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CONTENTS

1.ELECTRICITY

• Introduction

• Drift velocity

• Current

• Resistance

• Conductance

• Resistance in series

• Resistance in parallel

• Conductance

• Specific resistance

• Force acting on the electron

2.LIGHT

• Introduction

• Properties of light

• Reflection

• Refraction

• Total internal reflection

• Critical angle

• Snell’s law

• Interference
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• Diffraction

• Polarisation

• Wavefront
• Huygen Fresnel theory of wavefront

• Types of diffraction

3.MAGNETISM
• Introduction

• Types of magnets

• Natural magnets

• Artificial magnets

• Directionality property of magnet

• Magnetic axis

• Magnetic meridian

• Properties of magnetic materials

• Methods of magnetisation

• Magnetic dipole moment

• Types of magnetic materials

• Spontaneous magnetisation

• Hysteresis

• Saturation magnetisation

• Coercivity

• Retentivity
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4.SOUND
• Introduction

• Types of waves

• Characteristics of waves

• Relation between frequency and wavelength

• Beats

• Application of beats

• Echoe

• Applications of beats

5.WORK,POWER,ENERGY
• Work

• Types of work

• Energy

• Types of energy

• Power

6.UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

• Introduction

• Physical quantities

• Types of physical quantities

• Types of units

• System of units

• Seven S.I units

• Dimensions

• Rules for writing s.I units

• Principle of homogeneity
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• Multiples and submultiples

7.SEMICONDUCTORS
• Introduction

• Elemental and compound semiconductors

• Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors

• Doping

• Diode

• Biasing of diode

• Conduction band

• Valence and forbidden band

• Conductors, insulators and semiconductors`

• Recombination

• 8.KINEMATICS
• Introduction

• Basic definations of kinematics

• Time of ascent

• Time of descent

• Time of flight

• Equations of motion

9.SUPERCONDUCTORS

• Introduction

• Properties of superconductors

• Meissner effect

• Types of superconductors
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10.VECTORS
• Introduction

• Scalar and vector quantities

• Types of vector

a) Equal vectors

b) Null vectors

c) Negative vectors

d) Unit vectors

e) Collinear vectors

f) Coplanar vectors

g) Cointial vectors

h) Proper vectors

• Laws of vector addition

• Parallogram law

• Triangle law

• Polygon law

• Dot product

• Vector product

• Properties of dot product

• Properties of vector product

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1
ELECTRICITY
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we know that nucleus consists of fundamental particles like

electrons, protons and neutrons. Electrons being a negative
charged particles are responsible for the production of
current. Free electrons alone will try to move freely inside a
conductor like copper. In general atoms in the nucleus are
strongly bounded by the forces of attraction, when these
bonds are broken electrons move freely inside the conductor
and allow the current to flow. current is nothing but the flow
of charges from higher potential to lower potential region.
But when a potential difference is applied across the ends of
the conducting material a force F acts on the electron, as a
result of this electrons are separated from the nucleus and
produces the current, when external force is applied the
electrons should accelerate and travel with high velocity, but
because of the positive ions present in the conductor they will
slow down the velocity of electrons., this velocity is called drift
velocity, hence current is a scalar quantity because it do not
obey the laws of vector addition.

Electricity can be classified into two parts

1. Static electricity 2. Dynamic electricity
Expression for drift velocity:-

The drift velocity of the electron is given by j=nevd here vd is

the drift vleocity of the electrons and n be the number of
electrons present in a material and J is called current density.
Current density can be defined as amount of current entering
in to a material per unit area of cross section.
J=I/A
The unit for current density is ampere/metre2.
It is important to know a fact that the revolving electron
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can create magnetic field in addition to electric field.

According to the Benjamin Franklin there are two type of
charges
1. Positive charges.
2. Negative charges.
These charges are not generated but are produced by the
transformation of electrons from one place to another. the
atom present in the nucleus may accept or donate the electron.
Current:-
Current is defined as the flow of charges per unit time. Let i
be amount of current in the conduction and q is the charge
then
Current (i) = q/t
For instance in a given material if unit amount of charge flows
in unit time then the amount of current is i=1 ampere.
The unit for current is charge/second. In a given conductor
6.25x1018 amperes of current flow in a material.The flow of
current depends on the area of cross section like a water in a
pipe, because when the cross section is small the flow of
electrons will be very high, whereas if it is large the force
acting on the electrons will be small and hence flow will be
small. As a convention current may be due flow of positive
charges, but in the case of metallic conductor flow of current
is only due to the flow of electrons.

Resistance:-we know that electrons move from higher potential

to lower potential, but due to the presence of impurities
present in the material the electrons present in the conductor
will try to collide with positive ions present in the conducting
material, this property is called as resistance. In simple words
we can say that the property which opposes the flow of
electrons is known as "Resistance". The resistance is due to
the thermal vibration of electrons present in the material, as a
result of these vibrations it tries to decrease the flow of
electrons thereby creating heat energy. It is generally
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observed in electrical heaters, iron boxes, and even in our

body. Nichrome wire present in heater is primarily
responsible for the resistance inside the material. The
electrons present in the nichrome material will try to collide
with positive ions in the metal.
Resistance is inversely proportional to the current produced.
According to Ohm's law
V= IR
Voltage is directly proportional to the resistance and directly
proportional to the current produced.Basing on the Ohm's
law the resistors which obey's Ohm's law are known as Ohmic
resistors. On the other hand the resistors which do not obey
Ohm's law are known as non-ohmic resistors. An electrolyte
with copper sulphate solution obeys Ohm's law.

The graph between voltage and current is linear in fashion.

This shows that voltage is directly proportional to the current.

Resistance can be arranged in two ways

1. Resistance in series
2. Resistance in parallel
1. Resistance in series: If R1, R2,R3 are the resistors connected
in series then its effective resistance is given as
R= R1+R2+R3
2. Resistance in parallel:- If R1, R2,R3 are connected in
parallel then its effective resistance is given by

Resistance of a material depends on the nature of the

material, area of cross section. Resistance of a material is
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directly proportional to the length of the material and

inversely proportional to the area of cross section. The device
which contains resistance is called resistors.

Series resistance:-
Let us consider R1 and R2 are the resistances connected in
series and V1 and V2 are the potential differences existed
across the resistances R1 and R2 then as per the series
combination
V= v1+v2 ------------------------ (1)

Let is be the current flowing through the resistances then

V = iR1+iR2
V = i(R1+R2) ----------- (2)
Let R be single resistance and i be common current flowing
Then iR=i(R1+R2) ----------- (3)
R= R1+R2

Unit for resistance:- The unit for resistance can be defined as

in one second of time 6.25x108 charges will pass through a
metallic conductor.
Resistance = voltage/current
In S.I system the unit for resistance is Ohms.
Conductance:-
The reciprocal of resistance is conductance, it is denoted by
the letter G, i.e., G=i/v
Conductance = 1/G
The unit for resistance is ohms, the unit for conductance is
mho
Resistivity:-
The reciprocal of conductivity is called resistivity
Force acting on the electron:
Let us consider a free electron is moving in a metallic
conductor, when an electric field is applied E is applied to the
conductor they experience force F which is given by F=qe.
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This force is called lorentz force acting on the electron. It is

given for electric and magnetic field
F=q(E+VxB)
Conductors have important property called positive
temperature coefficient of resistivity, it means as the
temperature of the material increases its resistance also
increases. That is the reason why conductors obey ohm’s law.
Whereas semiconductors have –ve temperature coefficient of
resistance, it means resistance of the material decreases with
the increases of temperature.
Specific Resistance:-
We know that at a given temperature resistance of a material
is directly proportional to the length and inversely
proportional to the area of cross section i.e.,
Rα L ------------- (1)
R α 1/A ------------- (2)
R = Ρl/A
In the above equation ρ is known as the resistivity of the
material, it is also known as the specific resistance of the
material.
If the length of the material is unity and area of cross section
is unity, then the resistance of a metal at a given temperature
is equal to the specific resistivity.
If the cross section of the material is a circle then the resultant
resistance is given by
R=Ρl/πr2
From the expression resistance is inversely proportional to the
radius of a material.
LIGHT
INTRODUCTION

We usually come across the property of light in our

routine way of life. Light is form of energy produced by
the v i b r a t i o n o f e l e c t r i c a n d m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
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Therefore light is form of t r a ns v e r s e

e le c t r o m a g ne t i c wave w he r e e le c t r ic and
magnetic fields are perpendicular to each
o t h e r . Light has no mass hence it travels in straight
line. Such property is called as rectilinear propogation of
light. Like sound, light do not require any material
medium it can travel in solids, liquids and gases and even in
space because light is a form of electromagnetic wave which
contains electric and magnetic field which creates some oscillations,
whereas sound requires material medium to travel, using this
material medium it can travel in solids,liquids and gases but not in
vacuum.

Figure 1 Electromagnetic Waves

Regions of electromagnetic wave:-

There are several regions of electromagnetic wave

1.Visible region
2.Ultraviolet region
3.Infrared region

Near infrared region

Far infrared region
Middle infrared region
4. Gamma ray region
5. X-ray region
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Denser medium:-
Denser medium refers to a place where the atoms or
molecules are large in number and are close to each other, we
can take glass, water,oil as best examples for denser medium.
Because glass is a solid having refractive index 1.5 and atoms
in it are strongly attracted by forces of attraction, due to this
reason light cannot travel very fast in the denser medium i.e
velocity of light in denser medium is less than that in rarer
medium. This property of change in the velocity of light when
it enters from one medium to another medium is called as
refractive index.
Glass is the best example for denser medium oil, water are
other examples for denser medium.
Rarer medium:- Air is the best example for rarer medium, the

distance between the atoms will be large when compared to

glass and is having refractive index of 1. Due to this reason
light travels very fast in rarer medium.
PROPERTY OF LIGHT
Light exhibits certain properties in nature depending
upon its propagation they are
1.Reflection
2.Refraction
3.Total internal reflection
Reflection :-
When a light ray is incident on a denser medium like glass it
retraces (or) bounces its path in the same denser
medium, such a property is called as a reflection.
Throwing a ball on the wall and coming back in the
same direction is called as reflection.
There are two types of reflections
1.Regular reflection 2.Irregular reflection
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1.Regular reflection:-
If the reflection of light takes place along smooth and
plane surfaces like mirror such reflections are called as
regular reflections(or) if the incident beam and reflected beam
are parallel to each other it is called as regular reflection. This
type of reflection is observed in plane mirrors.

Figure 2 Picture showing regular reflection

2.Irregular reflection:
If the reflection of light takes place along a rough
surface such reflection is called as irregular reflection. In these
type of reflections light will be scattered in different directions
due to the nature of the surface. This reflection takes place
when light incident on rough surfaces like wood,wall.In this case
different portion of incident light are scattered in different
directions, in such cases image is not formed but surface is
visible

Fig.3 Picture showing irregular reflection

Refraction

As we know that the speed of light is 3x108 m/sec when

it travels from denser medium and enters to rarer
medium the velocity of light changes suddenly, as a result
of this the light ray slightly bends in two ways
1.Towards the normal .
2.Away from the normal
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When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium of

refractive index μ The light ray bends away from the normal, the
angle between refracted ray and normal as shown in is angle of
refraction r

Figure 3 Refraction of light

other hand if the light travels from rarer medium to denser

medium
1. it bends towards the normal.
Example:-
Bent stick in water
2.Bened needle in oil
3.Dispersion phenomenon in prism
Refractive index:-
The change in the speed of propogation of light is called
as refractive index. The refractive index for denser
medium like glass is 1.5 and that of rarer medium like air is 1.
Therefore due to this reason the velocity of light in
denser medium is less than that in rarer medium.(or) deviation in
the direction of propogation of light when it moves from one
medium to other medium is refractive index. Refractive index is
dimensionless quantity. Refractive index is inversely proportional
to velocity of light.
Refractive Index= velocity of light/velocity in vacuum

Material Refractive
index
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Air 1
Glass 1.5
Snow 1.31
Kersone 1.44
Turpentin 1.47
e oil
Crown 1.52
glass
Benzene 1.50
Ruby 1.71
Rock salt 1.54
Diamond 2.42
Fused 1.46
quartz
Sapphire 1.77

Total internal reflection

This p r i n c i p l e i s u s e d t o t r a n s m i t s i g n a l s i n
o p t i c a l f i b r e s . When light travels from denser
medium to rarer medium at particular angle of incidence
greater than critical a n g l e t h e l i g h t r a y r e t r a c e s
b a c k i n t o t h e d e n s e r m e d i u m , this property is called
total internal reflection. In case of optical f ibres w hen
light from core to cladding m edium, the light ray
travels in core and do not travel in cladding because of
less refractive index. The refractive index of core is
1.52 and that of cladding is 1.48. In fiber optics because of high
refractive index in core it is considered as denser medium, whereas
on the other hand cladding is considered as rarer medium because
of its low refractive index.
Critical angle:- The angle at which the refracting angle becomes
900 is called critical angle.If the angle is refracted other than
90 degrees instead of reflection, refraction phenomenon will
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be existed inside the fiber resulting in violation of total

internal reflection.

Figure 4 Total internal reflection

Relation between refractive index and critical angle:-

μ=1/sinc

if c1 and c2 are the critical angles of a given light ray then

Snell's law
For a given media the ratio of sine of angle of incident angle to
sine of refracting angle remains constant.
i.e µ = sini/sinr

Figure 5 snell's law of refraction

Light has two natures

1.Wave nature
2.Particle nature
Basing on wave nature 3 properties are there
1.Interference2.Diffraction 3.Polarisation

Interference:-
When two or more coherent sources superpose with each
other the regions of maximum and minimum
intensity are observed such a phenomenon is called
interference.
For example:-
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1)Light coming from sun

2)Light incident on the surface of oil
3)CD
4)DVD
5) stone dropped on the surface of water
6) Water coming from two taps at the same time
There are two types of interference
1.Constructive Interference
2. Destructive Interference
Constructive interference and Destructive interference
When the distribution of energy is maximum in
the region of superposition the formed
interference is called constructive interference,
due to the uniform distribution of energy these
type of interference takes place. On the other
hand if the distribution of energy is non-uniform
in the superposition of waves, then the
interference is called destructive interference.

Figure 6 constructive and destructive interference

Condition for constructive and destructive interference

Constructive interference will occur when the path difference
is integral multiple of wavelength,
s i m i l a r l y d e s t r u c t i v e interference when the
path difference is half integral multiple of wavelength
In the case of constructive interference
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The phase difference is equal to 2nπ.

Phase difference

2nπ =
Path difference = nλ
In the case of destructive interference the phase
difference between the waves is equal to (2n+1) .

Therefore the phase difference=

(2n-1)

Path difference = (2n-1)

Diffraction

Figure 7 Diffraction of light

Certain portion of light rays bend around near the

corners o f o b s t a c l e i s c a l l e d d i f f r a c t i o n . T h e
a m o u n t o f b e n d i n g depends on the nature of obstacle.
To obtain the diffraction the size of the obstacle should be
in comparison with the wavelength of light. The diffraction and
interference phenomenon is proof of the wave nature of light.

Polarisation
The phenomena of onesidedness of the light is called
polarisation. That is light travels only in single direction.
Consider two slits where one is perpendicular to the
other, when light is allowed to incident o n these two slits
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light from one end of the slit passed through and from the other
end light do not passes through it. Therefore this
simple e x p e r i m e n t c o n f i r m s t h a t l i g h t t r a v e l s i n
single direction.
wavefront:-

We know that interference phenomenon is due to the

presence of coherent waves having same amplitude and
displacement. These waves tend to travel with the same time
and phase, the collection of these waves is termed as
wavefront. Wavefront is divided into three types.
1. Plane wavefront
2. Spherical wavefront
3. Cylindrical wavefront
4.
Huygen-fresnel principle of wavefront:
“According to this principle each point on the wavefront is
a source of secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets
will try to superpose with each other to produce diffraction
pattern. In the case of interference two or more waves
superpose with each other whereas many number of
secondary waves combine themselves to produce
diffraction pattern.
Let us consider a plane wavefront as
shown in fig below. Consider a point P1 on the wavefront
this point emits secondary waves at time t=1, similarly the
second point P2 produces secondary waves at time t=2 and
so on. In general light cannot travel in the backward
direction, by drawing arcs on the backside of the same
width we can obtain envolopes of waves which is known as
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wavefront.

Kinds of diffraction
1.Fraunhoffer diffraction
2.Fresnel diffraction
Fraunhoffer Diffraction
When the source and slit are at infinite distances the
formed diffraction is called fraunhoffer diffraction, in
the case of fraunhoffer diffraction the lens used is convex lens.
The wavefront formed is plane wavefront.
Fresnel Diffraction
When t he so ur c e a n d s li t a r e a t f in i t e d is t a nc e s
t h e f o r m e d diffraction is called Fresnel diffraction. No
convex lens is used in Fresnel diffraction. The wavefront is
spherical wavefront.

3. MAGNETISM
Certain materials which are capable of attracting materials like Fe,
Ni, Co under the influence of external magnetic field are called
magnetic materials and the property is called as magnetism. Earth is
considered as huge magnet which contains geographical north and
geographical south poles. The word magnet is derived from a city
magnesia. Magnetite is the natural form of magnet available in the earth
crust in the form of ore of iron. There are two forms of magnets

1. Natural magnets

Magnets that are available naturally in the earth crust are called as
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natural magnets. Magnetite is best example for natural magnet.

Figure 8 Magnetite

2. Artificial magnets

Magnets that are prepared by artificial methods are called artificial

magnets. These are artificial because they are obtained from
natural magnets. The artificial magnets are made to suit our needs.
Horse shoe magnet, pot shaped magnets are examples of Artifical
magnets.

Figure 9 Artifical magnets

1. Temporary magnets

There are certain class of materials which act as magnet only

when it is magnetized and looses its magnetisation once the
external field is removed. Electromagnets which are used in
calling bell is best example for temporary magnets. Paper clips,
iron nails are another examples of temporary magnets.

2. Permanent magnets

Figure 10 Permanent magnets

The materials which can retain magnetisation even after the

external field is removed. Magnet present in the door of
refrigerator is best example for permanent magnets. These
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magnets are called permanent magnets because they create

their own magnetic field inside the material; these materials are
made from ferromagnetic materials like Fe. Alnico is the best
example for permanent magnets; it is made from Aluminium,
Nickel, Cobalt. Permanent magnets are difficult to demagnetize
because of their strong attractive capacity.

They can be demagnetized in two ways 1) by heating 2)

hammering

Directionality property of magnet

When a magnet is suspended freely towards geographical north

and south pole, after some time the magnet comes to rest with
the north -south pole facing each other such a property is called
directionality property of magnet. Magnet always exist in pairs
there is no mono pole for a magnet, because when the magnet is
divided into small pieces even the tiny pieces of magnet will
behave as a north pole and south pole.

Magnetic axis

The line joining the two poles of a magnet is called magnetic

axis

Figure 11 Magnetic axis

Magnetic meridian

The vertical line passing through the two poles of magnet is

called magnetic meridian.
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Figure 12 Magnetic meridian

Properties of magnetic materials

1. Permeability

It is the specific property that characterises the strength of

the magnetic material. The ease with which the magnetic
lines of force are allowed into the material is called as
permeability of magnetic material. Depending on this
property we can justify the magnetic strength of a material
for ferromagnetic material permeability is strong and
positive, for diamagnetic materials it is small and –ve,
whereas for paramagnetic materials it is small and positive.

Relative permeability:-

It is defined as permeability of medium to permeability of

free space i.e., μr = μ/μo.

2. Magnetic field

The space around which the influence of the magnetic

material can be felt or experience is called as a magnetic
field. When a material is placed in a magnetic field it
experiences a force called Lorentz force.

3. Pole strength

It is the material ability of one magnetic material to attract

the pole of another magnetic material. Usually it is expressed
in amp-metre.

Pole strength(m) = M/2l ---------------- (1)

Since the relationship between pole strength and length is

inversely proportional we can write

m1/m2 = l2/l1 --------------------- (2)

similarly m1/m2=M1/M2-------------------- (3)

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4. Inverse square law of magnetism:

It is defined as force is directly proportional to the product of

pole strengths and inversely proportional to the square of
distance between them

Fα m1.m2 --------------------------------- (1)

Fα 1/r2 --------------------- (2)

F = µ0/4π .(m1m2)/r2 ---------- (3)

Here μ0 is the permeability of free space or vacuum its value

is 8.85x10-12.

5. Susceptability:-

It is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetisation to the

applied magnetic field λ = M/H

Methods of magnetisation

There are two methods of magnetisation involved in

magnetising a material they are as follows

1. Single touch method

2. Double touch method

Single touch method:-

Consider a steel bar above which a bar magnet is placed, the bar
magnet is allowed to slap the steel bar from one end to other end after
sometime the magnetic properties that are present in the bar magnet
will be transformed to steel bar and the material will become
magnetized.

Figure 13 single touch method

Double touch method

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Figure 14 double touch method

In this method two bar magnets are placed over the steel bar ,
the bar magnets are allowed to slap from one end to the other end and
thereby steel bar gets magnetised after some point of time.

Reluctance:

If the magnetic material do not allow the magnetic lines of force

and thereby material always acts as demagnetizing material, such a
character is called as reluctance.

Magnetic dipole moment:

We know that electron revolve round the nucleus in definite circular

orbits, the orbital , if we consider the orbital motion of electron equal
to current loop it produces electrical current inside the material, in turn
this current produces magnetic field in the material as a result of this
positive and negative charges separated by certain distance will produce
magnetic dipoles. This moment of dipoles is called magnetic dipole
moment. Depending on the type of orbital and spin motion of electron
there are three types of magnetic dipole moments.

6. Orbital magnetic dipole moment’

7. Spin magnetic dipole moment

8. Nuclear magnetic dipole moment

Figure 15 magnetic dipole moment

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Types of magnetic materials:

Depending on the arrangement of atoms magnetic materials can be

broadly classified into 5 types

1. Diamagnetic material

2. Ferromagnetic material

3. Paramagnetic material

4. Antiferromagnetic material

5. Ferrimagnetic material

Diamagnetic material:

These type of materials show peculiarity in their behaviour when

subjected to external magnetic field. For any magnetic material before
it is magnetised all the magnetic dipoles will be arranged in opposite
direction thereby the resultant magnetisation is zero, but when
magnetic field is applied to diamagnetic materials they act in opposite to
the direction of external magnetic field, such materials are called
diamagnetic materials. The susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is -1,
hence they are equal to superconductors. Their relative permeability is
less than 1.gold,mercury,alcohol, hydrogen are the examples of
diamagnetic material

Figure 16 diamagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic material

These range of materials show strong attractive property in the

presence of external magnetic field, because of large and positive
permeability value. When external magnetic field is applied to a
magnetic material they strongly attract to external field and magnetised
suddenly. These ferromagnetic materials are able to retain or produce
their own magnetic field eve it is removed. Their relative permeability is
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>>1.The important property of ferromagnetic material is that their

dipoles can arrange themselves even in the absence of external field
due to this reason these materials have gained importance in our daily
life.

Figure 17 ferromagnetic materials

Ferromagnetic materials exhibit two important properties

a) Spontaneous magnetisation b) Hysterisis

Spontaneous magnetisation:-

We know that magnetic dipoles are arranged in random motion in the absence of
external magnetic field, in the case of ferromagnetic materials are those type which
exhibit permanent magnetic dipoles even in the absence of external magnetic field, not
only that when external magnetic field is applied they react spontaneously and align in
the direction of external magnetic field, such property is called spontaneous
magnetisation. Barium titanate exhibits spontaneous magnetisation.

Hysterisis:-

The lagging of magnetic field of induction behind the magnetic field is called hysteresis.
This process deals with the magnetisation and demagnetisation of ferromagnetic
material, the amount of energy loss that is created during this magnetisation and
demagnetisation cycle is called hysteresis loss. It can be better understood with the
help of curve called B-H curve or leaf curve. The following properties of ferromagnetic
materials are best described in the hysteresis concept.

Saturation magnetisation:-

Let us consider a ferromagnetic sample as shown in figure which is in unmagnetised

state, i.e., dipoles will be arranged in random fashion. But when an external magnetic field
the material is spontaneously magnetised and after further application of external magnetic
field the material reaches a saturated state of magnetisation, it means after the further
magnetic field is applied the material will not allow the lines of force such magnetisation is
called saturation magnetisation.

Retentivity:- After material obtains saturation state of magnetisation, the external

magnetic field is reduced to some extent. But there will be some degree of magnetisation
present in the material(or) some sort of residual magnetisation (or) remanent flux is present
in the material, this property is called retentivity
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Coercivity:- since there is residual magnetisation present in the material it is not

possible to demagnetise the material, so an opposite magnetic field is applied to the
specimen such that it acquires demagnetised state, this property is called as coercivity.

Domain theory of ferromaghnetism:-

Ferromagnetic materials have strong attractive capacity because of the permeability value
far greater than 1, ferromagnets are arranged into a smaller regions called domains where
the magnetic dipoles are arranged into two types , Parallel and antiparallel alignment as
shown in figure.

Figure 18paramagnetic materials

Curie temperature:-

The temperature at which ferromagnetic material changes to paramagnetic material is

called as curie temperature. As we know that magnetic dipoles in ferromagnetic material is
strong, but after increasing the temperature to a large extent the dipoles will try to change
their alignment in order to convert the material as paramagnetic material. When the
temperature of the material is less than curie temperature it behaves as a ferromagnetic
material, above the curie temperature it behaves as a paramagnetic material.

Neel temperature:-

The temperature at which antiferromagnetic material changes to paramagnetic material is

called neel temperature, below this temperature it behaves as a antiferromagnetic
material above the neel temperature it behaves as a paramagnetic material.
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4.SOUND
Generally when we stretch the rubber band we hear some
sound produced by vibrations, in a similar way calling bell produces
some vibrations, clip of the writing pad, train coming on the platform
etc, are few examples for production of sound. therefore sound is a
form of vibration and wave produced by vibrating bodies. Sound travels
in the form of waves by transporting energy from one place to another.
Sound comes under the category of mechanical waves. We know that
waves propagate in air by transporting energy, since these molecules
that are present in air begin to vibrate by the external medium, these
mechanical waves can be broadly classified into two categories.

Figure 19 transverse and longitudinal

WAVE:- Wave is a form of disturbance produced by vibrating bodies in

the medium like air or vacuum. A rubber band produces vibration,
tuning fork produces vibrations, horn from a train produces vibration,
music from orchestra produces vibration etc. Wave will move from
place to place because of the property of angular momentum(or) torque

Wave motion:- The propogation of energy from one place to another is

called wave motion. Generally wave move from crest to trough point
through the transfer of its energy, depending on the distribution of
energy the amplitude and frequency of the wave will change and will
result in different phenomenas of sound.

Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies,

man or women enters into this world by making sound i.e., crying.
Sound is not a communication only among human beings but among
living beings too.

Types of waves:-

1. Transverse waves.

2. Longitudinal waves.

Sound wave is a form of longitudinal wave, whereas light is a form of

transverse wave. Sound requires external medium to travel from place
to place, sound travels in solids, liquids and gases but it cannot travel in
 32

vacuum because there is no medium to travel there. Light can travel

everywhere because of its highest speed of the order 3x108 m/sec.

PROGRESSIVE WAVES:-

Waves that originate from the source and continues to travel in the
forward direction is called progressive wave. For example drop a stone
in a river the disturbance produced will continue till they reach the
shore. Take a rope and fix at one end and the other end is held in hand
the waves generated are called progressive waves

STATIONARY WAVES:

Figure 20 stationary waves

When two waves of the same frequency and amplitude travel in opposite
direction they superpose each other to produce node and antinode.
Node is region of minimum energy, whereas antinode is a region of
maximum energy. The distance between successive nodes and antinodes
is λ/2 and the distance between consecutive nodes and antinodes are λ/
4. The appearance of loops is that incident and reflected waves are seen
in opposite direction. These stationary waves travel in the form of crest
and troughs.

TRANSVERSE WAVE:-

If the particles of medium vibrate perpendicular to the direction of

propagation of wave the resulting wave is called transverse wave. Light
wave is the example for transverse electromagnetic wave.

LONGITUDINAL WAVES:-

If the particles of medium vibrate parallel to the direction of

propagation of wave then the said wave is called longitudinal
wave.Sound waves are the examples for longitudinal waves because the
air molecules present in the wave will vibrate creating an atmosphere of
maximum and minimum amplitude.
 33

Figure 21 transverse and longitudinal

PROPOGATION OF SOUND

Consider the prongs of tuning fork. When the prongs of tuning fork is
vibrated the molecules of air compresses and it the prongs move
towards the right direction the compression compresses the next layer
to layer and hence compression is produced. But as the prongs move
towards the left some vacuum is created producing rarefactions. The
molecules of the air tries to fill the region of low pressure . therefore
compressions are the regions of higher pressure and rarefactions are the
regions of lower pressure.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND

1. Amplitude:- Since the wave displaces from place to place by

transporting energy and not only that it displaces only due to
vibration,Therefore the maximum displacement of vibrating body
is called amplitude.

Figure 22 Amplitude of wave

2. Frequency:- The number of vibrations made by the particle per

unit time is called frequency (or) the reciprocal of timeperiod is
frequency. The number of cycles of vibrations produced per unit
time is called frequency. The relation between frequency and time
period is

Frequency(n) = 1/T = 1/sec =sec-1

 34

Figure 23 frequency

3. Time period:- The time taken by the wave to complete one

oscillation or vibration is called time period

Figure 24 Time period

4. Wavelength:- since wave is nothing not combination of crest and

trough, the distance between crest and trough is called as
wavelength. The unit for wavelength is A0, 1 A0=10-8 c.m

The relation between frequency and wavelength is

V = nλ

V = (1/T)λ

λ= TV

If λ1 and λ2 are the wavelengths of the wave then

If are the wavelengths of the waves and v1 and v2 are the

velocities of the waves then
 35

Angular velocity:-

The number of oscillations completed by the wave per unit time is

angular velocity, it is denoted by the letter ω. Therefore relation
between angular velocity and frequency is given by

ω = 2πν

ω = 2π/T

Figure 25 wavelength

5. Pitch:- Pitch depends upon the frequency, the higher is the

frequency higher will be pitch. Pitch do not depend upon loudness
and quality.

Figure 26 pitch of wave

6. Quality:- Quality depends upon the pressure of overtones, the

property of quality determines the voice of person. Loudness and
pitch determines whether it is the voice of men or women or child.

Doppler effect:- Consider the case of moving train on the platform,

as the train reaches platform we can hear increase in the
frequency of sound, but as the train moves away from the platform
the decrease in the frequency of sound is heard. Therefore the
apparent change in the frequency due to relative motion between
source and observer is called Doppler effect

Case-1:- If the source is in motion and observer is at rest then

apparent frequency is given by λ= v/v-vs

Case-2:- If the source is at rest and observer in motion then the

apparent frequency is given by λ=v/v+vs
 36

Case-3: If the source and observer are in motion then the

apparent frequency is given by λ=v+v0/v-vs

Beats:- When two waves of the nearly same frequencies interfere

with each other a region of waxing and waning is produced. Waxing
is the region of maximum intensity, whereas waning is the region
of minimum intensity. One waxing and waning constitute one beat.
The difference between the frequencies is n=n1-n2, This frequency
difference is called as beat frequency. Beats can be recognised by
human hear if the difference do not exceed 10.

Figure 27 beats

APPLICATION OF BEATS

1. Beats are used in tuning musical instruments.

2. Beats are used to produce tremulous effects in cine films

3. Beats are used to determine the frequency of tuning fork

4. Beats are used to determine the dangerous gases in mines.

Reverberation:- The persistence of sound even after the source

has stopped emitting the sound is called reverberation and the
time at which the persistence of sound takes place is called
reverberation time.

Echoe:-

The repetition of sound once when the reflection takes place at

larger obstacles is called echoe. The sound is heard by listener
by two ways, first he receives the sound and afterwards he
listens the reflected sound. A minimum time interval of 0.1
seconds is maintained to hear an echo.

Surfaces where echoes takes place

• Surfaces of buildings

• Surface of water in a well

 37

• Surface of mountain or clif

Applications of echoes

• Megaphone and trumpet work on the principle of reflection

of sound

• Using the concept of echo height of aeroplane and the

depth of oceans may also be determined.

• Velocity of sound may be estimated making use of an echo.

6.WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

It is a conceptual chapter that picturises the importance of physical work.

Much of the energy that we use for doing a work is not a physical work, for example writing
a notes, listening a music, lifting briefcase etc., because these type of works will not change
the energy of the body (or) particle. Suppose a person is rowing a boat opposite to the
direction of the stream the muscle work done by the person will not come under the
physical work because his muscle work does not the change the motion of the boat. Suppose
if the same person is rowing the boat in the direction of the stream it is considered as a
physical work, because it is changing the motion of the boat. In a similar way lifting a book
or ploughing a land will come under the physical work.

Work:- Work is a form of energy, there are different type of energies available in the
universe for example mechanical energy, electrical energy, thermal energy etc.,. We know
that dynamo converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, in the same way LED converts
electrical energy into light energy and so on. Work is divided into two types

1) Positive work and negative work:-

Work is said to be positive if the force and displacement acts in the same direction,
on the other hand work is said to be negative if the force and displacement are acting
in the same direction

• When work is done in lifting the load horizontally the work is positive because
force applied and displacement will be acting in the same direction.

• When a book is pulled aside horizontally the workdone is positive because

book displaces in the direction of force.

• When spring is moved horizontally workdone is positive, because the particles

displace forward and backward.
 38

• A particle thrown upwards freely is positive work because particle motion and
gravity will be acting in the same direction

• Pressing of cycle pump is an example of negative work because force and

gravity will be acting in the opposite direction.

• Throwing of a ball on to the wall is an example for negative work because

force and displacement will be acting in the opposite direction.

• The swinging of cradle is an example for positive work because force and
displacement of the cradle will be acting in the same direction.

2) Zero work:- Work is said to be zero if the force and displacement are perpendicular
to each other.

Example:-

A person hitting a concrete wall has done zero work because of nil displacement in
the wall motion.

Therefore when a force is applied to a body it moves to a certain distance (or) it

displaces to a someplace, it means some sort of work is done to transfer the particle from
place to place. When work is done energy is converted to kinetic energy hence
mathematically

work W=F.S cosθ ----------------------- (1)

(a)If the angle between force and displacement is 0, then the workdone is

W= F.S ------------------------ (2)

(b) It indicates that force and displacement are acting in the same direction

If the angle between force and displacement is perpendicular then the workdone is

W= 0

(c) If the angle between force and displacement is 180 then the workdone is

W = -FS

Energy:- Everyone in the universe requires some energy to tune up our daily life. Energy of
a body is nothing but capacity of doing work. The s.I unit of work is joule and C.G.S unit of
work is erg, work and energy have the same units. The dimensional formulae of work is
ML2T-2

Law of conservation of energy:-

It states that energy remains constant, energy can neither be created not it can be
destroyed, it can be converted from one form to another form.

There are two forms of energy

1. Potential energy
 39

2. Kinetic energy

1. Potential energy:- Potential energy is the energy possessed by virtue of its position
or direction. If the work is not done on any body the energy will be stored as
potential energy

Example:-

• The water stored in a reservoir is an example for potential energy, because

the water remains stationary in the reservoir.

• The spring of a watch is an example of potential energy

• A compressed spring possesses potential energy because it can do some work

to restore back to its original shape and size

• A rubber band possesses potential energy because it will do some work to

restore to its original position

Kinetic energy:-

The energy possessed by virtue of motion or direction is called kinetic energy.

In general if the work is done some portion of energy is lessened, such form of energy
is kinetic energy.

• Water released from the flood gates of a dam possesses kinetic energy

• The bullet coming from a gun and striking the wooden plank is example for

kinetic energy.

• The stone thrown from the catapult is an example for kinetic energy

• We know that to displace a body from a given point we need some work.
Consider that a car is travelling in a certain place at a given point of time, after
applying the breaks the car will not stop suddenly, on the other hand if the
breaking force is very high car skids to some distance, i.e by the application of
force the particle is displacing from place to place the total energy applied is
converted to kinetic energy

• Energy stored in a water pipe is example for kinetic energy

• Energy possed in oscillations of the spring which exhibits S.H.M is kinetic energy

• Energy coming from the emission of light is kinetic energy.

Power:-

Suppose the person

 40

6.UNITS AND DIMENSIONS

INTRODUCTION
 41

We usually come across with common physical quantities in our

daily life like sugar measured in kg, milk measured in litres time
measured in sec. All these physical quantities required a standard of
measurement, such standard is called as a unit. Therefore if the physical
quantity can be measured it is called as a unit. When we come across
the subject there are physical quantities like speed, velocity,
acceleration, displacement etc., measured according to some system of
measurement.

PHYSICAL QUANTITY:-

A quantity which can be measured is called as a physical quantity. It can

be divided into two types

1.Fundamental physical quantity

2.Derived physical quantity

Fundamental Physical quantity:-

A physical quantity which is independent of itself is called as

fundamental physical quantity(or) a physical quantity which do not
depend upon the another physical quantity is called fundamental
physical quantity. Length, Mass, Time are the fundamental physical
quantities.

Derived Physical quantities:-

A Physical quantity which is obtained from fundamental physical

quantity is called derived physical quantity(or) the quantity depended
on another physical quantity is called derived physical quantity.
Examples are speed, velocity, acceleration, displacement, frequency
etc.,.

CLASSIFICATION OF UNIT:-

Similarly unit can be classified into two types

1. Fundamental unit.

2. Derived unit.

Fundamental unit:-
 42

The unit which is a measure of fundamental physical quantity is

called fundamental unit. Length measured in m, Mass in kg, Time in
Sec.

Derived unit:-

The unit which is a measure of derived physical quantity is called

derived unit, for example speed in km/hr, acceleration in m/sec2,
displacement in metres.

DERIVED UNIT UNIT

Speed=distance/time m/sec
ACCELERATION = m/sec2
Velocity/time
Displacement m
Force= massxaccelaration newton
Frequency= 1/time period Hertz
Angle=Arc/radius radian
Angular velocity radian/sec
Angular acceleration radian/sec2
Temperature kelvin
Potential difference(v)= W/Q volt
Current= Coloumb/second ampere
Power=work/Time watt
Energy Joule
Pole strength of magnet ampere-metre
Inductance henry
Resistance ohm
Conductance Siemens
Area m2
Resistivity ohm-metre
Wavelength metres
Impulse newton-metre

SYSTEM OF UNITS

To measure any physical quantity three system of units need to be

followed they are as follows

1. Centimetre Gram Second (CGS)

2. Metre Kilogram Second (MKS)

 43

3. Foot Pound Second (FPS)

4. There is another system of measurement came into existence to

avoid confusion among these systems known as system
international(or) SI system of measurement.

S.I. UNIT
Length metre
Mass kilogram
Time second
Current amperes
Amount of substance moles
Intensity of light candela
Temperature kelvin

SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

Plane angle radian

Solid angle steridian

Dimension:-

The nature of a physical quantity is described by its dimensions. All the

physical quantities represented by derived units is a combination of
seven fundamental or base quantities which are denoted by .Note
that square brackets deals with the dimensions of the quantity. The
dimensions of length is given by , The dimensions of time is , The
dimensions of mass is

We know a fact that derived units are derived from fundamental

physical quantities for example speed=distance/time, in this example
speed is derived from distance which is measurement of length and time
which is measured in sec both of these are fundamental physical
quantities. Therefore dimension is defined as the property in which we
can raise the power of the fundamental physical quantity as much as
possible. The formulae which gives the relation between the relation
between the fundamental physical quantities is known as dimensional
formulae. The dimensional formulae contain physical quantities length,
mass, time.

Length L
Mass M
 44

Time T
Energy ML2T-2
Force MLT-2
Momentum MLT-1
Accelaration MLT-2
Angle M0L0T0
Angular acceleration T-2
Angular velocity T-1
Impulse MLT-1
Work MLT-2
Displacement L
Charge IT
Current I
Work MLT-2
Wavelength L
Power ML2T-3
Pole strength IT
Voltage ML2T-3I-1
Resistance ML2T-3I-2
Capacitance ML2T-4I-3
Electric intensity MLT-3I-1
Moment of inertia ML2T0
Momentum MLT-1
Velocity gradient MLT-2
Density ML-3
Linear density ML-1
Frequency T-1
Volume L3

Rules for writing S.I units:-

1. The unit should be expressed in full form or by its approved

symbol.

2. There should be some gap between number and unit

3. The symbol of the unit should not be expressed in plural

4. If the unit is named after the scientist the beginning letter should
be written in capital letter.

5. The beginning letter of the unit should be written in small letters.

 45

6. There should not be more than one suffix for a prescribed unit.

Principle Of Homogenity:-

Principle of homogenity states that the dimensions of a given physical

quantity is same on L.H.S and R.H.S. It decides the correctness of a
given equation or formulae. Using this principle we can rectify whether
the given equation is correct or not. We can check the perfectness of
any equation, If it fails in this consistency principle even then we cannot
confirm that the above equation is liable to the true. Therefore a
dimensionally correct equation need not be an exact equation, but a
dimensionally inconsistent equation must be wrong.

1. V2-U2=2as

In the above equation the dimension of velocity on L.H.S can be

written as displacement/time (or) LT-1, therefore

[LT-1]2 - [LT-1]2 = 2XLT-2XL

[L2T-2] – [L2T-2] = 2XL2T-2

Therefore this equation is dimensionally correct equation

2. V=U+at

The dimensions of velocity on L.H.S is [LT-1]

[LT-1] = [LT-1]+[LT-2.T]

[LT-1] = [LT-1]+[LT-1]

Therefore this equation is dimensionally correct

3. S=U+a(n-1/2)

In the above equation the dimensions on L.H.S is L/T

The dimensions on the R.H.S is [LT-2]X[T] = [LT-1]

4. S=Ut+1/2at2
BASIC MEASUREMENTS

1. 9. Kilo =

2. 10. Mega=
 46

3. 11. Giga =

4. 12. Tera =

5. Nano = 13. Peta =

6. Pico = 14. Exa =

7. Fermi =

8. Atto =

SEMICONDUCTORS
 47

In the present technical world semiconductors are playing

major role starting from electronic industry to our daily life.
The SIM card in our mobile, tablet PC, personal computers,
integrating circuits are the best examples which shows the
growing importance of semiconducting materials. In metallic
conductors conductivity is due to the presence of flow of
electrons, but there are some material where there will be no
flow of current such materials are called insulators.
A material whose conductivity is in between the conductors
and insulators are called semiconductors. Every material is not
semiconductor even it lies in the range of semiconductor, for
example nichrome lies in the semiconductor range but it is not
a semiconductor. Silicon and Germanium are examples of
semiconductors. The table below provides resistivity values of
some material including semiconductors like silicion and
germanium

Charges in semiconductors
Electrons are charges in conductors, in a similar way
semiconducting materials has two type of charges electrons and
holes, where electrons are –ve charged particles and holes are
positively charged particles. These electrons and holes will
create two type of currents in semiconductors namely drift and
 48

diffusion currents. Holes nothing but the missing position of

electrons in a semiconducting material in the valence band.
Semiconductors are of two types
1.Elemental semiconductors
2.Compound semiconductors
Elemental semiconductors and compound semiconductors:-
In These type of semiconductors a single element alone itself is
considered as an entity (or) which is independent is called
elemental semiconductors
Silicon, germanium are the examples of elemental
semiconductors.
on the other hand semiconductors which are formed from
mixture of materials is called compound semiconductors. GaN,
GaP, GaAs, GaAsP, GaAlAs are the examples of compound
semiconductors
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Depending on the nature of arrangement of atoms
semiconductors can be divided into two types
1. Inrinsic semiconductor 2. Extrinsic semiconductor
1. Intrinsic semiconductor:-
A semiconductor with no impurity is present is called as
intrinsic semiconductor(or) a semiconductor in which electrons
and holes are created by thermal excitation is termed as
intrinsic semiconductor, in the case of intrinsic
 49

semiconductor no.of electrons=no.of holes as a result of this no

less conductivity takes place in this semiconductor, to increase
its current carrying capability another semiconductor is used by
adding some impurities.
2. Extrinsic semiconductors:-
Since intrinsic semiconductors have less current carrying
nature we will add impurity to these semiconductors, by adding
impurities to these semiconductors we can create no. of
electrons and holes. The impurities added to these
semiconductors are of two types
a) pentavalent impurity b) trivalent impurity.

Antimony, Arsenic, Bismuth, Phosporous are the examples for

pentavalent impurities by adding these type of impurities we
get n-type extrinsic semiconductors where electrons are
majority and holes are minority charge carriers. By adding
trivalent impurities like boron, gallium, aluminium the type of
semiconductors we get is p-type extrinsic semiconductors.
semiconductors where holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers.
Doping:- Adding of impurity to a semiconductor is called
doping, by means of doping the properties of semiconducting
materials will try to change and increases the conducting
property of semiconducting material. Doping is nothing but
replacing the semiconducting material by an impurity.
Diode:- There are semiconducting materials in the electronics
world showing their major importance, there are diodes,
transistors and rectifiers where we can show as an example.
 50

Diode is a semiconducting material consisting of p-n junction.

There are different kinds of diodes in use namely zener diode,
p-n junction diode, gunn diode, tunnel diode etc. Diode
conducts current only in single direction. We can apply voltage
to the diode in two different arrangements.,

Voltage for a diode can be applied in 2 ways and the process is

called as a biasing. There are two types of biasing
1.Forward bias
2.Reverse bias
Forward bias:- In this bias voltage increases linearly with
current. If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
p-type and negative terminal is connected to n-type we can call
such arrangement as forward bias. In the case of forward bias
the width of the depletion layer is very large due to this
electrons cannot jump from one junction to other. To reduce
the width of the depletion layer an opposite external voltage is
applied to the depletion layer, as a result of this But the
resistance of the depletion layer decreases gradually

and the conduction takes place in the forward bias

arrangement. Hence forward bias region always obeys Ohm’s
law.The current produced in the forward bias region is milli
amperes.
Reverse bias:- In this arrangement no current fill be allowed to
flow. If the –ve terminal of the battery is connected to p-type
and +ve terminal to n-type we can call this arrangement as
 51

reverse bias, in this biasing the width of the depletion layer is

more as a result of this no current will flow in the circuit. But a
minority amount of current flows in the circuit due to the
presence of minority charge carriers. Hence diode conducts
current only in single direction. Even then a small amount of
current flows in reverse bias region due to minority charge
carriers, as the reverse bias voltage is further increased
covalent bonding in between atoms breakdown and produce
conduction this current is called as reverse saturation current.
Even if further amount of voltage is increased in the reverse
direction current leaks out from the circuit such current is
called as surface leakage current. The current produced in the
reverse bias region is micro amperes.

Valence band:-
We know that electrons in the inner most shells are strongly
attracted by the coloumb forces of attraction where the
nucleons are held together. But the outermost valence
electrons are loosely bound by the attractive forces of the
nucleus, due to this reason electrons present in the valence
shell will be free, such electrons will form a series of energy
levels called energy bands. These bands of energies are called
as valence bands. These valence bands are completely filled
and never be empty.
Conduction band:-

We know that outermost valence electrons are free to move

at any point of the conductor, this free electrons will conduct
when it moves from one energy state to another energy state,
the bands formed by these electrons are termed as
conduction bands. Only free electrons alone can participation
 52

in conduction, because the innermost valence will always be

tightly bounded.Conduction band is partially filled or empty.

Forbidden band:-
Even then free electron has got the capability to transfer itself
from one energy level to another energy level, there are
certain energies where the electron cannot spend a time, such
energy levels are termed as forbidden bands.
Conductors:-
Materials which allow the flow of electrons are called
conductors. Copper, silver and gold are examples of
conductors, in case of conductors since the energy gap
between conduction band and valence band is zero, it means
conduction band and valence band overlap with each other as a
result of this electrons can easily jump from conduction band
to valence band and participate in conduction. Aluminium can
also be used as a conductor but because of its costliest nature
it is difficult to extract from earth crust.

Insulators:-
In the case of insulators the gap between conduction and
valence band is very large of the order of 7 ev. Due to this
electrons cannot jump from valence band to conduction band,
even after the application of energy electrons cannot escape,
but after the application of some temperature only few
electrons will go from valence band to conduction band due to
this reason some of the insulators will act as a conductors at
room temperature.
 53

Semiconductors:-
Materials whose conducting properties lie in between
conductors and insulators are called as semiconductors.
Semiconductors are insulators at Ok when an external energy is
applied covalent bonds present in the semiconducting material
will break and the material will conduct at room temperature.

Recombination:- We know that electrons has two states ground

states and excited states, ground state is the state where electrons have
zero energy. When electron get more energy absorbed it will be
excited to higher energy states. But when the same electron after
completing its life time of 10-8 seconds comes back to the ground state
in the valence band releasing some energy in the form of light. Such
process is called as recombination. Light emitting diodes work on the
process of recombination.Due to the recombination electrons and hole
pair will vanish after the injection of impurities in the material
generation of electrons and holes takes place.
 54

KINEMATICS

Dynamics is the branch of Physics which deals with the motion of particles
under the action of force. Let us consider a book placed on the top of the table, it
will not move unless an external force is applied, so this states that the body
continues to be in the state of motion only when an external force is applied. In
order to understand its motion dynamics can be classified into 2 types

• Kinematics 2. Statics

Kinematics:- Kinematics is the branch of science which deals with the motion of
objects after the application of force without considering the direction of
motion. Kinematics is a part of dynamics helps in predicting the motion of
particle. In order to known the motion of the particle direction and magnitude is
necessary.

Scalars and vectors

Any physical quantity which has got both magnitude are called vectors, on the
other hand a physical quantity which has only magnitude but not direction are
called scalars. Suppose if anybody ask us what is the length of chalkpiece we can
easily say that it is 6 c,m, but we cannot say it's direction because whatever the
direction we place it's length remains constant it is the best example for scalar
 55

quantity. Generally we hear an announcement from radio station that cyclone is

at a distance of 100 km in the north-east direction, in this example magnitude of
100 km and direction is there, such physical quantities are called vectors.

Basic definations of kinematics

Speed and velocity:-

Let us consider a particle is starting from point A and reaching the point B, it
means the body has travelled some distance from point A to point B in t seconds.
Therefore speed is a physical quantity defined as distance travelled by the
particle per unit time.
SPEED = DISTANCE/TIME

The unit for speed is km/hr or cm/sec.

VELOCITY = DISPLACEMENT/TIME

Uniform velocity:-

Let us consider a vehicle is travelling 60 km/hr it means in one minute the

vehicle is travelling at the rate of 1 km for 1 second it is travelling at the rate of
1/60 km. Therefore the vehicle is travelling uniformly at 60 km/hr. Hence this
velocity is uniform velocity. Therefore uniform velocity is defined as when the
particle travels in equal distances in equal intervals of time.

Non-uniform speed:-

If the particle covers equal distances in unequal intervals of time it may be

called as non-uniform velocity. Let us consider a man on bike is covering a
distance of 80 km/hr, but the time it has taken to travel is different in different
distances, it confirms that vehicle has covered this distances in unequal intervals
of time.

Uniform velocity and non-uniform velocity:-

If the body covers equal displacements in equal intervals of time, such velocity is
called uniform velocity, on the other hand if the body covers equal
 56

displacements in unequal intervals of time such type of velocity is called non-

uniform velocity.

Time of ascent:-

Let us consider an object is thrown vertically upwards with intial velocity u as

the object is going in upward direction the acceleration due to gravity is –ve and
velocity becomes zero. Therefore the time taken by the particle to reach the
maximum height is called time of ascent.

Let u be the intial velocity of the particle and acceleration of body is –g. Then
the time of ascent is given by

V= u+at ------------------------- (1)

V= 0-gt1 --------------------------------------- (2)

Time of ascent = u/g

Time of descent:-

After reaching the maximum height h the body travels out in the downward
direction, as a result of this acceleration becomes positive. Therefore the time of
descent is given by

S= ut+1/2at2 -------------- (3)

S=h, u=0, a=+g then

T=

We know that maximum height is given by

hmax = u2/2g

Therefore Time of descent = u/g

Time of flight :-

Time of flight is the time taken by the particle to come vertically upwards and
downward direction is called time of flight

Time of flight = u/g + u/g = 2u/g

Equation of motion:-

The equations governing the motion of body is given as follows

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3. S= ut+1/2at2

4. V= U+at

5. V2-U2 = 2as

6. S=U+a(n-1/2)

SUPERCONDUCTORS
The resistance of a metallic conductors increases with the increase of temperature,
hence according to Ohm's law the graph between current and voltage is a straight line and
are called as ohmic conductors. but there are certain class of materials whose electrical
resistivity suddenly falls to zero as they are cooled sufficiently to low temperatures, this
phenomenon of zero resistivity is called superconductivity and materials are called
superconductors. kamerling onnes in the year 1911 while doing experiment on mercury
observed that its resistivity falls suddenly to zero and he termed it as a "superconductivity".
superconductivity is observed at low temperatures hence this physics is called as low
temperature physics. In superconductors resistance is zero but has infinite conductivity
The property of superconductivity is due to the pair of electrons, normally the force
between the electrons is repulsive force, but some of the thermal vibrations will make the
electrons to attract each other, such pairs are called cooper pairs.

Material Type Tc(K)

Zinc metal 0.88
Aluminum metal 1.19
Tin metal 3.72
Mercury metal 4.15
YBa2Cu3O7 ceramic 90
TlBaCaCuO ceramic 125

Properties of superconductors
1.Persistent currents
The least permanent current present in the superconductor even after the absence of external
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magnetic field is called persistent. Normally as the temperature decreases resistance decreases
but in the case of superconductor even the magnetic field is zero it shows some current due to
the presence of cooper pairs
2. Critical magnetic field
The magnetic field required to destroy the superconductivity is called critical magnetic field.
For type-1 superconductors only one critical magnetic field is present, whereas for type-2
superconductors two critical magnetic fields are present.
3. Meissner effect
The complete ejection of magnetic lines of force from the surface of superconductor is called
meissner effect. As the magnetic field is increased inside the superconductor opposite
magnetisation will be developed and therefore material removes the magnetic lines of force.

Figure 28 meissner effect

Another important property of superconductors is due to the presence of zero resistivity

infinite amount of current can be sent through this superconductor material when compared
to the normal conductor. Even infinite amount of current can be allowed to superconductor
4. Materials having high normal resistivity exhibit superconductivity
5. superconductors occur in metallic elements whose valence lie in between 2 and 8.
6. Superconductors are not good conductors at room temperature.
Types of superconductors
1. Type-1 superconductors
2. Type-2 superconductors
Type-1 superconductors
The superconductors that obey Meissner effect are termed as type-1 superconductors. When
a material is cooled above the critical temperature magnetic lines of force enter into the
material and becomes magnetic, when the same material is cooled below the critical
temperature material becomes diamagnetic and magnetic lines of force are rejected from the
material. Therefore type-1 superconductors has only single critical magnetic field.
Example:- Aluminium, Zinc
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Figure 29 type-1 superconductors

Type-II superconductors
This type of superconductors has two critical magnetic fields ,upper critical magnetic field
and lower critical magnetic field, when the magnetic field is lower than lower critical
magnetic field the material becomes completely diamagnetic and is in superconducting state,
but when the magnetic field is above the critical magnetic field the magnetic lines of force
enters the material, if the magnetic field is further increased above the upper critical
magnetic field the material becomes normal conductor.

Figure 30 type-2 superconductors

APPLICATIONS
1. Superconductors are used in switiching devices
2. Superconductors are used in superfast computer switches
3. Superconductors are used for producing high intense magnetic field
4. Superconductors are used for constructing galvanometers
5. Electric power can be transmitted through superconductors without resistive loss
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Vectors
Physical quantities are meant to measure a
unit, in the chapter of units and dimensions we are
aware of certain physical quantities like length, mass,
time, area, volume, acceleration etc., if the length of
the scale is asked for example we can measure and say
that it 5 cm, it means the physical quantity is giving only
size (or) magnitude of the physical quantities but did
not mention about the direction. In the similar way if
we measure the length of a chalk piece we predict that
it is 5 cm irrespective of the direction placed, in this
instance also we are giving the size of the object but not
direction. Such physical quantities which measures
magnitude of the object but not direction is called
scalar physical quantity.
Examples of scalar quantities:-
Length, time,temperature, mass etc
Vector quantities:
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There are certain physical quantities which possesses

both magnitude and direction such quantities are
termed as vector quantities. For example speed,
acceleration, velocity etc.
For example a person is riding a bike with a speed of
60km/hr in north direction, in the above example both
magnitude and direction of the vehicle is mentioned.
A vector quantity in general is represented by an arrow.
The arrow represents intial point and terminal
point(or)head and tail of a vector. The intial point
represents magnitudeand terminal point represents
direction of the vector. LetAx,AY,AZ be the three vectors
represented along x,y,z axesrespectively then its
magnitude is represented as

Types of vectors
1.Equal vectors
2.Null vectors
3.Negative vectors
4.Unit vectors
5.Collinear vectors
6.Coplanar vectors
7.Cointial vectors
8.Proper vectors
1.Equal vectors:-
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A vector is said to be equal when they have same

magnitude and direction, it can be represented in
different ways two vectors may be parallel to each
other or not parallel to each other but they should
have same magnitude and direction.

2.Null vector:-
A vector having zero magnitude is termed as
null vector (or) zero vector. We can say that intial and
terminal point of vectors coincide with each other and
do not make any displacement. Null vector along x,y,z
axes are represented respectively as

The magnitude of null vector is “0”

Negative vector:-
The physical quantity have same magnitude and
opposite in direction are called as negative vectors. If
is a vector then negative of this vector is - .
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Unit vectors:-
The vector whose magnitude is unity can be defined as
unit vector. The direction of the unit vector will be in
the direction of the given vector. If P is the vector then
its unit vector is given by P.

The magnitude of the unit vector is given by P/

If i, j, k are the unit vectors along x,y,z axes respectively,
then
i.i=1, j.j =1 , k.k=1
i.j=0, k.i=0, j.k=0

Collinear vector:-
Vectors lying along the same line of action is called as
collinear vector.

Coplanar vectors:-
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If the vectors lie along the same plane such type of

vectors are coplanar vectors

Cointial vectors:-
If the given vectors are starting from the same point is
called as cointial vectors. If O is the intial point of
vector

and A,B,C,D,E,F are the vectors then

OA,OB,OC,OD,OE,OF are the vectors starting from the
same point O.
Proper vector:-
A vector whose magnitude is not equal to zero is called
as proper vector i.e
Laws of vector addition:-
1.Commutative law
2.Associative law
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3.Identity law
4.Inverse law
5.Distributive law
1.Commutative law:- If A,B are two vectors then we can
write
A+B = B+A
2.Associative law:- If A,B,C are three vectors then
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
3.Identity law:- If A is a vector then
A.I= I.A=A
5.Distributive law:-
If A,B,C are three vectors then
A(B+C) = A.B+A.C
6.Idempotent law:-
If A is a vector then A.A=A2=A
Parallelogram law of vectors:-
“It states that when two vectors are represented in
magnitude and direction by the adjacent sides of a
parallelogram then its resultant is represented in
magnitude and direction by the diagonal passing through
the parallelogram”.
Triangle law of vectors:-
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When two vectors are represented by two sides of

triangle in magnitude and direction, then their resultant
is represented in magnitude and direction by the third
side of the triangle taken in reverse order.
Polygon law of vectors:-
When number of vectors are represented in magnitude
and direction by the sides of given polygon, then their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by
the closing sides of a polygon
Product of vectors:-
The product of vectors can be done in two ways
1.Dot product of vectors
2. Vector product of vectors
1. Dot product of vectors:-
If A,B are two vectors represented in magnitude and
direction then
A.B = .n
Here θ is the angle between A and B n is the unit
vector acting along the direction of vectors.
Vector product :-
If A,B are two vectors then we can say that
AxB=
Properties of dot product:-
1.Dot product obeys commutative law
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A.B=B.A
2. Dot product obeys distributive law
A(B+C) =A.B+A.C
3.If the two vectors are parallel vectors then
A.B=A.B.cos(0) = A.B.
4. If two vectors are perpendicular to each other then
A.B=A.B.cos900=0
If the vectors are perpendicular to each other the
vectors null vectors.
5.If the angle between the vectors is 1800 then
A.B=A.Bcos1800=-A.B
Properties of vector product:-
1.vector product do not obey commutative law
AXB
2.vector product do not obey distributive law
AX(B+C) AXB+AXC

3.If the angle between the vectors is then

AXB = A.B
4.If the angle between the vectors is zero, then
A.B = 0
5. If the angle between the vectors is 1800 then
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AXB= 0
6.ixj=0,jxi=0,jxk=0, ixj=-k,jxk=-i,kxi=-j
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