Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Contributing Authors:
Jim DeStefano Jeff Hershberger
Tanya Luthi Jaret Lynch
Tom Nehil Dick Schmidt, Chair
Rick Way
1.3.2 Serviceability................................................................................................... 7
3.0 Connections.....................................................................................................................15
References .............................................................................................................................28
1.2 Liability
It is intended that this document be used in conjunction with competent engineering
design, accurate fabrication, and adequate supervision of construction. The Timber Framers
Guild and the Timber Frame Engineering Council assume no responsibility for errors or
omissions in this document, nor for engineering designs, plans, or construction prepared from it.
Those using this Standard assume all liability arising from its use. The design of engineered
structures is within the scope of expertise of licensed engineers, architects, or other licensed
professionals for applications to a particular structure.
1.3.1 Strength
Buildings and other structures shall be designed and constructed to safely support the
anticipated loads that are likely to occur during the lifetime of the structure. In addition,
assemblies and subassemblies shall be designed and constructed to safely support those loads
that are likely to occur during construction, including but not limited to frame assembly and
raising. Load types, magnitudes, and combinations shall conform to the building code under
which the structure is designed, or where applicable, other recognized minimum design-load
standards (see Ref. 10 and 11).
1.3.2 Serviceability
Structural systems and members thereof shall be designed to have adequate stiffness to
limit deflections, lateral drift, vibration, or any other deformations that adversely affect the
intended use and performance of the system. Limitations on deflections, lateral drift, vibration,
and other deformations shall conform to the provisions of the building code under which the
structure is designed.
Guidelines for evaluation of timbers in existing buildings may be found in TFEC 3 (Ref.
12).
1.6.5 Splines
Splines shall be formed from seasoned hardwood with specific gravity of at least 0.50 or
from laminated veneer lumber.
1.7 Notation
Except where otherwise noted, the symbols used in this Standard have the following
meanings.
Re = ratio of specific gravities of main member and side member, see 3.4.1 and 3.4.9
Z, Z΄ = reference and adjusted lateral design value for a single fastener connection, lbs, see 3.4.1
and 3.4.9
lm = dowel bearing length in the main member, or tenon breadth, in., see 3.4.1
ls = dowel bearing length in the side member, or minimum mortise side wall thickness on one
side of tenon, in., see 3.4.1
θ = maximum angle of load to grain for any member in a connection, deg, see 3.4.1
2.1 General
The provisions of the ANSI/AWC NDS© shall apply for design of wood bending
members, compression members, tension members, members subjected to combined bending
and axial loading, and members subjected to bearing.
For timbers used in dry-service conditions, the design value for bending Fb shall be
permitted to be adjusted by the factor CM given in Table 2A. Such adjusted design values shall
be applied to the actual cross section dimensions for the dry-service conditions.
19% 1.09
15% 1.15
10% 1.20
2.3 Notching
2.3.4.1 The width w1 of a partial-width notch on the tension or compression face of a bending
member shall not exceed one-third the breadth b of the member. The flexural and
shear capacities of the member shall be determined by the principles of engineering
mechanics using the net cross section of the member at the notch.
2.3.4.2 A partial-width notch on the side of a bending member shall have width w2 no greater
than d/2 and the notch shall lie within the middle half of the depth of the member.
The flexural and shear capacities of the member shall be determined by the principles
of engineering mechanics using the net cross section of the member at the notch.
2.3.4.3 A partial-width notch extending from the compression face down the side of a
bending member shall have a width w3 not exceeding b/4. The flexural and shear
3.1 General
Chapter 3 applies to the engineering design of connections using wood-on-wood bearing
and wood fasteners, including pegs and wedges, for load transfer. The provisions of the
ANSI/AWC NDS© shall apply for the design of connections using metallic fasteners and metal
connector plates.
3.1.1 Terminology
3.1.1.1 “Edge distance” is the distance lv from the edge of a member or the inside face of a
housing to the center of the nearest fastener, measured perpendicular to grain. When
a member is loaded perpendicular to grain, the loaded edge shall be defined as the
edge in the direction toward which the fastener is acting. The unloaded edge shall be
defined as the edge opposite to the loaded edge.
3.1.1.2 “End distance” is the distance le measured parallel to grain from the square-cut end of
a member to the center of the nearest fastener. For a member with a tapered-cut end,
“end distance” is the minimum distance measured parallel to grain from the face of
the cut end of a member to a diametrical line oriented perpendicular to grain through
the center of the nearest fastener (see Figure 3A).
3.1.1.3 “Spacing in a row” is the distance measured parallel to grain between the center of
two fasteners in a row. “Spacing between rows” is the distance measured
perpendicular to grain between two rows of fasteners.
3.1.3.2 Joint detailing and assembly shall be as required to prevent splitting of the tenon,
spline, or other joint material that receives the wedge as a result of wedge installation.
3.1.4.2 Design of other connections (dovetails, scarfs, laps, etc.) shall be according to the
principles of engineering mechanics with appropriate consideration for stress
concentrations from notching.
3.2 Withdrawal
Connections in general, and mortise and connections in particular, shall be detailed such
that they do not entrap water when exposed to wet environments.
(d) edge distance, end distance, and spacing are in accordance with provisions of Sec.
3.4.8
(f) the sizes and species of the pegs in a multiple-peg joint are identical
(g) the peg diameter is no less than 0.75 inches and no greater than 1.25 inches.
(h) the tension capacity of the tenon at its net cross section (see NDS® Section 3.1.2) is
sufficient to resist the applied load.
The nominal design value Z for one peg shall be the minimum computed yield value
using equations in Table 3A. The capacity of the connection shall be the capacity of one peg
times the number of pegs in the connection.
=1+ !
(3.4-6)
360
2 1+ 2 2+
= −1 + #
$
+
3
(3.4-7)
For mortised members in a mortise and tenon connection with the tenon loaded in
tension, Fes = Fe┴ given by
Fe ⊥ = 4900G p Gt0.50
(3.4-11)
Fe|| Fe ⊥
Feθ =
Fe|| sin θ + Fe ⊥ cos 2 θ
2
(3.4-12)
3.4.4.2 Dowel bearing length lm in the main member shall be taken as the thickness of the
tenon.
3.4.4.3 Dowel bearing length ls in the side member shall be taken as the minimum of the two
penetration lengths in the side walls of the mortise.
3.4.6.2 For octagonal or other faceted cross-section pegs, peg diameter D shall be the
minimum dimension measured across the peg between two parallel faceted faces.
3.4.6.3 The diameter of a peg shall not exceed two-thirds of the thickness of the tenon that it
joins to the mortise.
[
Z ' = Z × C D C M Ct C g C ∆ ] (3.4-14)
The actual load applied to a connection shall not exceed the allowable design value Z′ for the
connection.
3.4.9.1 The load duration factor CD, the temperature factor Ct, and the group action factor Cg
shall be selected according to the provisions in Chapter 11 of the ANSI/AWC NDS©.
The load duration factor shall not exceed 1.6.
3.4.9.3 Geometry Factor, CΔ: When the end distance or spacing provided for peg
connections is less than that required for full design value, but greater than the
minimum required for reduced design value, nominal design values shall be
multiplied by the smallest applicable geometry factor determined from the end
distance and spacing requirements, where for each detailing dimension, the
corresponding geometry factor, CΔ, shall be determined as follows:
012304 562074789 57:68;7<8
.∆ = :787:3: 57:68;7<8 =<> ?
∆ @A.)
(3.4-15)
The smallest geometry factor determined from Eq. (3.4-15) for any peg in a group
shall apply to all pegs in the group.
3.4.10.2 Tenon Quality: Tenons shall be fabricated in a manner and location such that the
strength of the tenon is not disproportionately reduced from that of the member due to
the presence, size, and location of knots, shakes, slope of grain, pith, and other
defects.
4.1.2.2 For knee-braced frames used as the seismic force-resisting system in a structure, the
pegs used in connections shall conform to the provisions of ASTM D8023.
DRAW BORING – traditional framing technique in which the peg hole in the tenon is
deliberately offset from the peg hole in the mortise to draw a joint tight when
assembled and fastened with a tapered pin or peg, and to hold the joint tight after
shrinkage of the mortised member occurs.
EDGE DISTANCE –The distance from the center of a peg hole to the edge of the member, or to
the edge of the housing, in a mortised member measured perpendicular to the grain
direction.
END DISTANCE –The distance from the center of a peg hole to the end of the member,
measured parallel to the grain direction.
HOUSING – a recess in a supporting member to permit the full width of an adjoining member to
bear on the supporting member.
LATERAL FACE – a face of a structural member that is parallel to the plane of the loads on the
bending member. The lateral face is perpendicular to the tension and compression
faces.
MOISTURE CONTENT – the weight of water in the cell walls and cavities of wood, expressed
as a percentage of oven-dry weight.
MORTISE – a rectangular notch, slot, or hole cut into a structural component that will accept a
corresponding tenon or spline.
MORTISE AND TENON (M&T) – a joint in which a projection (tenon) on one end of a piece is
inserted into a notch, slot or hole (mortise) in another piece.
MORTISE SIDE WALL – the portion of the mortised member between the inside face of the
mortise and the outside face of the member.
NOTCH – an area in a timber where a portion of the cross-section has been cut away, typically
as part of joinery between two intersecting members.
PEG – a cylindrical or slightly tapered wooden dowel or pin with round, octagonal, or other
faceted cross section.
SCARF JOINT – a joint made by notching and lapping two timbers such that the longitudinal
axes of the timbers are collinear.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (G) – the ratio of the oven-dry weight of a sample of wood to the weight
of a volume of water equal to the volume of the sample of wood at a specified
moisture content.
SPLINE (aka: FREE TENON) – a lumber or engineered wood element placed in slot cuts,
grooves, dados, etc. to secure joints between two components.
STAND-ALONE TIMBER FRAME – a timber frame structure designed to resist lateral loads
without the use of shear walls or other supplementary structural systems.
TENON – a projecting square or rectangular end on a timber that fits into a mortise to complete
the connection of two pieces.
TIMBER FRAME – a structural building frame system or portion thereof that is composed of
heavy timber members in which connections between interlocking members are
typically created by carpenter-style joinery using wood pegs and wood wedges but
may be supplemented with some metallic fastener components.
WEDGE – a tapered wood element with rectangular cross section used to secure through-tenons,
through-splines and scarf joints.
5. ASTM Standard D245, Standard Practice for Establishing Structural Grades and Related
Allowable Properties for Visually Graded Lumber, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
6. ASTM Standard D5764-97a, Test Method for Evaluating Dowel Bearing Strength of
Wood and Wood Base Products, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
7. ASTM Standard D8023, Standard Specification for Round Wood Dowels (Pegs) for Use
in Wood Construction, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
8. ASTM Standard F1575-17, Standard Test Method for Determining Bending Yield
Moment of Nails, ASTM, Conshohocken, PA.
10. SEI/ASCE Standard 7-16, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
11. SEI/ASCE Standard 37-02, Design Loads on Structures During Construction, American
Society of Civil Engineers, Reston, VA.
12. TFEC 3 (2018) Guide to Structural Evaluation of Existing Timber Structures, Timber
Frame Engineering Council, November.
The provisions of the Standard are not intended to limit or prohibit use of alternative
materials and methods for structural design and construction. Practices and procedures that have
been shown to be safe and effective are not restricted. Alternative design approaches based on
reliability-based concepts or other recognized approaches are also not restricted.
C1.3.1 Strength
The loads applied during assembly and raising of a timber frame can differ substantially
in character and magnitude from those that act on a completed frame. Supplemental
strengthening and bracing may be needed to protect the integrity of the frame during
construction. Structural analysis and design of these supplemental systems may be necessary.
C1.3.2 Serviceability
As with all structures, the appropriate serviceability limits are dependent on the
conditions and use of the building. Limits on deflections or drift are not defined in the Standard.
Local building codes normally include appropriate deflection and drift limits.
C1.6 Materials
The methods of ASTM D245 (Ref. 5 of the Standard) may be applied to those timber
species for which mechanical test results in accordance with ASTM D143 (Ref. 3) are available.
This approach allows for assignment of reference design values other than those corresponding
to the stress grades established by the grading agencies, to reflect the quality of the material and
seasoning. TFEC Technical Bulletin 11 (Ref. 2) provides guidance on this approach.
Grading rules and reference design values are not available for reclaimed, recycled or
remanufactured material. Nevertheless, use of these materials is not restricted by the Standard.
C2.1 General
The Standard stands as a supplement to the ANSI/AWC NDS©. Hence, the Standard
contains provisions for timber frame design not included in the NDS©. The NDS© remains the
primary governing design document for structural design of wood buildings.
C2.3 Notching
The effects of notching on member stiffness will vary, as there are no standard limits on
notch geometry and placement. Hence, each situation must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis
by the engineer of record. The NDS suggests that stiffness is practically unaffected by a notch
when notch depth does not exceed 1/6 of the beam depth and notch width does not exceed 1/3
the beam depth. The stiffness of a member with multiple notches may require special
consideration. Two examples in which notch effects may impact stiffness are:
Any number of approaches may be used to achieve this condition. One such approach, as
recognized in Eurocode 5 (Ref. 12), is to provide a linear taper with a slope not steeper than 1:10
(see Figure C-2A), in which case the stress concentration may be disregarded.
Another approach is to provide a notch geometry in the form of a circular arc that is
tangent to the bearing surface at the end of the member and intersects the tension face of the
member at a distance of 4(d – dn) from the bearing surface. When such gradual change is
achieved by coping to a circular arc of radius Rc given by
Rc = 8.5(d − d n ) (C2.3-1)
where the arc is tangent to the bearing surface at the end of the member (see Figure C-2B), then
the allowable design shear Vr′ may be calculated as
2 '
Vr' = Fv bd n (C2.3-2)
3
Partial-width notches on the sides of bending members that extend below mid-depth of
the member from the compression face, such as those in Sec. 2.3.4.2 and 2.3.4.3 of the Standard,
are common in timber framing. For example, these notches are used where joists frame into the
sides of carrying beams. In such instances, bearing of the joist on the bottom surface of the
notch induces a complex stress state including tension perpendicular to grain, horizontal shear,
rolling shear and flexure. Tests reported in Ref. 18 indicate that load-bearing capacity of the
notch increases with increasing clear distance to the tension face. This behavior suggests that
light loads may be safely supported by smaller net depths than for heavy loads. As yet, however,
capacity-based design equations have not been developed to define the relationships among the
notch dimensions, clear distance to the tension face, mechanical properties of the wood in the
notched timber, spacing of the notches, and safe load-carrying capacity of the notch.
Nevertheless, some guidance from practice in Germany is available; in particular DIN 1052
2004-08 (Ref. 11) specifies a minimum net depth of d/3 below the side notch discussed in
Section 2.3.4.2 of the Standard.
Where partial width notches in the side of a bending member occur on opposite lateral
faces at the same cross section of the member, the limit on width w3 applies individually to each
C3.1 General
The provisions of the NDS© apply to a broad range of connections using metallic
fasteners. However, explicit provisions to guide the design of connections using non-standard
fasteners are not included. Rather, Section 12.1.8 of the NDS© permits other dowel-type
fasteners, including wood pegs, to be used to transfer lateral load in connections, provided that
the variation in connection type is accounted for and detailing dimensions are sufficient to
prevent splitting. The Standard addresses use of wood pegs and wedges as fasteners in
connections.
Draw boring has the potential to cause damage to the peg and to the tenon if the offset in the
peg hole is too great. Successful draw boring can measurably increase initial stiffness of a
mortise and tenon connection under tension and can reduce long-term deflections of the joint due
to seasoning and sustained load effects (see Ref. 22). In such cases, the tensile strength of the
joint is not compromised. For connections using 3/4" diameter pegs, typical values of peg hole
offset between the tenon and the mortised member are 1/16-inch for hardwood timbers and 1/8-
inch for softwood timbers.
C3.2 Withdrawal
Entrapment of water in and around connections may lead to loss of durability due to
decay. Proper detailing is essential to protect connections from collecting and retaining water.
Blind mortises with upward-facing openings are particularly vulnerable, as any water that enters
them will not freely drain away, preventing the mortise from drying out quickly.
Mode Im – crushing in the main member and peg material due to bearing action
Mode Is – crushing in the side member and peg material due to bearing action
Mode IIIs – combined flexure of the peg and crushing of the timber due to bearing
Modes II and IIIm in the NDS© are not applicable due to geometric constraints of a
double shear connection. Mode IV has not been observed in pegged mortise and tenon
The effective shear strength Fvp of a peg for Mode V failure is related to the values of
specific gravity Gt and Gp for the timber and peg, respectively. The expression for Fvp in Table
3A of the Standard was developed from research presented in Ref. 17.
The majority of research available on the behavior of pegged mortise and tenon joints
utilizes 1-inch diameter pegs. Some test results are available for joints with 0.75-inch and 1.25-
inch pegs. Hence, the provisions of the Standard are limited to pegs in this range of sizes.
In situations for which use of Equations (3.4-9) and (3.4-10) is not appropriate, alternative
approaches may be used to determine dowel bearing strengths for a pegged mortise and tenon
connection.
In the first approach, strength data is taken directly from physical tests following ASTM
D5764 (see Ref. 5) but with the steel dowel required by the test standard replaced with a wood
peg of the same species, quality and diameter as that used in the prototype connection. In these
In the second approach, dowel bearing strength can be determined by combining load-
displacement records from separate bearing tests of the timber and the peg. In this approach,
dowel bearing tests of the timber are performed according to ASTM D5764. A bearing test is
performed on the peg in which, in effect, the wood block specified in ASTM D5764 is replaced
by a metallic load block with a semi-cylindrical slot across one face matching the peg diameter.
In this test, the metallic load block is pressed into the side of a peg while the peg is supported
along its full length to prevent crushing and bending under load. Load-displacement records from
these two tests are then combined assuming that combined behavior corresponds to a “springs in
series” model. Dowel bearing strength is determined from the combined load-displacement
record using the conventional 5% diameter (0.05D) offset method described in ASTM D5764.
The approach for combining load-displacement records from the separate timber and peg tests is
presented in Ref. 21 and 22.
The third approach to finding dowel bearing strength is simply to choose the minimum value
of Fe for the materials used in a connection. Fe for the timber material may be taken from
tabulated data or empirical equations based on physical tests according to ASTM D5764. Fe for
the peg is similarly determined by tests on pegs following ASTM D5764, but with the wood
block replaced by a metallic load block with a semi-cylindrical slot matching the peg diameter
across one face. Such data is available in Table 12.3.3 of the NDS©.
As an alternative to use of Eq. 3.4-12 or physical testing, it is conservative to use the average
modulus of rupture for the peg material, as listed in ASTM D2555 (Ref. 4) or the Wood
Handbook (Ref. 24), as the value for bending yield strength, Fyb. Adjustment of the modulus of
connection. This limit reflects good practice and helps maintain balance in the various limit
The detailing dimensions in Table C3A have been shown by physical tests to develop the
full design value of a pegged mortise and tenon connection without splitting of the timber (see
Ref. 22 and 23). Use of the provisions of Section 3.4.8 of the Standard may result in end and
edge distances smaller than those in Table C3A and may be used accordingly.
End Edge
Timber Species Distance Distance Spacing
Douglas Fir 2D 2.5D 2.5D
Eastern White Pine 4D 4D 3D
Red & White Oak 3D 2D 2.5D
Southern Yellow Pine 2D 2D 3D
Yellow Poplar 2.5D 2.5D 3D
Design values for shear stress given in the NDS Supplement have been developed for
beam shear rather than block shear, and they contain a built-in strength ratio of 0.5 to account for
the worst-case effect of checks, splits and shakes on beam bending capacity. Use of the NDS
shear design values for connection design would appear to be conservative for connections in
unchecked timber, whereas these values do provide some hedge against possible strength
reducing effects of fractures in or near the critical shear plane, should they develop. They also
provide an additional factor of safety against brittle shear failure, even if not explicitly
considered as such.
Analysis models for lateral-load performance of stand-alone frames should account for
the difference in strength and stiffness between tension and compression brace connections.
the timber (see Ref. 14). Stiffness under compression loading depends upon direct bearing
contact, rather than peg stiffness, between the connected elements after any gaps in joinery are
closed. Complicating factors including shrinkage and joint fit-up contribute to the challenge of
predicting frame deflections.
The physical tests of the knee-braced frame subassemblages was limited to Douglas fir
timber with 1”-diameter oak pegs. However, results of the research are expected to apply
equally well to frames constructed with timber of other species and other pegs confirming to the
requirements of the Standard. Although the research program was limited to knee-brace
configurations, the specified seismic design coefficients for frames with long braces are expected
to be in the same range.
When the allowable stress design methodology is used, provisions in Section 2.4.5 of
ASCE 7 permit the allowable stresses for members and connections subject to load combinations
containing the over strength factor, Ω0, to be increased by a factor of 1.2 in addition to
application of the load duration factor CD = 1.6 for seismic loading as well as other adjustment
factors specified in the NDS.
For a more complete glossary of terms related to timber framing, refer to:
Rower, K., editor (2012) TIMBER FRAMING FUNDAMENTALS, Timber Framers Guild.
2. Anthony, R. and Nehil, T. (2018) Determining Allowable Design Stresses for Timber
Using ASTM Standards D2555 and D245, Technical Bulletin 2018-11, Timber Frame
Engineering Council.
3. ASTM Standard D143, Standard Methods of Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber,
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
4. ASTM Standard D2555, Standard Practice for Establishing Clear Wood Strength Values,
ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA.
5. ASTM Standard D5764, Test Method for Evaluating Dowel Bearing Strength of Wood
and Wood Base Products, ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 1997.
6. AWC (2018) National Design Specification for Wood Construction with Commentary,
American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA.
7. Bulleit, W. M., Sandberg, L. B., O’Bryant, T. L., Weaver, D. A., and Pattison, W. E.,
(1996). “Analysis of Frames with Traditional Timber Connections,” Proceedings,
International Wood Engineering Conference, New Orleans, LA. 4, 232-239
8. Bulleit, W. M., Sandberg, L. B., Drewek, M. W., and O’Bryant, T. L., (1999). “Behavior
and Modeling of Wood-Pegged Timber Frames,” Journal of Structural Engineering,
125(1), 3-9.
11. DIN 1052 (2004) Design of timber structures – general rules and rules for buildings,
German Institute for Standards, Berlin (in German).
15. Hindman, D. (2017) Measuring the Bending Yield Strength of Timber Frame Pegs,
Research Report to the Timber Frame Engineering Council, Dept. of Sustainable
Biomaterials, Virginia Tech.
16. Judd J. P., Fonseca F. S., Leidy J. (2018) Seismic Performance Factors for Stand-Alone
Timber Frame Structures. Structural Engineering and Materials Report No. 18/05,
Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Wyoming, Laramie,
Wyoming.
17. Miller, J. F., Schmidt, R. J. and Bulleit, W. M. (2010), Journal of Structural Engineering,
v. 136, n. 10, pp. 1255-1261, ASCE
18. Nehil, T. (2013) Capacity of Load-Bearing Housings: Preliminary Results from Load
Testing, Research Report 2013-01, Timber Frame Engineering Council.
19. PS 20 (2010) Voluntary Product Standard PS 20-10 - American Softwood Lumber
Standard, American Lumber Standards Committee and National Institute of Standards &
Technology, Washington, D. C.
20. Schmidt, R. J. and MacKay, R. B., (1997) Timber Frame Tension Joinery, Research
Report, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of Wyoming,
Laramie, WY
21. Schmidt, R. J. and Daniels, C. E., (1999) Design Considerations for Mortise and Tenon
Connections, Research Report, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering,
University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY
23. Schmidt, R. J. and Miller, J. F. (2004) Capacity of Pegged Mortise and Tenon Joinery,
Research Report, Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering, University of
Wyoming, Laramie, WY
24. Wood Handbook: Wood as an Engineering Material, General Technical Report 113,
Forest Products Laboratory, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 2010.