By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

EDEXCEL
IGCSE

BIOLOGY
NOTES

Page 1 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Hormones in Humans
Hormones & Their Associated Glands
What is a Hormone?

 A hormone is a chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by

the blood
 The hormone alters the activity of one or more specific target organs i.e. they are
chemicals which transmit information from one part of the organism to another
and bring about a change
 The glands that produce hormones in animals are known collectively as
the endocrine system

The major endocrine glands in the body

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By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Transport around the body

 Endocrine glands have a good blood supply as when they make hormones
they need to get them into the bloodstream (specifically the blood plasma) as
soon as possible so they can travel around the body to the target organs to bring
about the response
 Hormones only affect cells with target receptors that the hormone can bind to.
These are either found on the cell membrane, or inside cells. Receptors have to
be complementary to hormones for there to be an effect. 
 The liver regulates levels of hormones in the blood; transforming or breaking
down any that are in excess. 

How hormones work

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By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

 Important hormones in the human body:

Comparison of Nervous & Hormonal Control

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Glucagon: Extended
 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving
the production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
 Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in
the pancreas
 Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
 Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into
the blood

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

Page 5 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Exam Tip

The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as they sound
similar. Remember: 

 Glucagon is the hormone
 Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as

Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you do not get
confused in the exam!

The Hormone Adrenaline

 Adrenaline is known as the 'fight or flight' hormone as it is produced in situations
where the body may be in danger
o Flight = remove oneself rapidly from a dangerous situation eg. run away
o Fight = if flight is not possible, resort to physical combat to overcome danger
 It causes a range of different things to happen in the body, all designed to prepare it for
movement (ie fight or flight). 
 These include: 
 Increasing blood glucose concentration for increased respiration in muscle cells
 Increasing pulse rate and breathing rate so glucose and oxygen can be delivered to
muscle cells, and carbon dioxide taken away, from muscles cells more quickly
 Diverting blood flow towards muscles and away from non-essential parts of the body
such as the alimentary canal; again to ensure the reactants of respiration are as available
as possible
 Dilating pupils to allow as much light as possible to reach the retina so more
information can be sent to the brain

Exam Tip

It is worth learning this list of effects of adrenaline as it is a fairly common exam question and
can be worth several easy marks.
More on Adrenaline: Extended
More on Adrenaline: Extended

 Additional effects of adrenaline include;

o Increasing the concentration of glucose in the blood
 This help deliver more important glucose to muscles for respiration
o Increasing heart rate

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By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

 This has the same effect, to ensure that all muscles are well prepared for
high levels of activity in a flight or fight situation

Homeostasis: Definition
Homeostasis: Definition
 Homeostasis is defined as the maintenance of a constant internal
environment

Role of Insulin in Homeostasis

 Homeostasis means that internal conditions within the body (such as
temperature, blood pressure, water concentration, glucose concentration
etc) need to be kept within set limits in order to ensure that reactions in body
cells can function and therefore the organism as a whole can live
 When one of these conditions deviates far away from the normal if not brought
back within set limits the body will not function properly and the eventual
consequence without medical intervention will be death

The Role of Insulin

 Insulin is secreted into the blood at times when blood glucose levels are high
 This is (most often) directly after a meal
 The kidneys can only cope with a certain level of glucose in the blood
o If the level gets too high, glucose gets excreted and is lost in the urine
o This is like running a car with a hole in the petrol tank; valuable fuel is
being wasted
 To avoid this, insulin temporarily converts excess glucose into glycogen in the
liver and muscles
o Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration
 The glycogen is converted back to glucose several hours later when blood
glucose levels have dipped due to respiration in all tissues

Page 7 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Homeostasis
The Concept of Negative Feedback: Extended
 Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set
point and returns conditions to this set point
 It works in the following way:
o if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce
it again
o if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise
it again
 Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels
down and then bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow
range of what is considered ‘normal’

The negative feedback cycle

Page 8 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Blood Glucose Control: Extended

 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving
the production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
 Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in
the pancreas
 Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
 Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into
the blood

Page 9 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

Exam Tip

The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as they sound
similar. Remember: 

 Glucagon is the hormone
 Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as

Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you do not get
confused in the exam!

Type 1 Diabetes: Extended

Page 10 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

 Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are not able to be
regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to
produce insulin
 This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high
 It can be treated by injecting insulin
 The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen,
which reduces the blood glucose level
 Symptoms of diabetes include extreme thirst, weakness or tiredness, blurred
vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness in extreme cases
 People with Type 1 diabetes have to monitor their blood glucose levels
throughout the day as their levels of physical activity and their diet affect the
amount of insulin needed
 They can help to control their blood glucose level by being careful with
their diet -  eating foods that will not cause large increases in blood glucose
level, and by exercising, which can lower blood glucose levels due to increased
respiration in the muscles

Exam Tip

Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn the details of it.
This is the diabetes form that doctors are most concerned about because it is linked to
obesity and lifestyle factors. 

You only need to know the symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes. 

Homeostasis
The Concept of Negative Feedback: Extended
 Negative feedback occurs when conditions change from the ideal or set
point and returns conditions to this set point
 It works in the following way:
o if the level of something rises, control systems are switched on to reduce
it again
o if the level of something falls, control systems are switched on to raise
it again

Page 11 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

 Negative feedback mechanisms are usually a continuous cycle of bringing levels

down and then bringing them back up so that overall, they stay within a narrow
range of what is considered ‘normal’

The negative feedback cycle

Blood Glucose Control: Extended

 Blood glucose levels are controlled by a negative feedback mechanism involving
the production of two hormones - insulin and glucagon
 Both hormones which control blood glucose concentration are made in
the pancreas
 Insulin is produced when blood glucose rises and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen to be stored
 Glucagon is produced when blood glucose falls and stimulates liver and
muscle cells to convert stored glycogen into glucose to be released into
the blood

Page 12 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

Negative feedback regulation of blood glucose levels

Exam Tip

The terms glucagon and glycogen are very often mixed up by students as they sound
similar. Remember: 

 Glucagon is the hormone
 Glycogen is the polysaccharide glucose is stored as

Learn the differences between the spellings and what each one does so you do not get
confused in the exam!

Type 1 Diabetes: Extended

Page 13 of 14
By: Tehmina Bilal Contact: +92-3369010470

 Type 1 diabetes is a condition where the blood glucose levels are not able to be
regulated as the insulin-secreting cells in the pancreas are not able to
produce insulin
 This means that blood glucose levels are often far too high
 It can be treated by injecting insulin
 The extra insulin causes the liver to convert glucose into glycogen,
which reduces the blood glucose level
 Symptoms of diabetes include extreme thirst, weakness or tiredness, blurred
vision, weight loss and loss of consciousness in extreme cases
 People with Type 1 diabetes have to monitor their blood glucose levels
throughout the day as their levels of physical activity and their diet affect the
amount of insulin needed
 They can help to control their blood glucose level by being careful with
their diet -  eating foods that will not cause large increases in blood glucose
level, and by exercising, which can lower blood glucose levels due to increased
respiration in the muscles

Exam Tip

Type 2 diabetes is not in the specification, so you don't need to learn the details of it.
This is the diabetes form that doctors are most concerned about because it is linked to
obesity and lifestyle factors. 

You only need to know the symptoms and treatment of Type 1 diabetes. 

Page 14 of 14