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Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142 © Copyright by Wroclaw Medical University
ISSN 1899–5276
Abstract
The authors review the current state of imaging of degenerative spinal disease (DSD), which is one of the most
common disorders in humans. The most important definitions as well as short descriptions of the etiopathology
and clinical presentation of DSD are provided first, followed by an overview of conventional and advanced imag-
ing methods that are used in DSD. The authors then discuss in detail the imaging patterns of particular types of
degenerative changes. Finally, the current imaging algorithm in DSD is presented. The imaging method of choice is
magnetic resonance, including advanced techniques – especially diffusion tensor imaging. Other imaging methods
(plain radiography, computed tomography, vascular studies, scintigraphy, positron emission tomography, discog-
raphy) play a supplementary role (Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142).
Key words: spine degeneration, intervertebral disc degeneration, magnetic resonance imaging.
Streszczenie
Autorzy przedstawiają obecne poglądy na temat obrazowania choroby zwyrodnieniowej kręgosłupa (ch.zw.kr.),
która jest jedną z najczęstszych schorzeń u ludzi. W pierwszej części pracy omówiono najważniejsze definicje oraz
opisano krótko etiopatogenezę i objawy kliniczne ch.zw.kr., po czym przedstawiono standardowe i zaawansow-
ane metody diagnostyczne stosowane w ch.zw.kr. Następnie omówiono szczegółowo zmiany obrazowe w posz-
czególnych typach zmian zwyrodnieniowych kręgosłupa, wreszcie przedstawiono bieżący algorytm obrazowania
w ch.zw.kr. Metodą obrazową z wyboru jest rezonans magnetyczny (MR), wraz z zaawansowanymi technikami,
zwłaszcza obrazowaniem tensora dyfuzji (DTI). Inne metody obrazowe (radiografia konwencjonalna, tomografia
komputerowa, badania naczyniowe, scyntygrafia, pozytronowa tomografia emisyjna, dyskografia) odgrywają rolę
uzupełniającą (Adv Clin Exp Med 2012, 21, 2, 133–142).
Słowa kluczowe: zwyrodnienie kręgosłupa, zwyrodnienie krążka międzykręgowego, obrazowanie rezonansu mag-
netycznego.
Degenerative spinal disease (DSD) is one of the nosing DSD and optimal diagnostic imaging algo-
most common disorders, affecting adults at every rithms in different types of degenerative disease.
age, which means it is an important medical and
social problem. The results of treatment of DSD
depend strongly on precise diagnostics. With the Definitions
development and increased availability of magnet-
ic resonance (MR), imaging methods have become Degenerative spinal disease (DSD) is also called
the most important tool in diagnosing DSD and spondylosis or spondylosis deformans. A primary
planning its treatment. feature is that it involves the whole disco-vertebral
The aim of this review is to present the current unit (functional spinal unit) (see below), usually at
possibilities of various imaging modalities in diag- multiple levels.
134 M. J. Sąsiadek, J. Bladowska
A disco-vertebral unit (functional spinal unit) tic spondylodiscitis). The further stages of verte-
is the complex of anatomic structures compris- bral body degeneration are fatty transformation
ing a single segment of the spine. It consists of the and endplate sclerosis, as well as edge osteophytes
intervertebral disc, adjacent parts of the vertebral [1–3, 6, 8]. Degeneration of the endplates may re-
bodies, facet joints, ligamenta flava and longitudi- sult in their irregularities (erosive osteochondro-
nal ligaments at a given level. All the components sis) or in intravertebral disc herniations (Schmorl’s
of an FSU may be affected by degenerative spinal nodes) [3].
disease to varying degrees. Facet joint degeneration appears as hypertro-
Spondyloarthrosis is one type of DSD; it main- phy and osteophytes of the articular processes,
ly affects the facet joints and causes facet degenera- with narrowing of the joint space, less commonly
tion. as the vacuum phenomenon, synovial hypertro-
Degenerative disc disease (or discopathy) is phy or synovial cysts. Facet degeneration along
another type of DSD, mainly affecting interverte- with disc degeneration can lead to degenerative
bral discs. spondylolisthesis (anterolisthesis, i.e. anterior
Disc herniation and disc bulging are types of displacement of the upper vertebra, or retrolis-
degenerative disc disease characterized by part of thesis, i.e. posterior displacement of the upper
the disc or the whole disc protruding beyond the vertebra) due to vertebral instability [1, 2, 6]. The
intervertebral space. Disc herniation is one of the involvement of the ligamenta flava results in their
most common and severe types of DSD. hypertrophy [3]. Longitudinal ligaments may be
It is important to remember that DSD affects compressed or broken by disc herniation; pos-
many structures of the spine and it is not always terior longitudinal ligaments may also ossificate
equivalent to disc herniation or degenerative disc (ossification of the posterior longitudinal liga-
disease [1, 2]. ments: OPPL) [3].
All the changes mentioned above can lead to
spinal stenosis, either central (narrowing of the
Etiopathology central part of the spinal canal) or lateral (narrow-
ing of the lateral recesses of the spinal canal and
As the authors have noted elsewhere [3], intervertebral foramina). Spinal stenosis can be
degenerative changes of the spine are a part of accompanied by compression of the spinal cord,
normal aging; they start in late adolescence and leading to its ischemia, edema, myelomalacia or
progress with age. They may or may not manifest gliosis [3, 9].
themselves clinically. Many factors can accelerate
the formation of degenerative changes, e.g. de-
velopmental anomalies or infectious diseases of Clinical Presentation
the spine. However, the most important factor is
trauma, both acute and chronic, including chronic The most common clinical symptom is back
overload [3–5]. pain of variable severity, constant or intermittent,
Degenerative disease is most often located in located at the levels of the involved segments of
the lumbar spine, followed by the cervical and tho- the spine [6, 10, 11]. Asymmetric disc herniation,
racic spine. The lower parts of the lumbar spine lateral spinal stenosis or osteophytes compressing
(segments L4–S1) and cervical spine (segments the nerve roots cause radicular pain along the af-
C4–C7) are the most commonly involved [3]. fected root [6]. The same conditions may cause
The first stage of disease is usually degenera- neurological deficits, e.g. weakness in the upper
tive dehydration of the nucleus pulposus of the in- or lower extremities. Central spinal stenosis in the
tervertebral disc, combined with the fissures in the lumbar region may lead to neurological claudica-
adjacent annulus fibrosus (annular tears) and end- tion, and in the cervical or thoracic regions to my-
plate cartilage microfractures [1, 2, 6, 7]. Annular elopathy due to chronic compression of the spinal
tears (concentric, transverse or radial) are pres- cord [3, 6, 9].
ent in almost all individuals over 40 years of age
and could thus be considered paraphysiological;
however, some (especially radial tears) may result Degenerative Spinal Disease
in disc herniation. Other forms of disc degenera- – Imaging Methods
tion are the vacuum phenomenon (gas collections,
mostly nitrogen) and calcifications [3]. The two most important and most commonly
Injury of the endplate cartilage, on the other used imaging modalities are plain X-ray films of
hand, causes an aseptic reaction of the subchon- the spine and magnetic resonance (MR). Other
dral bone, with an increase in water content (asep- methods are performed much less frequently and
Imaging of Degenerative Spine Disease 135
are currently considered supplementary imaging provements in MR equipment (fast gradient sys-
techniques. tems, parallel imaging, multielement phased-array
Conventional radiographs of the spine are coils), basic MR techniques including spin-echo
still useful as an initial study, enabling detection (T1- and T2-weighted images), gradient-echo and
of major abnormalities, e.g. narrowing of the disc fat saturation sequences are now characterized by
space (which is compatible with discopathy), os- high resolution and increased signal-to-noise ra-
teophytes, degenerative sclerotization, scolio- tio. In addition, many supplementary techniques
sis, spondylolisthesis and other congenital spine have been introduced, e.g. steady-state sequences
anomalies. In mild cases of DSD radiography can (like CISS or FIESTA), which provide excellent
suffice as the only imaging study [1, 2, 7]. delineation of the outlines of disc herniations; MR
MR is the imaging method of choice, and myelography, a non-invasive technique that has
should be used in all patients with long-term pain, replaced conventional and CT myelographies; and
radicular symptoms or neurological deficits [12]. post-contrast sequences, which are especially use-
MR allows for a complex assessment of degenera- ful in post-operative studies [14, 22].
tive changes in all the structures of the disco-verte- Recently there have been attempts to apply ad-
bral unit – both the bony and soft tissue structures vanced supplementary techniques, such as diffu-
(see below). sion-weighted imaging (DWI) and diffusion tensor
Other methods are also currently used. Com- imaging (DTI), functional (motion) imaging, MR
puted tomography (CT) was the primary diagnos- spectroscopy [23, 24] and functional MR (fMRI).
tic modality in DSD in the 1990s, but since then The most promising of these methods seems to be
it has mostly been replaced by MR. Nowadays DTI, which enables qualitative and quantitative
CT is a supplementary method to MR, especially evaluation of degenerative myelopathy. Motion
in degenerative bony spinal canal stenosis [13]. imaging provides functional evaluations of the
Conventional myelography and radiculography spinal structures, but it requires vertical MR units,
and CT-myelography, which require intrathecal which currently are not available in most MR de-
administration of the contrast medium, have been partments; therefore, the alternative technique of
almost completely abandoned. Discography and axial loaded imaging is more commonly used. MR
CT discography are invasive studies, which are spectroscopy and functional MR provide interest-
performed only in specialized centers and are of- ing scientific results in degenerative myelopathy,
ten followed by therapeutic procedures like nucle- but due to technical difficulties arising mainly
olysis or nucleoplasty. Nuclear medicine methods from the small size of the spinal cord, these tech-
(bone scintigraphy, PET/CT) are used in cases that niques have not yet been introduced into clinical
require differentiation of DSD from neoplastic le- practice [25, 26].
sions. Vascular studies (Doppler sonography, CT
angiography, MR angiography) should be consid-
ered in patients with cerebellar symptoms, which Imaging Characteristics
may be caused by osteophytes or disc herniations of Particular Types
compressing the vertebral arteries [3, 14, 15].
of Degenerative Changes
Advances in Imaging Degeneration
Techniques of the Intervertebral Disc
Degeneration of the intervertebral disc can in
In the last two decades the possibilities for many cases be diagnosed on the basis conventional
imaging DSD have significantly improved thanks radiographs revealing narrowing of the interverte-
to technological developments. The image quality bral space with sclerotization and osteophytes of
in conventional radiography has been markedly adjacent parts of the vertebral bodies. However,
improved thanks to digitalization (digital radi- simple degeneration cannot be differentiated from
ography) and post-processing, [16, 17]. Since the disc herniation or bulging on the base of these
introduction of multidetector scanners, as well findings. The method of choice is MR, which de-
as advanced muliplanar and three-dimensional tects direct signs of degeneration: a decreased sig-
reconstructions, computed tomography pro- nal on T2 and T2*-weighted images (black disc
vides very precise images of the bony spine struc- disease), resulting from degenerative dehydration
tures, which can be depicted with high resolution of the disc (Fig. 1) [1, 2, 6].
[18–21]. Disc herniation is visible on axial MR images
However, the most rapidly developing mo- as a focal displacement of the disc fragment beyond
dality has been MR. Thanks to technological im- the intervertebral space, while disc bulging is seen
136 M. J. Sąsiadek, J. Bladowska
Fig. 3. MR, T2-weighted images, axial plane. Disc herniations in two different patients. Left image: recent (active) her-
niation with bright appearance; right image: old (inactive) herniation with dark appearance
Ryc. 3. MR, obraz T2-zależny, przekrój osiowy. Przepukliny krążków międzykręgowych u dwóch różnych pacjentów.
Obraz po lewej: wczesna (aktywna) przepuklina o wysokim sygnale (jasna). Obraz po prawej: przewlekła (nieaktywna)
przepuklina z niskim sygnałem (ciemna)
the spinal canal, dural sac, intervertebral foramina, ty degeneration) can also be visualized only with
nerve roots and spinal cord [1, 2, 29]. MR, which reveals areas of increased signal on T1-
Modic type 1 lesions (aseptic spondylodiscitis) weighted images and decreased signal on fat satura-
can be diagnosed only with MR, which detects in- tion images, which are compatible with increased
creased water content in the parts of vertebral bod- fat content (Fig. 6). Modic type 3 lesions (sclerotic
ies adjacent to the endplates (a decreased signal on changes) can be seen on conventional radiography
T1-weighted images and an increased signal on T2- and CT as hyperdense areas and on MR as hypoin-
weighted and fat saturation images – Fig. 5). Modic tense areas in all pulse sequences [29–32].
type 1 lesions are believed to correlate with persis- A special type of vertebral body degeneration
tent pain and radicular symptoms, especially when is erosive osteochondrosis (endplate degenera-
located at the L5/S1 level. Modic type 2 lesions (fat- tion). It manifests as irregularities in the endplates’
138 M. J. Sąsiadek, J. Bladowska
Fig. 5. MR, sagittal plane, T2-weighted (upper row) and its impact on the spinal canal (stenosis, compres-
T1-weighted (lower row) images. There are hyperintense sion of dural sac) can be easily assessed with both
areas on the T2-weighted images and hypointense areas axial MR and CT images [2, 3]
on the T1-weighted images in the L2 and L3 vertebral
bodies, adjacent to the L2/L3 interverebral disc, which
are consistent with Modic type 1 degenerative changes
Degeneration
Ryc. 5. MR, przekrój strzałkowy, obrazy T2-zależne
of the Ligamenta Flava
(górny rząd) i T1-zależne (dolny rząd). Widoczne są Degeneration of the ligamenta flava usually
strefy hiperintensywne w obrazach T2-zależnych i hipo- goes along with facet joint degeneration and can
intensywne w obrazach T1-zależnych w trzonach L2 i L3, be assessed on axial MR and CT images as a thick-
przylegające do krążka międzykręgowego L2/L3, odpo-
wiadające zmianom zwyrodnieniowym typu Modic 1
ening of the ligaments exceeding 4mm.
Degenerative Spondylolisthesis
outlines and can be visualized on conventional radi- Degenerative spondylolisthesis can easily be
ography and CT; however, the best modality is once diagnosed on spine radiographs and CT, but MR
again MR. Erosive osteochondrosis, like Modic provides the best evaluation of its impact on spinal
changes, is usually accompanied by degeneration of canal structures.
the adjacent intervertebral discs (Fig. 7) [2].
Spinal Canal Stenosis
Degeneration of the Facet Joints Degenerative changes of all the structures of the
Degeneration of the facet joints is character- disco-vertebral unit may contribute to stenosis of the
ized by osteophytes and hypertrophy of the ar- spinal canal, especially disc herniation or disc bulging,
ticular processes. Much less common signs are osteophytes of the posterior margins of the vertebral
the vacuum phenomenon (gas in joint space) and bodies, facet joint hypertrophy and osteophytes and/
facet joint synovial cysts. Facet degeneration and or thickening of the ligamenta flava (Fig. 8). There
Imaging of Degenerative Spine Disease 139
A B
Fig. 10. MR, sagittal plane, T2-weighted image (left) and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) (right). Spinal stenosis at the
C4/C5, C5/C6 and C6/C7 levels with compression of the spinal cord. No abnormal signal is seen in the spinal cord at
these levels. However, on the DTI there are multiple foci of decreased fractional anisotropy (FA) in the anterior part
of the spinal cord, which are compatible with degenerative injuries of the spinal cord due to chronic compression
Ryc. 10. MR, przekrój strzałkowy, obraz T2-zależny (po lewej) i obrazowanie tensora dyfuzji (DTI) (po prawej).
Stenoza kanału kręgowego na poziomach C4/C5, C5/C6 i C6/C7, z uciskiem rdzenia kręgowego. Nie wykazano nie-
prawidłowego sygnału rdzenia kręgowego na tych poziomach. W DTI są widoczne mnogie ogniska obniżonej frakcjo-
nowanej anizotropii (FA) w przedniej części rdzenia, które wskazują na zwyrodnieniowe uszkodzenie rdzenia kręgo-
wego spowodowane przewlekłym uciskiem
Imaging of Degenerative Spine Disease 141
disc spaces, degenerative spondylolisthesis, etc.) In some patients with cerebellar symptoms,
and other findings (e.g. scoliosis, transitional ver- supplementary vascular studies of the vertebral ar-
tebrae) as well to exclude large spine neoplasms. teries (Doppler sonography, CT angiography, MR
Patients with severe persistent pain, radicular angiography) should be considered [35].
symptoms or neurological deficits should be ex- Finally, some spine centers perform discog-
amined with MR, which provides a complex as- raphy or CT discography to determine whether
sessment of the degenerative process in both soft changes in a particular disc are responsible for
tissue and bony elements. Plain MR with spin- a patient’s symptoms and to establish access for in-
echo, gradient-echo and fat saturation sequences terventional procedures such as nucleoplasty [2].
is usually sufficient. In some cases, e.g. in postop- The authors concluded that imaging meth-
erative patients, plain MR should be supplemented ods are the most important diagnostic modalities
by contrast-enhanced sequences [34]. In patients in degenerative spinal disease. The initial study is
with clinical signs of myelopathy, diffusion tensor usually plain radiography, but the imaging method
imaging should be considered [25, 26]. of choice is MR, which – thanks to technological
CT is a supplementary method, used if detailed developments – provides a more and more pre-
analysis of bone structures is needed, e.g. in spinal cise evaluation of degenerative changes. The role
stenosis. CT should be also performed in patients of other imaging modalities, such as CT, vascular
with contraindications to MR. studies, bone scintigraphy, PET/CT and discogra-
If the differentiation between degenerative and phy, is supplementary. The imaging algorithm de-
neoplastic processes is not clear on the basis of MR pends on the severity of the clinical symptoms and
and CT, nuclear medicine methods (bone scintig- the results of previous imaging studies.
raphy and/or PET/CT) should be applied [2, 3].
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Received: 19.08.2011
Accepted: 29.03.2012