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भाकृ अनुप - भारतीय मक्का अनुसंधान संस्थान

ICAR - Indian Institute of Maize Research
(ISO 9001:2015 certified)
Nurturing Diversity, Resilience, Livelihood & Industrial Inputs

About Maize 
Maize Biology
Employee Corner 

Online Resources  Maize ( Zea mays L.) is the world’s leading cro p a nd i s wi d el y cul tiva ted
as cereal grain that was domestica ted in Centr a l Ameri ca . I t i s one of
Gallery 
the most versatile emerging crop s ha vi ng wi d er a d a p tab i l i ty . Gl ob a l l y ,
Public Grievance Redressal Cell maize is known as queen of cerea l s b eca use of its h i g hest g eneti c y i el d
potential. Maiz e is the only food c erea l c rop tha t ca n b e g rown i n
Women Grievance Redressal Cell/ Internal diverse seasons, ecologies and u ses. B esid e thi s m a i z e ha ve m a ny
Complaint committe(ICC)
types like normal yellow/ wh i te g ra i n, sweet corn, b a b y corn, p op corn,
waxy corn, high amylase cor n, h i g h o i l c orn, qua l i ty prot ei n m a i z e, et c.
RTI
Apart from this, maize is an im p ortant i nd ustri a l r a w m a t eri a l a nd
Vigilance provides large opportunity fo r va l ue a d d i tion.

Useful Links 1. Taxonomy, Origin and Evoluti o n

1. A. Taxonomy

Maize belongs to the tribe May d ea e of th e g ra ss fa m i l y Poaceae . “ Zea ”

was derived from an old Greek na m e for a food g ra ss. The g enus Zea
consists of four species of whi ch Zea mays L. is economica lly important.
The other Zea sp., referred to as teosinte, is largel y wi l d g ra ss na tive to
Mexico and Central America. The num b er of chrom oso m es i n Zea mays
is 2 n = 20. Tribe Maydea e c om p ri ses seven genera whi ch a re
recognized, namely Old and New W orl d g roup s. Ol d W orl d com p ri ses
Coix (2 n = 10/20), Chionachne (2n = 2 0), Sclerachne (2n = 20),
Trilobachne (2 n = 2 0) and Polytoca (2n = 20), and New World grou p ha s
Zea and Tripsacum . It is generally agreed that ma i z e p hy l og eny wa s
largely determined by the Am eri ca n g enera Zea and Tripsacum ,
however it is accepted tha t the g enus Coix contributed to the
phylogenetic development of th e speci es Zea mays .

Kingdom Plantae

Division Magnoliophyta

Class Liliopsida

Order Poales

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Family Poaceae

Genus Zea

Species mays

1. B. Origin and Evolution

How corn evolved and what are i ts p rog eni to r speci es i s s ti l l a
matter of investigation.   Archa eol og i ca l and mol ecul a r data
indicates that modern mai z e wa s dom esti ca ted from a nnua l
teosinte ( Zea mays ssp. parviglumis ) in southern Mexico between
6,600 and 9,000 years ago. Sel ection so on fol l owed : fa voura b l e
alleles at loci controlling plant m orp hol og y a nd kernel nutri t i ona l
quality were fixed at least 4,40 0 yea rs a g o, and fu rth er sel ecti on b y
native Americans facilitated maize a d a p tations to va ri ed
environments.
2. Developmental Stages (Life C y cl e )
Typical corn plants develop 18 to 22 to tal lea ves, si l k ap p ea rs a b out
55 days after emergence, and ma tu re in around 125 da y s a ft er
emergence (Ritchie et al., 1993). The speci fi c tim e i nter va l , however,
can vary among hybrids, env i ronm ents, p l a nting d a te, a nd l oca ti on.
The length of time between each growth stag e, therefore, is
dependent up on these circum sta nces. For exa m p l e, an ea rl y
maturing hybrid may produce fewer lea ves or prog ress throug h t he
different growth stages at a fa ster ra te th a n d esc ri b ed here. I n
contrast, a late- maturity h y b ri d ma y devel op more lea ves a nd
progress through each growth sta g e a t a slower p a ce.

Fig. 2. Different developmental stag es i n p l a nts. (R1- R6= Di fferent

growth stages in seed),

(Ritchie et al., 1993)

The vegetative stages of ma i z e a re i d entifi ed
by the number of collars presen t on th e corn
plant. The leaf collar is t he l i g ht-col ored
collar-like “ba nd” located at th e ba se of an
exposed leaf blade, near the sp ot where the
leaf blade comes in contact wi th th e stem of
the plant. Leaves within the whorl , not ful l y
expanded and with no visibl e lea f c ol l a r are
not included. For example, a p l a nt with 3
collars would be called a V3 p l a nt, however,
there may be 6 leaves showing on th e p l a nt.

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VE – Emergence
Coleoptile reaches the soi l su rfa ce a nd
exposure to sunlight causes elong a tion o f the
coleoptile and mesocotyl to sto p . The
growing point, located j ust ab ove the
mesocotyl, is about 0.75 inches bel ow the soi l
surface. Embryonic leaves ra p i d l y d evel op
and grow through the coleoptil e ti p . Sem i na l
root growth begins to slow and nod a l roots
are initiated at the crown.

V1 – First leaf collar

Lowermost leaf (short with round ed tip ) ha s a
visible leaf collar. Noda l r oots beg i n
elongation.

V3 – Third leaf collar

The growing point remains b el ow th e so i l
surface as little stalk elong a tion has
occurred. Lateral roots begin to g row from
the nod al roots and growth of th e semi na l
root system has ceased. All lea ves a nd ear
shoots that the plant wi l l prod uce are
initiated at this stage. Sinc e th e g rowi ng
point remains below the soil su rfa ce, c ol d soi l
temperatures may increase t he ti m e between
leaf stages, increase the total num b er of
leaves formed, delay tassel fo rm a tion, and
reduce nutrient uptake.

V7 – Seven leaf collar

During the V7 and V8 growth sta g es th e ra p i d
growth phase and kernel row d eter m i na tion
begins. Senescence of lower lea ves may
occur if plant is stressed, but m ust sti l l b e
counted when staging plants .

V10 – Ten leaf collar

At the V9 and V10 growth stag es th e stal k is
in a rapid growth phase accum ul a ting dry
matter as well as nutrients. Th e tassel ha s
begun growing rapidly as th e sta l k continues
to elongate. Many ear shoots a re ea sil y
visible when the stalk is dissected.

VT – Tasseling
Initiation of the VT stage begi ns when th e l a st
branch of the tassel is visible a nd sil ks ha ve
not emerged. This stage b eg i ns a b out 2- 3
days before silk emergenc e. The p l a nt is
almost at its full height and pol l en shed
(anthesis) begins. Pollen sh ed typ i ca l l y
occurs in the morning or eveni ng .

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R1 – Silking
This stage begins when any si l k is vi sib l e
outside the husk. Falling pol l en gra i ns a re
captured by the silk and gro w d own th e sil k
over a 24-hour period ultima tely fertil i z i ng
the ovule. The ovule becom es a k ernel . I t
takes upwards of three days fo r al l si l ks on a
single ear to be exposed an d p ol l i na ted. Th e
number of fertilized ovules is deter m i ned a t
this sta ge. If an ovule is not fer til i z ed , it wi l l
not produce a kernel an d it eventu a l l y
degenerates.

R6 – Physiological Maturity
Occurring approximately 45- 50 days a fter
silking, all kernels on the ear h a ve atta i ned
maximum dry weight. A blac k or b rown l a y er
has formed where the kernel a tta ches to th e
cob, indicating physiologic a l m a tu ri ty ha s
been a ttained. The stalk of th e p l a nt ma y
remain green, but leaf and husk tissue ha s
lost its green color at this stag e. Ker nel
moisture content ranges from 30 - 35% at th i s
stage, with much variation a m ong hy b ri d s
and environmental conditions.

3. Botanical features

Maize is a tall, determinate, a nnua l C4 pl a nt v a ry i ng i n hei g ht from < 1 t o

>4 meters producing large, n a rrow, op p osing l ea ves, b orne a l t erna t el y
along the length of a solid stem. The b otani ca l fea tu res of va ri ous p l a nt
parts are as follows:

Root: Normally maize plants have three typ es o f roots, (i ) semi na l roots
– which develop from rad i ca l a nd p ersist for l ong p eri od ; (i i )
adventitious roots, fibrous roots d evel op i ng from th e l ower nod es of
stem below ground level whi ch a re th e effective a nd a ct i ve roots of
plant; and (iii) brace or prop roots, p rod uced b y l ower t wo nod es . The
roots g row very rapidly and al m ost equa l l y o utward s a nd d ownwa rd s.
Suitable soils may allow corn root growth up to 60 cm l a tera l l y a nd i n
depth.

Stem: The stem generally attain s a thi ckness of three to four

centimeters. The internodes are short a nd fai rl y thi ck at t he b a s e of the
plant; become longer and thi cker h i g her u p the stem, and then ta p er
again. The ear bearing internod e i s l ong i tu d i na l l y g rooved , to a l l ow
proper positioning of the ear h ea d (c ob ). The u p p er lea ves i n corn a re
more responsible for light intercep tion a nd a re m a jor contri b ut ors of
photosynthate to grain.

Flower: The apex of the stem ends in th e tassel , a n i nfl oresc ence of
male flowers and the female i nfl oresc ences (cob s or ears ) a re b orne a t
the apex of condensed, latera l b ra nches k nown a s sha nks p rot rud i ng
from leaf axils. The male (stam i na te) i nfl oresc ence, a l oos e p a ni cl e,
produces pairs of free spikelets each encl osed b y a fertil e a nd a steri l e
floret. The female (pistillate) infl oresc ence, a sp i ke, prod uces p a i rs of
spikelets on the surface of a hi g hl y c ond ensed r a chi s (centra l a xi s , or
“cob”). The female flower is ti g htly covered over b y severa l l a y ers of
leaves, and so closed in by th em to th e stem th a t th ey d on’t show
themselves easily until emergence of th e p a l e- y el l ow sil ks from the l ea f
whorl at the end of the ear. The sil ks are th e el ong a ted sti g m a s t ha t
look like tufts of hair initially and la ter turn green o r purp l e i n col or.

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Each of the female spikelets en cl oses two fer til e florets, one of whos e
ovaries will mature into a maiz e kernel once sexu a l l y ferti l i z ed b y wi nd -
blown pollen.

Floral Biology
Maize is a monoecious plan t, th a t is, th e sexes a re p a rti t i oned i nto
separate pistillate (ear), the fem a l e fl ower a nd sta m i na t e (ta ssel ), t he
male flower. The main shoot term i na tes in a stam i na te t a ssel . Ma i z e i s
generally prota ndrous, that i s, th e m a l e fl ower m a tu res e a rl i er t ha n the
female flower. Within each ma l e flower sp i kel et, there are us ua l l y two
functional florets, although devel op m ent o f th e l ower fl oret m a y b e
delayed slightly in comparis on to th e up p er fl oret. E a ch fl oret conta i ns
a pair of thin scales i.e. lemma a nd p a l ea , th ree a nth ers , two l od i cul es
and rudimentary pistil. Pollen g ra i ns p er a nth er ha ve b een rep ort ed t o
range from 2000 to 7500. With i n a n a vera g e of 7 000 a nthers p er t a ssel
and around 3500 pollen gra i ns per a nth er, ea ch tassel coul d p rod uce
around 2.45 crores of pollen g ra i ns. I n ter m s o f th e ra tio of p ol l en g ra i ns
produced per ovules fertilized, i t ap p ea rs tha t si nce ea ch ea r req ui res
about 1000 pollen grains for fertil i z a tion, th ere a re a b out 20,000 p ol l en
grains per kernel in excess of wha t is actu a l l y need ed i f p ol l i na t i on were
100 percent efficient. The pol l en g ra i ns are very sma l l , b a rel y vi s i b l e to
the naked eye, light in weight, a nd ea sil y ca rri ed b y wi nd . The wi nd -
borne nature of the pollen and p rotand ry l ea d to cross- p ol l i na ti on.

The female flower initially sma l l but p rotu b era nces so on i nto form of
rows. The basal protuberances a re form ed fi rst a nd d evel op m ent
advances towards the tip of the ea rs. The p a rt ab ove th e a t ta chm ent of
the carpel develops a single sessi l e ovul e, whi ch consists of a nucel l us
with two integuments or rud i m entary seed coa ts. Th e uni t ed ca rp el ’s ,
which will form the ovary w a l l or p eri ca rp of th e m a tu re kernel , g row
upward until they completely encl ose th e o vul e. The two ant eri or ca rp el ,
which face the ear tip, form outgrowth s, whi ch d evel op i nto t he sty l e i.e.
into long thread, known as sil ks. Sil ks a re c overed with n um erous ha i rs ,
trichomes which form an ang l e with the si l k wh ere pol l en g ra i ns a re
harbored. The base of the sil k i s u ni q ue, a s it elong a tes conti nuous l y
until fertilization occurs. The c ob s b ea r ma ny r ows of o vul es tha t a re
always even in number. The fema l e infl oresc ence o r ear d evel op s from
one or more lateral branches (sh a nks) u su a l l y b orne a b out ha l f- wa y up
the main stalk from auxiliar y sh oot bud s. As the i nte rnod es of t he
shanks are condensed, the ea r rem a i ns perm a nently encl os ed i n a
mantle of many husk leaves. Thus, th e p l a nt is u na b l e t o d i sp ers e i t s
seeds in the manner of a wild pl a nt a nd instea d it d ep end s up on hum a n
intervention for seed shelling a nd p rop a g a tion.

Grain: The        individual            maize   g ra i n    is b otani ca l l y a c a ry op si s , a

dry fruit containing a single seed fu sed to the inner ti ssues of t he frui t
case. The seed contains two si ster str uctu res, a germ w hi ch i ncl ud es
the plum ule and    radical    from     whi ch    a     new    p l a nt wi l l d evel op ,
and an endosperm which w i l l p rovi d e nutr i ents for th a t g erm i na t i ng
seedling until the seedling    esta b l i sh es    su ffi ci ent    l ea f    a rea   to
become autotrophy. The ger m is th e source o f ma i z e “ veg et a b l e oi l ”
(total oil content of maize gra i n i s 4% b y wei g ht). The end osp erm
occupies about two thirds of a m a i z e kernel ’s v ol um e a nd a ccount s for
approximately 86% of its dry wei g ht. Th e en d osperm o f m a i z e kernel s
can be yellow or white. The pri m a ry c om p onent of en d osp erm i s sta rch,
together with 10% bound protei n (g l uten ).

Mating Systems

Pollination occurs when these new m oi st sil ks c a tc h th e fa l l i ng p ol l en

grains. In maize, the pollen sh ed is not a c ontinuous p roces s a nd
usually begins two to three da y s pri or to sil k em erg ence a nd conti nues
for five to eight days. The silk s are covered wi th fi ne, sti cky ha i rs whi ch
serve to catch and anchor the p ol l en g ra i ns. Pol l en sh ed s top s when the

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tassel is too wet or too dry and beg i ns a g a i n wh en tem p era t ure
conditions are favorable. U nd er favora b l e c ond i tions , p ol l en g ra i n
remains viable for only 10 to 18 h ours. Co ol temp era tures a nd hi g h
humidity favor pollen longevity. Und er op tim a l cond i tions the i nterva l
between anthesis and silking is one to two da y s. About 9 5% of t he
ovules are cross-pollinated a nd a b out 5 % a re self- p ol l i na t ed (Sl ep er &
Poehlman 2006), although pl a nts a re com p l etely self- com p a t i b l e.

4. Type of corn

Corn va riation may be artifici a l l y d efi ned a ccord i ng to kernel ty p e l i kes:

dent, flint, flour, sweet, pop an d pod c orn etc . Except for pod corn, these
divisions are based on the qu a l i ty, q ua ntity a nd p a ttern of end osp erm
composition in the kernel and a re not ind i ca tive of na tu ra l rel a ti ons hi p s
(Brown and Darrah, 1985).

Dent Corn
Dent corn is characterized by th e p resen ce of corneous, horny
endosperm at the sides and b a ck o f the k ernel s, wh i l e the cent ra l core
is a soft, floury endosperm extend i ng to the c rown o f the end os p erm . I t
collapses to produce a distinct i nd entation o n dry i ng . Deg ree of d ent i ng
varies with its genetic backg round . Dent corn is used p ri m a ri l y a s
animal food, but also serves a s a ra w m a ter i a l for i nd ustry a nd a s
staple food. It is still an important hum a n fo od and ind ustri a l m a teri a l ,
entering into many specializ ed prod ucts v i a the dry - or wet - m i l l i ng
industry. However, white den t o ften recei ves a p rem i um p ri ce i n the d ry
milling industry, where it u til i z ed fo r c ertai n h um a n food p rod uct s
because of its whiter starch.

Flint Corn
The flint corns mostly have a thi ck, h a rd , v i tr eous (g l a ssy ) or corneous
endosperm layer surrounded by sma l l , so ft gra nul a r center. The rel a t i ve
amounts of soft and corneo us sta rch, h owever, v a ry in d i fferent
varieties. Generally, the kernel s a re sm ooth and r ound ed , a nd t he ea rs
are long and slender with a c om p a ra tivel y sma l l num b er of rows or
kernels. In temperate zones, fl i nt c orn often m a tu res earl i er, g erm i na t es
better has more spring vigo r, more ti l l ers a nd fewer prop roots t ha n
dent strains.

Flour Corn
This is one of the oldest typ es o f corn, tr a ci ng b a ck to t he a nci ent
Aztecs a nd Incas. American an d I nd i a ns u sed to g round the soft kernel s
for flour. Floury maize typ es ha ve soft sta rch throug hout , wi t h
practically no hard, vitreous end osperm a nd th us are op a q ue i n kernel
phenotype. Kernels tend to sh ri nk u ni form l y u p on dry i ng , s o usua l l y
have little or no denting. Wh en dry , they are easy to gri nd , b ut m a y
mold on the mature ear in we t a rea s.

Sweet Corn
In sweet corn, the sugary gene prevents or r etard s t he norm a l
conversion of sugar into starch d uri ng end osperm d evel op m ent, a nd
the kernel accumulates a wa ter - so l ub l e p ol y saccha ri d e ca l l ed
“phytoglycogen.” As a result, th e d ry , su g a ry kernel s a re wri nkl ed a nd
glassy. The higher content of wa ter - so l ub l e p ol y saccha ri d e a d d s a
texture quality factor in addition to sweetness.

Popcorn
Popcorns are perhaps the most p ri m i tive of th e su rvi vi ng ra ces of
maize. This corn type is cha ra cter i z ed by a v ery h a rd , corneous
endosperm containing only a sm a l l p ortion of so ft starch. Pop corns a re
essentially small-kernelled fl i nt typ es. The kernel s may be ei t her
pointed (rice-like) or round (p ea rl - l i ke). So m e of th e m ore recentl y

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developed popcorns have t hi ck p eri ca rp s (seed coa ts), whi l e som e

primitive semi-popcorns, such a s th e Arg entine p op corns , ha ve thi n
pericarps.

Pod Corn
Pod corn (tunicate maize) is more of a n orna m ental typ e. The m a jor
gene involved ( Tu ) produces long glumes encl osing ea ch kernel
individually, which also occu rs in m a ny oth er g ra sses. The ea r i s a l s o
enclosed in husks, as with oth er ty p es of c orn. H om oz y g ous p od corn
usually is highly self-sterile. and th e ord i na ry typ e of p od corn i s
heterozygous. Pod corn may b e d ent, sweet, wa xy , p op , fl i nt or fl oury i n
endosperm characteristics. It i s m erel y a c uri osity and i s not g rown
commercially.

Waxy corn
Waxy corn name derives from th e wa xy a p p ea ra nce of the end os p erm
exposed in a cleanly cut c ross- sec tion. Co m m on c orn s ta rch is
approximately 73 percent am y l op ectin a nd 27 p ercent a m y l os e,
whereas waxy starch is comp osed entirel y wi th a m y l op ecti n, whi ch i s
the branched molecular form of sta rch. Ord i na ry corn sta rch s ta i ns b l ue
with 2 percent potassium iod i d e so l ution, wherea s wa xy corns ta rch
stains a reddish brown. The wa xy gene al so expresses i tsel f i n the p ol l en
with this staining reaction, wh i ch is a n ai d in breed i ng . Prod uct s m a d e
from waxy corn are used by the fo od ind ustry as sta b i l i z ers a nd
thickeners for puddings pie fi l l i ng s, sauces, g ra vi es, ret orted food s,
salad dressings, etc. Other waxy p rod ucts a re used a s rem oi s teni ng
adhesives in the manufacture o f gum m ed ta p e, in ad hesi ves a nd i n t he
paper industry. Waxy grain is al so grown as a feed fo r da i ry ca ttl e a nd
livestock.

High-amylose corn
Amylo-maize is the generic n a m e fo r c orn tha t ha s a n am y l ose cont ent
higher than 50 percent. The end osperm m utant am y l ose extend er ( ae )
was first observed by R. P. Bea r in 1950, wh i ch increa ses the a m y l ose
content of the endosperm to ab out 60 percent in m a ny d ent
backgrounds. Modifying factors a l ter the am y l a se conte nts a s wel l a s
desirable agronomic character i sti cs of the gra i n. The am y l os e- ext end er
gene expression is chara cter i z ed by a ta rni sh ed , tra nsl ucent,
sometimes semifull kernel a p p ea ra nce. Th e sta rch from hi g h- a m y l ose
corn is used in the textile industry , i n g um ca nd i es (wh ere i ts t end ency
to form a gel aids production ), a nd a s an a d hesive i n th e m a nufa cture
of corrugated cardboard.

References

Brown, W.L. and Darrah, L.L. 1 9 85 . O ri g i n, Ad a p tation, a nd Ty p es of C orn.

National Corn Handbook-10 , pp.1-6.

Ritchie, S.W., Hanway, J.J. an d B enso n, G.O . 199 3. H ow a C orn Pl a nt

Develops. Special Report No. 48. I owa State Uni versity of Sci ence a nd
Technology Cooperative Exten sion Servi ce Am es, I owa .

Sleper, D.A. and Poehlman, J.M . (eds.). 20 06. B reed i ng Corn (Ma i z e); I n
Breeding Field Crops. Blac kwel l Pub l i sh i ng Professi ona l 2121 Sta te
Avenue, Ames, Iowa, pp. 277- 29 6.

भाकृ अनुप - भारतीय मक्का अनुसंधान संस्थान

ICAR - Indian Institute Of Maize Research
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