INTRODUCTION: VIROLOGY AND MYCOLOGY Basidiomycota – Club fungi, septate, basidiospores and sometimes
conidiospores (Cryptococcus neoformans, Systemic mycoses, CNS
FUNGUS – Eukaryotic, Aerobic or facultatively anaerobic,
Chemoheterotroph, Decomposer, Mycology is study of Fungi
Mycotic Disease or Mycoses
MOLDS – Fungal thallus consist of hyphae; a mass of hyphae is a
Mycelium
YEASTS – Unicellular fungi, fission yeasts divide symmetrically,
budding yeasts divide asymmetrically
Dimorphism – pathogenic dimorphic fungi are yeastlike at 37
degrees Celsius and mold like at 25 degrees Celsius
Conidiophore – Stem like, Conidia
Sexual – Spores
Asexual – Conidia
TYPES OF MYCOSES
Systemic mycoses: Deep within the body
Subcutaneous mycoses: Beneath the skin
Cutaneous mycoses: Affect hair, skin and nails
Superficial mycoses: Localized e.g., Hair Shafts
Opportunistic mycoses: Caused by normal microbiota or
environmental fungi
ASEXUAL SPORES
• Sporangiosphore
• Conidiospore – Arthrospore, Blastoconidium
• Chlamydospore
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Plasmogamy: Haploid donor cell nucleus + penetrates cytoplasm of
recipient cell –
Karyogamy: + and – nuclei fuse
Meiosis: Diploid nucleus produces haploid nuclei (sexual spores)
ZYGOSPORE: Fusion of haploid cells produces one zygospore;
Zygosporangium containing zygospore
ASCOSPORE: Formed in a sac (Ascus)
BASIDIOSPORE: Formed externally on a pedestal (Basidium);
Mushrooms
ZYGOMYCOTA
Conjugation fungi; Coenocytic; Produce sporangiospores and
zygospores (Rhizopus, Mucor – opportunistic, systemic mycoses)
Teleomorphic Fungi – Produces sexual and asexual spores
Anamorphic fungi – Produces asexual spores only, rRNA sequencing
places most in Ascomycota; a few are Basidiomycota;
• PENICILLIUM, SPORTHRIX (Subcutaneous mycosis)
• STACHYBOTRYS, COCCIDIOIDES, PNEUMOCYSTIS
(Systemic mycoses, Pulmonary in AIDS patients, killer
pneumonia)
• CANDIDA ALBICANS (Cutaneous and systemic mycoses,
normal flora in body, opportunistic)
• CANDIDAL VAGINITIS
Ascomycota
• Sac fungi, septate, aspergillus (Opportunistic systemic
mycoses),
• Blastomyces dermatitidis, histoplasma capsulatum
(Systemic mycoses),
• Microsporum, trichophyton (Cutaneous mycoses;
common skin diseases, ringworm, athletes’ foot)
infection), MUSHROOMS (Edible)
LICHENS – Mutualistic combination of an algae (Cyanobacterium)
and fungus, alga produces and secretes carbohydrates, fungus
provides holdfast
ALGAE – Eukaryotic, unicellular, filamentous or multicellular
(Thallic); Photoautotrophs
DINOFLAGELLATA – Cellulose in plasma membrane, unicellular,
chlorophyll A and C, Carotene, Xanthins, stores starch, some are
symbionts in marine animals, neurotoxins (Saxitoxin) cause paralytic
shellfish poisoning
VIRUSES
Contains DNA or RNA, contains protein coat, some are enclosed in
an envelope, viruses has spikes, most viruses infect only specific
types of cells in one host, host range is determined by specific host
attachment sites and cellular factors.
EBOLA VIRUS – Visible in microscope
HELICAL VIRUSES – Has nucleic acid, capsomere, capsid (EBOLA)
POLYHEDRAL VIRUSES – Hep A Virus
ENVELOPED VIRUSES – Has spikes, envelope (Influenza A H1N1;
Swine flu); Same with Coronavirus, can be destroyed by alcohol
COMPLEX VIRUSES – Lunar module – Capsid head, DNA, Sheath, Tail
fiber, Pin and baseplate (BACTERIOPHAGE), Virus that infects a
bacteria
VIRAL TAXONOMY
Family names end in -viridae
Genus name end in -virus
Viral species: A group of viruses sharing the same genetic info and
ecological niche (host). Common names are used for species.
Subspecies are designated by a number
Herpesviridae – Herpesvirus – Human Herpes Virus – HHV-1, HHV-2,
HHV-3 (Orofacial herpes, genital herpes, Chickenpox)
Retroviridae – Lentivirus – Human Immunodeficiency Virus HIV-1,
HIV-2 (Location)
GROWING VIRUSES – Viruses must be grown in living cells –
bacteriophages form plaques on a lawn of bacteria (Use living cells)
Animal viruses may be grown in living animals or in embryonated
eggs.
Animal and plants viruses may be grown in cell culture – continuous
cell lines may be maintained indefinitely.
VIRUS IDENTIFICATION – Cytopathic effects, Serological tests
(Detects antibodies against viruses in a patients, use antibodies to
identify viruses in neutralization tests, viral hemagglutination and
western blot, rapid test) , Nucleic acids, RFLPs and PCR
MULTIPLICATION OF BACTERIOPHAGES (LYTIC CYCLE)
• Attachment: Phage attaches by tail fibers to host cell.
• Penetration: Phage lysozyme opens cell wall, tail sheath
contracts to force tail core and DNA into cell
• Biosynthesis: Production of phage DNA and proteins
• Maturation: Assembly of phage particles
• Release: Phage lysozyme breaks cell wall
LYTIC CYCLE: Phage causes lysis and death of host cell
LYSOGENIC CYCLE: Prophage DNA incorporated in host DNA
SPECIALIZED TRANSDUCTION – Transfer from one cell to another
(mutations)
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MULTIPLICATION OF ANIMAL VIRUSES
• Attachment: Viruses attach to cell membrane
• Penetration: by endocytosis or fusion
• Uncoating: by viral or host enzymes
• Biosynthesis: Production of nucleic acid and proteins
• Maturation: Nucleic acid and capsid proteins assemble
• Release: by budding (enveloped viruses) or rupture
PINOCYTOSIS – Cell-breaking
FUSION – Removed outer coating to enter the cell
BUDDING – Part of virus tries to go out of cell and forms a bud and
buds out having an envelope
DNA and RNA viruses compared
DNA: Cellular enzyme transcribes viral DNA in nucleus
DNA, reverse transcriptase: Cellular enzyme transcribes viral DNA in
nucleus; reverse transcriptase copies mRNA to make viral DNA
RNA, +strand: Viral RNA is a template for synthesis of RNA
polymerase
RNA – strand: Viral enzyme copies viral RNA to make mRNA in
cytoplasm
RNA, double stranded: Viral enzyme copies – strand RNA to make
mRNA in cytoplasm
RNA, reverse transcriptase: Viral enzyme copes viral RNA to make
DNA in cytoplasm
CANCER
Activated oncogenes transform normal cells into cancerous cells;
Transformed cells have increased growth, loss of contact inhibition,
tumor specific transplant and T-antigens; The genetic material of
oncogenic viruses becomes integrated into the host cell’s DNA
HPV (Human Papilloma Virus) – Leads to formation of skin and
cervical cancer, also genital cancer
ONCOGENIC DNA VIRUSES
Adenoviridae (Nasopharyngal carcinoma), Heresviridae (Skin,
Genital), Poxviridae (Skin), Papovaviridae (Skin), Hepadnaviridae
(Liver)
ONCOGENIC RNA VIRUSES
Retroviridae (Lymphoma or AIDS), Viral RNA is transcribed to DNA
which can integrate into host DNA, HTLV 1 and 2 (Leukemia)
Latent viral infections – virus remains in asymptomatic host cell for
long periods. COLD SORES, SHINGLES
Persistent viral infections – Disease processes occurs over a long
period, generally is fatal; Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis
(Measles virus)
PRIONS – Infectious proteins, inherited and transmissible by
ingestion transplant and surgical instruments; SPONGIFORM
Encephalopathies: Sheep scrapie, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease,
Gerstmann-Straussler-Scheinker syndrome, Fatal familial insomnia,
Mad cow disease
PROTEIN COMPONENT
PrPc: Normal cellular prion protein, on cell surface
PrPSc: Scrapie protein; accumulates in brain cells forming plaques
VIRUS FAMILIES
Single stranded DNA, Non-enveloped viruses: Parvoviridae: Human
parvovirus, fifth disease, anemia in immunocompromised patients
Double stranded DNA, Non-enveloped viruses – Mastadenovirus:
Respiratory infections in humans; tumors in animals:
ADENOVIRIDAE; COMMON COLDS; FREQUENT CAN CAUSE CANCER
Papillomavirus (Human Wart Virus); Polyomavirus (Causes tumors
and some cause cancer, skin cancer); PAPOVAVIRIDAE
Double stranded DNA, Enveloped viruses (POXVIRIDAE)
Orthopoxvirus (Vaccinia and smallpox viruses)
Molluscipoxvirus (Smallpox, Molluscum contagiosum, Cowpox –
Warty lesion in genital area)
UNDER HERPESVIRIDAE
• Simplexvirus (HHV1 and 2) Oral and facial
• Varicellavirus (HHV3)
• Lymphocryptovirus (HHV4)
• Cytomegalovirus (HHV5)
• Roseolovirus (HHV6) Roseola rash-like measles
• HHV7
• Kaposi’s sarcoma (HHV8) – Some herpesviruses can
remain latent in host cells, soft tissue cancer
• Hepadnavirus (Hep. B virus) – Reverse transcriptase to
produce DNA from mRNA (HEPADNAVIRIDAE)
Single Stranded RNA + Strand, Non-enveloped (PICORNAVIRIDAE)
Enterovirus – includes Poliovirus and Coxsackievirus (FMH disease,
Heart disease)
Rhinovirus - (Common colds) and Hep A virus
CALICIVIRIDAE – Hep. E virus, Norovirus causes Gastroenteritis in
children
Single Stranded RNA + Strand, Enveloped (TOGAVIRIDAE)
Alphavirus – are transmiited by arthropods include EEE, WEE
(Equine-Encephalitis U.S. and E.U.) E-East and W-West
Rubivirus (Rubella virus, German measles)
Single Stranded RNA – Strand, One RNA Strand (RHABDOVIRIDAE-
Bullet-shaped virus, FILOVIRIDAE- Worst virus,
PARAMYXOVIRIDAE, DELTAVIRIDAE)
Vesiculovirus
Lyssavirus (Rabies virus) – Causes numerous animal diseases
Filovirus – Enveloped helical viruses, EBOLA AND MARBURG
VIRUSES
Morbillivirus
Paramyxovirus (Parainfluenza, Mumps, Newcastle disease)
Hep. D virus – Depends on co-infection with Hepadnavirus
Single Stranded RNA – Strand, Multiple RNA Strands
(ORTHOMYXOVIRIDAE and BUNYAVIRIDAE, ARENAVIRIDAE)
Influenzavirus (A and B)
Influenza C – Envelop spikes can agglutinate RBCs
Bunyavirus (CE virus), Hantavirus
Arenavirus – Helical capsids contain RNA-containing granules,
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis, VEE and Lassa fever.
Single Stranded RNA, Two RNA strands produce DNA
(RETROVIRIDAE)
Lentivirus (HIV)
Oncogenic viruses – Use reverse transcriptase to produce DNA from
viral genome, includes all RNA tumor viruses
Double Stranded RNA, Non-enveloped (REOVIRIDAE)
Reovirus (Respiratory Enteric Orphan)
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Rotavirus – Mild respiratory infections and gastroenteritis, children
not breastfed, killed by IGA.
Colorado Tick Fever
Single Stranded RNA +, Stranded Enveloped (CORONAVIRIDAE)
Coronavirus
SARSCov1 – SARS severe acute respiratory syndrome
SARSCov2 – Covid19 Coronavirus diseases 2019
MERSCOV – MERS Middle-East respiratory syndrome
INTRODUCTION: PARASITOLOGY
INTESTINAL PROTOZOA
PROTOZOA – Protist, Chemoheterotroph, Unicellular, Absorptive,
Ingestive Endocytosis (Cytostome), Motility (Some form cysts), No
embryo formation.
HELMINTHS – Animalia, Chemoheterotroph, Multicellular, Tissues
and Organs, Ingestive (Mouth); Absorptive; Has Life Cycle, ALL has
Embryo Formation
PROTOZOA – Vegetative Form is a Trophozoite (Pathogenic Form)
then Active Form – Cyst (Infective Form)
Schizogony – Schizont (Asexual)
Conjugation – Sporogony = Spores/Sporosis
Sexual Reproduction – Definitive Host (Mosquito in Malaria)
Asexual Reproduction – Intermediate Host (Human)
ARCHAEZOA – No mitochondria, multiple flagella, Giardia Lamblia
(Gastroenteritis)
Trichomonas Vaginalis (Secretion of Female and Male;
Trichomoniasis, STD; Ping Pong Disease)
MICROSPORA – No mitochondria, non-motile, intracellular
parasites; Nosoma (with AIDS)
AMOEBOZOA – Pseudopods; Entamoeba (Histolytica Amoebiasis)
and Acanthamoeba (Meningoencephalitis; Thru Swimming)
APICOMPLEXA – Non-motile; Complex life cycle – Plasmodium
(Plasmodium Falciparum; Malaria); Babesia; Cryptosporidium;
Cyclospora
CILIOPHORA (Ciliates/Cilia) – Balantidium coli is the only human
parasite
EUGLENOZOA – with Flagellum; Photoautotrophs (Euglenoids);
Chemoheterotrophs (Naegleria – Meningoencephalitis);
Trypanosoma (African Sleeping Disease); Leishmania (Leishmaniasis)
DINOFLAGELLATES – Protozoan Group (Red Tide)
Diagnostic Findings: Stool Sample
ANTIPROTOZOAN DRUGS
Chloroquine – Inhibit DNA synthesis (Malaria)
Diiodohydroxyquin – Amoeba
Metronidazole – STD (Trichomonas)
ANTIHELMINTHIC DRUGS
Mebendazole – Inhibits Nutrient Absorption (Intestinal Roundworms
or Nematodes)
Ivermectin – Paralyzes worms
Tapeworm – Cestodes; Flukeworm – Trematodes
Niclosamide – Prevents ATP generation
Praziquantel – Alters membrane permeability
INTESTINAL PROTOZOA
• Amoeba
• Flagellates
• Cilates
• Intestinal Coccidia
• Microsporodia
• Blastocystis Hominis
AMOEBA
Entamoeba Histolytica
Amebic Dysentery (w/ Blood and Pus)
AMEBOMA – Mass
Erythrophagocystosis – Ingest RBC
• Luminal Amoebiasis – Asymptomatic
• Invasive Intestinal Amoebiasis
• Invasive Extraintestinal Amoebiasis
Chromatoidal Body – Cigar-shaped source of energy
ENTAMOEBA HARTMANI – Mild, small, usually eccentric karyosome,
finely granular chromatin
ENTAMOEBA COLI – 1 nucleus with large eccentric karyosome,
coarse, irregular peripheral chromatin
ENDOLIMAX NANA – 1 nucleus with large irregularly shaped blot
like karyosome, no chromatoidal body
IODAMOEBA BUTSCHILII – Trophozoite stage only, 1 nucleus, cyst
forms a space, glycogen mass
TREATMENT
IODOQUINOL, PAROMOMYCIN OR DILOXIANIDE FUROATE –
Treatment for asymptomatic
METRONIDAZOLE or TINIDAZOLE – Symptomatic
CILIATES
BALANTIDIUM COLI – Balantidiasis; Balantidial Dysentery (Bean-
shaped nuclei); Most are asymptomatic
TREATMENT
Tetracycline with Metronidazole and Iodoquinol
BLASTOCYSTIS HOMINIS – May be pathogenic; classified as amoeba;
thick-walled cyst and thin-walled cyst; Vacuolar form –
Multivacuolar (thin) and ameboid form (thick); Can be both
asymptomatic and symptomatic; perineal pruritus, flatulence
TREATMENT: Metronidazole and iodoquinol
FLAGELLATES – Giardia Lamblia or Duodenales
TREATMENT: Metronidazole and tinidazole
Nitazoxanide for children
CRYPTOSPORIDIUM PARVUM – Cryptosporidiosis; Food or water, by
P2P
TREATMENT: Nitazoxanide (For children)
Oocyst – Rounded
CYCLOSPORA CAYETANENSIS; Water
TREATMENT: Trimethoprim & Sulfamethoxazole: Bactrim, Septra,
Cotrim
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ISOSPORA BELLI – Isosporiasis; Intestinal Coccidiosis
TREATMENT: Trimethoprim – Sulfamethoxazole
DIENTAMOEBA FRAGILIS – is a Flagellate!
TREATMENT: Iodoquinol or Paromomycin, Tetracycline,
Metronidazole
Tsetse Fly; Winterbottom’s sign enlargement of LN posterior
cervical; Trypomastigote: slender to fat stumpy forms
Trypanosomiasis (Chaga’s disease)
TRYPANOSOMA CRUZI
American trypanosomiasis: Chaga’s disease

MICROSPORIDIA – Enterocytozoon, Encephalitozoon, Pleistophora, Kissing bug triatomidae

Nosema and Microsporidium
Ramana’s Sign: Swelling of orbital region
BLOOD PROTOZOA

• Plasmodium
TISSUE PROTOZOA
• Babesia
• Trypanosoma brucei Chaga’s Disease: Asymptomatic: Cardiomyopathy, SIDS
• Trypanosoma cruzi
• Toxoplasma gondii TOXOPLASMA GONDII: Toxoplasmosis; thru litter or dust; Oocyst in
• Leishmania water; infected meat; transplacental; Cats and rodents.

PROTOZOA FROM OTHER BODY SITES Fulminant = Vomiting

Free-living Amoeba Group – Naegleria and Acanthamoeba Infants = Hydrocephalus

Trichomonas Vaginalis TREATMENT: 4-6 weeks Sulfadiazine, Pyrimethamine

LEISHMANIA

PLASMODIUM – Malaria L.tropica complex: Old-word cutaneous leishmaniasis

P.vivax: Benign tertian malaria; 48hrs; Schuffner’s Dots; 12-24 L.mexicana complex: New-word cutaneous leishmaniasis
merozoites; 10 years relapse
L.braziliensis complex: Mucocuteneous leishmaniasis
P.malariae: Quartan malaria; Senescent erythrocytes; 72hrs; 6-12
L.donovani: Visceral leishmaniasis
merozoites
Phlebotomus or Lutzomiya Fly
P.falciparum: Malignant tertian malaria; Erythrocytes of all ages; 36-
48hrs; Laveran’s Bib TRICHOMONAS VAGINALIS: Trichomonad Vaginitis

P.ovale: Ovale tertian malaria; Reticulocytes; 48hrs; Schuffner’s Parasite

Dots; 6-14 merozoites; 10 years relapse
TREATMENT: Metronidazole (Flagyl)
P.knowlesi: Quotidian malaria; 24hrs
FREE LIVING AMOEBAE/AMEBAE
VECTOR
Naegleria: Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (Nose, Water
ANOPHELES MOSQUITO – Night Biting; Minimus Flavire Bodies)

P.knowlesi (Macaca fascicularis-long tailed) (Macaca nemestrina- Acanthamoeba: Chronic Granulomatous Amebic Encephalitis and
pig tailed) Keratitis (Respiratory Tract or Ulcers, Immunocompromised host)

1 million deaths per year in Africa; 8-30 days incubation - Marc Kevin Mendoza

HYPERPARASITEMIA, P.knowlesi; Sickle cell trait (Anemia) and P.

falciparum

P. FALCIPARUM

Cerebral malaria – Severe headache to coma

Blackwater fever – Jaundice – black colored urine

MANAGEMENT

Vivax and Ovale – Primaquine (Relapse)

Knowlesi – Artemether/Lumefantrine

Falciparum – Chloroquine; if resistant, use plasmodium – quinine

Prophylaxis – Chloroquine or mefloquine,

Pyrimethamine/Sulfadoxine (Fansidar)

BABESIA – Babesiosis (Vector: Tick)

TRYPANOSOMA BRUCEI – African trypanosomiasis

T.b. gambiense: Gambian trypanosomiasis; West and mid-african

sleeping sickness

T.b. rhodesiense: Rhodesian trypanosomiasis, east African sleeping

sickness

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