabir and Mirabai. sculpted on rock
(d) a hand-painted decorative silk cloth in Which of the statement(s) given above 3. ‘Arjuna’s Penance’/ : Mamalla-
North-Western India is/are correct? Descent of Ganga puram
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 sculpted on the surface of
6. Which of the following has/have been huge boulders
accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
status? 11. With reference of India’s culture and Which of the pair(s) given above is/are
1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees tradition, what is ‘Kalaripayattu’? correctly matched?
2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma (a) It is an ancient Bhakti cult of Shaivism (a) 1 and 2 (b) Only 3
still prevalent in some parts of South (c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
3. Tirupathi Laddu
India
 1-352 GSP General Studies (Paper 1)

15. A community of people called Mangan
iyars is well-known for their
(a) martial arts in North-East India
(b) musical tradition in North-West India
(c) classical vocal music in South India
(d) pietra dura tradition in Central India
2013
16. With reference to the history of Indian
rock-cut architecture, consider the
following statements
1. The caves at Badami are the oldest
surviving rock-cut caves in India.
2. The Barabar rock-cut caves were
originally made for Ajivikas by emperor
Chandragupta Maurya.
3. At Ellora, caves were made for different
faiths.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
(c) Only 3 (d) All of these
17. The Chinese traveller Yuan Chwang
(Hiuen Tsang), who visited India
recorded the general conditions and
culture of Indian at that time. In this
context, which of the following
statements is/are correct?
1. The roads and river-routes were
completely immune from robbery.
2. As regards punishment for
offences, ordeals by fire, water and
poison were the instruments for
determining the innocence or guilt of
a person.
3. The tradesmen had to pay duties at
ferries and barrier stations.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
ART AND CULTURE Practice Questions
(b) Chaitya is a place of worship, while
Vihara is the dwelling place of the
monks
(c) Chaitya is the stupa at the far end of the
cave, while Vihara is the hall axial to it
(d) There is no material difference
between the two
19. Consider the following historical places
1. Ajanta Caves
2. Lepakshi Temple
3. Sanchi Stupa
Which of the above place(s) is/are also
known for mural paintings?
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2
(c) All of these
(d) None of these
20. In the context of cultural history of
India, a pose in dance and dramatics
called Tribhanga’ has been a favourite
of Indian artists from ancient times till
today. Which one of the following
statements best describes this pose?
(a) One leg is bent and the body is slightly
but oppositely curved at waist and
neck
(b) Facial expressions, had gestures and
make-up are combined to symbolise
certain epic or historic characters
(c) Movements of body, face and hands
are used to express oneself or to tell a
story
(d) A little smile, slightly curved waist and
certain hand gestures are emphasised
to express the feelings of love or
eroticism
2012
21. With reference to Dhrupad, one of the
major traditions of India that has been
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) None of these
22. How do you distinguish between
Kuchipudi and Bharatanatyam dances?
1. Dancers occasionally speaking
dialogues is found in Kuchipudi dance
but not in Bharatanatyam.
2. Dancing on the brass plate by keeping
the feet on its edges is a feature of
Bharatanatyam but Kuchipudi dance
does not have such a form of
movements.
Which of the statement(s) given above
is/are correct?
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
23. With reference to the scientific
progress of ancient India, which of the
statements given below are correct?
1. Different kinds of specialised surgical
instruments were in common use by
AD 1st century.
2. Transplant of internal organs in the
human body had begun by the
beginning of AD 3rd century.
3. The concept of sine of an angle was
known in AD 5th century.
4. The concept of cyclic quadrilaterals
was known in AD 7th century.
Select the correct answer using the
codes given below.
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 3 and 4
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
24. With reference to the history of ancient
India, which of the following was/were
common to both Buddhism and
Jainism?
1. Avoidance of extremities of penance

(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3 kept alive for centuries, which of the and enjoyment.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these following statements are correct? 2. Indifference to the authority of the
18. Some Buddhist rock-cut caves are 1. Dhrupad originated and developed in Vedas.
called Chaityas, while the others are the Rajput kingdoms during the 3. Denial of efficacy of rituals.
called Viharas. What is the difference Mughal period.
Select the correct answer using the
between the two? 2. Dhrupad is primarily a devotional and
codes given below
(a) Vihara is a place of worship, while spiritual music.
(a) Only 1 (b) 2 and 3
Chaitya is the dwelling place of the 3. Dhrupad Alap uses Sanskrit syllables
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3
monks from Mantras.

Answers
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (a) 6. (c) 7. (a) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (b)
11. (d) 12. (c) 13. (c) 14. (c) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (b) 18. (b) 19. (b) 20. (a)
21. (b) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b)