ROTC MS 2:

MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE

BASIC LIFE SUPPORT2
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Understand and learn first aid for medical emergencies;

• Understand and know the signs/symptoms and treatment for different fever and heat
related injuries;
• Know the major types of head and neck injuries;
• Understand and know the signs/symptoms and treatment for different allergies, animal
bites and stings; and
• Understand the four basic ways in which poison can enter the body.

FIRST AID FOR MEDICAL EMERGENCIES

First Aid for Emergency Situations

When an emergency strikes, there's no time to start researching on how to respond. For your
own safety and the safety of your friends and family, it's a good idea to learn about emergency
protocols and first aid methods. By learning in advance, you'll ensure that you can respond
quickly and appropriately if there is an emergency situation. From natural disasters to traffic
accidents, you never know when a situation will arise that will demand quick thinking, cool
nerves, an adequate knowledge.

Be Prepared for an Emergency

The first step you can take towards emergency preparedness is education. Take time to learn
about the most common emergency situations that could affect you and your loved ones.
Research which types of natural disasters will most likely affect your community; whether it's
hurricanes, floods, or tornadoes. Consider, too, which extra risk factors may particularly affect
you and your family. For example, if you have small children and you live near a body of water,
you should make sure you understand what to do in cases of drowning.

Types of Emergencies

While each person runs into slightly different risks, depending on lifestyle and geography, many
of the most common emergency situations can happen to anyone. Health-related emergencies,
such as sudden heart attacks or strokes, can affect a surprisingly wide cross-section of the
population. Automobile accidents are naturally, taking extremely common cause of injury.
Whether an accident results in minor whiplash or more serious injuries, it's important to learn
how to respond quickly. Many emergency situations involve threatening situations with other
people. It's worth learning what to do in cases of muggings, home burglaries, and other
scenarios where your personal safety may be endangered.

Injury Prevention
Naturally, taking preventive steps to avoid injury is far better than trying to mend the problem
afterward. In many cases, a few common sense practices can go a long way. Follow the same
simple safety rules you were taught as a child, and teach them to any children you might have,
as well. For example, every child learns to look both ways before crossing the road, but many
grow up to be inveterate jaywalkers as adults. When driving, abstain from imbibing any alcohol,
instead, use a "designated driver" system or plan to take a taxi when appropriate. Finally, learn
to trust your gut. If you're walking down a dark street in a shady part of town and you begin to
question your safety, follow your instinct and find a better means of getting wherever you need
to go.

Emergency Action Steps

In emergency situations, it is important to respond quickly. A clear emergency action plan is a

good way to streamline your responses. If you break down your plan into steps, you'll be sure to
know exactly what to do. For example, your family might draw up an emergency action plan in
case of a house fire. Each family member should know where the safest route out of the house
is. There should be a designated location away from the house where everyone would meet.

First Aid

In many emergency cases, the best thing you can do is to stay calm and collected. Heightened
emotions tend to hamper your critical thinking skills and your ability to think quickly. In addition
to staying "cool under pressure", several concrete skills can make the difference in life-and-
death situations. For example, any adult and even older children should be able to apply
pressure to a wound, administer CPR, check for signs of obstructed breathing, and perform a
few other basic measures. Just knowing what to do is often the hardest part. In addition, it's a
good idea to put together a first aid kit, so you'll have an item you need on hand. Depending on
the circumstances, the kit may include bandages, clean water, an antiseptic, and other critical
supplies. A first aid kit for your car might include a blanket, while a home first aid kit may include
more medical supplies.

FEVER AND HEAT RELATED INJURIES

Heat Emergencies (Hyperthermia) is a situation where the body’s temperature increases.

Perspiration is the body’s main method of regulating its temperature. As sweat evaporates off
the skin heat is taken with it, as a result cooling down the body. If this method is impaired, or it
cannot keep up, the body will quickly over heat.

Causes & Prevention:

• Exercising in hot humid and/or polluted weather and becoming dehydrated.

• Drinking alcohol, caffeinated, or carbonated drinks (contributes to dehydration).
• Over using saunas, whirlpools, and warm environments such as gyms, and aerobic
classes.

There are 3 levels of heat emergencies:

• Cramps: painful muscular involuntary contraction

A muscle cramp is a strong, painful contraction or tightening of a muscle that comes on
suddenly and lasts from a few seconds to several minutes. It often occurs in the legs. A
 muscle cramp is also called a charley horse. Night time leg cramps are usually sudden
spasms, or tightening of muscles in the calf.

Signs/Symptoms:
• Sweating or moist skin, tired, irritable and thirsty.

Causes of Leg Cramps:

• Dehydration or inadequate intake of water.
• Depleted levels of potassium and sodium. (salt)
• Depleted carbohydrate levels.
• Tense or stiff muscles.
• Vitamin deficiencies may also cause cramps.
• Poor blood circulation also causes cramps.

Treatment:
• Remove them from the heat. Gently stretch/massage affected area.
• Slowly rehydrate with water, juice, or sport drinks. Rest for a couple of hours.
• Avoid alcohol, caffeinated and/or carbonated drinks

• Exhaustion:
Heat exhaustion is a heat-related illness that can occur after you’ve been exposed to
high temperatures, and it often is accompanied by dehydration.

There are two types of heat exhaustion:

• water depletion – signs include excessive thirst, weakness, headache, and loss of
consciousness
• salt depletion

Signs/Symptoms:
• sweating, tired, irritable, thirsty, lethargic, slight headache, nausea, dizzy/weak
may have slightly elevated temperature.

Treatment:
• Remove from source of heat.
• Slowly rehydrate by drinking water, juice, or sports drinks.
• Rest is very important to prevent a reoccurrence.
• Remove sweaty clothing.
• Fan or gently cool the skin with wet towels or ice packs.
• Avoid alcohol, caffeinated and/or carbonated.
• If vomiting occurs get an ambulance.

• Stroke: (most serious)

Heatstroke is a condition caused by your body overheating, usually as a result of
prolonged exposure to or physical exertion in high temperatures. The most serious form
of heat injury, heatstroke can occur if your body temperature rises to 104F (40C) or
higher. Heatstroke requires emergency treatment.

Signs/Symptoms:
• Elevated body temperature
• Very tired/weak
• Sweating may stop – this is not a good sign
 • Severe headache
• Red hot dry skin
• Rapid, weak pulse becoming irregular, rapid breathing or reduced/absent vital signs
(consciousness, breathing, pulse)

Treatment:
• Remove from heat source.
• Place in recovery position.
• Call for an ambulance.
• Monitor/treat ABCs.
• Remove sweaty clothing.
• Fan or gently cool the skin with cool towels or ice packs.
• Do not douse with cold water.
• At this point it is too late to give fluids by mouth and it may induce vomiting.

Stroke: the sudden death of brain cells due to lack of oxygen, caused by blockage of
blood flow or rupture of an artery to the brain. Sudden loss of speech, weakness, or
paralysis of one side of the body can be symptoms.

The medical term for stroke is cerebrovascular accident, or CVA.

• Thrombotic/ischemic stroke caused by blood clots)
• Hemorrhagic stroke (caused by ruptured blood vessels that cause brain bleeding)
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA) (a “mini-stroke,” caused by a temporary blood clot)
• Embolic stroke – when a blood clot forms in another part of the body and moves to
the brain.

Signs/Symptoms:
• Numbness, tingling, paralysis on one side of the body, extremities, hands and feet
• Slurred speech, not making sense.
• Trouble understanding you
• Uneven pupils
• Nausea or vomiting
• Decreased level of consciousness.

Management:
• Help them get in a comfortable position on their side, make sure they are resting.
• Activate the ambulance
• Reassure them that help is on the way.
• Keep them warm with a blanket
• Do not give them anything to eat or drink

Note: It is extremely common for people to ignore the warning signs of a stroke.
Unfortunately, this is one reason why so many people die from this disease, because
they don’t get help soon enough. A mini stroke is a condition where the casualty
experiences similar warning signs as that of a stroke, but these warning signs go away
on their own; this is a warning sign that a serious stroke may occur and the person
needs medical help immediately. This condition is sometimes called Transient Ischemic
Attack (TIA).

HEAD AND NECK PROBLEMS

Trauma is the third most common cause of death. Head injury contributes significantly to the
outcome in over half of trauma-related deaths. It is the most common cause of death in young
adults (age 15–24 years), males & females. Head injury associated with traumatic brain injury
(TBI) occurs with an incidence of 20–40 cases per 100,000 people per year. Road traffic
accidents (RTAs) are the most common cause of TBI followed by falls and assaults.

Head Injury

A head injury is any trauma to the scalp, skull, or brain. The injury may be only a minor bump on
the skull or a serious brain injury.

Major Types of Head Injuries

• Hematoma is a collection, or clotting, of blood outside the blood vessels. It can be very
serious if a hematoma occurs in the brain. The clotting can cause pressure to build
inside your skull, which can cause you to lose consciousness.
• Hemorrhage is uncontrolled bleeding. There can be bleeding in the space around your
brain, which is a subarachnoid hemorrhage, or bleeding within your brain tissue, which is
an intracerebral hemorrhage. Subarachnoid bleeds often cause headaches and
vomiting. The severity of intracerebral hemorrhages depends on how much bleeding
there is, but over time any amount of blood can cause pressure to build.

• Concussion is a brain injury that occurs when your brain bounces against the hard
walls of your skull. Generally speaking, the loss of function associated with concussions
is temporary. However, repeated concussions can eventually lead to permanent
damage.

• Edema is any brain injury which can lead to edema, or swelling. Many injuries cause
swelling of the surrounding tissues, but it’s more serious when it occurs in your brain.
Your skull can’t stretch to accommodate the swelling, which leads to a buildup of
pressure in your brain. This can cause your brain to press against your skull.

• Skull Fracture: Unlike most bones in your body, your skull doesn’t have bone marrow.
This makes the skull very strong and difficult to break. A broken skull is unable to absorb
the impact, making it more likely that there will also be damage to your brain.

Causes of Head Injury

In general, head injuries can be divided into two categories based on what causes them. They
can either be head injuries due to blows on the head or head injuries due to shaking. Head
injuries caused by shaking are most common in infants and small children, but they can occur
any time you experience violent shaking. Head injuries caused by a blow on the head are
usually associated with: motor vehicle accidents, falls, physical assaults, sports-related
accidents. In most cases, your skull will protect your brain from serious harm.

Preventive Measures Health Promotion

• Prevent car and motorcycle accidents

• Wear safety helmets
• Preventative measures include safer roads, barriers to prevent falls, and gun control
legislation.
 • In addition, bicycle and motorcycle helmets, seatbelts, airbags, and soft surfaces on
playgrounds are effective.
• 25-30% of head injuries in infants are the result of an abuse – healthcare
professionals need to be trained in safeguarding and to raise concerns without delay.

• When Does a Head Injury Require Medical Attention?

Head injuries shouldn’t be taken lightly. See your doctor right away if you think you have
the symptoms of a serious head injury. Go to an emergency room if you experience loss
of consciousness, confusion, or disorientation. Even if you don’t go to the ER
immediately after the accident, you should seek help if you still have symptoms after a
day or two. Motion can sometimes make a head injury worse, and emergency medical
personnel are trained to move patients carefully without causing more damage.

First Aid
If severe head trauma occurs
• Keep the person still until medical help arrives.
• Keep the injured person lying down and quiet, with the head and shoulders slightly
elevated.
• Don't move the person unless necessary, and avoid moving the person's neck. If the
person is wearing a helmet, don't remove it.
• Stop any bleeding. Apply firm pressure to the wound with sterile gauze or a clean
cloth. But don't apply direct pressure to the wound if you suspect a skull fracture.
• Watch for changes in breathing and alertness. If the person shows no signs of
circulation — no breathing, coughing or movement — begin CPR.

Emergency Management

• Supportive Measures:
• Endotracheal intubation for patients with decreased level of consciousness and
poor airway protection.
• Cautiously lower blood pressure to a MAP less than 130 mm Hg, but avoid
excessive hypotension.
• Rapidly stabilize vital signs, and simultaneously acquire emergent CT scan.
• Maintain euvolemia, using normotonic rather than hypotonic fluids, to maintain
brain perfusion without exacerbating brain edema
• Avoid hyperthermia.
• Facilitate transfer to the operating room or ICU.

• Decrease cerebral edema:

• Modest passive hyperventilation to reduce PaCO2
• Mannitol, 0.5-1.0 gm/kg slow iv push
• Furosemide 5-20 mg iv
• Elevate head 20-30 degrees, avoid any neck vein compression
• Sedate and paralyze if necessary with morphine and vecuronium (struggling,
coughing etc will elevate intracranial pressure)

• Surgical Evacuation of hematoma:

• No surgical intervention if collection <10ml Indication of surgical decompression:
• The GCS score decreases by 2 or more points between the time of injury and
hospital evaluation. The patient presents with fixed and dilated pupils.
• The intracranial pressure (ICP) exceeds 20 mm Hg Exception
 • In Subdural hematoma with GCS=15- hematoma >10mm ,or >5mm midline shift -
--- requires Surgical decompression SAH: when a cerebral aneurysm is identified
on angiography, clipping and coiling is done to prevent re-bleed.

Intracranial pressure monitoring

There are 3 ways to monitor pressure in the skull (intracranial pressure).

• INTRAVENTRICULAR CATHETER. The intraventricular catheter is the most accurate

monitoring method. To insert an intraventricular catheter, a hole is drilled through the
skull. The catheter is inserted through the brain into the lateral ventricle. This area of
the brain contains liquid (cerebrospinal fluid or CSF) that protects the brain and spinal
cord. The intraventricular catheter can also be used to drain fluid out through the
catheter. The catheter may be hard to get into place when the intracranial pressure is
high.

• SUBDURAL SCREW: This method is used if monitoring needs to be done right away.
A hollow screw is inserted through a hole drilled in the skull. It is placed through the
membrane that protects the brain and spinal cord (dura mater). This allows the
sensor to record from inside the subdural space.
• EPIDURAL SENSOR: An epidural sensor is inserted between the skull and dural
tissue. The epidural sensor is placed through a hole drilled in the skull. This
procedure is less invasive than other methods, but it cannot remove excess CSF.

Why is the test performed?

This test is most often done to measure intracranial pressure. It may be done when there
is a severe head injury or brain/nervous system disease. It also may be done after
surgery to remove a tumor or fix damage to a blood vessel if the surgeon is worried about
brain swelling. High intracranial pressure can be treated by draining CSF through the
catheter. It can also be treated by changing the ventilator settings for people who are on
a respirator, or by giving certain medicines through a vein (intravenously).

Normal Results - Normally, the ICP ranges from 1 to 20 mm Hg. Talk to your health care
provider about the meaning of your specific test results.

Risks from the procedure may include:

• Bleeding
• Brain herniation or injury from the increased pressure
• Damage to the brain tissue
• Inability to find the ventricle and place
• Infection
• Risks of general anesthesia

Nursing management in critical care - The critical-care nurse needs to be alert to the
potential problems that may be encountered by the brain-injured patient, who may be at
risk of sudden deterioration at any time.

Haemodynamic/fluid management - The minimum monitoring required for a critically

head-injured patient should include continuous arterial blood pressure monitoring, core
 body temperature, respiration rate and pattern and continuous ECG. These patients may
develop arrhythmias due to induced hypothermia and/or electrolyte imbalances. ICP
monitoring should be employed in head-injured patients who are ventilated and
paralysed where neurological deterioration cannot be readily observed clinically.

Temperature control - In head-injured patients with hypoxia and ensuing ischaemia, the
oxygen demand of brain tissue escalates. There may also be damage to the
temperature-regulating centre in the hypothalamus, which may cause body temperature
to fluctuate. ECG monitoring and regular electrolyte observation is essential. Blood
glucose control Hyperglycaemia is known to exacerbate cerebral lactic acidosis and
consequently aggravates cerebral ischaemia in head injury. Therefore glucose solutions
should be avoided, and initially hourly blood sugar monitoring/insulin infusion
implemented to keep blood glucose below 11mmol/L.

Positioning: Elevation of the head from 15 to 30 degrees. Nutritional support Severe

head injury is associated with a hypermetabolic state with, in some cases, the metabolic
rate increasing by as much as 40 to 100%. It is therefore important to begin feeding as
early as possible. The feeding tube should always be passed via the orogastric route in
head-injured patients, unless a basal skull fracture has been definitively ruled out in all
patients.

Complications
• Amnesia: common, and may be retrograde and/or antegrade.
• Raised intracranial pressure, cerebral oedema.
• Cerebral herniation.
• Meningitis: following skull fracture, may occur weeks to years later.
• Skull fractures
• Diffuse axonal injury
• Penetrating injuries
• Seizures
• Concussion
• Intracranial haemorrhage
• Extradural
• Subdural
• Subarachnoid
• Intracerebral

Prognosis
• Head injury is the leading cause of death in people aged 1-40 years.
• Death rates are estimated at 0.2% of all patients who attend A&E.
• The annual incidence of disability in adults with head injuries admitted to hospital is
100-150 per 100,000 population.

NECK PAIN

Neck pain is a common complaint. Neck muscles can be strained from poor posture — whether
it's leaning over your computer or hunching over your workbench. Osteoarthritis also is a
common cause of neck pain.
Rarely, neck pain can be a symptom of a more serious problem. Seek medical care if your neck
pain is accompanied by numbness or loss of strength in your arms or hands or if you have
shooting pain into your shoulder or down your arm.

Signs and symptoms include:

• Pain that's often worsened by holding your head in one place for long periods, such as
when driving or working at a computer
• Muscle tightness and spasms
• Decreased ability to move your head
• Headache

When to see a doctor

Most neck pain improves gradually with home treatment. If not, see your doctor. Seek
immediate care if severe neck pain results from an injury, such as a motor vehicle accident,
diving accident or fall.

Contact a doctor if your neck pain:

• Is severe
• Persists for several days without relief
• Spreads down arms or legs
• Is accompanied by headache, numbness, weakness or tingling

Causes

Your neck is flexible and supports the weight of your head, so it can be vulnerable to injuries
and conditions that cause pain and restrict motion. Neck pain causes include:

• Muscle strains. Overuse, such as too many hours hunched over your computer or
smartphone, often triggers muscle strains. Even minor things, such as reading in bed or
gritting your teeth, can strain neck muscles.

• Worn joints. Just like the other joints in your body, your neck joints tend to wear down
with age. Osteoarthritis causes the cushions (cartilage) between your bones (vertebrae)
to deteriorate. Your body then forms bone spurs that affect joint motion and cause pain.

• Nerve compression. Herniated disks or bone spurs in the vertebrae of your neck can
press on the nerves branching out from the spinal cord.

• Injuries. Rear-end auto collisions often result in whiplash injury, which occurs when the
head is jerked backward and then forward, straining the soft tissues of the neck.

• Diseases. Certain diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, meningitis or cancer, can

cause neck pain.

Prevention

Most neck pain is associated with poor posture combined with age-related wear and tear. To
help prevent neck pain, keep your head centered over your spine. Some simple changes in your
daily routine may help. Consider trying to:
 • Use good posture. When standing and sitting, be sure your shoulders are in a straight
line over your hips and your ears are directly over your shoulders.
• Take frequent breaks. If you travel long distances or work long hours at your computer,
get up, move around and stretch your neck and shoulders.
• Adjust your desk, chair and computer so that the monitor is at eye level. Knees
should be slightly lower than hips. Use your chair's armrests.
• Avoid tucking the phone between your ear and shoulder when you talk. Use a headset
or speakerphone instead.
• If you smoke, quit. Smoking can put you at higher risk of developing neck pain.
• Avoid carrying heavy bags with straps over your shoulder. The weight can strain
your neck.
• Sleep in a good position. Your head and neck should be aligned with your body. Use a
small pillow under your neck. Try sleeping on your back with your thighs elevated on
pillows, which will flatten your spinal muscles.

ALLERGIES, ANIMAL BITES AND STINGS

• Bites and Stings:

Signs/Symptoms: wound (animal or human bite) or swelling and pain (insect bite).

Treatment:
• For animal and human bites, cleanse wound with soap and water and apply iodine
containing antiseptic; submit animal for rabies test.
• Prevent exertion and taking of stimulants by victim. For insect stings apply cortisone
ointments, soothing lotions, or cool compress.
• Persons who are allergic to insect stings should carry adrenaline with them at ll times.

• Snake bite: not all snakes are poisonous, but if you get bitten by a poisonous one
you better rush to medical help immediately. Because snake anti-venom depends
on the type of a snake that caused the bite, if you can, try and remember the color
and pattern of the snake so they can identify it and give you the correct anti-
venom.

Treatment:
• Have the person rest with the bitten body part lower than the heart.
• For poisonous snake bite, cooling the site of the wound with ice will slow down
absorption of poisons; antivenum treatment is required only for a small number
of reptile bites.
• Seek medical help as soon as possible.
• If the person becomes unconscious begin the primary survey.

Prevention: If you will be in an area where there may be snakes;

• Wear high boots that cover your calves.
• Make noise with your feet as you walk to scare off any snakes.
• If there are trees look on the branches as you walk.
• Check ahead of time what types of snakes might be in the area. So if a bite
does occur you can notify the hospital what kind of snake it was,
• Check ahead of time with local hospitals to see if they do have snake anti-
venom.
 Notes:
• Unless you want poison in your mouth do not cut the bite site and suck the
blood out.
• Do not try to catch the snake it will bite again.
• There are many snake bite kits on the market, all designed to suck the poison
out.
• This may work somewhat, but blood flows very quickly and the poison may
spread very quickly.
• Do not tie a tourniquet to try to stop the blood from flowing. This may cause
death to the limb from lack of blood flow.

• Insect bite: these are tiny insect like bugs that live in the woods and can easily fall
on you as you walk by. They are very small, you don’t feel them, and they are very
hard to see. They burrow slightly under the first layer of the skin and stay there.
The biggest problem is that many times they carry diseases such as Rocky
Mountain Fever, or Lyme disease.

Signs/Symptoms:
• Red, itchy hives
• Swelling
• Numbness or pain in muscles and joints
• Flu-like symptoms
• Heart palpitations
• Death can occur from untreated diseases from ticks.

Treatment:
• If possible consult a physician for tick removals, as tearing it may contribute to
the spread of a virus or bacteria.
• Remove the tick using tweezers. Make sure you get all of it.
• Remove from the head and make sure the entire tick is removed fully intact.
• Do not tear or crush the tick
• Do not use a match or any kind of fluid to remove the tick.
• Wash the area with soap and water.
• Seek medical help (family doctor) to obtain anti-biotics.

Prevention:
• When doing outdoor activities wear long sleeve clothing, a cap and long pants.
• After the activity take a few minutes and examine self or each other for ticks,
they usually end up on the scalp, shoulders or upper back.

POISONING

A poison is a substance which enters the body and can cause illness or death. It may act within
a matter of seconds (e.g. carbon monoxide) or a matter of years (e.g. car pollution). There are
four basic ways in which poison can enter the body; by swallowing, breathing, injecting, or
absorbing. Any of these methods can be life threatening. Many times children are the innocent
casualties.

Four Routes of Poisoning

• Ingestion – lye, rat poison, drain cleaners

 Ingested Poisons:
• Examples can include bad food, household cleaners, perfumes, nail polish remover,
etc.
• If the person is having trouble breathing, is convulsing, is unconscious, or is in pain,
call the ambulance immediately.
• If the person appears to be fine but you want to make sure call your doctor or local
hospital.
• In order for them to help you they need to know what the person took, how much,
their age and weight, and their present condition. They will either tell you to seek
medical help immediately, give them something to drink, or to monitor them to make
sure they don’t get worse.
• Make sure you do not induce vomiting unless you are told to do so by a physician as
some substances are corrosive and may burn on the way up.
• Also, do not give anything to drink unless instructed by a physician as some
substances may react more with liquids.
• Always keep cleaners and chemicals high up so children cannot access them.

Breathe/inhaled Poisons:
• This can include fumes from household cleaners, industrial products, smoke, etc.
• Fresh air is the immediate first aid treatment.
• But first make sure you are not putting yourself in danger. Seek medical help for the
person immediately.
• Never mix cleaners unless it specifies on the container. Never use chemicals in
poorly ventilated areas.
• Be aware of carbon monoxide as it cannot be smelled, has no taste and cannot be
seen. It can be produced by any engine (e.g. house furnace, car) or even a fireplace
with poor ventilation.
• Every home should have a carbon monoxide detector. If the detector begins to
sound you need to leave the house immediately and call the fire department from the
neighbor’s house.
• Carbon monoxide poisoning makes you feel sleepy and drowsy and can have an
effect in a matter of minutes so you aren’t aware of what is happening.

• Injection – drugs
Injected Poisons:
• Some examples include needles, broken glass, mosquitoes, sider bites, bee strings,
etc.
• As soon as possible remove the object from skin. Clean the area thoroughly with
soap and water.
• If an allergic reaction occurs, or you believe there is a risk of infection, seek medical
help.

• Absorption - household cleaners, insecticides

Absorbed Poisons:
• These are poisons which enter the body through the skin, but do not cause a
puncture. Some examples are household cleaners, industrial products, poisonous
plants, etc.
• Remove the substance as soon as possible by using large amounts of running water.
• Do your best not to contaminate other body parts.
 • There are some chemicals that will react more with water, but if you leave them on
the skin they will react anyway with skin moisture.
• Seek medical help. If you work with chemicals make sure you know how to do the
job safely and always use safety equipment.

• Inhalation – sprays, cleaning fluid

ROTC MS 2:
MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE
COMBAT TRAINING FOR INDIVIDUAL SOLDIER 1
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Understand and visualize the training of an individual soldier in preparation for combat
assignment; and
• Understand how an individual soldier does the night training using different techniques.

COMBAT SKILLS OF A SOLDIER

COVER, CONCEALMENT, AND CAMOUFLAGE

GENERAL

If the enemy can see you, he can hit you with his fire. So you must be concealed from enemy
observation and have cover from enemy fire. When the terrain does not provide natural cover
and concealment, you must prepare your cover and use natural and man-made materials to
camouflage yourself, your equipment, and your position. This chapter provides guidance on the
preparation and use of cover, concealment, and camouflage.

COVER

Cover gives protection from bullets, fragments of exploding rounds, flame, nuclear effects, and
biological and chemical agents. Cover can also conceal you from enemy observation.

Cover can be natural or man-made.

Natural cover includes such things as logs, trees, stumps, ravines, and hollows. Manmade
cover includes such things as fighting positions, trenches, walls, rubble, and craters. Even the
smallest depression or fold in the ground can give some cover. Look for and use every bit of
cover the terrain offers. In combat, you need protection from enemy direct and indirect fire. To
get this protection in the defense, build a fighting position (man-made cover) to add to the
natural cover afforded by the terrain.

To get protection from enemy fire in the offense or when moving, use routes that put cover
between you and the places where the enemy is known or thought to be. Use ravines, gullies,
hills, wooded areas, walls, and other cover to keep the enemy from seeing and firing at you.
Avoid open areas, and do not skyline yourself on hilltops and ridges.
CONCEALMENT

Concealment is anything that hides you from enemy observation. Concealment does not protect
you from enemy fire. Do not think that you are protected from the enemy’s fire just because you
are concealed. Concealment, like cover, can also be natural or man-made. Natural concealment
includes such things as bushes, grass, trees, and shadows. If possible, natural concealment
should not be disturbed. Man-made concealment includes such things as battle-dress uniforms,
camouflage nets, face paint, and natural material that has been moved from its original location.
Man-made concealment must blend into the natural concealment provided by the terrain.
• Light discipline, noise discipline, movement discipline, and the use of camouflage
contribute to concealment.

• Light discipline is controlling the use of lights at night by such things as not smoking in
the open, not walking around with a flashlight on, and not using vehicle headlights.

• Noise discipline is taking action to deflect sounds generated by your unit (such as the
operating of equipment) away from the enemy and, when possible, using methods to
communicate that do not generate sounds (arm-and-hand signals).

• Movement discipline is such things as not moving about fighting positions unless
necessary and not moving on routes that lack cover and concealment. In the defense,
build a well-camouflaged fighting position and avoid moving about. In the offense,
conceal yourself and your equipment with camouflage and move in woods or on terrain
that gives concealment. Darkness cannot hide you from enemy observation in either
offense or defense. The enemies have night vision devices and other detection means to
find you in both daylight and darkness.

CAMOUFLAGE

Camouflage is anything you use to keep yourself, your equipment, and your position from
looking like what they are. Both natural and man-made material can be used for camouflage.
Change and improve your camouflage often. The time between changes and improvements
depends on the weather and on the material used. Natural camouflage will often die, fade, or
otherwise lose its effectiveness. Likewise, man-made camouflage may wear off or fade. When
those things happen, you and your equipment or position may not blend with the surroundings.
That may make it easy for the enemy to spot you.

CAMOUFLAGE CONSIDERATIONS

• Movement draws attention. When you give arm-and-hand signals or walk about your
position, your movement can be seen by the naked eye at long ranges. In the defense,
stay low and move only when necessary. In the offense, move only on covered and
concealed routes.

• Positions must not be where the enemy expects to find them. Build positions on the
side of a hill, away from road junctions or lone buildings, and in covered and concealed
places. Avoid open areas.
 • Outlines and shadows may reveal your position or equipment to air or ground
observers. Outlines and shadows can be broken up with camouflage. When moving,
stay in the shadows when possible.

• Shine may also attract the enemy’s attention. In the dark, it may be a light such as
burning cigarette or flashlight. In daylight, it can be reflected light from polished surfaces
such as shiny mess gear, a worn helmet, a windshield, a watch crystal and band, or
exposed skin. A light, or its reflection, from a position may help the enemy detect the
position. To reduce shine, cover your skin with clothing and face paint. However, in a
nuclear attack, darkly painted skin can absorb more thermal energy and may burn more
readily than bare skin. Also, dull the surfaces of equipment and vehicles with paint, mud,
or some type of camouflage material.

• Shape is outline or form. The shape of a helmet is easily recognized. A human body is
also easily recognized. Use camouflage and concealment to breakup shapes to blend
them with their surroundings. Be careful not to overdo it. The colors of your skin,
uniform, and equipment may help the enemy detect you if the colors contrast with the
background. For example, a green uniform will contrast with snow-covered terrain.
Camouflage yourself and your equipment to blend with the surroundings.

• Dispersion is the spreading of men, vehicles, and equipment over a wide area. It is
usually easier for the enemy to detect soldiers when they are bunched. So, spread out.
The distance between you and your fellow soldier will vary with the terrain, degrees of
visibility, and enemy situation. Distances will normally be set by unit leaders or by a
unit’s standing operating procedure (SOP).

HOW TO CAMOUFLAGE

Before camouflaging, study the terrain and vegetation of the area in which you are operating.
Then pick and use the camouflage material that best blends with that area. When moving from
one area to another, change camouflage as needed to blend with the surroundings. Take grass,
leaves, brush, and other material from your location and apply it to your uniform and equipment
and put face paint on your skin.

• Fighting Positions. When building a fighting position, camouflage it and the dirt taken
from it. Camouflage the dirt used as frontal, flank, rear, and overhead cover. Also
camouflage the bottom of the hole to prevent detection from the air. If necessary, take
excess dirt away from the position (to the rear).

• Do not over camouflage. Too much camouflage material may actually disclose a
position. Get your camouflage material from a wide area. An area stripped of all or most
of its vegetation may draw attention. Do not wait until the position is complete to
camouflage it. Camouflage the position as you build.

• Do not leave shiny or light-colored objects lying about. Hide mess kits, mirrors, food
containers, and white underwear and towels. Do not remove your shirt in the open. Your
skin may shine and be seen. Never use fires where there is a chance that the flame will
be seen or the smoke will be smelled by the enemy. Also, cover up tracks and other
signs of movement.
When camouflage is complete, inspect the position from the enemy’s side. This should be done
from about 35 meters forward of the position. Then check the camouflage periodically to see
that it stays natural-looking and conceals the position. When the camouflage becomes
ineffective, change and improve it.

• Helmets. Camouflage your helmet with the issue helmet cover or make a cover of cloth
or burlap that is colored to blend with the terrain. The cover should fit loosely with the
flaps folded under the helmet or left hanging. The hanging flaps may break up the
helmet outline. Leaves, grass, or sticks can also be attached to the cover. Use
camouflage bands, strings, burlap strips, or rubber bands to hold those in place. If there
is no material for a helmet cover, disguise and dull helmet surface with irregular patterns
of paint or mud.

• Uniforms. Most uniforms come already camouflaged. However, it may be necessary to

add more camouflage to make the uniform blend better with the surroundings. To do
this, put mud on the uniform or attach leaves, grass, or small branches to it. Too much
camouflage, however, may draw attention.

• Skin. Exposed skin reflects light and may draw the enemy’s attention. Even very dark
skin, because of its natural oil, will reflect light.

REACTING TO GROUND FLARES

The enemy puts out ground flares as warning devices. He sets them off himself or attaches
tripwires to them for you to trip on and set them off. He usually puts the flares in places he can
watch.

If you are caught in the light of a ground flare, move quickly out of the lighted area. The enemy
will know where the ground flare is and will be ready to fire into that area. Move well away from
the lighted area. While moving out of the area, look for other team members. Try to follow or join
them to keep the team together.

REACTING TO AERIAL FLARES

The enemy uses aerial flares to light up vital areas. They can be set off like ground flares; fired
from hand projectors, grenade launchers, mortars, and artillery; or dropped from aircraft. If you
hear the firing of an aerial flare while you are moving, hit the ground (behind cover if possible)
while the flare is rising and before it bursts and illuminates. If moving where it is easy to blend
with the background (such as in a forest) and you are caught in the light of an aerial flare, freeze
in place until the flare burns out. If you are caught in the light of an aerial flare while moving in
an open area, immediately crouch low or lie down. If you are crossing an obstacle, such as a
barbed-wire fence or a wall, and get caught in the light of an aerial flare, crouch low and stay
down until the flare burns out. The sudden light of a bursting flare may temporarily blind both
you and the enemy. When the enemy uses a flare to spot you, he spoils his own night vision. To
protect your night vision, close one eye while the flare is burning. When the flare burns out, the
eye that was closed will still have its night vision.

FIGHTING POSITIONS

GENERAL
When defending, or when temporarily halted while making an attack, you must seek cover from
fire and concealment from observation. Cover and concealment are best provided by some type
of fighting position. This may be an existing hole, a hastily dug prone shelter, or a well-prepared
position with overhead cover. The time available for preparation determines how well you build
your position.

Your fighting position must:

• Allow you to fire.
• Protect you from observation and direct and indirect fire.

COVER

The cover of your fighting position must be strong enough to protect you from small arms fire,
indirect fire fragments, and the blast wave of nuclear explosions. The position should have
frontal cover to give protection from small arms fire from the front. Natural frontal cover (trees,
rocks, logs, and rubble) is best, because it is hard for the enemy to detect a position that is
concealed by natural cover. If natural cover is not available, use the dirt taken from the hole you
dig to build additional cover. The cover can be improved by putting the dirt in sandbags and
then wetting them.

Frontal cover must be:

• Thick enough (at least 46 cm of dirt) to stop small arms fire.

• High enough to protect your head when you fire from behind the cover.
• Far enough in front of the hole to allow room for elbow holes and sector stakes so
that you can fire to the oblique.
• Long enough to give you cover and hide the muzzle blast of your rifle when you fire
to the oblique.

Your fighting position should be built so that, when you come under direct fire from your front,
you can move behind the frontal cover for protection and yet fire to the oblique.

CONCEALMENT

If your position can be detected, it can be hit by enemy fire. If it can be hit, you can be killed in it.
Therefore, your position must be so well hidden that the enemy will have a hard time detecting it
even after he is in hand-grenade range.

Natural, undisturbed concealment is better than man-made concealment because:

• It is already prepared.
• It usually will not attract the enemy’s attention.
• It need not be replaced.

While digging your position, try not to disturb the natural concealment around it. Put the unused
dirt from the hole behind the position and camouflage it.

Camouflage material that does not have to be replaced (rocks, logs, live bushes, and grass) is
best. You should not use so much camouflage that your position looks different from its
surroundings.
Your position must be concealed from enemy aircraft as well as from ground troops. If the
position is under a bush or tree, or in a building, it is less likely to be seen from above. Leaves,
straw, or grass placed on the floor of the hole will keep the fresh earth from contrasting with the
ground around it. Do not use sticks, as they may stop grenades from rolling— into the grenade
sumps.

HOW TO BUILD FIGHTING POSITIONS

• HASTY FIGHTING POSITION

When there is little time for preparation, build a hasty fighting position. It should be
behind whatever cover is available. It should give frontal cover from enemy direct fire
but allow firing to the front and the oblique. The term hasty does not mean that there
is no digging.

If there is a natural hole or ditch available, use it. If not, dig a prone shelter that will
give some protection. The hole should be about one-half meter (18 to 20 in) deep.
Use the dirt from the hole to build cover around the edge of the position.

• TWO-MAN FIGHTING POSITION

In the defense, you and another soldier will build a two-man fighting position.
Improve your position as time permits.

Keep the hole small. The smaller the hole, the less likely it is that rounds, grenades,
or airburst fragments will get into it. It should be large enough for you and your buddy
in full combat gear. It should extend beyond the edges of the frontal cover enough to
let you and your buddy observe and fire to the front. The hole is usually dug straight,
but it may be curved around the frontal cover. Curving the hole around the frontal
cover may be necessary in close terrain to allow better observation and fire to the
front and to the next flank position. To curve the hole, simply extend one or both
ends of it around the frontal cover.

A curved hole lets one of you watch for the enemy to the front while the other sleeps
or eats. Also, you can observe and fire to the front when not being fired at, and move
back behind the frontal cover when under heavy fire.

• ONE-MAN FIGHTING POSITION

Sometimes you may have to build and occupy a one-man fighting position. Except
for its size, a one-man position is built the same way as a two-man fighting position.
The hole of a one-man position is only large enough for you and your equipment.

• MACHINE GUN FIGHTING POSITION

If you are in a machine gun crew, you and the other members must build a machine
gun fighting position. However, before you can start work on the position, your leader
must:

• Position the machine gun.

• Assign it a primary (and a secondary, if required) sector of fire.
 • Assign it a principal direction of fire (PDF) or final protective line (FPL).

NOTE: The FPL is a line on which the gun fires grazing fire across the unit’s front.
Grazing fire is fired 1 meter above the ground. When an FPL is not assigned, a PDF
is. A PDF is a direction toward which the gun must be pointed when not firing at
targets in other parts of its sector.

• DRAGON FIGHTING POSITION

The Dragon can be fired from either a one-man or a two-man fighting position.
However, you must make some changes in the positions. Like the machine gun, a
Dragon needs a range card. Prepare it before digging your hole.

Dig the hole wide enough to let the muzzle end of the launcher extend 15 cm beyond
the front of the hole and the rear of the launcher, extend out over the rear of the hole.
This is to keep the back blast out of the hole.

• 90-MM RECOILLESS RIFLE FIGHTING POSITION

Build a 90-mm recoilless rifle (RCLR) position like a Dragon position, but dig the hole
a little longer when firing to the right side of the frontal cover. That lets the assistant
gunner work from the right side of the RCLR. Prepare your range card before digging
the hole. Also, clear the back blast area before firing the RCLR.

• LIGHT ANTITANK WEAPON (M72A2) AND FLAME ASSAULT SHOULDER

WEAPON (FLASH) FIGHTING POSITION

There is no special fighting position for the M72A2 or FLASH. They can be fired from
any fighting position. Before firing any of these weapons, clear the back blast area.

MOVEMENT

GENERAL

Normally, you will spend more time moving than fighting. You must use proper movement
techniques to avoid contact with the enemy when you are not prepared for contact. The
fundamentals of movement discussed in this chapter provide techniques that all soldiers should
learn. These techniques should be practiced until they become second nature.

MOVEMENT TECHNIQUES

Your unit’s ability to move depends on your movement skills and those of your fellow soldiers.
Use the following techniques to avoid being seen or heard by the enemy:

• Camouflage yourself and your equipment.

• Tape your dog tags together and to the chain so they cannot slide or rattle. Tape or
pad the parts of your weapon and equipment that rattle or are so loose that they may
 snag (the tape or padding must not interfere with the operation of the weapon or
equipment). Jump up and down and listen for rattles.
• Wear soft, well-fitting clothes.
• Do not carry unnecessary equipment. Move from covered position to revered
position (taking no longer than 3 to 5 seconds between positions).
• Stop, look, and listen before moving. Look for your next position before leaving a
position.
• Look for covered and concealed routes on which to move.
• Change direction slightly from time to time when moving through tall grass.
• Stop, look, and listen when birds or animals are alarmed (the enemy may be
nearby).
• Use battlefield noises, such as weapon noises, to conceal movement noises.
• Cross roads and trails at places that have the most cover and concealment (large
culverts, low spots, curves, or bridges).
• Avoid steep slopes and places with loose dirt or stones.
• Avoid cleared, open areas and tops of hills and ridges.

Night training – Using your eyes effectively at night requires application of the following:

• Principle s of Night Vision

• Dark adaptation – means allowing your eyes to become accustomed to low level
of illumination.
• Off Center Vision – techniques in keeping your attention focused to an object
without locking directly at it.
• Scanning – it using off center vision to observe an area or an object.

• Techniques in Night Vision

• Avoid straining your eyes.

• Sudden light destroy our sight vision
• Adapt your seeing at night vision.
• Human eye for night vision by staying in the dark for about one hour before you
go out.
• Prepare your eyes for night vision by staying in the darkness for about one hour
before you go out.

• Problem on Night Movement

• Night Vision – adapt in seeing at night by enlarging the pupil in order to let in more
light. Keep cut of light around you and do not straight to light.

• Appearance and sizes – darkness changes appearance and sizes of an object:

• A tree looks smaller because tips and twigs of branches cannot be seen. An
airplane caught by the beam of searching light looks large.
• Night glasses make it possible to see the objective that would be small.
• Light is visible at night ordinary condition for darkness.

• Sound and Smell

 • Learn to identify, evaluate, and react to common battlefield noises and the
common sound in your area of operation. All of these sounds like a snap of
twig, click of bolt, rattle of a canteen, the bark of a dog, the call wind and
domestic animals and fowls are information which may be valuable to you.
You can learn a lot by listening.

• Sound can be heard better at night because there are fewer noises to
interfere, and night air carries sound better.

• Sound prevail your presence to the enemy. Suppress sneeze by pressing up

on your nostril with your finger.

• Smells can help or endanger you. Odors from gasoline, cooking foods or
burning tobacco warn you of the enemy presence. Avoid the uses if shaving
lotion, deodorant, hair oil and scented soap. Odors from these may reveal your
presence to the enemy.

• Touch – learn to operate and adjust equipment by touch alone.

• Concealment at Night

a. Darkness provides concealment at night.

b. Keep all light concealed
c. Take advantages of the blinding effects of the burst of light.
d. Use camouflage to hide yourself in darkness
e. Pay as much attention to background at night.

• Rules for Night Movement

a. Move by touching distance.

b. Be guided on prominent terrain features.
c. Move in the open as much a possible.
d. Take advantage of the sound
e. Do not run at night except when necessary.
f. Stop and listen frequently.

• How to Move at Night

• Walking at right: Keep weighing in one foot as you step. Feel the ground with
your toe before stepping it down.
• Hitting the ground at night. Going into prone position at night, crouch slowly and
both rifle under armpit and feet the ground with free hand.
• Crawling at night – crawl on hand and knees. Then lay rifle on the ground by your
side. Keep hand on the spot and bring forward knees, it meet the hand. With
hands feel the ground for the knees. Then clear again next spot for other knees
to the same way and alternately and silently.

• How to know position

 • Always keep track on where you are and the direction to the other place in the
area.
• Use terrain features to keep direction at night.
• Choose a route that can be easily followed.
• When moving at night, stop often.
• Maps and compass are good aids in maintaining direction.

• Security at Night Darkness provides a great ideal of protection. Use these hints to
gain greater security.

• Know the challenge and passwords.

• Use the buddy system – work with your buddy.
• Proper use of the counter sign/call sign

ROTC MS 2:
MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE
MAP READING
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Understand the different categories of maps;

• Understand the marginal information on a military map;
• Understand the colors used on a military map; and
• Differentiate different types of compasses.

MAPS

Cartography is the art and science of expressing the known physical features of the earth
graphically by maps and charts. No one knows who drew, molded, laced together, or scratched
out in the dirt the first map. But a study of history reveals that the most pressing demands for
accuracy and detail in mapping have come as the result of military needs. Today, the
complexities of tactical operations and deployment of troops are such that it is essential for all
soldiers to be able to read and interpret their maps in order to move quickly and effectively on
the battlefield. This chapter includes the definition and purpose of a map and describes map
security, types, categories, and scales.

DEFINITION

A map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface drawn to scale, as seen
from above. It uses colors, symbols, and labels to represent features found on the ground. The
ideal representation would be realized if every feature of the area being mapped could be
shown in true shape. Obviously this is impossible, and an attempt to plot each feature true to
scale would result in a product impossible to read even with the aid of a magnifying glass.

PURPOSES:
 • A map provides information on the existence, the location of, and the distance between
ground features, such as populated places and routes of travel and communication.

• It also indicates variations in terrain, heights of natural features, and the extent of
vegetation cover.

• With our military forces dispersed throughout the world, it is necessary to rely on maps
to provide information to our combat elements and to resolve logistical operations far
from our shores. Soldiers and materials must be transported, stored, and placed into
operation at the proper time and place. Much of this planning must be done by using
maps.

• Any operation requires a supply of maps; however, the finest maps available are
worthless unless the map user knows how to read them.

SECURITY

All maps should be considered as documents that require special handling. If a map falls into
unauthorized hands, it could easily endanger military operations by providing information of
friendly plans or areas of interest to the enemy. Even more important would be a map on which
the movements or positions of friendly soldiers were marked. It is possible, even though the
markings on a map have been erased, to determine some of the erased information. Maps are
documents that must not fall into unauthorized hands.

• If a map is no longer needed, it must be turned in to the proper authority. If a map is in

danger of being captured, it must be destroyed. The best method of destruction is by
burning it and scattering the ashes. If burning is not possible, the map can be torn into
small pieces and scattered over a wide area.

• Maps of some areas of the world are subject to third party limitations. These are
agreements that permit the United States to make and use maps of another country
provided these maps are not released to any third party without permission of the
country concerned. Such maps require special handling.

• Some maps may be classified and must be handled and cared for.

CARE

• Maps are documents printed on paper and require protection from water, mud, and
tearing.

• Whenever possible, a map should be carried in a waterproof case, in a pocket, or in

some other place where it is handy for use but still protected.

• Care must also be taken when using a map since it may have to last a long time. If it
becomes necessary to mark a map, the use of a pencil is recommended. Use light lines
so they may be erased easily without smearing and smudging, or leaving marks that
may cause confusion later.

• If the map margins must be trimmed for any reason, it is essential to note any marginal
information that may be needed later, such as grid data and magnetic declination.
 • Special care should be taken of a map that is being used in a tactical mission, especially
in small units; the mission may depend on that map. All members of such units should
be familiar with the map's location at all times.

CATEGORIES

Military maps are categorized by scale and type.

• Scale. Because a map is a graphic representation of a portion of the earth's surface

drawn to scale as seen from above, it is important to know what mathematical scale has
been used. You must know this to determine ground distances between objects or
locations on the map, the size of the area covered, and how the scale may affect the
amount of detail being shown. The mathematical scale of a map is the ratio or fraction
between the distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the surface of the
earth. Scale is reported as a representative fraction with the map distance as the
numerator and the ground distance as the denominator.

map distance
Representative fraction (scale) = ground distance

As the denominator of the representative fraction gets larger and the ratio gets smaller,
the scale of the map decreases. Maps are classified by scale into three categories. They
are small, medium, and large scale maps. The terms "small scale," "medium scale," and
"large scale" may be confusing when read in conjunction with the number. However, if
the number is viewed as a fraction, it quickly becomes apparent that 1:600,000 of
something is smaller than 1:75,000 of the same thing.

Therefore, the larger the number after 1:, the smaller the scale of the map.
• Small. Those maps with scales of 1:1,000,000 and smaller are used for general
planning and for strategic studies. The standard small-scale map is 1:1,000,000.
This map covers a very large land area at the expense of detail.

• Medium. Those maps with scales larger than 1:1,000,000 but smaller than
1:75,000 are used for operational planning. They contain a moderate amount of
detail, but terrain analysis is best done with the large-scale maps described
below. The standard medium-scale map is 1:250,000. Medium scale maps of
1:100,000 are also frequently encountered.

• Large. Those maps with scales of 1:75,000 and larger are used for tactical,
administrative, and logistical planning. These are the maps that you as a soldier
or junior leader are most likely to encounter. The standard large-scale map is
1:50,000; however, many areas have been mapped at a scale of 1:25,000.

• Types. The map of choice for land navigators is the 1:50,000-scale military topographic
map.

• Planimetric Map is a map that presents only the horizontal positions for the
features represented. It is distinguished from a topographic map by the omission
of relief, normally represented by contour lines. Sometimes, it is called a line
map.
• Topographic Map is a map that portrays terrain features in a measurable way
(usually through use of contour lines), as well as the horizontal positions of the
features represented. The vertical positions, or relief, are normally represented
by contour lines on military topographic maps. On maps showing relief, the
elevations and contours are measured from a specific vertical datum plane,
usually mean sea level.

• Photomap is a reproduction of an aerial photograph upon which grid lines,

marginal data, place names, route numbers, important elevations, boundaries,
and approximate scale and direction have been added.

• Joint Operations Graphics maps are based on the format of standard 1:250,000
medium-scale military topographic maps, but they contain additional information
needed in joint air-ground operations. Along the north and east edges of the
graphic, detail is extended beyond the standard map sheet to provide overlap
with adjacent sheets. These maps are produced both in ground and air formats.
Each version is identified in the lower margin as either Joint Operations Graphic
(Air) or Joint Operations Graphic (Ground). The topographic information is
identical on both, but the ground version shows elevations and contour in meters
and the air version shows them in feet. Layer (elevation) tinting and relief shading
are added as an aid to interpolating relief. Both versions emphasize air landing
facilities, but the air version has additional symbols to identify aids and
obstructions to air navigation.
• Photomosaic is an assembly of aerial photographs that is commonly called a
mosaic in topographic usage. Mosaics are useful when time does not permit the
compilation of a more accurate map. The accuracy of a mosaic depends on the
method employed in its preparation and may vary from simply a good pictorial
effect of the ground to that of a planimetric map.

• Terrain Model is a scale model of the terrain showing features, and in largescale
models showing industrial and cultural shapes. It provides a means for
visualizing the terrain for planning or indoctrination purposes and for briefing on
assault landings.

• Military City Map is a topographic map (usually at 1:12,550 scale, sometimes up

to 1:5,000), showing the details of a city. It delineates streets and shows street
names, important buildings, and other elements of the urban landscape important
to navigation and military operations in urban terrain. The scale of a military city
map depends on the importance and size of the city, density of detail, and
available intelligence information.

• Special Maps are for special purposes, such as trafficability, communications,

and assault maps. They are usually in the form of an overprint in the scales
smaller than 1:100,000 but larger than 1:1,000,000. A special purpose map is
one that has been designed or modified to give information not covered on a
standard map. The wide range of subjects that could be covered under the
heading of special purpose maps prohibits, within the scope of this manual, more
than a brief mention of a few important ones. Some of the subjects covered are:

• Terrain features
 • Drainage characteristics.
• Vegetation.
• Climate.
• Coasts and landing beaches.
• Roads and bridges.
• Railroads.
• Airfields.
• Urban areas.
• Electric power.
• Fuels.
• Surface water resources.
• Ground water resources.
• Natural construction materials.
• Cross-country movements.
• Suitability for airfield construction.
• Airborne operations.

MILITARY MAP SUBSTITUTES

If military maps are not available, use substitute maps. The substitute maps can range from
foreign military or commercial maps to field sketches.

• Foreign Maps are maps that have been compiled by nations other than our own. When
these must be used, the marginal information and grids are changed to conform to our
standards if time permits. The scales may differ from our maps, but they do express the
ratio of map distance to ground distance and can be used in the same way. The legend
must be used since the map symbols almost always differ from ours. Because the
accuracy of foreign maps varies considerably, they are, usually evaluated in regard to
established accuracy standards before they are issued to our troops.

• Atlases are collections of maps of regions, countries, continents, or the world. Such
maps are accurate only to a degree and can be used for general information only.

• Geographic Maps give an overall idea of the mapped area in relation to climate,
population, relief, vegetation, and hydrography. They also show general location of
major urban areas.

• Tourist Road Maps are maps of a region in which the main means of transportation and
areas of interest are shown. Some of these maps show secondary networks of roads,
historic sites, museums, and beaches in detail. They may contain road and time distance
between points. Careful consideration should be exercised about the scale when using
these maps.

• City/Utility Maps are maps of urban areas showing streets, water ducts, electricity and
telephone lines, and sewers.

• Field Sketches are preliminary drawings of an area or piece of terrain.

 • Aerial Photographs can be used as map supplements or substitutes to help you analyze
the terrain, plan your route, or guide your movement.

MARGINAL INFORMATION ON A MILITARY MAP

• Sheet Name – is found in bold print at the center of the top and in the lower left area of
the map margin. A map is generally named for the settlement contained within the area
covered by the sheet, or for the largest natural feature located within the area at the time
the map was drawn.

• Sheet Number – is found in bold print in both the upper right and lower left areas of the
margin, and in the center box of the adjoining sheets diagram, which is found in the
lower right margin. It is used as a reference number to link specific maps to overlays,
operations orders, and plans. For maps at 1:100,000 scale and larger, sheet numbers
are based on an arbitrary system that makes possible the ready orientation of maps at
scales of 1:100,000, 1:50,000, and 1:25,000.

• Series Name – is found in the same bold print as the sheet number in the upper left
corner of the margin. A map series usually includes a group of similar maps at the same
scale and on the same sheet lines or format designed to cover a particular geographic
area. It may also be a group of maps that serve a common purpose, such as the military
city maps.

• Scale – is found both in the upper left margin after the series name, and in the center of
the lower margin. The scale note is a representative fraction that gives the ratio of a map
distance to the corresponding distance on the earth's surface. For example, the scale
note 1:50,000 indicates that one unit of measure on the map equals 50,000 units of the
same measure on the ground.

• Series Number – is found in both the upper right margin and the lower left margin. It is a
sequence reference expressed either as a four-digit numeral (1125) or as a letter,
followed by a three- or four-digit numeral.

• Edition Number – is found in bold print in the upper right area of the top margin and the
lower left area of the bottom margin. The credit line, telling who produced the map, is
just above the legend. The map information date is found immediately below the word
"LEGEND" in the lower left margin of the map. This date is important when determining
how accurately the map data might be expected to match what you will encounter on the
ground.

• Index to Boundaries diagram - appears in the lower or right margin of all sheets. This
diagram, which is a miniature of the map, shows the boundaries that occur within the
map area, such as county lines and state boundaries.
• Adjoining Sheets Diagram: Maps at all standard scales contain a diagram that illustrates
the adjoining sheets. On maps at 1:100,000 and larger scales and at 1:1,000,000 scale,
the diagram is called the index to adjoining sheets. It consists of as many rectangles
representing adjoining sheets as are necessary to surround the rectangle that
represents the sheet under consideration. The diagram usually contains nine rectangles,
but the number may vary depending on the locations of the adjoining sheets. All
represented sheets are identified by their sheet numbers. Sheets of an adjoining series,
whether published or planned, that are at the same scale are represented by dashed
lines. The series number of the adjoining series is indicated along the appropriate side of
the division line between the series.

• Elevation Guide – is normally found in the lower right margin. It is a miniature

characterization of the terrain shown. The terrain is represented by bands of elevation,
spot elevations, and major drainage features. The elevation guide provides the map
reader with a means of rapid recognition of major landforms.

• Declination Diagram – is located in the lower margin of large-scale maps and indicates
the angular relationships of true north, grid north, and magnetic north. On maps at
1:250,000 scale, this information is expressed as a note in the lower margin. In recent
edition maps, there is a note indicating the conversion of azimuths from grid to magnetic
and from magnetic to grid next to the declination diagram.

• Bar Scales – are located in the center of the lower margin. They are rulers used to
convert map distance to ground distance. Maps have three or more bar scales, each in a
different unit of measure. Care should be exercised when using the scales, especially in
the selection of the unit of measure that is needed.

• Contour Interval Note – is found in the center of the lower margin normally below the bar
scales. It states the vertical distance between adjacent contour lines of the map. When
supplementary contours are used, the interval is indicated. In recent edition maps, the
contour interval is given in meters instead of feet.

• Spheroid Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. Spheroids (ellipsoids) have
specific parameters that define the X Y Z axis of the earth. The spheroid is an integral
part of the datum.

• Grid Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. It gives information pertaining to
the grid system used and the interval between grid lines, and it identifies the UTM grid
zone number.

• Projection Note: The projection system is the framework of the map. For military maps,
this framework is of the conformal type; that is, small areas of the surface of the earth
retain their true shapes on the projection; measured angles closely approximate true
 values; and the scale factor is the same in all directions from a point. The projection note
is located in the center of the lower margin.

• Vertical Datum Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. The vertical datum or
vertical-control datum is defined as any level surface (for example, mean sea level)
taken as a surface of reference from which to determine elevations. In the United States,
Canada, Europe and Philippines, the vertical datum refers to the mean sea level surface.
However, in parts of Asia and Africa, the vertical-control datum may vary locally and is
based on an assumed elevation that has no connection to any sea level surface. Map
readers should habitually check the vertical datum note on maps, particularly if the map
is used for low-level aircraft navigation, naval gunfire support, or missile target
acquisition.

• Horizontal Datum Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. The horizontal
datum or horizontal-control datum is defined as a geodetic reference point (of which five
quantities are known: latitude, longitude, azimuth of a line from this point, and two
constants, which are the parameters of reference ellipsoid). These are the basis for
horizontal-control surveys. The horizontal-control datum may extend over a continent or
be limited to a small local area. Map readers should habitually check the horizontal
datum note on every map, especially adjacent map sheets. This is to ensure the
products are based on the same horizontal datum. If products are based on different
horizontal-control data, coordinate transformations to a common datum must be
performed.

• Control Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the special
agencies involved in the control of the technical aspects of all the information that is
disseminated on the map.

• Preparation Note – is located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency
responsible for preparing the map.

• Printing Note – is also located in the center of the lower margin. It indicates the agency
responsible for printing the map and the date the map was printed. The printing data
should not be used to determine when the map information was obtained.

• Grid Reference Box – is normally located in the center of the lower margin. It contains
instructions for composing a grid reference.

• Unit imprint and Symbol – is on the left side of the lower margin. It identifies the agency
that prepared and printed the map with its respective symbol. This information is
important to the map user in evaluating the reliability of the map.
 • Legend – is located in the lower left margin. It illustrates and identifies the topographic
symbols used to depict some of the more prominent features on the map. The symbols
are not always the same on every map. Always refer to the legend to avoid errors when
reading a map.

COLORS USED ON A MILITARY MAP

By the fifteenth century, most European maps were carefully colored. Profile drawings of
mountains and hills were shown in brown, rivers and lakes in blue, vegetation in green, roads in
yellow, and special information in red. A look at the legend of a modern map confirms that the
use of colors has not changed much over the past several hundred years. To facilitate the
identification of features on a map, the topographical and cultural information is usually printed
in different colors. These colors may vary from map to map. On a standard large-scale
topographic map, the colors used and the features each represent are:

• Black – indicates cultural (man-made) features such as buildings and roads, surveyed
spot elevations, and all labels.
• Red-Brown – colors red and brown are combined to identify cultural features, all relief
features, non-surveyed spot elevations, and elevation, such as contour lines on red light
readable maps.
• Blue – identifies hydrography or water features such as lakes, swamps, rivers, and
drainage.
• Green – identifies vegetation with military significance, such as woods, orchards, and
vineyards.
• Brown – identifies all relief features and elevation, such as contours on older edition
maps, and cultivated land on red-light readable maps.
• Red – classifies cultural features, such as populated areas, main roads, and boundaries,
on older maps.
• Other – occasionally other colors may be used to show special information. These are
indicated in the marginal information as a rule.

SCALE AND DISTANCE

REPRESENTATIVE FRACTION

The numerical scale of a map indicates the relationship of distance measured on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. This scale is usually written as a fraction and is called
the representative fraction. The RF is always written with the map distance as 1 and is
independent of any unit of measure. (It could be yards, meters, inches, and so forth.) An RF of
1/50,000 or 1:50,000 means that one unit of measure on the map is equal to 50,000 units of the
same measure on the ground.

• The ground distance between two points is determined by measuring between the same
two points on the map and then multiplying the map measurement by the denominator of
the RF or scale.

EXAMPLE: The map scale is 1:50,000 RF = 1/50,000 The map distance from point A to
point B is 5 units 5 x 50,000 = 250,000 units of ground distance

• Since the distance on most maps is marked in meters and the RF is expressed in this
unit of measurement in most cases, a brief description of the metric system is needed. In
 the metric system, the standard unit of measurement is the meter. 1 meter contains 100
centimeters (cm). 100 meters is a regular football field plus 10 meters. 1,000 meters is 1
kilometer (km). 10 kilometers is 10,000 meters.

• The situation may arise when a map or sketch has no RF or scale. To be able to
determine ground distance on such a map, the RF must be determined. There are two
ways to do this:

• Comparison with Ground Distance.

• Measure the distance between two points on the map—map distance (MD).
• Determine the horizontal distance between these same two points on the
ground— ground distance (GD).
• Use the RF formula and remember that RF must be in the general form: RF =
1 = MD X GD.
• Both the MD and the GD must be in the same unit of measure and the MD
must be reduced to 1.
EXAMPLE:
MD = 4.32 centimeters
GD = 2.16 kilometers (216,000 centimeters)
RF = 1 = 4.32 X 216,000 or 216,000 = 50,000 4.32
therefore RF = 1 or 1:50,000 50,000

• Comparison with another map of the same area that has an RF.
• Select two points on the map with the unknown RF. Measure the distance
(MD) between them.
• Locate those same two points on the map that have the known RF. Measure
the distance (MD) between them. Using the RF for this map, determine GD,
which is the same for both maps.
• Using the GD and the MD from the first map, determine the RF using the
formula: RF = 1 = MD X GD
• Occasionally it may be necessary to determine map distance from a known
ground distance and the RF:

MD = GD Denominator or RF
Ground Distance = 2,200 meters
RF = 1:50,000
MD = 2,200 meters 50,000 MD = 0.044 meters x 100 (centimeters per meter)
MD = 4.4 centimeters

• When determining ground distance from a map, the scale of the map affects
the accuracy. As the scale becomes smaller, the accuracy of measurement
decreases because some of the features on the map must be exaggerated so
that they may be readily identified.

GRAPHIC (BAR) SCALES

A graphic scale is a ruler printed on the map and is used to convert distances on the map to
actual ground distances. The graphic scale is divided into two parts. To the right of the zero, the
scale is marked in full units of measure and is called the primary scale. To the left of the zero,
the scale is divided into tenths and is called the extension scale. Most maps have three or more
graphic scales, each using a different unit of measure. When using the graphic scale, be sure to
use the correct scale for the unit of measure desired.

• To determine straight-line distance between two points on a map, lay a straight-edged

piece of paper on the map so that the edge of the paper touches both points and
extends past them. Make a tick mark on the edge of the paper at each.

• To convert the map distance to ground distance, move the paper down to the graphic
bar scale, and align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the primary scale so
that the left tick mark (a) is in the extension scale.

• The right tick mark (b) is aligned with the 3,000-meter mark in the primary scale, thus the
distance is at least 3,000 meters. To determine the distance between the two points to
the nearest 10 meters, look at the extension scale. The extension scale is numbered
with zero at the right and increases to the left. When using the extension scale, always
read right to left. From the zero left to the beginning of the first shaded area is 100
meters. From the beginning of the shaded square to the end of the shaded square is 100
to 200 meters. From the end of the first shaded square to the beginning of the second
shaded square is 200 to 300 meters. Remember, the distance in the extension scale
increases from right to left.

• To determine the distance from the zero to tick mark (a), divide the distance inside the
squares into tenths. As you break down the distance between the squares in the
extension scale into tenths, you will see that tick mark (a) is aligned with the 950-meter
mark. Adding the distance of 3,000 meters determined in the primary scale to the 950
meters you determined by using the extension scale, we find that the total distance
between points (a) and (b) is 3,950 meters.

• To measure distance along a road, stream, or other curved line, the straight edge of a
piece of paper is used. In order to avoid confusion concerning the point to begin
measuring from and the ending point, an eight-digit coordinate should be given for both
the starting and ending points. Place a tick mark on the paper and map at the beginning
point from which the curved line is to be measured. Align the edge of the paper along a
straight portion and make a tick mark on both map and paper when the edge of the
paper leaves the straight portion of the line being measured.

• Keeping both tick marks together (on paper and map), place the point of the pencil close
to the edge of the paper on the tick mark to hold it in place and pivot the paper until
another straight portion of the curved line is aligned with the edge of the paper. Continue
in this manner until the measurement is completed.

• When you have completed measuring the distance, move the paper to the graphic scale
to determine the ground distance. The only tick marks you will be measuring the
distance between are tick marks (a) and (b). The tick marks in between are not used.
 • There may be times when the distance you measure on the edge of the paper exceeds
the graphic scale. In this case, there are different techniques you can use to determine
the distance.

One technique is to align the right tick mark (b) with a printed number in the primary
scale, in this case the 5. You can see that from point (a) to point (b) is more than 6,000
meters when you add the 1,000 meters in the extension scale. To determine the exact
distance to the nearest 10 meters, place a tick mark (c) on the edge of the paper at the
end of the extension scale. You know that from point (b) to point (c) is 6,000 meters.
With the tick mark (c) placed on the edge of the paper at the end of the extension scale,
slide the paper to the right. Remember the distance in the extension is always read from
right to left. Align tick mark (c) with zero and then measure the distance between tick
marks (a) and (c). The distance between tick marks (a) and (c) is 420 meters. The total
ground distance between start and finish points is 6,420 meters.

OTHER METHODS

Determining distance is the most common source of error encountered while moving either
mounted or dismounted. There may be circumstances where you are unable to determine
distance using your map or where you are without a map. It is therefore essential to learn
methods by which you can accurately pace, measure, use subtense, or estimate distances on
the ground.

• Pace Count. Another way to measure ground distance is the pace count. A pace is
equal to one natural step, about 30 inches long. To accurately use the pace count
method, you must know how many paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. To determine
this, you must walk an accurately measured course and count the number of paces you
take. A pace course can be as short as 100 meters or as long as 600 meters. The pace
course, regardless of length, must be on similar terrain to that you will be walking over. It
does no good to walk a course on flat terrain and then try to use that pace count on hilly
terrain. To determine your pace count on a 600-meter course, count the paces it takes
you to walk the 600 meters, then divide the total paces by 6. The answer will give you
the average paces it takes you to walk 100 meters. It is important that each person who
navigates while dismounted knows his pace count.

• There are many methods to keep track of the distance traveled when using the
pace count. Some of these methods are: put a pebble in your pocket every time
you have walked 100 meters according to your pace count; tie knots in a string;
or put marks in a notebook. Do not try to remember the count; always use one of
these methods or design your own method.

• Certain conditions affect your pace-count in the field, and you must allow for
them by making adjustments.

• Slopes: Your pace lengthens on a downslope and shortens on an upgrade.

Keeping this in mind, if it normally takes you 120 paces to walk 100 meters,
your pace count may increase to 130 or more when walking up a slope.
• Winds. A head wind shortens the pace and a tail wind increases it.
• Surfaces. Sand, gravel, mud, snow, and similar surface materials tend to
shorten the pace.
• Elements. Falling snow, rain, or ice cause the pace to be reduced in length.
 • Clothing. Excess clothing and boots with poor traction affect the pace length.
• Visibility. Poor visibility, such as in fog, rain, or darkness, will shorten your
pace.
•
• Odometer. Distances can be measured by an odometer, which is standard equipment
on most vehicles. Readings are recorded at the start and end of a course and the
difference is the length of the course.
• To convert kilometers to miles, multiply the number of kilometers by 0.62.
EXAMPLE: 16 kilometers = 16 x 0.62 = 9.92 miles
• To convert miles to kilometers, divided the number of miles by 0.62. EXAMPLE:
10 miles = 10 divided by 0.62 = 16.12 kilometers

• Subtense. The subtense method is a fast method of determining distance and yields
accuracy equivalent to that obtained by measuring distance with a premeasured piece of
wire. An advantage is that a horizontal distance is obtained indirectly; that is, the
distance is computed rather than measured. This allows subtense to be used over
terrain where obstacles such as streams, ravines, or steep slopes may prohibit other
methods of determining distance.

• The principle used in determining distance by the subtense method is similar to

that used in estimating distance by the mil relation formula. The field artillery
application of the mil relation formula involves only estimations. It is not accurate
enough for survey purposes. However, the subtense method uses precise values
with a trigonometric solution. Subtense is based on a principle of visual
perspective—the farther away an object, the smaller it appears.

• The following two procedures are involved in subtense measurement:

• Establishing a base of known length.

• Measuring the angle of that base by use of the aiming circle.

• Estimation. At times, because of the tactical situation, it may be necessary to estimate

range. There are two methods that may be used to estimate range or distance.

DIRECTION

• METHODS OF EXPRESSING DIRECTION

Military personnel need a way of expressing direction that is accurate, is adaptable to

any part of the world, and has a common unit of measure. Directions are expressed as
units of angular measure.

• Degree: The most common unit of measure is the degree (°) with its subdivisions of
minutes (') and seconds ("). 1 degree = 60 minutes. 1 minute = 60 seconds.
• Mil. Another unit of measure, the mil (abbreviated m/), is used mainly in artillery, tank,
and mortar gunnery. The mil expresses the size of an angle formed when a circle is
divided into 6,400 angles, with the vertex of the angles at the center of the circle. A
relationship can be established between degrees and mils. A circle equals 6400 mils
divided by 360 degrees, or 17.78 mils per degree. To convert degrees to mils, multiply
degrees by 17.78.
 • Grad. The grad is a metric unit of measure found on some foreign maps. There are
400 grads in a circle (a 90-degree right angle equals 100 grads). The grad is divided
into 100 centesimal minutes (centigrads) and the minute into 100 centesimal seconds
(milligrads).

• BASE LINES

In order to measure something, there must always be a starting point or zero

measurement. To express direction as a unit of angular measure, there must be a
starting point or zero measure and a point of reference. These two points designate the
base or reference line. There are three base lines true north, magnetic north, and grid
north. The most commonly used are magnetic and grid.

• True North is a line from any point on the earth's surface to the North Pole. All lines of
longitude are true north lines. True north is usually represented by a star.
• Magnetic North is the direction to the north magnetic pole, as indicated by the north
seeking needle of a magnetic instrument. The magnetic north is usually symbolized
by a line ending with half of an arrowhead. Magnetic readings are obtained with
magnetic instruments, such as lensatic and M2 compasses.
• Grid North – the north that is established by using the vertical grid lines on the map.
Grid north may be symbolized by the letters GN or the letter “y.”

• AZIMUTHS

An azimuth is defined as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a north base line.
This north base line could be true north, magnetic north, or grid north. The azimuth is the
most common military method to express direction. When using an azimuth, the point
from which the azimuth originates is the center of an imaginary circle. This circle is
divided into 360 degrees or 6400 mils.

• Back Azimuth. A back azimuth is the opposite direction of an azimuth. It is

comparable to doing “about face.” To obtain a back azimuth from an azimuth, add
180 degrees if the azimuth is 180 degrees or less, or subtract 180 degrees if the
azimuth is 180 degrees or more. The back azimuth of 180 degrees may be stated as
0 degrees or 360 degrees. For mils, if the azimuth is less than 3200 mils, add 3200
mils, if the azimuth is more than 3200 mils, subtract 3200 mils.

WARNING:
When converting azimuths into back azimuths, extreme care should be
exercised when adding or subtracting the 180 degrees. A simple mathematical
mistake could cause disastrous consequences.

• Magnetic Azimuth. The magnetic azimuth is determined by using magnetic

instruments such as lensatic and M2 compasses.
• Field-Expedient Methods. Several field-expedient methods to determine direction are
discussed in another Module.

• GRID AZIMUTHS

When an azimuth is plotted on a map between point A (starting point) and point B
(ending point), the points are joined together by a straight line. A protractor is used to
 measure the angle between grid north and the drawn line, and this measured azimuth is
the grid azimuth.

WARNING:
When measuring azimuths on a map, remember that you are measuring from a
starting point to an ending point. If a mistake is made and the reading is taken
from the ending point, the grid azimuth will be opposite, thus causing the user to
go in the wrong direction.

• PROTRACTOR

There are several types of protractors – full circle, half circle, square, and rectangular. All
of them divide the circle into units of angular measure, and each has a scale around the
outer edge and an index mark. The index mark is the center of the protractor circle from
which all directions are measured.

• The military protractor, GTA, contains two scales: one in degrees (inner scale) and
one in mils (outer scale). This protractor represents the azimuth circle. The degree
scale is graduated from 0 to 360 degrees; each tick mark on the degree scale
represents one degree. A line from 0 to 180 degrees is called the base line of the
protractor. Where the base line intersects the horizontal line, between 90 and 270
degrees, is the index or center of the protractor.

TYPES OF COMPASSES

The lensatic compass is the most common and simplest instrument for measuring direction. The
wrist/pocket compass is a small magnetic compass that can be attached to a wristwatch band. It
contains a north-seeking arrow and a dial in degrees. A protractor can be used to determine
azimuths when a compass is not available. However, it should be noted that when using the
protractor on a map, only grid azimuths are obtained.

• LENSATIC COMPASS consists of three major parts:

• Cover: The compass cover protects the floating dial. It contains the sighting wire
(front sight) and two luminous sighting slots or dots used for night navigation.

• Base: The body of the compass contains the following movable parts:

• The floating dial is mounted on a pivot so it can rotate freely when the compass is
held level. Printed on the dial in luminous figures are an arrow and the letters E
and W. The arrow always points to magnetic north and the letters fall at east (E)
90° and west (W) 270° on the dial. There are two scales; the outer scale denotes
mils and the inner scale (normally in red) denotes degrees.
• Encasing the floating dial is a glass containing a fixed black index line.
• The bezel ring is a ratchet device that clicks when turned. It contains 120 clicks
when rotated fully; each click is equal to 3°. A short luminous line that is used in
conjunction with the north-seeking arrow during navigation is contained in the glass
face of the bezel ring.
• The thumb loop is attached to the base of the compass.
 • Lens: The lens is used to read the dial, and it contains the rear-sight slot used in
conjunction with the front for sighting on objects. The rear sight also serves as a lock
and clamps the dial when closed for its protection. The rear sight must be opened
more than 45° to allow the dial to float freely.
NOTE: When opened, the straightedge on the left side of the compass has a
coordinate scale; the scale is 1:50,000 in newer compasses.

WARNING:
Some older compasses will have a 1:25,000 scale. This scale can be used with
a 1:50,000-scale map, but the values read must be halved. Check the scale.

• COMPASS HANDLING

Compasses are delicate instruments and should be cared for accordingly.

• Inspection: A detailed inspection is required when first obtaining and using a

compass. One of the most important parts to check is the floating dial, which
contains the magnetic needle. The user must also make sure the sighting wire is
straight, the glass and crystal parts are not broken, the numbers on the dial are
readable, and most important, that the dial does not stick.

• Effects of Metal and Electricity: Metal objects and electrical sources can affect the
performance of a compass. However, nonmagnetic metals and alloys do not affect
compass readings. The following separation distances are suggested to ensure
proper functioning of a compass:

High-tension power lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 meters

Field gun, truck, or tan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 meters
Telegraph or telephone wires and barbed wire . . . . . . . . . 10 meters
Machine gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 meters
Steel helmet or rifle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/2 meter

• Accuracy: A compass in good working condition is very accurate. However, a

compass has to be checked periodically on a known line of direction, such as a
surveyed azimuth using a declination station. Compasses with more than 3° +
variation should not be used.

• Protection: If traveling with the compass unfolded, make sure the rear sight is fully
folded down onto the bezel ring. This will lock the floating dial and prevent vibration,
as well as protect the crystal and rear sight from damage.

• USING A COMPASS

Magnetic azimuths are determined with the use of magnetic instruments, such as
lensatic and M2 compasses. The techniques employed when using the lensatic
compass are as follows:
• Using the Centerhold Technique: First, open the compass to its fullest so that the
cover forms a straightedge with the base. Move the lens (rear sight) to the rearmost
position, allowing the dial to float freely. Next, place your thumb through the thumb
loop, form a steady base with your third and fourth fingers, and extend your index
finger along the side of the compass. Place the thumb of the other hand between the
lens (rear sight) and the bezel ring; extend the index finger along the remaining side
of the compass, and the remaining fingers around the fingers of the other hand. Pull
your elbows firmly into your sides; this will place the compass between your chin and
your belt. To measure an azimuth, simply turn your entire body toward the object,
pointing the compass cover directly at the object. Once you are pointing at the object,
look down and read the azimuth from beneath the fixed black index line. This
preferred method offers the following advantages over the sighting technique:

• It is faster and easier to use.

• It can be used under all conditions of visibility.
• It can be used when navigating over any type of terrain.
• It can be used without putting down the rifle; however, the rifle must be slung well
back over either shoulder.
• It can be used without removing eyeglasses.

• Using the Compass-to-Cheek Technique: Fold the cover of the compass containing
the sighting wire to a vertical position; then fold the rear sight slightly forward. Look
through the rear-sight slot and align the front-sight hairline with the desired object in
the distance. Then glance down at the dial through the eye lens to read the azimuth.

NOTE: The compass-to-cheek technique is used almost exclusively for sighting, and
it is the best technique for this purpose.

• Presetting a Compass and Following an Azimuth. Although different models of the

lensatic compass vary somewhat in the details of their use, the principles are the
same.

• During daylight hours or with a light source:

• Hold the compass level in the palm of the hand.

• Rotate it until the desired azimuth falls under the fixed black index line (for
example, 320°), maintaining the azimuth as prescribed.
• Turn the bezel ring until the luminous line is aligned with the north-seeking
arrow. Once the alignment is obtained, the compass is preset.
• To follow an azimuth, assume the center hold technique and turn your body
until the north-seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous line. Then proceed
forward in the direction of the front cover's sighting wire, which is aligned with
the fixed black index line that contains the desired azimuth.

• During limited visibility, an azimuth may be set on the compass by the click
method. Remember that the bezel ring contains 3° intervals (clicks).

• Rotate the bezel ring until the luminous line is over the fixed black index line.
• Find the desired azimuth and divide it by three. The result is the number of
clicks that you have to rotate the bezel ring.
 • Count the desired number of clicks. If the desired azimuth is smaller than 180°,
the number of clicks on the bezel ring should be counted in a counterclockwise
direction. For example, the desired azimuth is 51°. Desired azimuth is 51°÷ 3 =
17 clicks counterclockwise. If the desired azimuth is larger than 180°, subtract
the number of degrees from 360° and divide by 3 to obtain the number of clicks.
Count them in a clockwise direction. For example, the desired azimuth is 330°;
360°-330° = 30 ÷3 = 10 clicks clockwise.
• With the compass preset as described above, assume a center hold technique
and rotate your body until the north-seeking arrow is aligned with the luminous
line on the bezel. Then proceed forward in the direction of the front cover's
luminous dots, which are aligned with the fixed black index line containing the
azimuth.
• When the compass is to be used in darkness, an initial azimuth should be set
while light is still available, if possible. With the initial azimuth as a base, any
other azimuth that is a multiple of three can be established through the use of
the clicking feature of the bezel ring.

NOTE: Sometimes the desired azimuth is not exactly divisible by three, causing
an option of rounding up or rounding down. If the azimuth is rounded up, this
causes an increase in the value of the azimuth, and the object is to be found on
the left. If the azimuth is rounded down, this causes a decrease in the value of
the azimuth, and the object is to be found on the right.

• Bypassing an Obstacle: To bypass enemy positions or obstacles and still stay

oriented, detour around the obstacle by moving at right angles for specified distances.

• For example, while moving on an azimuth of 90° change your azimuth to 180° and
travel for 100 meters. Change your azimuth to 90°and travel for 150 meters.
Change your azimuth to 360°and travel for 100 meters. Then, change your
azimuth to 90°and you are back on your original azimuth line.

• Bypassing an unexpected obstacle at night is a fairly simple matter. To make a 90°

turn to the right, hold the compass in the center hold technique; turn until the
center of the luminous letter E is under the luminous line (do not move the bezel
ring). To make a 90° turn to the left, turn until the center of the luminous letter W is
under the luminous line. This does not require changing the compass setting
(bezel ring), and it ensures accurate 90° turns. e. Offset. A deliberate offset is a
planned magnetic deviation to the right or left of an azimuth to an objective. Use it
when the objective is located along or in the vicinity of a linear feature such as a
road or stream. Because of errors in the compass or in map reading, the linear
feature may be reached without knowing whether the objective lies to the right or
left. A deliberate offset by a known number of degrees in a known direction
compensates for possible errors and ensures that upon reaching the linear feature,
the user knows whether to go right or left to reach the objective. Ten degrees is an
adequate offset for most tactical uses. Each degree offset moves the course about
18 meters to the right or left for each 1,000 meters traveled. For example, the
number of degrees offset is 10. If the distance traveled to "x" in 1,000 meters, then
"x" is located about 180 meters to the right of the objective.
 ROTC MS 2:
MILITARY INDIVIDUAL SKILLS DEVELOPMENT MODULE
SURVIVAL TECHNIQUES 2
OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

• Understand the different aspects of survival in tropical areas;

• Understand how water procurement is done for survival; and
• Know how to find direction in tropical areas using the Field Expedient Direction method.

TROPICAL SURVIVAL

Most people think of the tropics as a huge and forbidding tropical rain forest through which
every step taken must be hacked out, and where every inch of the way is crawling with danger.
Actually, over half of the land in the tropics is cultivated in some way.

The knowledge of field skills, the ability to improvise, and the application of the principles of
survival will increase the prospects of survival. Do not be afraid of being alone in the jungle; fear
will lead to panic. Panic will lead to exhaustion and decrease your chance of survival.

Everything in the jungle thrives, including disease germs and parasites that breed at an
alarming rate. Nature will provide water, food, and plenty of materials to build shelters.

Indigenous peoples have lived for millennia by hunting and gathering. However, it will take an
outsider some time to get used to the conditions and the nonstop activity of tropical survival.

• TROPICAL WEATHER

High temperatures, heavy rainfall, and oppressive humidity characterize equatorial and
subtropical regions, except at high altitudes. At low altitudes, temperature variation is seldom
less than 10 degrees C (50 degrees F) and is often more than 35 degrees C (95 degrees F). At
altitudes over 1,500 meters, ice often forms at night. The rain has a cooling effect, but when it
stops, the temperature soars.

Rainfall is heavy, often with thunder and lightning. Sudden rain beats on the tree canopy,
turning trickles into raging torrents and causing rivers to rise. Just as suddenly, the rain stops.
Violent storms may occur, usually toward the end of the summer months.

Hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons develop over the sea and rush inland, causing tidal waves
and devastation ashore. In choosing campsites, make sure you are above any potential
flooding. Prevailing winds vary between winter and summer. The dry season has rain once a
day and the monsoon has continuous rain. In Southeast Asia, winds from the Indian Ocean
bring the monsoon, but the area is dry when the wind blows from the landmass of China.

Tropical day and night are of equal length. Darkness falls quickly and daybreak is just as
sudden.
• JUNGLE TYPES

There is no standard jungle. The tropical area may be any of the following:

• TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS

The climate varies little in rain forests. You find these forests across the equator in the
Amazon and Congo basins, parts of Indonesia, and several Pacific islands. Up to 3.5 meters
of rain falls throughout the year. Temperatures range from about 32 degrees C (90 degrees
F) in the day to 21 degrees C (70 degrees F) at night.
There are five layers of vegetation in this jungle (Figure 1). Where untouched by man, jungle
trees rise from buttress roots to heights of 60 meters. Below them, smaller trees produce a
canopy so thick that little light reaches the jungle floor. Seedlings struggle beneath them to
reach light, and masses of vines and lianas twine up to the sun. Ferns, mosses, and
herbaceous plants push through a thick carpet of leaves, and a great variety of fungi grow
on leaves and fallen tree trunks.

Figure 1. Five Layers of Tropical Rain Forest Vegetation

Because of the lack of light on the jungle floor, there is little undergrowth to hamper
movement, but dense growth limits visibility to about 50 meters. You can easily lose your
sense of direction in this jungle, and it is extremely hard for aircraft to see you.

• SECONDARY JUNGLES

Secondary jungle is very similar to rain forest. Prolific growth, where sunlight penetrates to
the jungle floor, typifies this type of forest. Such growth happens mainly along riverbanks, on
jungle fringes, and where man has cleared rain forest. When abandoned, tangled masses of
vegetation quickly reclaim these cultivated areas. You can often find cultivated food plants
among this vegetation.

• SEMI-EVERGREEN SEASONAL AND MONSOON FORESTS

The characteristics of the American and African semi evergreen seasonal forests
correspond with those of the Asian monsoon forests. The characteristics are as follows:

• Their trees fall into two stories of tree strata. Those in the upper story range from 18 to
24 meters; those in the lower story range from 7 to 13 meters.
• The diameter of the trees averages 0.5 meter.
• Their leaves fall during a seasonal drought.
 Except for the sago, nipa, and coconut palms, the same edible plants grow in these areas
as in the tropical rain forests.

You find these forests in portions of Columbia and Venezuela and the Amazon basin in
South America; in portions of southeast coastal Kenya, Tanzania, and Mozambique in
Africa; in Northeastern India, much of Burma, Thailand, Indochina, Java, and parts of other
Indonesian islands in Asia.

• TROPICAL SCRUB AND THORN FORESTS

The chief characteristics of tropical scrub and thorn forests are as follows:
• There is a definite dry season.
• Trees are leafless during the dry season.
• The ground is bare except for a few tufted plants in bunches; grasses are uncommon.
• Plants with thorns predominate.
• Fires occur frequently.

You find tropical scrub and thorn forests on the west coast of Mexico, the Yucatan
peninsula, Venezuela, and Brazil; on the northwest coast and central parts of Africa; and in
Turkestan and India in Asia.

Within the tropical scrub and thorn forest areas, you will find it hard to obtain food plants
during the dry season. During the rainy season, plants are considerably more abundant.

• TROPICAL SAVANNAS

The general characteristics of the savanna are:

• It is found within the tropical zones in South America and Africa.
• It looks like a broad, grassy meadow, with trees spaced at wide intervals.
• It is frequently has red soil.
• It grows scattered trees that usually appear stunted and gnarled like apple trees. Palms
also occur on savannas.

You find savannas in parts of Venezuela, Brazil, and the Guianas in South America. In
Africa, you find them in the southern Sahara (north-central Cameroon and Gabon and
southern Sudan), Benin, Togo, most of Nigeria, Northeastern Republic of Congo, Northern
Uganda, Western Kenya, parts of Malawi, Tanzania, Southern Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and
Western Madagascar.

• SALTWATER SWAMPS

Saltwater swamps are common in coastal areas subject to tidal flooding. Mangrove trees
thrive in these swamps. Mangrove trees can reach heights of 12 meters. Their tangled roots
are an obstacle to movement. Visibility in this type of swamp is poor, and movement is
extremely difficult. Sometimes, streams that you can raft form channels, but you usually
must travel on foot through this swamp.

You find saltwater swamps in West Africa, Madagascar, Malaysia, the Pacific islands,
Central and South America, and at the mouth of the Ganges River in India. The swamps at
the mouths of the Orinoco and Amazon rivers and rivers of Guyana consist of mud and trees
that offer little shade. Tides in saltwater swamps can vary as much as 12 meters.
 Everything in a saltwater swamp may appear hostile to you, from leeches and insects to
crocodiles and caimans. Avoid the dangerous animals in this swamp.

Avoid this swamp altogether if you can. If there are water channels through it, you may be
able to use a raft to escape.

• FRESHWATER SWAMPS

You find freshwater swamps in low-lying inland areas. Their characteristics are masses of
thorny undergrowth, reeds, grasses, and occasional short palms that reduce visibility and
make travel difficult. There are often islands that dot these swamps, allowing you to get out
of the water. Wildlife is abundant in these swamps.

TRAVEL THROUGH JUNGLE AREAS

With practice, movement through thick undergrowth and jungle can be done efficiently. Always
wear long sleeves to avoid cuts and scratches.

To move easily, you must develop "jungle eye," that is, you should not concentrate on the
pattern of bushes and trees to your immediate front. You must focus on the jungle further out
and find natural breaks in the foliage. Look through the jungle, not at it. Stop and stoop down
occasionally to look along the jungle floor. This action may reveal game trails that you can
follow.

Stay alert and move slowly and steadily through dense forest or jungle. Stop periodically to
listen and take your bearings. Use a machete to cut through dense vegetation, but do not cut
unnecessarily or you will quickly wear yourself out. If using a machete, stroke upward when
cutting vines to reduce noise because sound carries long distances in the jungle. Use a stick to
part the vegetation. Using a stick will also help dislodge biting ants, spiders, or snakes. Do
not grasp at brush or vines when climbing slopes; they may have irritating spines or sharp
thorns.

Many jungle and forest animals follow game trails. These trails wind and cross, but frequently
lead to water or clearings. Use these trails if they lead in your desired direction of travel.

In many countries, electric and telephone lines run for miles through sparsely inhabited areas.
Usually, the right-of-way is clear enough to allow easy travel. When travelling along these lines,
be careful as you approach transformer and relay stations. In enemy territory, they may be
guarded.

Movement through jungles or dense vegetation requires you to constantly be alert and aware of
your surroundings. The following travel tips will help you succeed:
• Pinpoint your initial location as accurately as possible to determine a general line of
travel to safety. If you do not have a compass, use a field-expedient direction-finding
method.
• Take stock of water supplies and equipment.
• Move in one direction, but not necessarily in a straight line. Avoid obstacles. In enemy
territory, take advantage of natural cover and concealment.
 • Move smoothly through the jungle. Do not blunder through it since you will get many cuts
and scratches. Turn your shoulders, shift your hips, bend your body, and shorten or
lengthen your stride as necessary to slide between the undergrowth.

IMMEDIATE CONSIDERATIONS

There is less likelihood of your rescue from beneath a dense jungle canopy than in other
survival situations. You will probably have to travel to reach safety.

If you are the victim of an aircraft crash, the most important items to take with you from the
crash site are a machete, a compass, a first aid kit, and a parachute or other material for use as
mosquito netting and shelter.
Take shelter from tropical rain, sun, and insects. Malaria-carrying mosquitoes and other insects
are immediate dangers, so protect yourself against bites.

Do not leave the crash area without carefully blazing or marking your route. Use your compass.
Know what direction you are taking.

In the tropics, even the smallest scratch can quickly become dangerously infected. Promptly
treat any wound, no matter how minor.

WATER PROCUREMENT

Although water is abundant in most tropical environments, you may have trouble finding it. If you
do find water, it may not be safe to drink. Some of the many sources are vines, roots, palm
trees, and condensation. You can sometimes follow animals to water. Often you can get nearly
clear water from muddy streams or lakes by digging a hole in sandy soil about 1 meter from the
bank. Water will seep into the hole. You must purify any water obtained in this manner.

• ANIMALS — SIGNS OF WATER

Animals can often lead you to water. Most animals require water regularly. Grazing animals,
such as deer, are usually never far from water and usually drink at dawn and dusk.
Converging game trails often lead to water. Carnivores (meat eaters) are not reliable
indicators of water. They get moisture from the animals they eat and can go without water
for long periods.

Birds can sometimes also lead you to water. Grain eaters, such as finches and pigeons, are
never far from water. They drink at dawn and dusk. When they fly straight and low, they are
heading for water. When returning from water, they are full and will fly from tree to tree,
resting frequently. Do not rely on water birds to lead you to water. They fly long distances
without stopping. Hawks, eagles, and other birds of prey get liquids from their victims; you
cannot use them as a water indicator.

Insects, especially bees, can be good indicators of water. Bees seldom range more than 6
kilometers from their nests or hives. They will usually have a water source in this range. Ants
need water. A column of ants marching up a tree is going to a small reservoir of trapped
water. You find such reservoirs even in arid areas. Most flies, especially the European
mason fly, stay within 100 meters of water. This fly is easily recognized by its iridescent
green body.
 Human tracks will usually lead to a well, bore hole, or soak. Scrub or rocks may cover it to
reduce evaporation. Replace the cover after use.

• WATER — FROM PLANTS

You will encounter many types of vegetation in a survival situation depending upon your
area. Plants such as vines, roots, and palm trees are good sources of water.

• Vines with rough bark and shoots about 5 centimeters thick can be a useful source of
water. You must learn by experience which are the water-bearing vines, because not
all have drinkable water. Some may even have a poisonous sap. The poisonous ones
yield a sticky, milky sap when cut. Non-poisonous vines will give a clear fluid. Some
vines cause a skin irritation on contact; therefore let the liquid drip into your mouth,
rather than put your mouth to the vine. Preferably, use some type of container.

• Roots: In Australia, the water tree, desert oak, and bloodwood have roots near the
surface. Pry these roots out of the ground and cut them into 30-centimeter lengths.
Remove the bark and suck out the moisture, or shave the root to a pulp and squeeze it
over your mouth.

• Palm Trees: The buri, coconut, and nipa palms all contain a sugary fluid that is very
good to drink. To obtain the liquid, bend a flowering stalk of one of these palms
downward, and cut off its tip. If you cut a thin slice off the stalk every 12 hours, the flow
will renew, making it possible to collect up to a liter per day. Nipa palm shoots grow
from the base, so that you can work at ground level. On grown trees of other species,
you may have to climb them to reach a flowering stalk. Milk from coconuts has large
water content, but may contain a strong laxative in ripe nuts. Drinking too much of this
milk may cause you to lose more fluid than you drink.

• WATER—FROM CONDENSATION

Often it requires too much effort to dig for roots containing water. It may be easier to let the
plant produce water for you in the form of condensation. Tying a clear plastic bag around a
green leafy branch will cause water in the leaves to evaporate and condense in the bag.
Placing cut vegetation in a plastic bag will also produce condensation.

• FOOD

Food is usually abundant in a tropical survival situation. In addition to animal food, you will
have to supplement your diet with edible plants. The best places to forage are the banks of
streams and rivers. Wherever the sun penetrates the jungle, there will be a mass of
vegetation, but riverbanks may be the most accessible areas.

If you are weak, do not expend energy climbing or felling a tree for food. There are more
easily obtained sources of food nearer the ground. Do not pick more food than you need.
Food spoils rapidly in tropical conditions. Leave food on the growing plant until you need it,
and eat it fresh.

There are an almost unlimited number of edible plants from which to choose. Unless you
can positively identify these plants, it may be safer at first to begin with palms, bamboos,
and common fruits.
EDIBLE AND MEDICINAL PLANTS

In a survival situation, plants can provide food and medicine. Their safe usage requires
absolutely positive identification, knowing how to prepare them for eating, and knowing any
dangerous properties they might have. Familiarity with botanical structures of plants and
information on where they grow will make them easier to locate and identify.

EDIBLE/
HABITAT AND
MEDICINAL DESCRIPTION EDIBLE PARTS
DISTRIBUTION
PLANTS
Abal It is one of the few This plant is found in This plant’s general
(Calligonum shrubby plants that desert scrub and appearance would not
comosum) exist in the shady waste in any climatic indicate its usefulness to the
deserts. This plant zone. It inhabits survivor, but while this plant
grows to about 1.2 much of the North is flowering in the spring, its
meters, and its African desert. It fresh flowers can be eaten.
branches look like may also be found This plant is common in the
wisps from a broom. on the desert sands areas where it is found. An
The stiff, green of the Middle East analysis of the food value of
branches produce and as far eastward this plant has shown it to be
an abundance of as the Rajputana high in sugar and
flowers in the early desert of Westen nitrogenous components.
spring months lndia.
(March, April).
Acacia It is a spreading, Acacia grows in Its young leaves, flowers,
(Acacia usually short tree open, sunny areas. It and pods are edible raw or
Farnesiana) with spines and is found throughout cooked.
alternate compound all tropical regions.
leaves. Its individual Note: There are
leaflets are small. Its about 500 species of
flowers are ball- acacia. These plants
shaped, bright are especially
yellow, and very prevalent in Africa,
fragrant. Its bark is a southern Asia, and
whitish-gray color. Australia, but many
Its fruits are dark species are found in
brown and pod like. the warmer and drier
parts of America.
Agave These plants have Agaves prefer dry, Its flowers and flower buds
(Agave species) large clusters of open areas. They are edible. Boil them before
thick, fleshy leaves are found throughout eating.
borne close to the Central America, the CAUTION: The juice of some
ground and Caribbean, and parts species causes dermatitis in
surrounding a of the western some individuals.
central stalk. The deserts of the United Other Uses: Cut the huge
plants flower only States and Mexico. flower stalk and collect the
once and die. They juice for drinking. Some
produce a massive species have very fibrous
flower stalk. leaves. Pound the leaves
and remove the fibers for
 weaving and making ropes.
Most species have thick,
sharp needles at the tips of
the leaves. Use them for
sewing or making hacks. The
sap of some species
contains a chemical that
makes the sap suitable for
use as soap.
Almond The almond tree, Almonds are found The mature almond fruit
(Prunus which sometimes in the scrub and splits open lengthwise down
amygdalus) grows to 12.2 thorn forests of the the side, exposing the ripe
meters, looks like a tropics, the almond nut. You can easily
peach tree. The evergreen scrub get the dry kernel by simply
fresh almond fruit forests of temperate cracking open the stone.
resembles a areas, and in desert Almond meats are rich in
gnarled, unripe scrub and waste in food value, like all nuts.
peach and grows in all climatic zones. Gather them in large
clusters. The stone The almond tree is quantities and shell them for
(the almond itself) is also found in the further use as survival food.
covered with a thick, semi desert areas of You could live solely on
dry, woolly skin. the Old World in almonds for rather long
southern Europe, the periods. When you boil them,
eastern the kernel’s outer covering
Mediterranean, Iran, comes off and only the white
the Middle East, meat remains.
China, Madeira, the
Azores, and the
Canary Islands.
Amaranth These plants, which Look for amaranth All parts are edible, but some
(Amaranthus grow 90 – 150 along roadsides, in may have sharp spines you
species) centimeters tall, are disturbed waste should remove before eating.
abundant weeds in areas, or as weeds The young plants or the
many parts of the in crops throughout growing tips of alder plants
world. All amaranth the world. Some are an excellent vegetable.
have alternate amaranth species Simply boil the young plants
simple leaves. They have been grown as or eat them raw. Their seeds
may have some red a grain crop and a are very nutritious. Shake
color present on the garden vegetable in the tops of alder plants to get
stems. They bear various parts of the the seeds. Eat the seeds
minute, greenish world, especially in raw, boiled, ground into flour,
flowers in dense South America. or popped like popcorn.
clusters at the top of
the plants. Their
seeds may be brown
or black in weedy
species and light-
colored in domestic
species.
Arctic willow It is a shrub that It is common on You can collect the
(Salix arctica) never exceeds more tundras in North succulent, tender young
 than 60 centimeters America, Europe, shoots of the arctic willow in
in height and grows and Asia. You can early spring. Strip off the
in clumps that form also find it in some outer bark of the new shoots
dense mats on the mountainous areas and eat the inner portion
tundra. in temperate regions. raw. You can also peel and
eat raw the young
underground shoots of any
of the various kinds of arctic
willow. Young willow leaves
are one of the richest
sources of vitamin C,
containing 7 to 10 times
more than an orange.
Arrowroot It is an aquatic plant It is found worldwide The rootstock is a rich
(Maranta and with arrow-shaped in temperate zones source of high quality starch.
Sagittaria leaves and potato and the tropics. It is Boil the rootstock and eat it
species) like tubers in the found in moist to wet as a vegetable.
mud. habitats.
Asparagus The spring growth of Asparagus is found Eat the young stems before
(Asparagus this plant resembles worldwide in leaves form. Steam or boil
officinalis) a cluster of green temperate areas. them for 10 to 15 minutes
fingers. The mature Look for it in fields, before eating. Raw
plant has fernlike, old home sites, and asparagus may cause
wispy foliage and fencerows. nausea or diarrhea. The
red berries. Its fleshy roots are a good
flowers are small source of starch.
and greenish in
color. Several
species have sharp,
thorn like structures.
Bael fruit This is a tree that It is found in rain The fruit, which ripens in
(Aegle grows from 2.4 to forests and semi December, is at its best
marmelos) 4.6 meters tall, with evergreen seasonal when just turning ripe. The
a dense spiny forests of the tropics. juice of the ripe fruit, diluted
growth. The fruit is 5 It grows wild in India with water and mixed with a
to 10 centimeters in and Burma. small amount of tamarind
diameter, gray or and sugar or honey, is sour
yellowish, and full of but refreshing. Like other
seeds. citrus fruits, it is rich in
vitamin C.
Bamboo Bamboos are woody Look for bamboo in The young shoots of almost
(Various grasses that grow up warm, moist regions all species are edible raw or
species to 15 meters tall. in open or jungle cooked. Raw shoots have a
including The leaves are country, in lowland, slightly bitter taste that is
Bambusa, grass like and the or on mountains. removed by boiling. To
Dendrocalamus, stems are the Bamboos are native prepare, remove the tough
Phyllostachys) familiar bamboo to the Far East protective sheath that is
used in furniture and (Temperate and coated with tawny or red
fishing poles. Tropical zones) but hairs. The seed grain of the
have beans widely flowering bamboo is also
 planted around the edible. Boil the seeds like
world. rice or pulverize them, mix
with water, and make into
cakes. Other Uses: Use the
mature bamboo to build
structures or to make
containers, ladles, spoons,
and various other cooking
utensils. Also use bamboo to
make tools and weapons.
You can make a strong bow
by splitting the bamboo and
putting several pieces
together.
CAUTION: Green bamboo
may explode in a fire. Green
bamboo has an internal
membrane you must remove
before using it as a food or
water container.
Banana and These are treelike Look for bananas Their fruits are edible, raw or
plantain plants with several and plantains in cooked. They may be boiled
(Musa species) large leaves at the open fields or or baked. You can boil their
top. Their flowers margins of forests flowers and eat them like a
are borne in dense where they are vegetable. You can cook and
hanging clusters. grown as a crop. eat the rootstocks and leaf
They grow in the sheaths of many species.
humid tropics. The center or "heart" of the
plant is edible year-round,
cooked or raw.
Other Uses: You can use
the layers of the lower third
of the plants to cover coals
to roast food. You can also
use their stumps to get
water. You can use their
leaves to wrap other foods
for cooking or storage.
Baobab The tree may grow These trees grow in You can use the young
(Adansonia as high as 18 meters savannas. They are leaves as a soup vegetable.
digitata) and may have a found in Africa, in The tender root of the young
trunk 9 meters in parts of Australia, baobab tree is edible. The
diameter. The tree and on the island of pulp and seeds of the fruit
has short, stubby Madagascar. are also edible. Use one
branches and a handful of pulp to about one
gray, thick bark. Its cup of water for a refreshing
leaves are drink. To obtain flour, roast
compound and their the seeds, grind them.
segments are Other Uses: Drinking a
arranged like the mixture of pulp and water will
palm of a hand. Its help cure diarrhea. Often the
 flowers, which are hollow trunks are good
white and several sources of fresh water. The
centimeters across, bark can be cut into strips
hang from the higher and pounded to obtain a
branches. Its fruit is strong fiber for making rope.
shaped like a
football, measures
up to 45 centimeters
long, and is covered
with short dense
hair.
Batoko plum This shrub or small This plant is a native Eat the fruit raw or cooked.
(Flacourtia tree has dark green, of the Philippines but
inermis) alternate, simple is widely cultivated
leaves. Its fruits are for its fruit in other
bright red and areas. It can be
contain six or more found in clearings
seeds. and at the edges of
the tropical rain
forests of Africa and
Asia.
Bearberry or This plant is a This plant is found in Its berries are edible raw or
kinnikinnick common evergreen arctic, subarctic, and cooked. You can make a
(Arctostaphylos shrub with reddish, temperate regions, refreshing tea from its young
uvaursi) scaly bark and thick, most often in sandy leaves.
leathery leaves 4 or rocky soil.
centimeters long and
1 centimeter wide. It
has white flowers
and bright red fruits.
Beech Beech trees are This tree is found in The mature beechnuts
(Fagus species) large (9 to 24 the Temperate Zone. readily fall out of the husk
meters), symmetrical It grows wild in the like seedpods. You can eat
forest trees that eastern United these dark brown triangular
have smooth, light- States, Europe, Asia, nuts by breaking the thin
gray bark and dark and North Africa. It is shell with your fingernail and
green foliage. The found in moist areas, removing the white, sweet
character of its bark mainly in the forests. kernel inside. Beechnuts are
plus its clusters of This tree is common one of the most delicious of
prickly seedpods, throughout all wild nuts. They are a most
clearly distinguish Southeastern useful survival food because
the beech tree in the Europe and across of the kernel’s high oil
field. temperate Asia. content. You can also use
Beech relatives are the beechnuts as a coffee
also found in Chile, substitute. Roast them so
New Guinea, and that the kernel becomes
New Zealand. golden brown and quite hard.
Then pulverize the kernel
and, after boiling or steeping
in hot water, you have a
passable coffee substitute.
Bignay It is a shrub or small This plant is found in The fruit is edible raw. Do
(Antidesma tree, 3 to 12 meters rain forests and semi not eat any other parts of the
bunius) tall, with shiny, evergreen seasonal tree. In Africa, the roots are
pointed leaves about forests in the tropics. toxic. Other parts of the plant
15 centimeters long. lt is found in open may be poisonous.
Its flowers are small, places and in CAUTION: Eaten in large
clustered, and secondary forests. It quantities, the fruit may have
green. It has fleshy, grows wild from the a laxative effect.
dark red or black Himalayas to Ceylon
fruit and a single and eastward
seed. The fruit is through Indonesia to
about 1 centimeter Northern Australia.
in diameter. However, it may be
found anywhere in
the tropics in
cultivated forms.
Blackberry, These plants have These plants grow in The fruits and peeled young
raspberry, and prickly stems open, sunny areas at shoots are edible. Flavor
dewberry (canes) that grow the margin of woods, varies greatly.
(Rubus species) upward, arching lakes, streams, and Other Uses: Use the leaves
back toward the roads throughout to make tea. To treat
ground. They have temperate regions. diarrhea, drink a tea made
alternate, usually There is also an by brewing the dried root
compound leaves. arctic raspberry. bark of the blackberry bush.
Their fruits may be
red, black, yellow, or
orange.
Blueberry and These shrubs vary in These plants prefer Their fruits are edible raw.
huckleberry size from 30 open, sunny areas.
(Vaccinium and centimeters to 3.7 They are found
Gaylussacia meters tall. All have throughout much of
species) alternate, simple the north temperate
leaves. Their fruits regions and at higher
may be dark blue, elevations in Central
black, or red and America.
have many small
seeds.
Breadfruit This tree may grow Look for this tree at The fruit pulp is edible raw.
(Artocarpus up to 9 meters tall. It the margins of The fruit can be sliced, dried,
incise) has dark green, forests and home and ground into flour for later
deeply divided sites in the humid use. The seeds are edible
leaves that are 75 tropics. It is native to cooked.
centimeters long and the South Pacific Other Uses: The thick sap
30 centimeters wide. region but has been can serve as glue and
Its fruits are large, widely planted in the caulking material. You can
green, ball-like West Indies and also use it as birdlime (to
structures up to 30 parts of Polynesia. entrap small birds by
centimeters across smearing the sap on twigs
when mature. where they usually perch).
Burdock This plant has wavy- Burdock is found Peel the tender leaf stalks
(Arctium lappa) edged, arrow- worldwide in the and eat them raw or cook
shaped leaves and North Temperate them like greens. The roots
flower heads in burr Zone. Look for it in are also edible boiled or
like clusters. It grows open waste areas baked.
up to 2 meters tall, during the spring and CAUTION: Do not confuse
with purple or pink summer. burdock with rhubarb that
flowers and a large, has poisonous leaves. Other
fleshy root. Uses: A liquid made from the
roots will help to produce
sweating and increase
urination. Dry the root,
simmer it in water, strain the
liquid, and then drink the
strained liquid. Use the fiber
from the dried stalk to weave
cordage.
Burl Palm This tree may reach This tree grows in The trunk contains starch
(Corypha elata) 18 meters in height. coastal areas of the that is edible raw. The very
It has large, fan- East Indies. tip of the trunk is also edible
shaped leaves up to raw or cooked. You can get
3 meters long and large quantities of liquid by
split into about 100 bruising the flowering stalk.
narrow segments. It The kernels of the nuts are
bears flowers in edible.
huge dusters at the CAUTION: The seed
top of the tree. The covering may cause
tree dies after dermatitis in some
flowering. individuals.
Other Uses: You can use
the leaves as weaving
material.
Canna lily It is a coarse As a wild plant, the The large and much
(Canna indica) perennial herb, 90 canna lily is found in branched rootstocks are full
centimeters to 3 all tropical areas, of edible starch. The younger
meters tall. The especially in moist parts may be finely chopped
plant grows from a places along and then boiled or pulverized
large, thick, streams, springs, into a meal. Mix in the young
underground ditches, and the shoots of palm cabbage for
rootstock that is margins of woods. It flavoring.
edible. Its large may also be found in
leaves resemble wet temperate,
those of the banana mountainous
plant but are not so regions. It is easy to
large. The flowers of recognize because it
wild canna lily are is commonly
usually small, cultivated in flower
relatively gardens in the
inconspicuous, and United States.
brightly colored reds,
oranges, or yellows.
Carob tree This large tree has a This tree is found The young tender pods are
(Ceratonia spreading crown. Its throughout the edible raw or boiled. You can
siliqua) leaves are Mediterranean, the pulverize the seeds in
compound and Middle East, and mature pods and cook as
alternate. Its parts of North Africa. porridge.
seedpods, also
known as Saint
John’s bread, are up
to 45 centimeters
long and are filled
with round, hard
seeds and a thick
pulp.
Cashew nut The cashew is a The cashew is native The nut encloses one seed.
(Anacardium spreading evergreen to the West Indies The seed is edible when
occidentale) tree growing to a and northern South roasted. The pear-shaped
height of 12 meters, America, but fruit is juicy, sweet-acid, and
with leaves up to 20 transplantation has astringent. It is quite safe
centimeters long and spread it to all and considered delicious by
10 centimeters wide. tropical climates. In most people who eat it.
Its flowers are the Old World, it has CAUTION: The green hull
yellowish-pink. Its escaped from surrounding the nut contains
fruit is very easy to cultivation and a resinous irritant poison that
recognize because appears to be wild at will blister the lips and
of its peculiar least in parts of tongue like poison ivy. Heat
structure. The fruit is Africa and India. destroys this poison when
thick and pear- roasting the nuts.
shaped, pulpy and
red or yellow when
ripe. This fruit bears
a hard, green,
kidney-shaped nut at
its tip. This nut is
smooth, shiny, and
green or brown
according to its
maturity.
Cattail Cattails are grass Cattails are found The young tender shoots are
(Typha latifolia) like plants with throughout most of edible raw or cooked. The
strap-shaped leaves the world. Look for rhizome is often very tough
1 to 5 centimeters them in full sun but is a rich source of starch.
wide and growing up areas at the margins Pound the rhizome to
to 1.8 meters tall. of lakes, streams, remove the starch and use
The male flowers canals, rivers, and as flour. The pollen is also
are borne in a dense brackish water. an exceptional source of
mass above the starch. When the cattail is
female flowers. immature and still green, you
These last only a can boil the female portion
short time, leaving and eat it like corn on the
the female flowers cob.
that develop into the Other Uses: The dried
brown cattail. Pollen leaves are an excellent
 from the male source of weaving material
flowers is often you can use to make floats
abundant and bright and rafts. The cottony seeds
yellow. make good pillow stuffing
and insulation. The fluff
makes excellent tinder. Dried
cattails are effective insect
repellents when burned.
Cereus cactus These cacti are tall They may be found The fruits are edible, but
(Cereus and narrow with in true deserts and some may have a laxative
species) angled stems and other dry, open, effect.
numerous spines. sunny areas Other Uses: The pulp of the
throughout the cactus is a good source of
Caribbean region, water. Break open the stem
Central America, and and scoop out the pulp.
the western United
States.
Chestnut The European In temperate Chestnuts are highly useful
(Castanea chestnut is usually a regions, the chestnut as survival food. Ripe nuts
sativa) large tree, up to 18 is found in both are usually picked in autumn,
meters in height. hardwood and although unripe nuts picked
coniferous forests. In while green may also be
the tropics, it is used for food. Perhaps the
found in semi easiest way to prepare them
evergreen seasonal is to roast the ripe nuts in
forests. They are embers. Cooked this way,
found over all of they are quite tasty, and you
middle and south can eat large quantities.
Europe and across Another way is to boil the
middle Asia to China kernels after removing the
and Japan. They are outer shell. After being boiled
relatively abundant until fairly soft, you can mash
along the edge of the nuts like potatoes.
meadows and as a
forest tree. The
European chestnut is
one of the most
common varieties.
Wild chestnuts in
Asia belong to the
related chestnut
species.
Chicory This plant grows up Look for chicory in All parts are edible. Eat the
(Cichorium to 1.8 meters tall. It old fields, waste young leaves as a salad or
intybus) has leaves clustered areas, weedy lots, boil to eat as a vegetable.
at the base of the and along roads. It is Cook the roots as a
stem and some a native of Europe vegetable. For use as a
leaves on the stem. and Asia, but is also coffee substitute, roast the
The base leaves found in Africa and roots until they are dark
resemble those of most of North brown and then pulverize
the dandelion. The America where it them.
 flowers are sky blue grows as a weed.
and stay open only
on sunny days.
Chicory has a milky
juice.
Chufa This very common Chufa grows in moist The tubers are edible raw,
(Cyperus plant has a sandy areas boiled, or baked. You can
esculentus) triangular stem and throughout the world. also grind them and use
grass like leaves. It It is often an them as a coffee substitute.
grows to a height of abundant weed in
20 to 60 cultivated fields.
centimeters. The
mature plant has a
soft fur like bloom
that extends from a
whorl of leaves.
Tubers 1 to 2.5
centimeters in
diameter grow at the
ends of the roots.
Coconut This tree has a Coconut palms are The nut is a valuable source
(Cocos nucifera) single, narrow, tall found throughout the of food. The milk of the
trunk with a cluster tropics. They are young coconut is rich in
of very large leaves most abundant near sugar and vitamins and is an
at the top. Each leaf coastal regions. excellent source of liquid.
may be over 6 The nut meat is also
meters long with nutritious but is rich in oil. To
over 100 pairs of preserve the meat, spread it
leaflets. in the sun until it is
completely dry.
Other Uses: Use coconut oil
to cook and to protect metal
objects from corrosion. Also
use the oil to treat saltwater
sores, sunburn, and dry skin.
Use the oil in improvised
torches. Use the tree trunk
as building material and the
leaves as thatch. Hollow out
the large stump for use as a
food container. The coconut
husks are good flotation
devices and the husk’s fibers
are used to weave ropes and
other items. Use the
gauzelike fibers at the leaf
bases as strainers or use
them to weave a bug net or
to make a pad to use on
wounds. The husk makes a
good abrasive. The dried
 husk fiber is an excellent
tinder. A smoldering husk
helps to repel mosquitoes.
Smoke caused by dripping
coconut oil in a fire also
repels mosquitoes. To
render coconut oil, put the
coconut meat in the sun,
heat it over a slow fire, or
boil it in a pot of water.
Coconuts washed out to sea
are a good source of fresh
liquid for the sea survivor.
Common jujube The common jujube The jujube is found The pulp, crushed in water,
(Ziziphus jujube) is either a deciduous in forested areas of makes a refreshing
tree growing to a temperate regions beverage. If time permits,
height of 12 meters and in desert scrub you can dry the ripe fruit in
or a large shrub, and waste areas the sun like dates. Its fruits
depending upon worldwide. It is are high in vitamins A and C.
where it grows and common in many of
how much water is the tropical and
available for growth. subtropical areas of
Its branches are the Old World. In
usually spiny. Its Africa, it is found
reddish-brown to mainly bordering the
yellowish-green fruit Mediterranean. In
is oblong to ovoid, 3 Asia, it is especially
centimeters or less common in the drier
in diameter, smooth, parts of India and
and sweet in flavor, China. The jujube is
but has rather dry also found
pulp around a throughout the East
comparatively large Indies. It can be
stone. Its flowers are found bordering
green. some desert areas.
Cranberry This plant has tiny It only grows in The berries are very tart
(Vaccinium leaves arranged open, sunny, wet when eaten raw. Cook in a
macrocarpon) alternately. Its stem areas in the colder small amount of water and
creeps along the regions of the add sugar, if available, to
ground. Its fruits are Northern make a jelly.
red berries. Hemisphere. Other Uses: Cranberries
may act as a diuretic. They
are useful for treating urinary
tract infections.
Crowberry This is a dwarf Look for this plant in The fruits are edible fresh or
(Empetrum evergreen shrub tundra throughout can be dried for later use.
nigrum) with short needle- arctic regions of
like leaves. It has North America and
small, shiny, black Eurasia.
berries that remain
on the bush
 throughout the
winter.
Cuipo tree This is a very The cuipo tree is To get water from this tree,
(Cavanillesia dominant and easily located primarily in cut a piece of the root and
platanifolia) detected tree Central American clean the dirt and bark off
because it extends tropical rain forests one end, keeping the root
above the other in mountainous horizontal. Put the clean end
trees. Its height areas. to your mouth or canteen
ranges from 45 to 60 and raise the other. The
meters. It has leaves water from this tree tastes
only at the top and is like potato water.
bare 11 months out Other Uses: Use young
of the year. It has saplings and the branches’
rings on its bark that inner bark to make rope.
extend to the top to
make is easily
recognizable. Its
bark is reddish or
gray in color. Its
roots are light
reddish-brown or
yellowish-brown.
Dandelion Dandelion leaves Dandelions grow in All parts are edible. Eat the
(Taraxacum have jagged edge, open, sunny leaves raw or cooked. Boil
officinale) grow close to the locations throughout the roots as a vegetable.
ground, and are the Northern Roots roasted and grounds
seldom more than Hemisphere. are good coffee substitute.
20 centimeters long. Dandelions are high in
Its flowers are bright vitamins A and C and in
yellow. There are calcium.
several dandelion Other Uses: Use the white
species. juice in the flower stems as
glue.
Date palm The date palm is a This tree grows in Its fruit is edible fresh but is
(Phoenix tall, unbranched tree arid semitropical very bitter if eaten before it is
dactylifera) with a crown of regions. It is native ripe. You can dry the fruits in
huge, compound to North Africa and the sun and preserve them
leaves. Its fruit is the Middle East but for a long time.
yellow when ripe. has been planted in Other Uses: The trunks
the arid semi-tropics provide valuable building
in other parts of the material in desert regions
world. where few other treelike
plants are found. The leaves
are durable and you can use
them for thatching and as
weaving material. The base
of the leaves resembles
coarse cloth that you can
use for scrubbing and
cleaning.
Daylily This plant has Daylilies are found The young green leaves are
(Hemerocallis unspotted, tawny worldwide in Tropic edible raw or cooked. Tubers
fulva) blossoms that open and Temperate are also edible raw or
for 1 day only. It has Zones. They are cooked. You can eat its
long, sword like, grown as a flowers raw, but they taste
green basal leaves. vegetable in the better cooked. You can also
Its root is a mass of Orient and as an fry the flowers for storage.
swollen and ornamental plant CAUTION: Eating excessive
elongated tubers. elsewhere. amounts of raw flowers may
cause diarrhea.
Duchesnea or It is a small plant It is native to Its fruit is edible. Eat it fresh.
Indian that has runners and southern Asia but is
strawberry three-parted leaves. a common weed in
(Duchesnea Its flowers are yellow warmer temperate
indica) and its fruit regions. Look for it in
resembles a lawns, gardens, and
strawberry. along roads.
Elderberry Elderberry is a This plant is found in The flowers and fruits are
(Sambucus many-stemmed open, usually wet edible. You can make a drink
Canadensis) shrub with opposite, areas at the margins by soaking the flower heads
compound leaves. It of marshes, rivers, for 8 hours, discarding the
grows to a height of ditches, and lakes. It flowers, and drinking the
6 meters. Its flowers grows throughout liquid.
are fragrant, white, much of eastern CAUTION: All other parts of
and borne in large North America and the plant are poisonous and
flat-topped clusters Canada. dangerous if eaten.
up to 30 centimeters
across. Its berrylike
fruits are dark blue
or black when ripe.
Fireweed This plant grows up Tall fireweed is The leaves, stems, and
(Epilobium to 1.8 meters tall. It found in open flowers are edible in the
angustifolium) has large, showy, woods, on hillsides, spring but become tough in
pink flowers and on stream banks, summer. You can split open
lance-shaped and near seashores the stems of old plants and
leaves. Its relative, in arctic regions. It is eat the pith raw.
the dwarf fireweed especially abundant
(Epilobium in burned-over
latifolium), grows 30 areas. Dwarf
to 60 centimeters fireweed is found
tall. along streams,
sandbars, and
lakeshores and on
alpine and arctic
slopes.
Fishtail palm Fishtail palms are The fishtail palm is The chief food in this palm is
(Caryota urens) large trees, at least native to the tropics the starch stored in large
18 meters tall. Their of India, Assam, and quantities in its trunk. The
leaves are unlike Burma. Several juice from the fishtail palm is
those of any other related species also very nourishing and you
 palm; the leaflets are exist in Southeast have to drink it shortly after
irregular and toothed Asia and the getting it from the palm
on the upper Philippines. These flower shoot. Boil the juice
margins. All other palms are found in down to get rich sugar syrup.
palms have either open hill country and Use the same method as for
fan-shaped or jungle areas. the sugar palm to get the
featherlike leaves. juice. The palm cabbage
Its massive flowering may be eaten raw or cooked.
shoot is borne at the
top of the tree and
hangs downward.
Foxtail grass This weedy grass is Look for foxtail The grains are edible raw but
(Setaria readily recognized grasses in open, are very hard and sometimes
species) by the narrow, sunny areas, along bitter. Boiling removes some
cylindrical head roads, and at the of the bitterness and makes
containing long margins of fields. them easier to eat.
hairs. Its grains are Some species occur
small, less than 6 in wet, marshy
millimeters long. The areas. Species of
dense heads of Setaria are found
grain often droop throughout the
when ripe. United States,
Europe, western
Asia, and tropical
Africa. In some parts
of the world, foxtail
grasses are grown
as a food crop.
Goa bean The goa bean is a This plant grows in You can eat the young pods
(Psophocarpus climbing plant that tropical Africa, Asia, like string beans. The mature
tetragonolobus) may cover small the East Indies, the seeds are a valuable source
shrubs and trees. Its Philippines, and of protein after parching or
bean pods are 22 Taiwan. This roasting them over hot coals.
centimeters long, its member of the bean You can germinate the
leaves 15 (legume) family seeds (as you can many
centimeters long, serves to illustrate a kinds of beans) in damp
and its flowers are kind of edible bean moss and eat the resultant
bright blue. The common in the sprouts. The thickened roots
mature pods are 4- tropics of the Old are edible raw. They are
angled, with jagged World. Wild edible slightly sweet, with the
wings on the pods. beans of this sort are firmness of an apple. You
most frequently can also eat the young
found in clearings leaves as a vegetable, raw
and around or steamed.
abandoned garden
sites. They are rarer
in forested areas.
Hackberry Hackberry trees This plant is Its berries are edible when
(Celtis species) have smooth, gray widespread in the they are ripe and fall from
bark that often has United States, the tree.
corky warts or especially in and
 ridges. The tree may near ponds.
reach 39 meters in
height. Hackberry
trees have long-
pointed leaves that
grow in two rows.
This tree bears
small, round berries
that can be eaten
when they are ripe
and fall from the
tree. The wood of
the hackberry is
yellowish.
Hazelnut or wild Hazelnuts grow on Hazelnuts are found Hazelnuts ripen in the
filbert bushes 1.8 to 3.6 over wide areas in autumn when you can crack
(Corylus meters high. One the United States, them open and eat the
species) species in Turkey especially the kernel. The dried nut is
and another in China eastern half of the extremely delicious. The
are large trees. The country and along nut’s high oil content makes
nut itself grows in a the Pacific coast. it a good survival food. In the
very bristly husk that These nuts are also unripe stage, you can crack
conspicuously found in Europe them open and eat the fresh
contracts above the where they are kernel.
nut into a long neck. known as filberts.
The different species The hazelnut is
vary in this respect common in Asia,
as to size and especially in eastern
shape. Asia from the
Himalayas to China
and Japan. The
hazelnut usually
grows in the dense
thickets along
stream banks and
open places. They
are not plants of the
dense forest.
Horseradish This tree grows from This tree is found in The leaves are edible raw or
tree (Moringa 4.5 to 14 meters tall. the rain forests and cooked, depending on their
pterygosperma) Its leaves have a semi-evergreen hardness. Cut the young
fernlike appearance. seasonal forests of seedpods into short lengths
Its flowers and long, the tropical regions. and cook them like string
pendulous fruits It is widespread in beans or fry them. You can
grow on the ends of India, Southeast get oil for frying by boiling
the branches. Its Asia, Africa, and the young fruits of palms and
fruit (pod) looks like Central America. skimming the oil off the
a giant bean. Its 25- Look for it in surface of the water. You
to 60-centimeter- abandoned fields can eat the flowers as part of
long pods are and gardens and at a salad. You can chew fresh,
triangular in cross the edges of forests. young seedpods to eat the
 section, with strong pulpy and soft seeds. The
ribs. Its roots have a roots may be ground as a
pungent odor. substitute for seasoning
similar to horseradish.
Iceland moss This moss grows Look for it in open All parts of the Iceland moss
(Cetraria only a few inches areas. It is found are edible. During the winter
islandica) high. Its color may only in the arctic. or dry season, it is dry and
be gray, white, or crunchy but softens when
even reddish. soaked. Boil the moss to
remove the bitterness. After
boiling, eat it or add to milk
or grains as a thickening
agent. Dried plants store
well.
Indian potato or All Claytonia species Some species are The tubers are edible but
Eskimo potato are somewhat fleshy found in rich forests you should boil them before
(Claytonia plants only a few where they are eating.
species) centimeters tall, with conspicuous before
showy flowers about the leaves develop.
2.5 centimeters Western species are
across. found throughout
most of the northern
United States and in
Canada.
Juniper Junipers, sometimes Look for junipers in The berries and twigs are
(Juniperus called cedars, are open, dry, sunny edible. Eat the berries raw or
species) trees or shrubs with areas throughout roast the seeds to use as a
very small, scale like North America and coffee substitute. Use dried
leaves densely northern Europe. and crushed berries as a
crowded around the Some species are seasoning for meat. Gather
branches. Each leaf found in young twigs to make a tea.
is less than 1.2 Southeastern CAUTION: Many plants may
centimeters long. All Europe, across Asia be called cedars but are not
species have a to Japan, and in the related to junipers and may
distinct aroma mountains of North be harmful. Always look for
resembling the well- Africa. the berrylike structures,
known cedar. The needle leaves, and resinous,
berrylike cones are fragrant sap to be sure the
usually blue and plant you have is a juniper.
covered with a
whitish wax.
Lotus There are two The yellow-flowered All parts of the plant are
(Nelumbo species of lotus: one lotus is native to edible raw or cooked. The
species) has yellow flowers North America. The underwater parts contain
and the other pink pink-flowered large quantities of starch. Dig
flowers. The flowers species, which is the fleshy portions from the
are large and showy. widespread in the mud and bake or boil them.
The leaves, which Orient, is planted in Boil the young leaves and
may float on or rise many other areas of eat them as a vegetable. The
above the surface of the world. Lotuses seeds have a pleasant flavor
 the water which are found in quiet and are nutritious. Eat them
often reach 1.5 fresh water. raw, or parch and grind them
meters in radius. into flour.
The fruit has a
distinctive flattened
shape and contains
up to 20 hard seeds.
Malanga This plant has soft, This plant grows The tubers are rich in starch.
(Xanthosoma arrow-shaped widely in the Cook them before eating to
caracu) leaves, up to 60 Caribbean region. destroy a poison contained
centimeters long. Look for it in open, in all parts of the plant.
The leaves have no sunny fields.
above ground
stems.
Mango This tree may reach This tree grows in The fruits area nutritious
(Mangifera 30 meters in height. warm, moist regions. food source. The unripe fruit
indica) It has alternate, It is native to can be peeled and its flesh
simple, shiny, dark Northern India, eaten by shredding it and
green leaves. Its Burma, and western eating it like a salad. The
flowers are small Malaysia. It is now ripe fruit can be peeled and
and inconspicuous. grown throughout eaten raw. Roasted seed
Its fruits have a the tropics. kernels are edible.
large single seed. CAUTION: If you are
There are many sensitive to poison ivy, avoid
cultivated varieties eating mangoes, as they
of mango. Some cause a severe reaction in
have red flesh, sensitive individuals.
others yellow or
orange, often with
many fibers and a
kerosene taste.
Manioc Manioc is a Manioc is The rootstocks are full of
(Manihot perennial shrubby widespread in all starch and high in food
utillissima) plant, 1 to 3 meters tropical climates, value. Two kinds of manioc
tall, with jointed particularly in moist are known: bitter and sweet.
stems and deep areas. Although Both are edible. The bitter
green, finger-like cultivated type contains poisonous
leaves. It has large, extensively, it may hydrocyanic acid. To prepare
fleshy rootstocks. be found in manioc, first grind the fresh
abandoned gardens manioc root into a pulp, then
and growing wild in cook it for at least 1 hour to
many areas. remove the bitter poison
from the roots. Then flatten
the pulp into cakes and bake
as bread. Manioc cakes or
flour will keep almost
indefinitely if protected
against insects and
dampness. Wrap them in
banana leaves for protection.
CAUTION: For safety,
 always cook the roots of
either type.
Marsh marigold This plant has This plant is found in All parts are edible if boiled.
(Caltha rounded, dark green bogs, lakes, and CAUTION: As with all water
palustris) leaves arising from a slow-moving plants, do not eat this plant
short stem. It has streams. It is raw. Raw water plants may
bright yellow flowers. abundant in arctic carry dangerous organisms
and sub-arctic that are removed only by
regions and in much cooking.
of the eastern region
of the Northern
United States.
Mulberry This tree has These are found in The fruit is edible raw or
(Morus species) alternate, simple, forests, along cooked. It can be dried for
often lobed leaves roadsides, and in eating later.
with rough surfaces. abandoned fields in CAUTION: When eaten in
Its fruits are blue or Temperate and quantity, mulberry fruit acts
black and many Tropical Zones of as a laxative. Green, unripe
seeded. North America, fruit can be hallucinogenic
South America, and cause extreme nausea
Europe, Asia, and and cramps.
Africa. Other Uses: You can shred
the inner bark of the tree and
use it to make twine or cord.
Nettle These plants grow Nettles prefer moist Young shoots and leaves are
(Urtica and several feet high. areas along streams edible. Boiling the plant for
Laportea They have small, or at the margins of 10 to 15 minutes destroys
species) inconspicuous forests. They are the stinging element of the
flowers. Fine, hair- found throughout bristles. This plant is very
like bristles cover North America, nutritious.
the stems, Central America, the Other Uses: Mature stems
leafstalks, and Caribbean, and have a fibrous layer that you
undersides of northern Europe. can divide into individual
leaves. The bristles fibers and use to weave
cause a stinging string or twine.
sensation when they
touch the skin.
Nips palm This palm has a This palm is The young flower stalk and
(Nips fruticans) short, mainly common on muddy the seeds provide a good
underground trunk shores in coastal source of water and food.
and very large, erect regions throughout Cut the flower stalk and
leaves up to 6 Eastern Asia. collect the juice. The juice is
meters tall. The rich in sugar. The seeds are
leaves are divided hard but edible.
into leaflets. A Other Uses: The leaves are
flowering head forms excellent as thatch and
on a short erect coarse weaving material.
stern that rises
among the palm
leaves. The fruiting
 (seed) head is dark
brown and may be
30 centimeters in
diameter.
Oak Oak trees have Oak trees are found All parts are edible, but often
(Quercus alternate leaves and in many habitats contain large quantities of
species) acorn fruits. There throughout North bitter substances. White oak
are two main groups America, Central acorns usually have a better
of oaks: red and America, and parts flavor than red oak acorns.
white. The red oak of Europe and Asia. Gather and shell the acorns.
group has leaves Soak red oak acorns in water
with bristles and for 1 to 2 days to remove the
smooth bark in the bitter substance. You can
upper part of the speed up this process by
tree. Red oak acorns putting wood ashes in the
take 2 years to water in which you soak the
mature. The white acorns. Boil the acorns or
oak group has grind them into flour and use
leaves without the flour for baking. You can
bristles and a rough use acorns that you baked
bark in the upper until very dark as a coffee
portion of the tree. substitute.
White oak acorns CAUTION: Tannic acid gives
mature in 1 year. the acorns their bitter taste.
Eating an excessive amount
of acorns high in tannic acid
can lead to kidney failure.
Before eating acorns, leach
out this chemical.
Other Uses: Oak wood is
excellent for building or
burning. Small oaks can be
split and cut into long thin
strips (3 to 6 millimeters thick
and 1.2 centimeters wide)
used to weave mats,
baskets, or frameworks for
packs, sleds, furniture, etc.
Oak bark soaked in water
produces a tanning solution
used to preserve leather.
Orach This plant is vine-like Orach species are The entire plant is edible raw
(Atriplex in growth and has entirety restricted to or boiled.
species) arrowhead-shaped, salty soils. They are
alternate leaves up found along North
to 5 cenitmeters America’s coasts
long. Young leaves and on the shores of
maybe silver- alkaline lakes inland.
colored. Its flowers They are also found
and fruits are small along seashores
and inconspicuous. from the
 Mediterranean
countries to inland
areas in North Africa
and eastward to
Turkey and central
Siberia.
Palmetto palm It is a tall, The palmetto palm is The fruits are edible raw.
(Sabal palmetto) unbranched tree found throughout the The hard seeds may be
with persistent leaf coastal regions of ground into flour. The heart
bases on most of the the Southeastern of the palm is a nutritious
trunk. The leaves United States. food source at any time. Cut
are large, simple, off the top of the tree to
and palmately lobed. obtain the palm heart.
Its fruits are dark
blue or black with a
hard seed.
Papaya or The papaya is a Papaya is found in The ripe fruit is high in
pawpaw small tree 1.8 to 6 rain forests and semi vitamin C. Eat it raw or cock
(Carica papaya) meters tall, with a evergreen seasonal it like squash. Place green
soft, hollow trunk. forests in tropical fruit in the sun to make it
When cut, the entire regions and in some ripen quickly. Cook the
plant exudes a milky temperate regions as young papaya leaves,
juice. The trunk is well. Look for it in flowers, and stems carefully,
rough and the moist areas near changing the water as for
leaves are crowded clearings and former taro.
at the trunk's apex. habitations. It is also CAUTION: Be careful not to
The fruit grows found in open, sunny get the milky sap from the
directly from the places in uninhabited unripe fruit into your eyes. It
trunk, among and jungle areas. will cause intense pain and
below the leaves. temporary—sometimes even
The fruit is green permanent—blindness.
before ripening. Other Uses: Use the milky
When ripe, it turns juice of the unripe fruit to
yellow or remains tenderize tough meat. Rub
greenish with a the juice on the meat.
squash like
appearance.
Persimmon These trees have The persimmon is a The leaves are a good
(Diospyros alternate, dark common forest source of vitamin C. The
virginiana and green, elliptic leaves margin tree. It is fruits are edible raw or
other species) with entire margins. wide spread in baked. To make tea, dry the
The flowers are Africa, eastern North leaves and soak them in hot
inconspicuous. The America, and the Far water. You can eat the
fruits are orange, East. roasted seeds.
have a sticky CAUTION: Some persons
consistency, and are unable to digest
have several seeds. persimmon pulp. Unripe
persimmons are highly
astringent and inedible.
Pincushion Members of this These cacti are They are a good source of
cactus cactus group are found throughout water in the desert.
(Mammilaria round, short, barrel- much of the desert
species) shaped, and without regions of the
leaves. Sharp spines western United
cover the entire States and parts of
plant. Central America.
Pine Pine trees are easily Pines prefer open, The seeds of all species are
(Pinus species) recognized by their sunny areas. They edible. You can collect the
needle-like leaves are found throughout young male cones, which
grouped in bundles. North America, grow only in the spring, as a
Each bundle may Central America, survival food. Boil or bake
contain one to five much of the the young cones. The bark of
needles, the number Caribbean region, young twigs is edible. Peel
varying among North Africa, the off the bark of thin twigs. You
species. The tree’s Middle East, Europe, can chew the juicy inner
odor and sticky sap and some places in bark; it is rich in sugar and
provide a simple Asia. vitamins. Eat the seeds raw
way to distinguish or cooked. Green pine
pines from similar needle tea is high in vitamin
looking trees with C.
needle-like leaves. Other Uses: Use the resin to
waterproof articles. Also use
it as glue. Collect the resin
from the tree. If there is not
enough resin on the tree, cut
a notch in the bark so more
sap will seep out. Put the
resin in a container and heat
it. The hot resin is your glue.
Use it as is or add a small
amount of ash dust to
strengthen it. Use it
immediately. You can use
hardened pine resin as an
emergency dental filling.
Plantain, broad The broad leaf Look for these plants The young tender leaves are
and narrow leaf plantain has leaves in lawns and along edible raw. Older leaves
(Plantago over 2.5 centimeters roads in the North should be cooked. Seeds are
species) across that grow Temperate Zone. edible raw or roasted. Other
close to the ground. This plant is a Uses: To relieve pain from
The flowers are on a common weed wounds and sores, wash and
spike that rises from throughout much of soak the entire plant for a
the middle of the the world. short time and apply it to the
cluster of leaves. injured area. To treat
The narrow leaf diarrhea, drink tea made
plantain has leaves from 28 grams (1 ounce) of
up to 12 centimeters the plant leaves boiled in 0.5
long and 2.5 liter of water. The seeds and
centimeters wide, seed husks act as laxatives.
covered with hairs.
The leaves form a
 rosette. The flowers
are small and
inconspicuous.

Pokeweed This plant may grow Look for this plant in The young leaves and stems
(Phytolacca as high as 3 meters. open, sunny areas in are edible cooked. Boil them
Americana) Its leaves are elliptic forest clearings, in twice, discarding the water
and up to 1 meter in fields, and along from the first boiling. The
length. It produces roadsides in eastern fruits are edible if cooked.
many large clusters North America, CAUTION: All parts of this
of purple fruits in late Central America, and plant are poisonous if eaten
spring. the Caribbean. raw. Never eat the
underground portions of the
plant as these contain the
highest concentrations of the
poisons. Do not eat any plant
over 25 centimeters tall or
when red is showing in the
plant.
Other Uses: Use the juice of
fresh berries as a dye.
Prickly pear This cactus has flat, This cactus is found All parts of the plant are
cactus pad-like stems that in arid and semiarid edible. Peel the fruits and eat
(Opuntia are green. Many regions and in dry, them fresh or crush them to
species) round, furry dots that sandy areas of prepare a refreshing drink.
contain sharp- wetter regions Avoid the tiny, pointed hairs.
pointed hairs cover throughout most of Roast the seeds and grind
these stems. the United States them to flour.
and Central and CAUTION: Avoid any prickly
South America. pear cactus like plant with
Some species are milky sap. Other Uses: The
planted in arid and pad is a good source of
semiarid regions of water. Peel it carefully to
other parts of the remove all sharp hairs before
world. putting it in your mouth. You
can also use the pads to
promote healing. Split them
and apply the pulp to
wounds.
Pursiane This plant grows It grows in full sun in All parts are edible. Wash
(Portulaca close to the ground. cultivated fields, field and boil the plants for a tasty
oleracea) It is seldom more margins, and other vegetable or eat them raw.
than a few weedy areas Use the seeds as a flour
centimeters tall. Its throughout the world. substitute or eat them raw.
stems and leaves
are fleshy and often
tinged with red. It
has paddle shaped
leaves, 2.5
centimeter or less
 long, clustered at the
tips of the stems. Its
flowers are yellow or
pink. Its seeds are
tiny and black.
Rattan palm The rattan palm is a The rattan palm is Rattan palms hold a
(CaIamus stout, robust climber. found from tropical considerable amount of
species) It has hooks on the Africa through Asia starch in their young stem
midrib of its leaves to the East Indies tips. You can eat them
that it uses to remain and Australia. It roasted or raw. In other
attached to trees on grows mainly in rain kinds, a gelatinous pulp,
which it grows. forests. either sweet or sour,
Sometimes, mature surrounds the seeds. You
stems grow to 90 can suck out this pulp. The
meters. It has palm heart is also edible raw
alternate, compound or cooked.
leaves and a whitish Other Uses: You can obtain
flower. large amounts of potable
water by cutting the ends of
the long stems. The stems
can be used to make
baskets and fish traps.

Reed This tall, coarse Look for reed in any All parts of the plant are
(Phragmites grass grows to 3.5 open, wet area, edible raw or cooked in any
australis) meters tall and has especially one that season. Harvest the stems
gray-green leaves has been disturbed as they emerge from the soil
about 4 centimeters through dredging. and boil them. You can also
wide. It has large Reed is found harvest them just before they
masses of brown throughout the produce flowers, then dry
flower branches in temperate regions of and beat them into flour. You
early summer. both the Northern can also dig up and boil the
These rarely and Southern underground stems, but they
produce grain and Hemispheres. are often tough. Seeds are
become fluffy, gray edible raw or boiled, but they
masses late in the are rarely found.
season.
Reindeer moss Reindeer moss is a Look for this lichen in The entire plant is edible but
(Cladonia low-growing plant open, dry areas. It is has a crunchy, brittle texture.
rangiferina) only a few very common in Soak the plant in water with
centimeters tall. It much of North some wood ashes to remove
does not flower but America. the bitterness, then dry,
does produce bright crush, and add it to milk or to
red reproductive other food.
structures.
Rock tripe This plant forms Look on rocks and The entire plant is edible.
(Umbilicaria large patches with boulders for this Scrape it off the rock and
species) curling edges. The plant. It is common wash it to remove grit. The
top of the plant is throughout North plant may be dry and
usually black. The America. crunchy; soak it in water until
 underside is lighter it becomes soft. Rock tripe
in color. may contain large quantities
of bitter substances; soaking
or boiling them in several
changes of water will remove
the bitterness.
CAUTION: There are some
reports of poisoning from
rock tripe, so apply the
Universal Edibility Test
Rose apple This tree grows 3 to This tree is widely The entire fruit is edible raw
(Eugenia 9 meters high. It has planted in all of the or cooked.
jambos) opposite, simple, tropics. It can also
dark green, shiny be found in a semi
leaves. When fresh, wild state in thickets,
it has fluffy, waste places, and
yellowish-green secondary forests.
flowers and red to
purple egg-shaped
fruit.
Sago palm These palms are low Sago palm is found These palms, when
(Metroxylon trees, rarely over 9 in tropical rain available, are of great use to
sagu) meters tall, with a forests. It flourishes the survivor. One trunk, cut
stout, spiny trunk. in damp lowlands in just before it flowers, will
The outer rind is the Malay Peninsula, yield enough sago to feed a
about 5 centimeters New Guinea, person for 1 year. Obtain
thick and hard as Indonesia, the sago starch from non-
bamboo. The rind Philippines, and flowering palms. To extract
encloses a spongy adjacent islands. It is the edible sage, cut away the
inner pith containing found mainly in bark lengthwise from one
a high proportion of swamps and along half of the trunk, and pound
starch. It has typical streams, lakes, and the soft, whitish inner part
palm like leaves rivers. (pith) as fine as possible.
clustered at the tip. Knead the pith in water and
strain it through a coarse
cloth into a container. The
fine, white sago will settle in
the container. Once the sago
settles, it is ready for use.
Squeeze off the excess
water and let it dry. Cook it
as pancakes or oatmeal.
Two kilograms of sago is the
nutritional equivalent of 1.5
kilograms of rice. The upper
part of the trunk’s core does
not yield sage, but you can
roast it in lumps over a fire.
You can also eat the young
sago nuts and the growing
shoots or palm cabbage.
 Other Uses: Use the stems
of tall sorghums as thatching
materials.
Sassafras This shrub or small Sassafras grows at The young twigs and leaves
(Sassafras tree bears different the margins of roads are edible fresh or dried. You
albidum) leaves on the same and forests, usually can add dried young twigs
plant. Some leaves in open, sunny and leaves to soups. Dig the
will have one lobe, areas. It is a underground portion, peel off
some two lobes, and common tree the bark, and let it dry. Then
some no lobes. The throughout eastern boil it in water to prepare
flowers, which North America. sassafras tea.
appear in early Other Uses: Shred the
spring, are small and tender twigs for use as a
yellow. The fruits are toothbrush.
dark blue. The plant
parts have a
characteristics root
beer smell.
Saxaul The saxaul is found The saxaul is found The thick bark acts as a
(Haloxylon either as a small tree in desert and arid water storage organ. You
ammondendron) or as a large shrub areas. It is found on can get drinking water by
with heavy, coarse the arid salt deserts pressing quantities of the
wood and spongy, of Central Asia, bark. This plant is an
water-soaked bark. particularly in the important some of water in
The branches of the Turkestan region the arid regions in which it
young trees are vivid and east of the grows.
green and Caspian Sea.
pendulous. The
flowers are small
and yellow.
Screw pine The screw pine is a The screw pine is a Knock the ripe fruit to the
(Pandanus strange plant on tropical plant that ground to separate the fruit
species) stilts, or prop roots, grows in rain forests segments from the hard
that support the and semi evergreen outer covering. Chew the
plant above ground seasonal forests. It is inner fleshy part. Cook fruit
so that it appears found mainly along that is not fully ripe in an
more or less seashores, although earth oven. Before cooking,
suspended in midair. certain kinds occur wrap the whole fruit in
These plants are inland for some banana leaves, breadfruit
either shrubby or distance, from leaves, or any other suitable
treelike, 3 to 9 Madagascar to thick, leathery leaves. After
meters tall, with stiff southern Asia and cooking for about 2 hours,
leaves having saw- the islands of the you can chew fruit segments
like edges. The fruits Southwestern like ripe fruit. Green fruit is
are large, roughened Pacific. There are inedible.
balls resembling about 180 types.
pineapples, but
without the tuft of
leaves at the end.
Sea orach The sea orach is a The sea orach is Its leaves are edible. In the
(Atriplex sparingly branched found in highly areas where it grows, it has
halimus) herbaceous plant alkaline and salty the healthy reputation of
with small, gray- areas along being one of the few native
colored leaves up to seashores from the plants that can sustain man
2.5 centimeters long. Mediterranean in times of want.
Sea orach countries to inland
resembles Iamb's areas in North Africa
quarter, a common and eastward to
weed in most Turkey and central
gardens in the Siberia. Generally, it
United States. It can be found in
produces its flowers tropical scrub and
in narrow, densely thorn forests,
compacted spikes at steppes in temperate
the tips of its regions, and most
branches. desert scrub and
waste areas.
Sheep sorrel These plants are Look for these plants The plants are edible raw or
(Rumex seldom more than in old fields and cooked.
acerosella) 30 centimeters tall. other disturbed CAUTION: These plants
They have alternate areas in North contain oxalic acid that can
leaves, often with America and Europe. be damaging if too many
arrow like bases, plants are eaten raw.
very small flowers, Cooking seems to destroy
and frequently the chemical.
reddish stems.
Sorghum There are many Sorghum is found The grains are edible at any
(Sorghum different kinds of worldwide, usually in stage of development. When
species) sorghum, all of warmer climates. All young, the grains are milky
which bear grains in species are found in and edible raw. Boil the older
heads at the top of open, sunny areas. grains. Sorghum is a
the plants. The nutritious food.
grains are brown, Other Uses: Use the stems
white, red, or black. of tall sorghum as building
Sorghum is the main materials.
food crop in many
parts of the world.
Spatterdock or This plant has These plants grow All parts of the plant are
yellow water lily leaves up to 60 throughout most of edible. The fruits contain
(Nuphar centimeters long North America. They several dark brown seeds
species) with a triangular are found in quiet, you can parch or roast and
notch at the base. fresh, shallow water then grind into flour. The
The shape of the (never deeper than large rootstock contains
leaves is somewhat 1.8 meters). starch. Dig it out of the mud,
variable. The plant’s peel off the outside, and boil
yellow flowers are the flesh. Sometimes the
2.5 centimeter rootstock contains large
across and develop quantities of a very bitter
into bottle-shaped compound. Boiling in several
fruits. The fruits are changes of water may
green when ripe. remove the bitterness.
Sterculia Sterculias are tall There are over 100 The large, red pods produce
(Sterculia trees, rising in some species of sterculias a number of edible seeds.
foetida) instances to 30 distributed through The seeds of all sterculias
meters. Their leaves all warm or tropical are edible and have a
are either undivided climates. They are pleasant taste similar to
or palmately lobed. mainly forest trees. cocoa. You can eat them like
Their flowers are red nuts, either raw or roasted.
or purple. The fruit of CAUTION: Avoid eating
all sterculias is large quantities. The seeds
similar in aspect, may have a laxative effect.
with a red,
segmented seedpod
containing many
edible black seeds.
Strawberry Strawberry is a small Strawberries are The fruit is edible fresh,
(Fragaria plant with a three- found in the North cooked, or dried.
species) leaved growth Temperate Zone and Strawberries are a good
pattern. It has small, also in the high source of vitamin C. You can
white flowers usually mountains of the also eat the plant’s leaves or
produced during the southern Western dry them and make a tea
spring. Its fruit is red Hemisphere. with them.
and fleshy. Strawberries prefer
open, sunny areas.
They are commonly
planted.
Sugarcane This plant grows up Look for sugarcane The stem is an excellent
(Saccharum to 4.5 meters tall. It in fields. It grows source of sugar and is very
officinarum) is a grass and has only in the tropics nutritious. Peel the outer
grass like leaves. Its (throughout the portion off with your teeth
green or reddish world). Because it is and eat the sugarcane raw.
stems are swollen a crop, it is often You can also squeeze juice
where the leaves found in large out of the sugarcane.
grow. Cultivated numbers.
sugarcane seldom
flowers.
Sugar palm This tree grows This palm is native to The chief use of this palm is
(Arenga about 15 meters the East Indies but for sugar. However, its seeds
pinnata) high and has huge has been planted in and the tip of its stems are a
leaves up to 6 many parts of the survival food. Bruise a young
meters long. tropics. It can be flower stalk with a stone or
Needlelike found at the margins similar object and collect the
structures stick out of forests. juice as it comes out. It is an
of the bases of the excellent source of sugar.
leaves. Flowers Boil the seeds. Use the tip of
grow below the the stems as a vegetable.
leaves and form CAUTION: The flesh
large conspicuous covering the seeds may
dusters from which cause dermatitis.
the fruits grow. Other Uses: The shaggy
material at the base of the
leaves makes an excellent
 rope as it is strong and
resists decay.
Sweetsop This tree is small, Look for sweetsop at The fruit flesh is edible raw.
(Annona seldom more than 6 margins of fields, Other Uses: You can use the
squamosa) meters tall, and near villages, and finely ground seeds as an
multi-branched. It around home sites in insecticide.
has alternate, tropical regions. CAUTION: The ground
simple, elongate, seeds are extremely
dark green leaves. dangerous to the eyes.
Its fruit is green
when ripe, round in
shape, and covered
with protruding
bumps on its
surface. The fruit’s
flesh is white and
creamy.
Tamarind The tamarind is a The tamarind grows The pulp surrounding the
(Tamarindus large, densely in the drier parts of seeds is rich in vitamin C
indica) branched tree, up to Africa, Asia, and the and is an important survival
25 meters tall. It has Philippines. Although food. You can make a
pinnate leaves it is thought to be a pleasantly acid drink by
(divided like a native of Africa, it mixing the pulp with water
feather) with 10 to has been cultivated and sugar or honey and
15 pairs of leaflets. in India for so long letting the mixture mature for
that it looks like a several days. Suck the pulp
native tree. It also to relieve thirst. Cook the
found in the young, unripe fruits or
American tropics, the seedpods with meat. Use the
West Indies, Central young leaves in soup. You
America, and tropical must cook the seeds. Roast
South America. them above a fire or in
ashes. Another way is to
remove the seed coat and
soak the seeds in salted
water and grated coconut for
24 hours then, cook them.
You can peel the tamarind
bark and chew it.
Taro, cocoyam, All plants in these These plants grow in All parts of the plant are
elephant ears, groups have large the humid tropics. edible when boiled or
eddo, dasheen leaves, sometimes Look for them in roasted. When boiling,
(Colocasia and up to 1.8 meters tall, fields and near home change the water once to get
Alocasia that grow from a sites and villages. rid of any poison.
species) very short stem. The CAUTION: If eaten raw,
rootstock is thick these plants will cause a
and fleshy and filled serious inflammation of the
with starch. mouth and throat.
Thistle This plant may grow Thistles grow Peel the stalks, cut them into
(Cirsium as high as 1.5 worldwide in dry short sections, and boil them
species) meters. Its leaves woods and fields. before eating. The roots are
are long-pointed, edible raw or cooked.
deeply lobed, and CAUTION: Some thistle
prickly. species are poisonous.
Other Uses: Twist the tough
fibers of the stems to make a
strong twine.
Ti The ti has Look for this plant at The roots and very tender
(Cordyline unbranched stems the margins of young leaves are good
terminalis) with strap like leaves forests or near home survival food. Boil or bake
often clustered at sites in tropical the short, stout roots found
the tip of the stem. areas. It is native to at the base of the plant. They
The leaves vary in the Far East but is are a valuable source of
color and may be now widely planted starch. Boil the very young
green or reddish. in tropical areas leaves to eat. You can use
The flowers grow at worldwide. the leaves to wrap other food
the plants top in to cook over coals or to
large, plume like steam.
clusters. They may Other Uses: Use the leaves
grow up to 4.5 to cover shelters or to make
meters tall. a rain cloak. Cut the leaves
into liners for shoes; this
works especially well if you
have a blister. Fashion
temporary sandals from the ti
leaves. The terminal leaf, if
not completely unfurled, can
be used as a sterile
bandage. Cut the leaves into
strips, then braid the strips
into rope.
Tree fern Tree ferns are tall Tree ferns are found The young leaves and the
(Various trees with long, in wet, tropical soft inner portion of the trunk
genera) slender trunks that forests. are edible. Boil the young
often have a very leaves and eat as greens.
rough, bark like Eat the inner portion of the
covering. Large, lacy trunk raw or bake it.
leaves uncoil from
the top of the trunk.
Tropical almond This tree grows up This tree is usually The seed is a good source of
(Terminalia to 9 meters tall. Its found growing near food. Remove the fleshy,
catappa) leaves are the ocean. It is a green covering and eat the
evergreen, leathery, common and often seed raw or cooked.
45 centimeters long, abundant tree in the
15 centimeters wide, Caribbean and
and very shiny. It Central and South
has small, yellowish- America. It is also
green flowers. Its found in the tropical
fruit is flat, 10 rain forests of
centimeters long, Southeastern Asia,
and not quite as northern Australia,
 wide. The fruit is and Polynesia.
green when ripe.
Walnut Walnuts grow on The English walnut, The nut kernel ripens in the
(Juglans very large trees, in the wild state, is autumn. You get the walnut
species) often reaching 18 found from meat by cracking the shell.
meters tall. The Southeastern Walnut meats are highly
divided leaves Europe across Asia nutritious because of their
characterize all to China and is protein and oil content.
walnut spades. The abundant in the Other Uses: You can boil
walnut itself has a Himalayas. Several walnuts and use the juice as
thick outer husk that other species of an antifungal agent. The
must be removed to walnut are found in husks of "green" walnuts
reach the hard inner China and Japan. produce a dark brown dye
shell of the nut. The black walnut is for clothing or camouflage.
common in the Crush the husks of "green"
eastern United black walnuts and sprinkle
States. them into sluggish water or
ponds for use as fish poison.
Water chestnut The water chestnut The water chestnut The fruits are edible raw and
(Trapa natans) is an aquatic plant is a freshwater plant cooked. The seeds are also
that roots in the mud only. It is a native of a source of food.
and has finely Asia but has spread
divided leaves that in many parts of the
grow underwater. Its world in both
floating leaves are temperate and
much larger and tropical areas.
coarsely toothed.
The fruits, borne
underwater, have
four sharp spines on
them.
Water lettuce The leaves of water Found in the tropics Eat the fresh leaves like
(Ceratopteris lettuce are much like throughout the Old lettuce. Be careful not to dip
species) lettuce and are very World in both Africa the leaves in the
tender and and Asia. Another contaminated water in which
succulent. One of kind is found in the they are growing. Eat only
the easiest ways of New World tropics the leaves that are well out
distinguishing water from Florida to South of the water.
lettuce is by the little America. Water CAUTION: This plant has
plantlets that grow lettuce grows only in carcinogenic properties and
from the margins of very wet places and should only be used as a last
the leaves. These often as a floating resort.
little plantlets grow in water plant. Look for
the shape of a water lettuce in still
rosette. Water lakes, ponds, and
lettuce plants often the backwaters of
cover large areas in rivers.
the regions where
they are found.
Water lily These plants have Water lilies are found The flowers, seeds, and
(Nymphaea large, triangular throughout much of rhizomes are edible raw or
odorata) leaves that float on the temperate and cooked. To prepare
the water's surface, subtropical regions. rhizomes for eating, peel off
large, fragrant the corky rind. Eat raw, or
flowers that are slice thinly, allow to dry,
usually white, or red, grind into flour. Dry, parch,
and thick, fleshy and grind the seeds into
rhizomes that grow flour. Other Uses: Use the
in the mud. liquid resulting from boiling
the thickened root in water
as a medicine for diarrhea
and as a gargle for sore
throats.
Water plantain This plant has small, Look for this plant in The rootstocks are a good
(Alisma white flowers and fresh water and in source of starch. Boil or soak
plantago- heart-shaped leaves wet, full sun areas in them in water to remove the
aquatica) with pointed tips. Temperate and bitter taste.
The leaves are Tropical Zones. CAUTION: To avoid
clustered at the base parasites, always cook
of the plant. aquatic plants.
Wild caper This is a thorny These shrubs form The fruit and the buds of
(Capparis shrub that loses its large stands in scrub young shoots are edible raw.
aphylla) leaves during the dry and thorn forests
season. Its stems and in desert scrub
are gray-green and and waste. They are
its flowers pink. common throughout
North Africa and the
Middle East.
Wild crab apple Most wild apples They are found in Prepare wild apples for
or wild apple look enough like the savanna regions eating in the same manner
(Malus species) domestic apples that of the tropics. In as cultivated kinds. Eat them
the survivor can temperate areas, fresh, when ripe, or cooked.
easily recognize wild apple varieties Should you need to store
them. Wild apple are found mainly in food, cut the apples into thin
varieties are much forested areas. Most slices and dry them. They
smaller than frequently, they are are a good source of
cultivated kinds; the found on the edge of vitamins.
largest kinds usually woods or in fields. CAUTION: Apple seeds
do not exceed 5 to They are found contain cyanide compounds.
7.5 centimeters in throughout the Do not eat.
diameter, and most Northern
often less. They Hemisphere.
have small,
alternate, simple
leaves and often
have thorns. Their
flowers are white or
pink and their fruits
reddish or yellowish.
Wild desert The wild desert This creeping plant The seeds inside the ripe
gourd or gourd, a member of can be found in any gourd are edible after they
colocynth the watermelon climatic zone, are completely separated
(Citrullus family, produces a generally in desert from the very bitter pulp.
colocynthis) 2.4- to 3-meter-long scrub and waste Roast or boil the seeds –
ground-trailing vine. areas. It grows their kernels are rich in oil.
The perfectly round abundantly in the The flowers are edible. The
gourds are as large Sahara, in many succulent stem tips can be
as an orange. They Arab countries, on chewed to obtain water.
are yellow when the Southeastern
ripe. coast of India, and
on some of the
islands of the
Aegean Sea. The
wild desert gourd will
grow in the hottest
localities.
Wild dock and Wild dock is a stout These plants can be Because of tender nature of
wild sorrel plant with most of its found in almost all the foliage, the sorrel and the
(Rumex crispus leaves at the base of climatic zones of the dock are useful plants,
and Rumex its stem that is world, in areas of especially in desert areas.
acetosella) commonly 15 to 30 high as well as low You can eat their succulent
centimeters brig. rainfall. Many kinds leaves fresh or slightly
The plants usually are found as weeds cooked. To take away the
develop from a in fields, along strong taste, change the
strong, fleshy, carrot roadsides, and in water once or twice during
like taproot. Its waste places. cooking. This latter tip is a
flowers are usually useful hint in preparing many
very small, growing kinds of wild greens.
in green to purplish
plume like clusters.
Wild sorrel similar to
the wild dock but
smaller. Many of the
basal leaves are
arrow-shaped but
smaller than those of
the dock and contain
a sour juice.
Wild fig These trees have Figs are plants of the The fruits are edible raw or
(Ficus species) alternate, simple tropics and semi cooked. Some figs have little
leaves with entire tropics. They grow in flavour
margins. Often, the several different
leaves are dark habitats, including
green and shiny. All dense forests,
figs have a milky, margins of forests,
sticky juice. The and around human
fruits vary in size settlements.
depending on the
species, but are
usually yellow-brown
when ripe.
Wild gourd or It is widely A member of the You can boil the young
luffa sponge distributed and fairly squash family, which green (half-ripe) fruit and eat
(Luffa typical of a wild also includes the them as a vegetable. Adding
cylindrical) squash. There are watermelon, coconut milk will improve the
several dozen kinds cantaloupe, and flavor. After ripening, the
of wild squashes in cucumber, the Iuffa Iuffa sponge develops an
tropical regions. Like sponge is widely inedible sponge like texture
most squashes, the cultivated throughout in the interior of the fruit. You
Iuffa is a vine with the tropical zone. It can also eat the tender
leaves 7.5 to 20 may be found in a shoots, flowers, and young
centimeters across semi wild state in old leaves after cooking them.
having 3 lobes. clearings and Roast the mature seeds a
Some squashes abandoned gardens little and eat them like
have leaves twice in rain forests and peanuts.
this size. Luffa fruits semi evergreen
are oblong or seasonal forests.
cylindrical, smooth,
and many-seeded.
Luffa flowers are
bright yellow. The
Iuffa fruit, when
mature, is brown
and resembles the
cucumber.
Wild grape vine The wild grape vine Wild grapes are The ripe grape is the portion
(Vitis species) climbs with the aid of distributed eaten. Grapes are rich in
tendrils. Most grape worldwide. Some natural sugars and, for this
vines produce kinds are found in reason, are much sought
deeply lobed leaves deserts, others in after as a source of energy-
similar to the temperate forests, giving wild food. None are
cultivated grape. and others in tropical poisonous.
Wild grapes grow in areas. Wild grapes Other Uses: You can obtain
pyramidal, hanging are commonly found water from severed grape
bunches and are throughout the vine stems. Cut off the vine
black-blue to amber, eastern United at the bottom and place the
or white when ripe. States as well as in cut end in a container. Make
the Southwestern a slant-wise cut into the vine
desert areas. Most about 1.8 meters upon the
kinds are rampant hanging part. This cut will
climbers over other allow water to flow from the
vegetation. The best bottom end. As water
place to look for wild diminishes in volume, make
grapes is on the additional cuts further down
edges of forested the vine.
areas. Wild grapes CAUTION: To avoid
are also found in poisoning, do not eat
Mexico. In the Old grapelike fruits with only a
World, wild grapes single seed (moonseed).
are found from the
Mediterranean
region eastward
 through Asia, the
East Indies, and to
Australia. Africa also
has several kinds of
wild grapes.
Wild onion and Allium cernuum is an Wild onions and The bulbs and young leaves
garlic example of the many garlic are found in are edible raw or cooked.
(Allium species) species of wild open, sunny areas Use in soup or to flavor
onions and garlic, all throughout the meat.
easily recognized by temperate regions. CAUTION: There are several
their distinctive odor. Cultivated varieties plants with onion like bulbs
are found anywhere that are extremely
in the world. poisonous. Be certain that
the plant you are using is a
true onion or garlic. Do not
eat bulbs with no onion
smell.
Wild pistachio Some kinds of About seven kinds of You can eat the oil nut
(Pistacia pistachio trees are wild pistachio nuts kernels after parching them
species) evergreen, while are found in desert, over coals.
others lose their or semi desert areas
leaves during the dry surrounding the
season. The leaves Mediterranean Sea
alternate on the to Turkey and
stem and have Afghanistan. It is
either three large generally found in
leaves or a number evergreen scrub
of leaflets. The fruits forests or scrub and
or nuts are usually thorn forests.
hard and dry at
maturity.
Wild rice Wild rice is a tall Wild rice grows only During the spring and
(Zizania grass that averages in very wet areas in summer, the central portion
aquatica) 1 to 1.5 meters in tropical and of the lower sterns and root
height, but may temperate regions. shoots are edible. Remove
reach 4.5 meters. the tough covering before
Each grain grows in eating. During the late
very loose heads at summer and fail, collect the
the top of the plant straw-covered husks. Dry
and is dark brown or and parch the husks, break
blackish when ripe. them, and remove the rice.
Boil or roast the rice and
then beat it into flour.
Wild rose This shrub grows 60 Look for wild roses in The flowers and buds are
(Rosa species) centimeters to 2.5 dry fields and open edible raw or boiled. In an
meters high. It has woods throughout emergency, you can peel
alternate leaves and the Northern and eat the young shoots.
sharp prickles. Its Hemisphere. You can boil fresh, young
flowers may be red, leaves in water to make a
pink, or yellow. Its tea. After the flower petals
 fruit, called rose hip, fall, eat the rose hips; the
stays on the shrub pulp is highly nutritious and
year-round. an excellent source of
vitamin C. Crush or grind
dried rose hips to make flour.
CAUTION: Eat only the outer
portion of the fruit as the
seeds of some species are
quite prickly and can cause
internal distress.
Wood sorrel Wood sorrel Wood sorrel is found Cook the entire plant.
(Oxalis species) resembles shamrock in Temperate Zones CAUTION: Eat only small
or four-leaf clover, worldwide, in lawns, amounts of this plant as it
with a bell-shaped open areas, and contains a fairly high
pink, yellow, or white sunny woods. concentration of oxalic acid
flower. that can be harmful.
Yam These plants are True yams are Boil the rootstock and eat it
(Dioscorea vines that creep restricted to tropical as a vegetable.
species) along the ground. regions where they
They have alternate, are an important
heart- or arrow- food crop. Look for
shaped leaves. Their yams in fields,
rootstock may be clearings, and
very large and weigh abandoned gardens.
many kilograms. They are found in
rain forests, semi
evergreen seasonal
forests, and scrub
and thorn forests in
the tropics. In warm
temperate areas,
they are found in
seasonal hardwood
or mixed hardwood-
coniferous forests,
as well as some
mountainous areas.
Yam bean The yam bean is a The yam bean is The tubers are about the
(Pachyrhizus climbing plant of the native to the size of a turnip and they are
erosus) bean family, with American tropics, but crisp, sweet, and juicy and
alternate, three it was carried by have a nutty flavor. They are
parted leaves and a man years ago to nourishing and at the same
turnip like root. The Asia and the Pacific time quench the thirst. Eat
bluish or purplish islands. Now it is them raw or boiled. To make
flowers are pea like commonly cultivated flour, slice the raw tubers, let
in shape. The plants in these places, and them dry in the sun, and
are often so rampant is also found growing grind into flour that is high in
that they cover the wild in forested starch and may be used to
vegetation upon areas. This plant thicken soup.
which they are grows in wet areas CAUTION: The raw seeds
growing. of tropical regions. are poisonous.
POISONOUS PLANTS

The proportion of poisonous plants in tropical regions is no greater than in any other area of the
world. However, it may appear that most plants in the tropics are poisonous because of the
great density of plant growth in some tropical areas.

Plants basically poison on contact, through ingestion, by absorption, or by inhalation. They

cause painful skin irritations upon contact, they cause internal poisoning when eaten, and they
poison through skin absorption or inhalation in to the respiratory system. Many edible plants
have deadly relatives and look-alikes. Preparation for military missions includes learning to
identify those harmful plants in the target area. Positive identification of edible plants will
eliminate the danger of accidental poisoning. There is no room for experimentation where plants
are concerned, especially in unfamiliar territory.

Examples of Poisonous Plants:

PLANT
Castor bean, castor-oil
plant, palma Christi
Ricinus communis
Spurge (Euphorbiaceae)
Family
Chinaberry
Melia azedarach
Mahogany (Meliaceae)
Family
HABITAT AND
DESCRIPTION CAUTION
DISTRIBUTION
The castor bean is a All parts of the This plant is found
semi-woody plant plant are very in all tropical
with large, alternate, poisonous to eat. regions and has
star-like leaves that The seeds are been introduced to
grows as a tree in large and may be temperate regions.
tropical regions and mistaken for a
as an annual in beanlike food.
temperate regions.
Its flowers are very
small and
inconspicuous. Its
fruits grow in clusters
at the tops of the
plants.
This tree has a All parts of the tree Chinaberry is
spreading crown and should be native to the
grows up to 14 considered Himalayas and
meters (42 feet) tall. dangerous if eaten. eastern Asia but is
It has alternate, Its leaves are a now planted as an
compound leaves natural insecticide ornamental tree
with toothed leaflets. and will repel throughout the
Its flowers are light insects from stored tropical and
purple with a dark fruits and grains. subtropical
center and grow in Take care not to regions. It has
ball-like masses. It eat leaves mixed been introduced to
has marble-sized with the stored the southern
fruits that are light food. United States and
orange when first has escaped to
formed but turn thickets, old fields,
lighter as they and disturbed
become older. areas.
Cowhage, cowage, cowitch
Mucuna pruritum
Leguminosae
(Fabaceae) Family
A vine-like plant that Contact with the Tropical areas and
has oval leaflets in pods and flowers the United States.
groups of three and causes irritation
hairy spikes with dull and blindness if in
purplish flowers. The the eyes.
seeds are brown,
hairy pods.

Death camas, This plant arises from All parts of this Death camas is
death lily a bulb and may be plant are very found in wet, open,
Zigadenus species mistaken for an onion poisonous. Death sunny habitats,
like plant. Its leaves camas does not although some
Lily (Liliaceae) Family are grass like. Its have the onion species favor dry,
flowers are six-parted smell. rocky slopes. They
and the petals have a are common in
green, heart-shaped parts of the
structure on them. western United
The flowers grow on States. Some
showy stalks above species are found
the leaves. in the eastern
United States and
in parts of the
North American
western subarctic
and eastern
Siberia.
Lantana Lantana is a shrub All parts of this Lantana is grown
Lantana camara like plant that may plant are as an ornamental
Vervain grow up to 45 poisonous if eaten in tropical and
centimeters (18 and can be fatal. temperate areas
(Verbenaceae) inches) high. It has This plant causes and has escaped
Family opposite, round dermatitis in some cultivation as a
leaves and flowers individuals. weed along roads
borne in flat-topped and old fields.
clusters. The flower
color (which varies in
different areas) may
be white, yellow,
orange, pink, or red.
It has a dark blue or
black berrylike fruit. A
distinctive feature of
all parts of this plant
is its strong scent.
Manchineel Manchineel is a tree This tree is The tree prefers
Hippomane mancinella reaching up to 15 extremely toxic. It coastal regions. It
meters (45 feet) high causes severe is found in south
Spurge with alternate, shiny dermatitis in most Florida, the
(Euphorbiaceae) Family
 green leaves and individuals after Caribbean, Central
spikes of small only 0.5 hour. Even America, and
greenish flowers. Its water dripping from northern South
fruits are green or the leaves may America.
greenish-yellow cause dermatitis.
when ripe. The smoke from
burning it irritates
the eyes. No part
of this plant should
be considered a
food.
Oleander This shrub or small All parts of the This native of the
Nerium oleander tree grows to about 9 plant are very Mediterranean
Dogbane meters (27 feet), with poisonous. Do not area is now grown
alternate, very use the wood for as an ornamental
(Apocynaceae) Family straight, dark green cooking; it gives off in tropical and
leaves. Its flowers poisonous fumes temperate regions.
may be white, yellow, that can poison
red, pink, or food.
intermediate colors.
Its fruit is a brown,
pod like structure
with many small
seeds.
Pangi This tree, with heart- All parts are Pangi trees grow in
Pangium edule shaped leaves in poisonous, southeast Asia.
Pangi Family spirals, reaches a especially the fruit.
height of 18 meters
(54 feet). Its flowers
grow in spikes and
are green in color. Its
large, brownish,
pear-shaped fruits
grow in clusters.

Physic nut This shrub or small The seeds taste Throughout the
Jatropha curcas tree has large, 3- to sweet but their oil tropics and
5-parted alternate is violently southern United
Spurge leaves. It has small, purgative. All parts States.
(Euphoriaceae) Family greenish-yellow of the physic nut
flowers and its are poisonous.
yellow, apple-sized
fruits contain three
large seeds.
Poison hemlock, This biennial herb This plant is very Poison hemlock
fool's parsley may grow to 2.5 poisonous, and grows in wet or
Conium maculatum meters (8 feet) high. even a very small moist ground like
The smooth, hollow amount may cause swamps, wet
Parsley (Apiaceae) stem may or may not death. This plant is meadows, stream
Family be purple or red easy to confuse banks, and
striped or mottled. Its with wild carrot or ditches. Native to
 white flowers are Queen Anne's lace, Eurasia, it has
small and grow in especially in its first been introduced to
small groups that stage of growth. the United States
tend to form flat Wild carrot or and Canada.
umbels. Its long, Queen Anne's lace
turnip like taproot is has hairy leaves
solid. and stems and
smells like carrot.
Poison hemlock
does not.
Poison ivy and poison oak These two plants are All parts, at all Poison ivy and oak
Toxicodendron quite similar in times of the year, can be found in
radicans and appearance and will can cause serious almost any habitat
Toxicodendron diversibba often crossbreed to contact dermatitis. in North America.
Cashew (Anacardiacese) make a hybrid. Both
Family have alternate,
compound leaves
with three leaflets.
The leaves of poison
ivy are smooth or
serrated. Poison
oak's leaves are
lobed and resemble
oak leaves. Poison
ivy grows as a vine
along the ground or
climbs by red feeder
roots. Poison oak
grows like a bush.
The greenish-white
flowers are small and
inconspicuous and
are followed by waxy
green berries that
turn waxy white or
yellow, then gray.
Poison sumac Poison sumac is a All parts can cause Poison sumac
Toxicodendron vernix shrub that grows to serious contact grows only in wet,
8.5 meters (28 feet) dermatitis at all acid swamps in
Cashew tall. It has alternate, times of the year. North America.
(Anacardiacese) Family pinnately compound
leafstalks with 7 to 13
leaflets. Flowers are
greenish-yellow and
inconspicuous and
are followed by white
or pale yellow
berries.
Rosary pea or This plant is a vine This plant is one of This is a common
crab's eyes with alternate the most weed in parts of
Abrus precatorius compound leaves, dangerous plants. Africa, southern
 light purple flowers, One seed may Florida, Hawaii,
Leguminosae and beautiful seeds contain enough Guam, the
(Fabaceae) Family that are red and poison to kill an Caribbean, and
black. adult. Central and South
America.

Strychnine tree The strychnine tree is The berries contain A native of the
Nux vomica a medium-sized the disk like seeds tropics and
evergreen, reaching that yield the subtropics of
Logania a height of about 12 poisonous Southeastern Asia
(Loganiaceae) Family meters (36 feet), with substance and Australia.
a thick, frequently strychnine. All
crooked trunk. Its parts of the plant
deeply veined oval are poisonous.
leaves grow in
alternate pairs.
Small, loose clusters
of greenish flowers
appear at the ends of
branches and are
followed by fleshy,
orange-red berries
about 4 centimeters
(1 1/2 inches) in
diameter.
Trumpet vine or This woody vine may This plant causes This vine is found
trumpet creeper climb to 15 meters contact dermatitis. in wet woods and
Campsis radicans (45 feet) high. It has thickets throughout
Trumpet creeper pea like fruit eastern and central
(Bignoniaceae) Family capsules. The leaves North America.
are pinnately
compound, 7 to 11
toothed leaves per
leaf stock. The
trumpet-shaped
flowers are orange to
scarlet in color.
Water hemlock or spotted This perennial herb This plant is very Water hemlock
cowbane may grow to 1.8 poisonous and grows in wet or
Cicuta maculata meters (6 feet) high. even a very small moist ground like
The stem is hollow amount of this swamps, wet
Parsley (Apiaceae) and sectioned off like plant may cause meadows, stream
Family bamboo. It may or death. Its roots banks, and ditches
may not be purple or have been throughout the
red striped or mistaken for Unites States and
mottled. Its flowers parsnips. Canada.
are small, white, and
grow in groups that
tend to form flat
 umbels. Its roots may
have hollow air
chambers and, when
cut, may produce
drops of yellow oil.

FIELD-EXPEDIENT DIRECTION FINDING

In a survival situation, you will be extremely fortunate if you happen to have a map and
compass. If you do have these two pieces of equipment, you will most likely be able to move
toward help. If you are not proficient in using a map and compass, you must take the steps to
gain this skill.

There are several methods by which you can determine direction by using the sun and the
stars. These methods, however, will give you only a general direction. You can come up with a
more nearly true direction if you know the terrain of the territory or country.

You must learn all you can about the terrain of the country or territory to which you or your unit
may be sent, especially any prominent features or landmarks. This knowledge of the terrain
together with using the methods explained below will let you come up with fairly true directions
to help you navigate.

• USING THE SUN AND SHADOWS

The earth's relationship to the sun can help you to determine direction on earth. The sun
always rises in the east and sets in the west, but not exactly due east or due west. There
is also some seasonal variation. Shadows will move in the opposite direction of the sun.
In the Northern Hemisphere, they will move from west to east, and will point north at
noon. In the Southern Hemisphere, shadows will indicate south at noon. With practice,
you can use shadows to determine both direction and time of day. The shadow methods
used for direction finding are the shadow-tip and watch methods.

SHADOW-TIP METHODS
In the first shadow-tip method, find a straight stick 1 meter long, and a level spot free of
brush on which the stick will cast a definite shadow. This method is simple and accurate
and consists of four steps:

Step 1 Place the stick or branch into the ground at a level spot where it will cast a
distinctive shadow. Mark the shadow's tip with a stone, twig, or other means.
This first shadow mark is always west — everywhere on Earth.
Step 2 Wait 10 to 15 minutes until the shadow tip moves a few centimeters. Mark the
shadow tip's new position in the same way as the first. This mark will
represents East.
Step 3 Draw a straight line through the two marks to obtain an approximate east-west
line.
Step 4 Stand with the first mark (west) to your left and the second mark to your
 right—you are now facing north. This fact is true everywhere on Earth.

An alternate method is more accurate but requires more time. Set up your shadow stick
and mark the first shadow in the morning. Use a piece of string to draw a clean arc
through this mark and around the stick. At midday, the shadow will shrink and disappear.
In the afternoon, it will lengthen again and at the point where it touches the arc, make a
second mark. Draw a line through the two marks to get an accurate east-west line
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. Shadow-Tip Method

• THE WATCH METHOD

You can also determine direction using a common or

analog watch — one that has hands. The direction will be accurate if you are using true
local time, without any changes for daylight savings time. Remember, the further you are
from the equator, the more accurate this method will be. If you only have a digital watch,
draw a clock face on a circle of paper with the correct time on it and use it to determine
your direction at that time. You may also choose to draw a clock face on the ground or
lay your watch on the ground for a more accurate reading.

In the Northern Hemisphere, hold the watch horizontal and point the hour hand at the
sun. Bisect the angle between the hour hand and the 12-o'clock mark to get the north-
south line (Figure 2). If there is any doubt as to which end of the line is north, remember
 that the sun rises in the east, sets in the west, and is due south at noon. The sun is in
the east before noon and in the west after noon.
Figure 3. Watch Method

NOTE: If your watch is set on daylight savings time, use the midway point between the
hour hand and 1 o'clock to determine the north-south line.

In the Southern Hemisphere, point the watch's 12-o'clock mark toward the sun; a
midpoint halfway between 12 and the hour hand will give you the north-south line (Figure
3).

Another method is called the 24-hour clock method. Take the local military time and
divide it by two. Imagine this result to now represent the hour hand. In the Northern
Hemisphere, point this resulting hour hand at the sun, and the 12 will point north. For
example, it is 1400 hours. Divide 1400 by two and the answer is 700, which will
represent the hour. Holding the watch horizontal, point the 7 at the sun and 12 will point
north. In the Southern Hemisphere, point the 12 at the sun, and the resulting "hour" from
the division will point south.

• USING THE MOON

Because the moon has no light of its own, we can only see it when it reflects the sun's
light. As it orbits the earth on its 28-day circuit, the shape of the reflected light varies
according to its position. We say there is a new moon or no moon when it is on the
opposite side of the earth from the sun. Then, as it moves away from the earth's
shadow, it begins to reflect light from its right side and waxes to become a full moon
before waning, or losing shape, to appear as a sliver on the left side. You can use this
information to identify direction.
If the moon rises before the sun has set, the illuminated side will be the west. If the
moon rises after midnight, the illuminated side will be the east. This obvious discovery
provides us with a rough east-west reference during the night.

• USING THE STARS

Your location in the Northern or Southern Hemisphere determines which constellation

you use to determine your north or south direction. Each sky is explained below.

• THE NORTHERN SKY

Figure 4: The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia

 The main constellations to learn are the Ursa
Major, also known as the Big Dipper or the Plow, and Cassiopeia, also known as the
Lazy W (Figure 4). Use them to locate Polaris, also known as the polestar or the
North Star. Polaris is considered to remain stationary, as it rotates only 1.08 degrees
around the northern celestial pole. The North Star is the last star of the Little Dipper's
handle and can be confused with the Big Dipper. However, the Little Dipper is made
up of seven rather dim stars and is not easily seen unless you are far away from any
town or city lights. Prevent confusion by attempting to use both the Big Dipper and
Cassiopeia together. The Big Dipper and Cassiopeia are generally opposite each
other and rotate counter-clockwise around Polaris, with Polaris in the center. The Big
Dipper is a seven-star constellation in the shape of a dipper. The two stars forming
the outer lip of this dipper are the "pointer stars" because they point to the North Star.
Mentally draw a line from the outer bottom star to the outer top star of the Big Dipper's
bucket. Extend this line about five times the distance between the pointer stars. You
will find the North Star along this line. You may also note that the North Star can
always be found at the same approximate vertical angle above the horizon as the
northern line of latitude you are located on. For example, if you are at 35 degrees
north latitude, Polaris will be easier to find if you scan the sky at 35 degrees off the
horizon. This will help to lessen the area of the sky in which to locate the Big Dipper,
Cassiopeia, and the North Star.

Cassiopeia or the Lazy W has five stars that form a shape like a "W." One side of the
"W" appears flattened or "lazy." The North Star can be found by bisecting the angle
formed on the lazy side. Extend this line about five times the distance between the
bottom of the "W" and the top. The North Star is located between Cassiopeia and the
Ursa Major (Big Dipper).

After locating the North Star, locate the North Pole or true north by drawing an
imaginary line directly to the earth.

• THE SOUTHERN SKY

Figure 5: Southern Cross

 Because there is no single star bright enough
to be easily recognized near the south celestial pole, you can use a constellation
known as the Southern Cross. You can use it as a signpost to the South (Figure 5).
The Southern Cross or Crux has five stars. Its four brightest stars form a cross. The
two stars that make up the Cross's long axis are used as a guideline. To determine
south, imagine a distance four-and-one-half to five times the distance between these
stars and the horizon. The pointer stars to the left of the Southern Cross serve two
purposes. First, they provide an additional cue toward south by imagining a line from
the stars toward the ground. Second, the pointer stars help accurately identify the true
Southern Cross from the False Cross. The intersection of the Southern Cross and the
two pointer stars is very dark and devoid of stars. This area is called the coal sac.
Look down to the horizon from this imaginary point and select a landmark to steer by.
In a static survival situation, you can fix this location in daylight if you drive stakes in
the ground at night to point the way.

• MAKING IMPROVISED COMPASSES

You can construct improvised compasses using a piece of ferrous metal that can be
needle shaped or a flat double-edged razor blade and a piece of thread or long hair from
which to suspend it. You can magnetize or polarize the metal by slowly stroking it in one
direction on a piece of silk or carefully through your hair using deliberate strokes. You
can also polarize metal by stroking it repeatedly at one end with a magnet. Always
stroke in one direction only. If you have a battery and some electric wire, you can
polarize the metal electrically. The wire should be insulated. If it is not insulated, wrap
the metal object in a single, thin strip of paper or a leaf to prevent contact. The battery
must be a minimum of 2 volts. Form a coil with the electric wire and touch its ends to the
battery's terminals. Repeatedly insert one end of the metal object in and out of the coil.
The needle will become an electromagnet. When suspended from a piece of non-
metallic string, or floated on a small piece of wood, cork or a leaf in water, it will align
itself with a north-south line.

You can construct a more elaborate improvised compass using a sewing needle or thin
metallic object, a non-metallic container (for example, the cut-off bottom of a plastic
container or soft drink bottle), and the silver tip from a pen. To construct this compass,
take an ordinary sewing needle and break in half. One half will form your direction
pointer and the other will act as the pivot point. Push the portion used as the pivot point
through the bottom center of your container; this portion should be flush on the bottom
and not interfere with the lid. Attach the center of the other portion (the pointer) of the
needle on the pen's silver tip using glue, tree sap, or melted plastic. Magnetize one end
of the pointer and rest it on the pivot point.
 • OTHER MEANS OF DETERMINING DIRECTION

The old saying about using moss on a tree to indicate north is not considered accurate
because moss grows completely around some trees. Actually, growth is more lush on
the side of the tree facing the south in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa in the
southern hemisphere. If there are several felled trees around for comparison, look at the
stumps. Growth is more vigorous on the side toward the equator and the tree growth
rings will be more widely spaced. On the other hand, the tree growth rings will be closer
together on the side toward the poles.

Wind direction may be helpful in some instances where there are prevailing directions
and you know what they are.

Recognizing the differences between vegetation and moisture patterns on north- and
south-facing slopes can aid in determining direction. In the Northern Hemisphere, north-
facing slopes receive less sun than south-facing slopes and are therefore cooler and
damper. In the summer, north-facing slopes retain patches of snow. In the winter, trees
and open areas on south-facing slopes and the southern side of boulders and large
rocks are the first to lose their snow. The ground snowpack is also shallower due to the
warming effects of the sun. In the Southern Hemisphere, all of these effects will be the
opposite.

Prepared by:

LTC MELCHOR P FERNANDO PA (RES)