UPGRADING OF NZERA TO NKOME FROM GRAVEL ROAD

TO BITUMINOUS STANDARD AT GEITA DISTRICT IN GEITA

REGION

ORDINARY DIPLOMA IN CIVIL ENGINEERING WITH

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

HERIETH J MAHIMBO

JULY 2023
MINISTRY OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT, GENDER, WOMEN
AND SPECIAL GROUPS
i
 MISUNGWI COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT TECHNICAL TRAINING
INSTITUTE

Upgrading of Nzera to Nkome Road from Gravel Road to Bituminous Standard at Geita
District in Geita Region

HERIETH J MAHIMBO

NS4648/0005/2019

A Project Report Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Ordinary Diploma
in Civil Engineering with Community Development of the Misungwi Community Development
Technical Training Institute.

2022/2023

ii
 DECLARATION
I, Herieth J Mahimbo declare that, this project report is my own original work and that it never

been previously presented and will not be presented to any other Institute for a similar or any

other diploma award or other qualifications except for proper referencing made in the text.

Signature……………………………. Date………………….………

iii
 COPYRIGHT
All Right Reserved. No part of this project report may be reproduced or distributed in any form
or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieved system without a prior written consent of
the Misungwi Community Development Technical Training Institute

@Copyright, 2023

iv
 CERTIFICATION

The undersigned certify that Herieth J Mahimbo has read and hereby recommends for the
acceptance by Misungwi Community Development Technical Training Institute, a project report
entitled “Upgrading of Nzera to Nkome Road from Gravel Road to Bituminous Standard at Geita
District in Geita Region” in partial fulfillment of requirements for award of the Ordinary Diploma
in Civil Engineering with Community Development of Misungwi Community Development
Technical Training Institute.

………………………………………

Eng Idrisa Rajab

Supervisor,

Date……………….……………

v
 DEDICATION

I would like to dedicate this project to my brother FREDY MAHIMBO and Eng Rich for giving
me support in my studies and preparation of this project.

vi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This design paper writing has been drafted by HERIETH J MAHIMBO based on previous texts
books like Pavement and design manual-1999, Highway engineering by Justo and Central
material laboratory manual-2000.

I, here by giving out special appreciation to Almighty God for unlimited control of health which
probably become a havoc to accomplish this design paper writing. Nevertheless, I particularly
grateful to INTERNAL SUPERVISOR Eng. IDRISA RAJAB and other staff members for their
adherent consultation for intensive guidance to fulfill the requirement of this design paper
writing.

Also, special appreciations to all cooperative friends particularly JOHN MANYAMA and other
who have read the manuscript and their comments and suggestions which have been greatest
value to my work. Also special thanks to my GOD

Finally, I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Almighty God again for giving me health and
peace of mind as well as enabling me to withstand obstacle and challenges that could led to
failure in accomplishing design report writing.

vii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................... iii

COPYRIGHT ................................................................................................................................. iv

CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ vii

LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... xii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ...................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1

1.0 Introduction. .............................................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Historical Background ......................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.0 Objectives of the Project ........................................................................................................ 2

1.3.1 Main Objective....................................................................................................................... 2

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................................ 2

1.4 Scope of the Project .................................................................................................................. 2

1.5 Significance of the Project ................................................................................................... 2

1.6 Definition of the Key Terms ..................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 4

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 4

2.1 Types of Road ........................................................................................................................... 4

viii
2.1.1 Unpaved Road ........................................................................................................................ 4

2.1.1.1Paved Road .......................................................................................................................... 5

2.1.1.2 Pavement ............................................................................................................................. 5

2.1.2Types of Pavement Road ........................................................................................................ 5

2.1.3 Flexible Pavement .................................................................................................................. 6

2.2 Rigid Pavement ......................................................................................................................... 7

2.2.1 Objectives of Flexible Pavement Design ............................................................................... 8

2.2.2 Components of Road Pavement ............................................................................................. 9

2.3 Design Criteria for Pavement.................................................................................................. 10

2.3.2 Pavement Design Methods .................................................................................................. 14

2.4.0 Design Factors for Paved Road............................................................................................ 14

2.4.1 Road Traffic ......................................................................................................................... 15

2.4.2 Design Period ....................................................................................................................... 16

2.5.1 Materials Factors .................................................................................................................. 22

2.6 Design Process ........................................................................................................................ 23

2.6.1 Bituminous Material a Surfaces Course Material ................................................................ 23

CHAPTER THEREE .................................................................................................................... 29

METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................... 29

3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 29

3.1 Sampling .......................................................................................................................... 29

3.2 Laboratory Material Test ................................................................................................. 29
3.2.1 CBR Test ...................................................................................................................... 29
3.2.2 Compaction Test ........................................................................................................... 32
3.2.3Atterberg Limit Test ...................................................................................................... 33
3.2.4 Sieve Analysis (Particle Size Distribution) .................................................................. 36
3.3 Manual Traffic Count Method ......................................................................................... 39

ix
 3.3.1 Procedures of Conducting Traffic Counting. ............................................................... 39
3.4 Data Analysis and Design Method .................................................................................. 40
CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 41

DATA ANALYSIS AND DESIGN ............................................................................................. 41

4.1 Laboratory Soil Test Data ....................................................................................................... 41

4.1.1 CBR Test (California Bearing Ratio) ........................................................................... 41

4.1.2 Proctor Test................................................................................................................... 41
4.1.3 Atterberg Limit Test ..................................................................................................... 41
4.1.4 Particle Size Distribution .............................................................................................. 42
4.2 Traffic Counting .............................................................................................................. 42
4.3Designing ................................................................................................................................. 48

CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 52

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................................................ 52

5.0 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 52

5.1 Recommendation .................................................................................................................... 52

References ..................................................................................................................................... 53

x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Types of Pavements ................................................ 8
Table 2.2 Different Between Flexible Pavement and Rigid Pavement .......................................... 8
Table 2.3 Heavy Vehicle Categories ............................................................................................ 15
Table: 2.4 Design Period............................................................................................................... 17
Table 2.5 Traffic Load Distribution between Lanes ..................................................................... 20
Table 2.6 Traffic Load Classes ..................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2.7 Subgrade Strength Classes .......................................................................................... 21
Table 2.8 Minimum Materials Testing Frequency ....................................................................... 23
Table 2.9 Categories of Pavement Material .................................................................................. 24
Table 2.1.0 the classes of pavement material falling into this category are shown in table below.
(Ngumbulu, 1999) ......................................................................................................................... 24
Table 2.1.1 Cemented Materials ................................................................................................... 25
Table 2.1.2 Classes of Bituminous Base Course Materials are Shown in the Table Below. ........ 26

xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2. 1. Different between flexible pavement and rigid pavement (Justo, Khana, 2001) ........ 5
Figure 2.2. Flexible pavement load distribution (Justo, Khana, 2001) ........................................... 7

xii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CML- Central Laboratory Materials

CBR- California Bearing Ratio

TLC- Traffic Load Class

MGV- Medium Good Vehicle

HGV- Heavy Good Vehicle

VHGV- Very Heavy Good Vehicle

MOW- Ministry of Works

xiii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Introduction.
This chapter it complies of different parts which are historical background of the project,
problem statement, objectives, methodology, scope of the project, significance of the project and
definition of key terms.

1.1 Historical Background

The first road builders of any significance were the Romans, who saw the ability to move
quickly as essential for both military and civil reasons. The earliest examples of Roman road
building date back to 312 B.C. It is from the Romans that the term highway comes, as all their
roads were elevated 1m above the local level of the land. This was to minimize the risk of an
ambush. The design standard set by the romans in terms of durability far exceeded anything
achieved after the fall of the empire until the modern times. Romans also classified their roads in
terms of importance. The public roads were of the highest order of importance, were up to 40
feet wide. The least important were private roads which were built and maintained by the
landowner.

The Roman approach to road design is essentially the same as that in current use in the fact that
the roads were constructed of several different layers, increasing in strength from the bottom to
the top. The lowest layer was normally rubble, intermediate layers were made of lime bound
concrete and the upper layer was a slag or lime grouted stone slabs. The thickness of the layers
was varied according to the local ground conditions. There was surprisingly tittle innovation in
the field of pavement design from the Roman times until the mid-1950’s AASHO Road Test
(Jordan, Jones, 2005)

1
1.2 Problem Statement
Due to increase of settlement and social services such as hospitals, schools, fishing and mining
activities so a good road is needed because it will be used frequently after construction finished
and also due to increase number of traffic currently road surface worn out easily and cause road
defects such as potholes, corrugation also during rainy season, the road become much difficult
for traffic and pedestrian to move due to presence of mud which can cause staking of vehicles
and cause traffic jam in road

1.3.0 Objectives of the Project

1.3.1 Main Objective

To upgrade Nzera to Nkome gravel road to bituminous standard at Geita District in Geita region

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

I. To perform the traffic loading of that area
II. To determine sub grade strength
III. To design road pavement layers
IV. To prepare layout drawings of pavement layers

1.4 Scope of the Project

Scope of the project is to upgrade Nzera to Nkome gravel road to bituminous standard at Geita
District in Geita Region for distance coverage 1KM considering of time and cost. The project
started at October 2022 and will be end at July 2023

1.5 Significance of the Project

At the end of this project following results will occur which is, It will increase life span of
existing road, it will lead to decrease of destruction of vehicles due to the smoothness of road and
allow freedom of movement of the people and due to that it will contribute economic
development, industrial development, social and cultural development.

2
1.6 Definition of the Key Terms
1. Road refers to the way or path which allows the movement of people, vehicles and animals
from one place to another. Road can be grouped as earth paved and unpaved road. Paved road is
the road with hard smooth surface of bitumen or tar. Also, unpaved road are those road which
constructed by using natural gravel (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2. Gravel Are the material that are transported from the borrow pit for the aim of construct sub
grade. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

3. Upgrading refers to the process of raising (something) to a higher standard in particular

improve by adding or replacing component. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

4. Bituminous Are the material produced through the crude oil that water proofing and adhesive
properties. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

3
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction
This chapter describes the different reviews of the likely project written by different author from
various sources, in which the following will be discussed road in generally like pavement layers,
soil sampling and finally soil test. A road is a thoroughfare, route or way on land between two
places that has been paved or otherwise improved to allow travel by foot or some form of
conveyance, including motor vehicle, cart, bicycle or horse.

The definition of road depends on the definition of highway; there is no formal definition for
highway in the relevant Act 1984 ruling said “the land over which a public right of way exists is
known as a highway; and although most highway have been made up into roads, and most
easement of way exist over footpaths, the presence or absence of a made road has nothing to do
with distinction. Another legal view is that while a highway historically included footpaths,
bridleway, drift ways etc. It can now be used to mean those ways that allow the movement of
motor vehicles, and the term right of way can be used to cover the wide usage (Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.1 Types of Road

There two types of road these are;

I. Unpaved roads
II. Paved roads (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2.1.1 Unpaved Road

This is the types of road depending in their carriage ways do not provided with hard pavement.

There two types of unpaved road

 Earth road
 Gravel road

Earth road: Is a type of road whose whole pavement section is constructed with the locally
available earth material preferably. Borrow pits are located at near site preferably outside the
land width where the requirement earth is available. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

4
Gravel road; is a type of unpaved road surfaced with gravel that has been brought to the site
from a quarry or stream bed. They are common in less developed nations, and also in the rural
areas of developed nations. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2.1.1.1Paved Road
This is the type of road which is properly designed and engineered having different composition
of layers to support the upcoming loading (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2.1.1.2 Pavement
Is the structure built up on existing ground to facilitate rapid, safe and comfortable traffic
movement. Pavement design is the major component in the road construction. Nearly one-third
or one-half of the total cost of construction, so careful consideration should be taken in design of
pavement. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2.1.2Types of Pavement Road

The following are the two main types of pavements:

o Flexible pavement design

o Rigid pavement (Justo, Khana, 2001)

Figure 2. 1. Different between flexible pavement and rigid pavement (Justo, Khana, 2001)

5
2.1.3 Flexible Pavement
Flexible pavements are those pavements which reflect the deformation of sub grade and the
subsequent layers to the surface. Flexible, usually asphalt, is laid with no reinforcement or with a
specialized fabric reinforcement that permits limited flow or repositioning of the roadbed
underground changes. It consisting of a mixture of asphalt or bituminous material and aggregate
placed on a bed of compacted granular material of appropriate quality in layer over the sub
grade. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

The design of flexible pavement is based on load distributing characteristic of the component
layers. The black top pavement including water & gravel bound macadam fall in this category.

Flexible pavement on the whole has low or negligible flexible strength in their structural action.
The flexible pavement layers transmit the vertical or compressive stresses to the lower layers by
grain transfer through contact point’s maximum of granular structure.

The vertical compressive stress is on the pavement surface directly under the wheel load and is
equal to contact pressure under the wheels. Due to the ability to distribute the stress to large area
in the shape of truncated cone the stresses get decreased in the lower layer.

As such the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has to
be strongest as the highest compressive stresses.

To be sustained by this layer, in addition to wear and tear, the lower layer have to take up only
lesser magnitude of stress as there is no direct wearing action due to traffic loads. Therefore,

6
inferior material with lower cast can be used in the lower layers.

Figure 2.2. Flexible pavement load distribution (Justo, Khana, 2001)

2.2 Rigid Pavement

The rigid characteristic of the pavement are associated with rigidity or flexural strength or slab
action so the load is distributed over a wide area of sub grade soil. Rigid pavement is laid in slabs
with steel reinforcement.

The rigid pavements are made of cement concrete either plan, reinforced or prestressed
concrete.

Critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is the maximum flexural stress occurring in the
slab due to wheel load and the temperature changes.

Rigid pavement is designed and analyzed by using the elastic theory. (Justo, Khana,
2001)

7
Table 2.1 Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Types of Pavements

1. Deformation in the sub grade is 1. Deformation of subgrade is not

transferred to the upper layers transferred to subsequent layers
2. Design is based on load distributing 2. Design is based on flexural strength
characteristics of component layers
3. Have low flexural strength 3. Have high flexural strength

Table 2.2 Different Between Flexible Pavement and Rigid Pavement

Flexible pavement rigid pavement

i. Low life span i. It has more life

ii. Design is low cost ii. Design is more cost
iii. Initial cost is less iii. Initial cost is more
iv. It requires more maintenance iv. It requires very little maintenance
v. A good sub grade is essential v. A good sub grade is not required
vi. It can be opened to traffic vi. It require few day to open for
immediately after construction traffic

2.2.1 Objectives of Flexible Pavement Design

 Determination of the effects on pavement distress and performance of loading,
environment, material properties and variability, construction quality and maintenance
levels.
 Determination of specific design procedures to improve pavement performance.
 Establishment of a database to support these objectives and future needs.
 Development of improved design equation for new and reconstructed pavement.
 Development of improved strategies and design procedure for rehabilitation of existing
pavement.
 Evaluation of existing design methods. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

8
2.2.2 Components of Road Pavement
1. Sub grade
2. Sub-base
3. Base course
4. Surface layer (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Subgrade

The sub grade provides a foundation for supporting the pavement structure. As a result, the
required pavement thickness and the performance obtained from the pavement during its design
life will depend largely upon the strength and uniformity of the sub grade. Is the layer of natural
soil or filled soil prepared to receive the pavement material over it the function of sub grade is to
transfer the entire load coming to it the earth mass and to provide good support to the pavement
structure. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Sub-Base Course:

Is the layer of pavement material provided between sub grade and base course. It is provided as
an addition layer when the sub grade is poor quality.

The sub base course has the following function;

 It improves the bearing capacity of sub grade

 It checks the capillary rise of sub soil water
 It prevents sub grade material from working up in to the base course
 It eliminates frost heave in frost affected area. (Ngumbulu, 1999)
Base Course

Is the layer of pavement material between surface course and sub base course. This course is
considered as the most important component of pavement structure because it has to bear the
impact of traffic transferred through wearing course.

9
The base course has following function these are;

 It acts as foundation for the road pavement and transfer the traffic load to the sub base
course.
 It with stands the high shearing stress imposed upon it due to the impact of traffic on
wearing course. (Ngumbulu, 1999)
Surface Course

Thicknesses of surface course depend upon the traffic volume and type of material used for it. Is
the top most layer of the pavement structure in flexible pavement normally a bituminous
surfacing is used as wearing course and in rigid pavement the cement concrete acts like a base
course as well as wearing course. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Surface course has following function;

 It provides smooth and dense riding surface

 It resists pressure exerted by tires
 It takes up wear and tear due to traffic
 It provides a water tight layer against infiltration of surface water. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.3 Design Criteria for Pavement

To give satisfactory service, a flexible pavement must satisfy a number of structural criteria or
considerations; some of the important considerations are
 Sub grade evolution, the sub grade should be able to sustain traffic loading without
excessive deformation; this is controlled by the vertical compressive stress or strain at
this level,
 Pavement and surfacing material Bituminous materials and cement-bound materials used
in road base design should not crack under the influence of traffic; this is controlled by
the horizontal tensile stress or strain at the bottom of the road base,
 Base course consideration the road base is often considered the main structural layer of
the pavement, required to distribute the applied traffic loading so that the underlying
materials are not overstressed. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

10
 It must be able to sustain the stress and strain generated within itself without excessive or
rapid deterioration of any kind.
 Construction and maintenance consideration In pavements containing a considerable
thickness of bituminous materials in order to avoid daily maintenance on the road surface
the internal deformation of these materials must be limited; their deformation is a
function of their creep characteristics,
 Design traffic the load spreading from traffic should have ability of granular sub base and
capping layers must be adequate to provide a satisfactory construction platform

Figure2.4: Critical Stresses and Strains in a Flexible Pavement (Ngumbulu, 1999)

11
 Thickness is vertical compressive strain comes to the sub grade due to the standard axle
laden of magnitude 8.17 kN (8170 kg) , if more than this causes permanent deformation
in form of rutting. The maximum rutting can be accepted in village road as 50 mm before
maintenance and the analytical evaluation can be done according to IRC: 37. For rigid
and semi-rigid pavement tensile stress is taken as the design criteria.
Equivalent single wheel load

To carry maximum load within the specified limit and to carry greater load, dual wheel, or dual
tandem assembly is often used. Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL) is the single wheel load
having the same contact pressure, which produces same value of maximum stress, deflection,
tensile stress or contact pressure at the desired depth. The procedure of finding the ESWL for
equal stress criteria is provided below. This is a semi-rational method, known as Boyd and Foster
method, based on the following assumptions:

 equivalency concept is based on equal stress;

 contact area is circular;
 influence angle is 45$^o$; and
 Soil medium is elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic half space. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Design life: The no. of years to be taken until the major reconstruction. Design life depend upon
the environmental conditions, materials used, maintenance etc. For rural roads design life of 10
years is considered. In low volume roads for the thin bituminous surfacing design life of 5 years
is considered. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

12
 Computation of design traffic:

a=p (1+r)^(n+x)

Where,
a= number of commercial vehicles/day for design
p= number of commercial vehicles/day at last count
r=annual growth rate of commercial traffic
n=no. of years between last count and year of completion of construction
x=design life in years

2.3.1 Basis of Design.

The prime factor influencing the structural design of a pavement is the load-carrying capacity
required. The thickness of pavement necessary to provide the desired load-carrying capacity is a
function of the following five principal variables:

 Vehicle wheel load or axle load.

 Configuration of vehicle wheels or tracks.
 Volume of traffic during the design life of pavement.
 Soil strength.

Modulus of rupture (flexural strength) for concrete pavements. The procedure presented here for
design of flexible pavements is generally referred to as the California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
design procedure. This procedure requires that each layer be thick enough to distribute the
stresses induced by traffic so that when they reach the underlying layer they will not overstress
and produce excessive shear deformation in the underlying layer. Each layer must also be
compacted adequately so that traffic does not produce an intolerable amount of added
compaction. Use ASTM D 1557 compaction effort procedures to design against consolidation
under traffic (Ngumbulu, 1999)

13
2.3.2 Pavement Design Methods
For flexible pavements, Structural design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate layer
thickness and composition. The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load and
temperature variations. There are various approaches of flexible pavement design method. They
are broadly classified into three groups as follows
a) Empirical methods
b) Semi empirical or semi-theoretical methods and
c) Theoretical methods (Justo, Khana, 2001)
Empirical methods are based on physical properties or strength parameters of soil sub grade.
A semi empirical method is used when the design is based on stress-strain function and
experience.
Theoretical methods are based on theoretical analysis and mathematical computation (Justo,
Khana, 2001)
Out of the various flexible pavement design methods available, the following list is concerned
(i) Group index method: is done by relating pavement thickness with the sub grade
characteristic by means of soil classification
(ii) California Bearing Ratio method (CBR): the strength of the sub grade in wettest
condition is used to design the pavement thickness
(iii) Overseas road note31 methods: used mostly in Sub Saharan Africa based on British
Transport Research (Ngumbulu, 1999)
(iv) Pavement and material design manual (Ngumbulu, 1999)
(v) Overseas road note 29 method
But for this project will be based on overseas road note 29 and Pavement Design Catalogue
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.4.0 Design Factors for Paved Road

 Design of wheel load/ Traffic road analysis
 Design period
 Sub grade strength (Bearing capacity of the soil)
 Climatic condition
 Environmental factor (Ngumbulu, 1999)

14
2.4.1 Road Traffic
The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. For pavement design
purposes it is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will use the road
but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles. The loads
imposed by light traffics do not contribute significantly to the structural damage. (Ngumbulu,
1999)

For the purposes of structural design, cars and similar sized vehicles can be ignored and only the
total number and the axle loading of the heavy vehicles that will use the road during its design
life need to be considered.

In this context, heavy vehicles are defined as those having an unladen (unloaded) weight of 3000
kg or more and buses with seating capacity of 40 or more.

Pavement design relies heavily on the expected level of traffic. Axle load studies (to determine
equivalent axle loads) and traffic counts (to determine initial traffic volumes) are essential for a
reliable design, together with estimates of traffic growth. Yet traffic forecasting remains a
difficult and often uncertain task. The parameters are rarely well known, particularly the axle
loads and the projected growth. Although every effort must be made to reduce the uncertainty
inherent to these estimates, caution is still recommended and certain conservatism is justified.
Moreover, sensitivity analyses of the resulting pavement structures to these parameters are
recommended. (Ngumbulu, 1999); Table 2.3 Heavy Vehicle Categories

Heavy vehicle categories Definition

Medium Goods Vehicles-MGV 2axles, including steering axles and
3tonnes empty weight or more
Heavy Goods Vehicles-HGV 3axles including steering axles, and
3tonnes empty weight or more
Very Heavy Goods Vehicles-VHGV 4 or more axles, incl. steering axle, and
3tonnes empty weight or more
Buses Seating capacity of 40 or more

15
The design life is the period during which the road is expected to carry traffic at a satisfactory
level of service, without requiring major rehabilitation or repair work. For most road projects an
economic analysis period of between 10 and 20 years from the date of opening is appropriate.
The selection of design life will depend on a number of factors and uncertainties, and must be
specified by the designer based on all available information, but most times should be either 15
or 20 years. For roads in Tanzania the currently recommended design life is 20 years for flexible
pavements. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.4.2 Design Period

The design life is the period during which the road is expected to carry traffic at a satisfactory
level of services, without requiring major rehabilitation or repair work. For most road projects an
economic analysis period of between 10 and 20 years from the date of opening is appropriate.
The selection of design life will depend on a number of factors and uncertainties, and must be
specified by the designer based on all available information, but most times should be either 15
or 20 years. For roads in Tanzania the currently recommended design life is 20years for flexible
pavements. (Ngumbulu, 1999)
Whatever time period is chosen for the appraisal of a project, the road will always have some
residual value at the end of this period. Design life does not mean that at the end of the period the
pavement will be completely worn out and in need of reconstruction.
It means that towards the end of the period the pavement will need to be strengthened that it can
continue to carry traffic satisfactorily for a further period.
It generally appears economical to construct roads with longer design periods, especially for
important roads and for roads with high traffic volume. Where rehabilitation would cause major
inconvenience to road users, a longer period may be recommended. For roads in difficult
locations and terrain where regular maintenance proves to be costly and time consuming because
of poor access and non-availability of nearby construction material sources, a longer design
period is also appropriate.
Problems in traffic forecasting may also influence the design. When accurate traffic estimates
cannot be made, it may be advisable to reduce the design period to avoid costly overdesign.
Bearing in mind the above considerations, it is important that the designer consults RDA at the
outset of the project to ascertain the design period. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

16
Table: 2.4 Design Period

Road Classification Design Period (years)

Trunk Road 20

Link Road 20

Main Access Road 15

Other Roads 10

Estimating Traffic Flow

In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to estimate
baseline traffic flows. The estimate should be the (Annual) Average Daily Traffic (ADT)
currently using the route, classified into the vehicle categories of cars, light goods vehicles,
trucks (heavy goods vehicles) and buses. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by 365.
It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic flows over a shorter period from which the ADT
is then estimated. For long projects, large differences in traffic along the road may make it
necessary to estimate the flow at several locations.

It should be noted that for structural design purposes the traffic loading in one direction is
required and for this reason care is always required when interpreting ADT. In order to reduce
error, it is recommended that traffic counts to establish ADT at a specific site conform to the
following practice:

(i) The counts are for seven consecutive days.

(ii) The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, with preferably at least one 24-
hour count on a weekday and one during a weekend. On the other days 16-hour counts

17
 should be sufficient. These should be grossed up to 24-hour values in the same proportion
as the 16-hour/24-hour split on those days when full 24-hour counts have been
undertaken.
(iii) Counts are avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods due to the
payment of wages and salaries, public holidays

The structure deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic mainly depends on;

 Magnitude of the loads(axle loads)

 Contact pressure from the loads(tyre pressure)
 Number of load repetitions (Ngumbulu, 1999)
Magnitude of the loads

The damage that vehicles cause to road depends greatly on the magnitude of axle loads as
reflected in the system used for determination of design loading where the damaging effect of an
axle loading follows an exponential function. The traffic stream may however contain heavier
loads that the range where these calculations model are valid. Special concessions have therefore
been made for roads where a large proportion of the design loads of very heavy axles.
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

Contact pressure

The main factors affecting levels of contact pressure from the traffic are however known. These
are primarily related to type of tyres used, tyre pressure and indirectly influenced by the axle
loading. Potential damage to the pavement by high contact pressure is offset by the provision of
material types with sufficient strength in the base course and surfacing layer. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Load repetitions

Depending on site conditions-a sufficiently large number of load repetitions above a certain
magnitude causes fatigue of bound layers and deformations in granular pavement layers.
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

18
Traffic Forecasting

a) Normal traffic: Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no new
pavement were provided.
b) Diverted traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same origin
and destination.
c) Generated traffic: Additional traffic which occurs in response to the provision or
improvement of the road. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Equivalent Factor

The damaging effect of an axle passing over the pavement is expressed by the equivalency factor
related to an equivalent standard axle (E80] of 8160 kg load:

Equivalent factor = {Axial load (kg)/ 8160kg}^4.5

The Vehicle Equivalency Factor (VEF) for every vehicle in the axle load survey is determined
and an average value is subsequently calculated for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane
separately.

The average VEF for each heavy vehicle category, for each lane, can then be applied to the
results from traffic counts to give the cumulative E80S.

Axle loaded to above 13 tones

The proportion of the design traffic loading as a result of axles loaded to above 13 tones shall be
calculated from axle load survey data.

If this proportion is 50% or higher than the design traffic loading is defined as heavy (-H).
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

19
The axle load data from the lane with the highest value of E80 shall be used.

Table 2.5 Traffic Load Distribution between Lanes

Estimation of Design Traffic Loading

Design traffic loading is estimated based on cumulative number of equivalent standard axles
(CESAL), E80, given by:-

Where: t1 = average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey

r = annual growth rate, and

n = calculated period in years (Ngumbulu, 1999)

20
Table 2.6 Traffic Load Classes

(Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.5 Climate Factors

Climate also has a strong influence on the pavement performance, and may be accounted for in
the design to some extent. This is particularly true for Somaliland where a wide range of climatic
zones are encountered, from maritime semi desert plain parallels the Gulf of Aden coast, to
temperate and mountainous (subalpine) over a significant part of the country, with annual
rainfalls up to 600 mm. The climate influences the sub grade moisture content and strength and
requires precautions to ensure adequate drainage. The rainfall also influences the selection of
adequate pavement materials, such as the allowable limits of materials properties, and is a
potential incentive to use stabilized materials. The temperature influences the selection and
design of bituminous surfacing (Ngumbulu, 1999)

21
2.5.1 Materials Factors
The properties of the materials are variable, and construction control is enforced with varying
success. As mentioned elsewhere, expectations from the users play a role in defining acceptable
levels of riding quality. By the same token, even if only a small percentage of the surface of a
road shows distress, the road may be considered unacceptable. As a result, the weakest parts of
the road are very important in design and identifying these parts and the variability of the
pavement components similarly important. This argues strongly against minimizing the extent of
preliminary investigations to determine this variability. Changes in the subgrade strength are
usually considered first, and other factors are assumed to be controlled by enforcing
specifications (i.e. minimum acceptable values for key characteristics of the pavement materials).
Even so, a considerable variation in performance between a priori identical pavements is often
observed, which cannot be fully explained. An optimum design therefore remains partly
dependent on knowledge of the performance of in-service roads and quantification of the
variability of the observed performance itself (elements of pavement management systems). As a
result, designs integrating local experience usually perform better. The pavement structures
given in this manual should be regarded essentially with the layers thicknesses and materials
strength requirements as being minimum values. From a practical viewpoint, however, they may
be interpreted as lower ten percentile values, i.e. with 90% of all test results exceeding the values
quoted. Random variations in thickness and strength should be such that minor deficiencies in
thickness or strength do not occur concomitantly, or very rarely so. Good construction practices
to ensure this randomness and also to minimize variations themselves cannot be over
emphasized. The design process of flexible pavements must include an evaluation of the
available materials in order to allow a selection among the viable alternatives. Similarly, for
gravel roads, the availability of materials suitable as gravel wearing course needs to be verified.
The design of flexible pavements in this manual offers alternatives given in a catalog of
pavement structures (Ngumbulu, 1999)

22
2.6 Design Process
The main steps to follow in designing a road pavement are;

 Estimating the number of traffic and cumulative number of standard axle that will use
the road over the selected design
 Assessment of strength of the sub grade soil over which the roads is to be built.
 Selection of the most economical combination of pavement material and layers thickness
that was provide satisfactory over the design life of the pavement. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

2.6.1 Bituminous Material a Surfaces Course Material

Material testing frequency
Test pits shall be excavated for the purpose of sampling the sub grade along the road line, and
materials testing carried out at a minimum average frequency as shown in the table below:
Table 2.8 Minimum Materials Testing Frequency

Road type Indicator testing CBR Strength Minimum number of CBR tests for
testing any homogenous section
Minfor statistical Absolute
analysis
Paved trunk Min 4 per km Min 2 per km
roads 5 3
Other paved Min 2 per km Min 1 per km
roads
Gravel roads Min 2 per km Min 1 per 2 km

The stress distribution properties of component layers of a pavement depend also on the material
used for construction.
Materials used in the structural layers of the pavement shall be selected according to the criteria
of availability, economic factors and previous experience.
Materials used for pavement construction are; natural gravel, crushed material, cemented
materials, and bituminous materials (Ngumbulu, 1999)

23
Natural gravel
The natural gravel category includes granular materials without any admixture of stabilizers
having the composition of one hundred per cent natural gravel or natural gravel with such small
proportions of crushed particles that the material properties are almost identical to the uncrushed
portion. Pavement materials falling into this category are shown in the below (Ngumbulu, 1999)
Table 2.9 Categories of Pavement Material

Material class Characteristics

G80 -CBR min 80%
-the class includes crushed materials where less than 50% by mass 0f particles
retained on the 5mm sieve has a crushed face.
G6O CBR min 60%
G45 CBR min 45%
G25 CBR min 25%

Crushed materials.

The category of crushed materials includes crushed granular materials without any admixture of
stabilizers where the full range of particle sizes from fines up to the maximum nominal size is
included. The pavement design catalogue uses two basic quantities of crushed base course
material.

Table 2.1.0 the classes of pavement material falling into this category are shown in table below.
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

Material Characteristics
class
CRR -fresh crushed rock, or large boulders≥ 0.3m diameter -
requirement are restrictive, -
compaction requirement are restrictive
CRS -the class includes crushed oversize from gravel sources, crushed all in boulders and
crushed coral rocks.
-minimum 50% by mass of particles retained on the 5mm sieve shall be at least one

24
 crushed face.

Cemented materials

Cemented materials described in the manual include all natural or crushed materials where a
stabilizer of cement or lime has been admixed. The classes of cemented materials and its
requirements are shown in table below (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Table 2.1.1 Cemented Materials

Material Characteristics
class
C4 -USC min4MP-used as sub base in concrete pavements
-made from source made from source materials of quality nominally as CRS with
modified requirement materials of quality nominally as CRS with modified
requirement
C2 -USC min 2MPa
-made from source materials of quality nominally as G45 with modified requirement
C1 -USC min 1MPa
-made from source materials of quality nominally as G25 with modified requirement
CM -USC min 0.5MPa –modified material
-made from source materials of quality nominally as G7 with modified requirement

Bituminous Materials

Bitumen Is a black viscous mixture of hydrocarbons obtained naturally or as a residue from

petroleum distillation. It is used for road surfacing and roofing.
Bitumen is an essential component of any pavement and is used widely throughout the world. It
can be termed as the building block of the pavements without which all the pavement materials
would behave independently and thus will be deemed useless. Almost ninety percent of bitumen
is used in road construction. It is usually available in dark colors ranging from brown to black.
The main purpose of bitumen in flexible pavements is to strongly bind and hold the other
pavement components together and provide a smooth and leveled surface for the moving

25
vehicles. Bitumen is a naturally occurring material and is found in large quantities in the solid or
semi-solid forms of petroleum. It is also manufactured artificially in vast amounts globally.
Bitumen mixed with some other materials has always been used as a sealant and adhesive
material over the ages. It was also widely used in the water proofing of boats and ships as it is
insoluble in water. Highest applications of bitumen are found in the construction filed for the
construction of roads, airports etc., in the hydraulic field for the construction of water tanks,
dams, bridges etc., is also used in battery making, tyre making and for the thermal and acoustic
insulation purposes. (Justo, Khana, 2001)

Bituminous materials include bituminous concrete pavement layers; bituminous stabilization

for road base; and dense bitumen macadam for road base. Bituminous materials are viscoelastic
and under repeated stresses may either weaken or deform or both. Bituminous concrete, i.e.
asphalt concrete, for wearing and binder courses of surfacing, is a dense, continuously graded
mix relying on the aggregate interlock and the bitumen properties for its strength. The mix is
designed for durability and fatigue behavior.
Bituminous stabilization can be used for road base materials based largely on local experience
and subject to construction of trial sections.
Dense bitumen macadam for use as road base are continuously graded mixes with an aggregate
structure less dense than asphalt concrete. (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Table 2.1.2 Classes of Bituminous Base Course Materials are shown in the Table Below.

Material Characteristic
class Name Process Mixing method
DBM Dense bitumen macadam Hot Mixing plant
LAMBS Large aggregate mix for bases Hot
PM Penetration macadam Cold On the road , sprayed
FBMX Foamed bitumen Cold Mixing plant on the
BEMIX Bitumen emulsion mix Cold road

26
The material requirements of bituminous materials are in chapter 7-pavement materials.
(Ngumbulu, 1999)

Different form of bitumen

1. Cutback bitumen

Cut-back bitumen are those which are prepared with the addition of a volatile to reduce the
thickness of the binder. Cutback bitumen is used for cold weather bituminous road construction
and maintenance. The distillates used for preparation of cutback bitumen are naphtha, kerosene,
diesel oil, and furnace oil. There are different types of cutback bitumen like rapid curing (RC),
medium curing (MC), and slow curing (SC). RC is recommended for surface dressing and
patchwork. MC is recommended for premix with less quantity of fine aggregates. SC is used for
premix with appreciable quantity of fine aggregates. (Material Engineering, 2017)
1. Bitumen emulsion.

Bitumen emulsion is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in a finally divided

condition in an aqueous medium and stabilized by suitable material.

2. Bituminous primer

In bituminous primer the distillate is absorbed by the road surface on which it spread. The
absorption therefore depends on the porosity of the surface.

3. Modified bitumen.

Modified bituminous binders are those whose properties such as cohesive strength, adhesive
property, elasticity or viscosity have been modified by the use of one or combined chemical
agents.
Bitumen and bituminous mixes. Bitumen treated with this modifier is known as modified
bitumen.

27
Surface Treatment

According to Pavement and Material Design Manual the two types of surface treatment, these
are double surface dressing for Granular Base Course and asphalt concrete for Cemented Base
Course (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Double surface dressing (SD)

(i) This type of surface treatment is used for new roads and priority depending on the traffic
class. The designing involves finding the bitumen spray rate and aggregate spread rate. The
application rates are correctly determined based on the information about site conditions and
aggregate properties. But for planning purpose the rates are assumed as per table 10.1 of
Pavement and Ma (R.Thagesen, 2004)

Asphalt Concrete (AC)

Asphalt is a mixture of aggregates both fine (sand and filler) and coarse (stone) and a bituminous
binder. Asphalt is primarily used in road construction and its properties depend upon the type,
size and amount of aggregate used in the mixture, all of which can be adjusted to provide the
required properties for the desired application. (Material Engineering, 2017)

Pavement and Material Design Manual catalogue specifies surfacing types for rural and
interurban roads. On all major urban1 roads where the base course is not of bituminous type
consideration should be given to the use of AC surfacing irrespective of traffic loading due to
common excess of slow moving and turning traffic. This traffic is unfavorable for use of surface
treatments and may lead to premature damage of thin surfacing (Ngumbulu, 1999)

28
 CHAPTER THEREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction
This chapter explains about the methods which was used to collect the data for accomplishment
of the project.

The following are the methods which was used;

3.1 Sampling
I was inspecting the road existing condition and I was observing to what extent the road has
deteriorated.

Sample was taken at the interval of 250m. That was taken at 000+000, 000+250, 250+500
changes at 1m depth.

3.2 Laboratory Material Test

This is a testing in which the properties of materials were assessed. Far from being one test
material, test was very lengthy procedure which involve a detailed assessment with goal of
learning as much as possible about material.

The tests that conducted are

1. California bearing ratio (CBR)s

2. Compaction test
3. Atterberg limit test
4. Sieve analysis (GRADING)

3.2.1 CBR Test

The strength of subgrade is the main factor in determining the required thickness of flexible
pavements for roads and airfields. The strength of subgrade, sub base and base course materials
are expressed in terms of their California Bearing Ratio (CBR) value.

29
CBR test procedures

i. I was weighing the moulds with baseplates attached to the nearest 5g

ii. I was attaching the extension collar to the moulds and cover the baseplate with a filter
paper
iii. I was transferring the moisture material to a mixing tray mix and then covered by damp
sack which was keeping over the material until the compaction was completing.
iv. I was standing the mould on a solid base
v. The first mould was tamping with a full of material using the 4.5kg rammer, five layer
and 62 blows per layer
vi. I was removing the collar and trimming the soil flush with the top of the mould with the
scraper
vii. I was weighing the mould baseplate and soil
viii. I was taking a sample for moisture content from the tray
ix. The second mould was tamping with a full of material using the 4.5kg rammer, five layer
and 30 blows per layer. The moulded material was trimming off, weigh and another
sample of moisture content was taken from the tray.
x. The third mould was tamping full of material using the 2.5kg rammer, three layer and 62
blows per layer. The moulded material was trimming off, weighing and another sample
of moisture content was taken from the tray.
xi. I was placing a filter paper on the top of each sample and fitting perforated baseplate on
top of the mould
xii. I was removing the baseplate from the moulds. Fitting the collar to the end of the mould,
parking the screw threads with petroleum jelly to obtain a watertight joint.
xiii. I was placing the mould assembly in the empty soaking tank. The surface of the moulded
material was facing upward. I was placing a filter paper on the top of sample followed by
perforated swell plate.
xiv. I was filling the soaking tank with water below the top of the mould extension collar.
xv. I was recording the reading of the dial gauge each day.
xvi. After 4 days I was taking off the dial gauge and its support, I was removing the soil
sample from the soaking tank and allow it to drain for 15 min.
xvii. I was removing the surcharge disc, perforated swell plate and extension collar.

30
xviii. I was moulid the containing sample with the top face of the sample exposed.
xix. I was placing annular surcharge disc weighing 5.5kg on the top of the sample.
xx. I was fitting into place the cylindrical plunger on the surface sample.
xxi. I was applying the seating force to the plunger, depending on the expected CBR values as
follows;
For CBR value up to 5% I was applying 10 N
For CBR value from 5% up to 30% I was applying 50 N
For CBR value above 30% I was applying 250 N
xxii. I was recording the reading of the loading as initial zero reading.
xxiii. Secure the penetration dial gauge in position, record its initial zero reading
xxiv. I was starting the test so that the plunger penetrates the sample at a uniform rate
1min/mm.
xxv. I was recording the readings of the force gauge at interval of penetration of the 0.25mm,
to a total penetration not exceeding 7.5mm.
xxvi. I was performing the penetration test in all sample.(Kisunge, 2012)

Equipment used.
Test sieves, sizes 20 mm and 5mm,
i) A metal rammer 2.5 kg and 4.5 kg
ii) A steel rods
iii) A steel straightedge
iv) A spatula
v) A balance, capable of weighing up to 25 kg readable to 5 g
vi) Apparatus for moisture content determination
vii) Filter papers 150 mm in diameter.
viii) A cylindrical metal mould, the CBR mould, having a nominal internal diameter of 152
mm and a height of 127 mm. The mould was be fitted with a detachable baseplate and a
removable extension. The internal face shall be smooth, clean and dry before use.

(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚2)−𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1))

 Moisture content (w) = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1)

31
 (𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚2)−𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1))
 Bulk density (ρ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑(𝑣)

𝜌𝑥100
Dry density (𝜌𝑑) =𝑊+100 (Kisunge, 2012)

CBR Penetration.

After 4 days, swell gauge placed on each specimen and the final readings (R2) recorded.
The specimens removed from water, allowed them to drain for 15 minutes and then penetrated
each one.
Recorded the dial gauge reading at each penetration interval (as shown in the test sheet)
Ring factor used to convert the gauge readings into force (KN) (Kisunge, 2012)
Calculations:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 2.5𝑚𝑚 𝑥 100
•CBR value at 2.5mm: = 13.2(𝐾𝑁)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑡 5.0𝑚𝑚 𝑥 100
•CBR value at 5mm: = 20(𝐾𝑁)
(𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑅𝐼)−𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔(𝑅2)𝑥 100
Swell: = 𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛

Trial Design Manual (Ngumbulu, 1999)

3.2.2 Compaction Test

Is the test used to show the relationship of moisture content and density of a material. Where by
soil particle are constrained to peck more closely together through a reduction in air voids
generally by mechanical means. Compacting soil under controlled condition the air voids can be
almost eliminated and the soil can be brought to condition in which there was less tendency for
subsequent changes in moisture content to take place.

Procedure used:

i) I was obtaining 6kg of air-dried soil passing 20mm sieve.

ii) I was weighing the mould with its base plate and recording its mass (m1).
iii) I was putting the soil in a tray and mixing it thoroughly with water (I was starting with 120ml
of water and keep adding the same amount).
iv) I was placing the mould on a concrete base and fixing the collar.

32
v) I was compacting in accordance with the specified method (CML) and using proper mould
and rammer.
vi) I was distributing blows uniformly over the surface of each layer (the last layer was not be
more than 6mm over the mould).
vii) After the last layer, I was removing the collar, triming the excess soil over the mould and
weighing it with its base plate and soil (m2).
viii) I was placing the mould in a tray, removing the soil and the small portion taken for
moisture content (little soil putted in a tin, recorded the weight and dry it in oven; then taken
its weight again after drying).
ix) Specimen breaked, mixed it with the remainder material in the tray, more water added
(120ml again) and mixed it thoroughly.
x) I was repeating step 5 at about four times (with increment of 120ml for gravelly soil)
(Kisunge, 2012)

( 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚2)−𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1)

• Moisture content (w) = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1)

(𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚2)−𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑆𝑜𝑖𝑙(𝑚1))

• Bulk density (ρ) = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑀𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑(𝑣)

[Mass of wet soil (m2) −mass of dry soil (m1)]

𝜌𝑥100
Dry density (𝜌d) =𝑊+100 (Kisunge, 2012)

3.2.3Atterberg Limit Test

This test consists with sub test such as liquid, plastic limit, plastic index and linear shrinkage

Atterberg limits are simply referred to as plasticity property, the outward sign of the limit is
plasticity index, which reflects the sticking property of soil (linked with clay content). However,
the Atterberg limits determine general consistency of soil (i.e. the range of water contents, at
which the soil changes from solid to plastic and from plastic to liquid states). (Kisunge, 2012)

a) Plastic limit (PL)

33
Plastic limit is the minimum moisture content that changes a soil from solid (dry state) to a
plastic (moldable) state. It is determined in the laboratory as the moisture content, which allows a
soil sample to be moulded into a loop that cracks when its diameter is about 3mm. (Kisunge,
2012)

Plastic limit procedures

i. I was taking 40g of soil paste sample and place it on a glass plate.
ii. I was allowing the soil to dry partially until it become plastic enough to shaped into a
ball.
iii. I was mould the ball sample of the soil between the fingers and roll it between palms of
the hands until the heat of the hand has dried the soil sufficiently for slight cracks to
appear on its surface.
iv. I was dividing the sample into 2 sub samples of about 20g each and carry out separate
determination on each portion.
v. I was forming the soil into the thread.
vi. I was rolling the thread between the fingers.
vii. I was picking the soil, mould it between the fingers to dry it further. Form it into thread.
viii. The procedure was repeated on the other three portions of the sub sample.
ix. I was placing them into the container for determination of the moisture content (Kisunge,
2012)

(b) Liquid Limit (LL).

The liquid limit is the moisture content that changes soil from plastic state to a liquid state.
Variation in the moisture content of the soil has significant effect on its shear strength,
particularly in fine grain soils. Fine-grained soils are classified in terms of liquid and plastic
limits. It is determined in the laboratory as the moisture content corresponding to 20mm
penetration obtained by cone penetration method in a soil sample in 5seconds (Kisunge, 2012)

34
 i. I was taking 400g of a soil sample and placing it in glass plate. I was mixing the plate
using two palette knives with addition of water, so that the first cone penetrometer was
reading about 15mm.
ii. With the penetration cone locked in raised position I was lowering the cone so that it was
touching the surface of the soil. I was lowering the dial gauge to contact the cone shaft
and record the reading of the dial gauge to the nearest 0.1mm
iii. I was recording the different reading, lift out and clean it.
iv. I was repeating the test until consistent result obtained.
v. I was taking the sample about 20g for moisture content.
vi. I was repeating the penetration test at least three times using the same sample to which
further increment of the water is added.
vii. Each time soil was removed from the cup for the addition of water, wash and dry the cup.
(Kisunge, 2012)

(c) Plasticity Index (PI)

Plasticity Index is the range of the moisture contents at which the soils remain plastic (moldable
condition). It is determined arithmetically as the difference of Liquid limit and Plastic limit.

i.e. PI = LL – PL

Where:
PI = Plasticity Index

LL= Liquid Limit

PL= Plastic limit (Kisunge, 2012)

(d) Linear Shrinkage (LS)

35
Linear shrinkage is the decrease in length of a wet soil after drying. It simulates the volumetric
changes that occur as wet soil dries (Kisunge, 2012)

Test procedure used:

i. I was cleaning the mould thoroughly and apply a thin film of silicone grease or petroleum
jelly to inner faces to prevent the soil adhering to the mould.
ii. I was taking 150g soil paste sample at approximately the liquid limit.
iii. I was leveling the soil along the top of the mould with the palette knife and remove all
soil adhering to the rim of the mould by wiping with a damp cloth.
iv. I was placing the mould where the paste can air dry slowly until the soil has shrunk away
from the walls of the mould.
v. I was mould and measuring the mean length of the soil bar by pressing it against the end
of the mould where there is a better fit, while measuring the distance between the
opposite side of the mould and the soil bar. (Kisunge, 2012)

𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (ℎ1)−𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ (ℎ2)𝑥 100

Linear Shrinkage (LS) = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ(ℎ1)

Where:
h1 = initial length of specimen (wet)

h2 = final length of specimen (dry).

The grading and Atterberg test used together to classify the soil. These tests will be done
according to BS: 1377: Part 2: (Kisunge, 2012)

3.2.4 Sieve Analysis (Particle Size Distribution)

A particle size distribution analysis is a necessary classification test for soils, especially coarse
soils, in that it presents the relative portions of different sizes of particles. From this it was
possible to determine whether the soil consists of predominantly gravel, soil, silt or clay sizes
and to a limited extent, which of these size ranges is likely to control the engineering properties
of the soil. However, since most of the soils are cohesive. For the use of wet sieving method is
more accurate method for determining the grading of soil than dry sieving.

36
The classification of that soil will be classified based on USCS (Unified Soil classification
system), the basic particle sizes of soils are as shown in the Table 1.1 below

Range of Particle size

Name
(mm)

Clay Less than 0.002

Silt 0.002 – 0.06

Sand 0.06 – 2.0

Gravel 2.0 – 60

Cobbles 60 – 200

Boulders, Stones Greater than 200

Sieve Analysis Test Procedures

Test procedure used;

i. I was washing the material passing a 75µmsieve, allowing the material to pass 75µm to
run waste.
ii. I was transferring all material retained on the sieve into a tray and dry in an oven.
iii. I was weighing the air-dried sample
iv. I was sieving the dried fraction through a 75µm.
v. I was sieving the fraction retained on the 75µm test sieve on the appropriate larger test
sieves and weigh the amount of the material retained on each sieve. (CML, 2000)
Required equipment:

Test sieve sizes

37
(20mm,14mm,10mm,5mm,2mm,1.18mm,0.3mm,0.6mm,0.425mm and 0.075mm), A balance,
Scoop, Riffle box, Sieve brush, A drying even at temperature 105C-110Co, Metal tray, and
Mechanical sieve vibrator.

• Percentage retained on each sieve

𝑀2 𝑋 100
% retained = 𝑀1

Where:
m1= weight of test sample

m2 = cumulative weight retained on each sieve

• Percentage passing on each sieve

% passing = 100 − % retained

• Grading modulus (GM):

𝟑𝟎𝟎−%𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝟐𝒎𝒎−%𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒎𝒎
GM = 𝟏𝟎𝟎

• Coefficient of uniformity (Cu):

𝑑60
Cu = 𝑑10

Where:
d60= sieve size at which 60% of material passes

d10= sieve size at which 10% of material passes

• Coefficient of gradation (Ck):

(𝑑3𝑜)2
CK = (𝑑60𝑥𝑑10)

Where:

d30 = Sieve size at which 30% of material passes. (Kisunge, 2012)

38
3.3 Manual Traffic Count Method
This method was done by counting seven days, twelve hours from 06: am to 06: pm in
order to get accurate actual traffic also I was conducting a traffic count to that area. Traffic
counting is the process of counting different types of vehicles by using road and classifying
to their axles for the purpose of obtaining the total number of vehicles or axles on the road
so as to use them for the design purpose that is by accumulating number of equipment
standard axles in the design period for the pavement design. Only heavy vehicle should be
counted for the purpose of pavement design. Heavy vehicles are defined as those having a
registered unladed weight of 3000kg or more. Large buses having a seating capacity of 40
or more are include as heavy vehicles. In considering this factor the aspect of existing,
diverting and generated traffic, traffic volume and mix, traffic growth rate and axle
load/vehicle type have to be considered. Traffic counts shall be carried out in a manner that
results in a grouping of vehicle type into the following categories:

Table3.0 Heavy vehicle categories (Ngumbulu, 1999)

Heavy vehicle category Definition

Medium Goods Vehicle 2 axles, including steering axle, and

MGV 3 tones empty weight, or more

Heavy Goods Vehicles 3 axles, including steering axle, and

HVG 3 tones empty weight, or more

Very Heavy Goods Vehicles 4 axles, including steering axle, and

VHGV 3 tones empty weight, or more

Buses Seating capacity of 40, or more

3.3.1 Procedures of Conducting Traffic Counting.

i. I was conducting a traffic count for each direction.
ii. I was determining a vehicles equivalent factor.
iii. Axle load survey for each direction.

39
 iv. I was classified vehicles whether heavy or very heavy with its classes

3.4 Data Analysis and Design Method

Data collection was analyzed by using software application (excel) as well as graph for
calculation and computation of data

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

4.0 Introduction
In this chapter is where the discussion of results obtained from data collection and data analysis

together with theory and literature. For this project the results comprise, Laboratory tests data
(i.e. Atterbarg limits, Sieve analysis and CBR test), Traffic counts data, Traffic load class and
Subgrade CBR design.

4.1 Laboratory Soil Test Data

Laboratory soil tests comprises, Sieve analysis, Atterbarg limits, and California Bearing Ratio
(CBR) test and were classified according to CML and specification of Pavement material design
manual 1999.The description of soil test result are as follows

MATERIAL TESTING RESULTS

I was conduct testing of material concerning to that road.

4.1.1 CBR Test (California Bearing Ratio)

The results for CBR test obtained as follows;

4.1.2 Proctor Test

MDD Kg/m3 2053

OMC % 8.9

NMC% 1.9

CBR % 11.4

4.1.3 Atterberg Limit Test

This test results consists with sub test such as liquid limit, plastic limit, plastic index and linear
shrinkage

41
ATTERBERG LIMIT

Liquid limit (LL) 28.02

Plastic limit (PL) 11.4

Plasticity index (PI) 8.08

Liner shrinkage (LS) 5.74

4.1.4 Particle Size Distribution

The following are results of sieve analysis test that obtained.

SIEVE ANALYSIS

Gravel (%) 14.32

Sand (%) 59.1

Clay & Silt (%) 26.58

4.2 Traffic Counting

I was conducting a traffic count to that area. The results obtain are following;

Traffic counting in direction one

Lorries under 5tonnes

Buses under 25 seats

Lorries over 5tonnes

Lorries with trailers

Buses over 25 seats

Semi-trailers heavy
DAY

Total

DAY 1 12 7 4 3 7 5 38

DAY 2 15 7 3 4 6 2 37

DAY 3 17 9 6 2 9 3 46

42
 DAY 4 14 4 3 4 17 0 42

DAY 5 11 9 2 5 12 4 43

DAY 6 14 7 2 3 14 0 40

DAY 7 18 5 3 1 15 5 47

TOTAL 101 48 23 22 80 19 293

Determination of cumulative equivalent standard axle load (CESAL)

DIRECTION ONE

Weight Mid- Number E80= Standard axle=(N×E80)

range point (L/8.16)4.5
Of axle
(tones) (L)
(N)

3-5 4 181 0.0404 7.3124

5-7 6 67 0.2507 16.7969

7-9 8 0 0.9147 0

9-11 10 0 2.4969 0

11-13 15 23 5.6717 130.433

13-15 14 22 11.3493 249.6846

TOTAL 404.2269

Total standard axle (t1) = 404.2269

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆
t1=𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒚

43
Number of days is 7day

404.2269
t1= 7

t1= 57.75

𝟑𝟔𝟓×𝒕𝟏[(𝟏+𝒓)𝒏 −𝟏]
from CESAL= 𝒓

Where,

t1= average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey.

r= annual growth rate expressed as decimal fraction.

n= period in years

By assuming:

 Growth rate (r) =4%

 Design period (n) =20 years

365×57.75[(1+0.04)20 −1]
CESAL= 0.04

CESAL OF ONE DIRECTION = 0.63×106

The condition is moderate (Geita region)

From table

Traffic load classes of direction one= TLC1

Traffic counting in direction two

44
 Lorries under 5tonnes

Buses under 25 seats

Lorries over 5tonnes

Lorries with trailers

Buses over 25 seats

Semi-trailers heavy
DAYS

Total
DAY 1 17 8 2 2 12 4 45
DAY 2 13 5 4 5 9 0 36
DAY 3 14 7 3 1 7 5 37
DAY 4 12 8 4 4 10 2 40
DAY 5 18 4 3 4 12 3 44
DAY 6 11 6 2 2 8 4 33
DAY 7 16 8 4 0 14 3 45
TOTAL 101 46 22 18 72 21 280

Determination of cumulative equivalent standard axle load (CESAL)

DIRECTION TWO

Weight Mid- Number E80= Standard axle=

range point (L/8.16)4.5 (N×E80)
Of axle
(tones) (L)
(N)

3-5 4 173 0.0404 6.9892

5-7 6 67 0.2507 16.7969

7-9 8 0 0.9147 0

9-11 10 0 2.4969 0

45
 11-13 15 22 5.6717 124.7774

13-15 14 18 11.3493 204.2874

TOTAL 352.8509

Total standard axle (t1) = 352.8509

𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒂𝒙𝒍𝒆
t1 =
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒂𝒚

Number of days is 7day

352.8509
t1 =
7

t1 = 50.41

𝟑𝟔𝟓×𝒕𝟏[(𝟏+𝒓)𝒏 −𝟏]
from CESAL = 𝒓

Where,

t1= average daily number of standard axles in the year of traffic survey.

r= annual growth rate expressed as decimal fraction.

n= period in years

By adopting:

 Growth rate (r) =4%

 Design period (n) = 20 years

365×50.41[(1+0.04)20 −1]
CESAL= 0.04

CESAL OF DIRECTION TWO = 0.55×106

The condition is moderate (Geita region)

From table

46
 Traffic load classes of direction one = TLC1

In design we consider the highest CESAL so CESAL of direction one should be used to design

CESAL OF DIRECTION ONE = 0.63×106

Climate: Moderate

Traffic load class of direction one = TLC1

CBR VALUE = 11.4%

 Note that if CBR <15% improvement of sub grade is needed so must improve the
subgrade according to PAVEMENT DESIGN MANUAL 1999

CBR value = 11.4 (S7)

Average Annual Daily Traffic

AADT = (293/7+280/7) x 4x7x12

365

= 76

 Percentage of heavy vehicle in designed lane

= ((48 + 23 + 22 + 19)) × 100

293

= 38

Summary of pavement layers

47
 ST Surface course

G80 150mm – Base course

G45 200mm – Sub base course

G15 150mm-Subgrade

4.3Designing
REFERENCE CALCULATION OUT PUT

E80design=0.63x106 million E80design=0.63x106

Chapter 8

Pavement Design Climate: Moderate Moderate

manual 1999

Traffic load class, TLC1 TLC1

Surfacing; provide surface treatment (ST) (ST)

carriage way.
G80- 150mm
Base course; provide 150mm thick G80

Sub-base; provide 150mm thick G45 materials

G45-150mm

Sub grade CBR 11.4

CBR- 11.4%

48
Chapter 5 Sub grade class S7 S7

Pavement Design Sub grade strength should be ≥15% so CBR <11.4%

manual 1999 improving of subgrade needed

Improved subgrade: provide 150mm thick

G15-150mm
G15

Design of double surface dressing

Chipping size
20mm and 10 mm chipping in first and second
layer shall be used respectively. 20mm and 10mm for1st
and 2nd layer respectively

Chapter 10
Input Data
Pavement Design
 Double surface dressing, new road, wet
manual 1999
primed coat base course

 AADT =76 for two lane road of minimum

surface width of 6m

 38% heavy vehicle in designed lane

 20mm chipping in first layer.ALD=17.6mm

 10mm chipping in second layer, ALD

=7.4mm

 Site terrain, flat

Chapter 10

49
Pavement Design
manual 1999
Aggregate spray rates (m3/m2)

Spray rate for 1st for 20mm =0.015m3/m2

Spray rate in 2nd layer for 10mm =0.009m3/m2

Hot spray rates 80/100 penetration grade

bitumen (L/m2)
Hot spray rates for Light
traffic =3.0L/m2

Light traffic AADT<200=3.0L/m2

Bitumen spray rate (L/m2)

The road has minimum surfaced width of 6m,

AADT =76

 Bitumen spay rate for 1st layer

0.15xALD

ALD =17.6mm

= 0.17x 17.6

= 2.992 L/m2

The correction of bitumen spray rate for 1st

layer is -0.4L/m2

The bitumen spray rate for 1st layer will be

2.992 – 0.4
The hot bitumen spray
= 2.592L/m2
rate for first layer

2.592L/m2

50
51
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.0 Conclusion
All the data collected and analyzed are satisfied for construction of the road which gives the
Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load (CESAL) =0.63×106 which lies into Traffic Load
Class (TLC1) that is expected for the whole design life of the paved road. The CBR value
obtained which fall in sub grade need improvement of sub grade.

5.1 Recommendation
Due to rapid growth of population and the gravel road affected with defects, should be to design
pavement layers with good drainage system and select the suitable thickness in order to provide
safe and comfortable movement of all users throughout the year.

52
References
CML. (2000). Standard Specification of Roadworks. Dar es salaam: The United Republic of
Tanzania.

Jordan, Jones. (2005). Pavement Design Manual Mission Statement. USA: Georgia Department
of Transportation.

Justo, Khana. (2001). Highway Engineering. Delh: Nem Chand.

Kisunge, J. (2012). Road Construction Material.

Ngumbulu. (1999). Pavement and Material Design Manual.

R.Thagesen. (2004). Road Engineering for Development. London and Newyork: Tailor and
Francis e-library.

53