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European Journal of Scientific Research
ISSN 1450-216X / 1450-202X Vol. 145 No 2 May, 2017, pp.146 - 151
http://www. europeanjournalofscientificresearch.com

Procedures for the Construction and

Development of Psychological Test

Patricia Odinaka Eze

Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria

Vera Victor-Aigbodion
Corresponding Author, Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria
E-mail: vera.victor-aigbodion@unn.edu.ng

Osita Victor Ossai

Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria

Amanda U. Ugwoezuonu
Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria

Nkechi T. Egenti
Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria

Chiedu Eseadi
Department of Educational Foundations
University of Nigeria, Nsukka Enugu State, Nigeria

Abstract

A test is a set of stimuli capable of measuring an individual’s cognitive ability,

affective and psychomotor behaviors. This review paper aimed to provide an insight on test
construction and development in that most readily available tests are defective as they often
measure one aspect of a course content leaving other very important aspects. In order to
construct and develop a valid and reliable test, one must endeavor to identify item topics by
consulting test plan, ensure that each item presents a central idea or problem, write items
drawn only from testing universe, write each item in clear and direct manner, use
vocabulary and language appropriate for the target audience, take into account racist
language, make all items independent, and ask experts to review the test items to reduce
ambiguity and inaccuracy. Overall, it was observed that test construction and development
must span through the following stages: test planning, test preparation, trial testing, test
evaluation and test production. Thus, the construction of psychological tests should be
systematic and purposeful.

Keywords: Test Construction; Test Development; Psychological Tests; Procedures

Procedures for the Construction and Development of Psychological Test 147

Introduction
Test construction is an art that requires originality and creativity, combined with knowledge of test
domain and good item writing practices. According to Zumbo, Gelin and Hubley (2004), test is a set
of self-report questions or items whose responses are scored and aggregated in some way to obtain a
composite score. For these authors, the essential features of test include a series of questions to which
an individual responds, and a composite score that arises from scoring the responses to these questions.
In this review, the authors defines test as a set of stimuli capable of measuring an individual’s cognitive
ability, affective and psychomotor behaviors.
Tobst (2016) highlighted some reasons why the development of a test is necessary. According
to this author, new tests are required to meet the needs of a special group of test takers; to sample
behaviors from a newly defined test domain; and to improve the accuracy of test scores for their
intended purpose. However, in order to develop a test, one must first identify a need. According to
Domino and Domino (2012), the first step in deciding to construct a test is the identification of a need
that a test may be able to fulfill. For instance, a school system may require an intelligence test that can
be administered to children of various ethnic backgrounds in a group setting; a literature search may
indicate that what is available does not fit the particular situation. Also, a doctoral student may need a
test to measure “depth of emotion” and may not find such a test. Conversely, a researcher may want to
translate some of Freud's insights about “ego defense” mechanisms into a test that measures their use.
An educational administration expert may also want to improve current measures of school leadership
by incorporating new theoretical insights, and therefore develops a new test. A therapist may like a
currently available scale of depression, but thinks it is too long and decides to develop a shorter
version.
Tests are often limited by some factors which test developers must take cognizance of. For
instance, most tests are often limited by social desirability, response bias, response sets, response style,
faking and random responding (Osegbo & Ifeakor, 2008; Trobst, 2016). These challenges are due in
part to the fact that the test developers ignored the basic building block of test construction and
development. Contributing, Trobst (2016) argued that little attention is often given to writing items by
most test developers, most of them fail to acknowledge that not all items will perform as expected--
may be too easy, difficult, or may be misinterpreted, and most test developers do not aim as a rule of
thumb to write at least twice as many items as they expect to use. Thus, in order to contribute to the
amelioration of the challenges confronting currently available tests, this review paper aimed to provide
an insight on test construction and development.

Stages of Test Construction and Development

Given that test construction follows an orderly, coordinated and sequential process, Ifelunni (1997)
identified four broad steps in test construction which counselors and other test developers need to be
very familiar with. The four steps are; Test Planning, Test Preparation, Trial Testing and Test
Evaluation. However, Tobst (2016) recently argued that test construction and development spans
through the following seven steps: Constructing Scales, Piloting the Test, Standardizing the Test,
Collecting Norms, Validation and Reliability Studies, Manual Writing, and Test Revision. In the same
line of thought, Onunkwo (2002) argued that test construction and development involves some
procedural steps laid down by measurement experts and subject specialists. Thus, Onunkwo presented
a flow diagram to illustrate the steps involved in the construction of standardized achievement tests.
148 Patricia Odinaka Eze, Vera Victor-Aigbodion, Osita Victor Ossai,
Amanda U. Ugwoezuonu, Nkechi T. Egenti and Chiedu Eseadi

Defining the Objective

Specifying Content to be covered

Preparing the test Blueprint or Grid

Writing the Test Items

Face Validation of the Test Items

Trial testing the Item

Carrying out Item Analysis Item Modification

Selecting the Good Items

Final Testing the Items

Determining the Norms

Printing and Production of the Test

From the above expositions on the procedures for test construction and development, the
following five broad steps have been identified and selected for this discussion.
1. Test Planning
2. Test Preparation
3. Trial Testing
4. Test Evaluation
5. Production of the Test

Test Planning
Many test developers embark on testing and carrying-out tests without adequate planning. Many do not
plan until the very last day when they want to give the test. This often results in the giving of items that
are poorly conceived, or items which are ambiguous or poorly worded in the test. Sometimes, task to
be achieved are not well specified. This makes the testees to resort to guessing or using extrasensory
perception in determining what the tester requires in the question (Osegbo & Ifeakor, 2008).
There is therefore need for a test plan. A test plan includes a definition of the construct, the
content to be measured (test domain), the format for the questions, and how the test will be
administered and scored (Tobst, 2016). Thus, in planning a test, it is essential to define the test
objectives. This would require the test developer to prepare a working definition of the construct,
locate studies that explain the construct, and locate current measures of the construct. Therefore, in
planning a test, the test developer would define the construct after reviewing literature about the
construct and any available measures, operationalize it in terms of observable and measurable
Procedures for the Construction and Development of Psychological Test 149

behaviors, provide boundaries for the test domain (what should and shouldn’t be included) and specify
approximate number of items needed.
Furthermore, in planning a test, the test developer also defines the target audience. This
involves making a list of characteristics of persons who will take the test--particularly those
characteristics that will affect how test takers will respond to the test questions (e.g., reading level,
disabilities, honesty, and language).
In planning of the test, the developer also defines the purpose which includes not only what the
test will measure, but also how scores will be used e.g., will scores be used to compare test takers
(normative approach) or to indicate achievement (criterion approach)? e.g., will scores be used to test a
theory or to provide information about an individual?

Test Preparation
Test preparation involves steps taken to construct and standardize the test. In test preparation, the
developer decides on the test format to choose. Test format refers to the type of questions the test will
contain (usually one format per test for ease of test takers and scoring). Test formats have two
elements: stimulus (e.g., a question or phrase) and mechanism for response (e.g., multiple choice, true-
false). Test formats may be objective or subjective (Tobst, 2016).
In this step of test preparation, the test developer is expected to compose the test items (that is,
write the test items). Test items are the stimuli presented to the test taker (may or may not take the
form of questions). The form of test items chosen depends on decisions made in the test plan (e.g.,
purpose, audience, method of administration, scoring). According to Osegbo and Ifeakor(2008), there
are two broad types of tests based on method of preparation(construction), namely, standardized tests
and non-standardized or classroom tests.
Standardized tests are tests constructed by experts in a particular field often in conjunction with
specialists in test development. Usually, such tests must follow laid down procedures by measurement
experts. The tests are usually administered to a norm group which forms the reference group. Based on
the performance of the norm group, subsequent takers of the test can be compared. Standardized tests
are usually followed by a manual which provides information on the construction of the test, its
psychometric properties and how the test should be administered, scored and interpreted.
Non-standardized or classroom tests are constructed by the classroom teachers in order to
reliably and validly evaluate the students’ achievements and performances. There are no uniform
procedures in terms of administration, scoring and interpretation. When classroom tests are classified
in terms of purpose and use, then we have placement tests, diagnostic tests, formative tests and
summative tests.

Trial Testing
This step involves piloting the test. With pilot test, the developer scientifically investigates the test’s
reliability and validity. To achieve the reliability, the test developer administers the test to a sample
from the target audience. Thereafter, the data collected is analyzed statistically, and if need be, the test
could be revised to fix any problems uncovered. On the other hand, the test developer can gather both
quantitative and qualitative information; use quantitative information for such things as item
characteristics, internal consistency, convergent and discriminate validity, and in some instances
predictive validity.
However, during trial-testing, test situation should match actual circumstances in which test
will be used (e.g., in sample characteristics, setting), and developers must follow the American
Psychological Association’s (1986) codes of ethics (e.g., strict rules of confidentiality and publish only
aggregate results). While conducting the trial-testing, the depth and breadth would depend on the size
and complexity of the target audience, the developer must adhere strictly to test procedures outlined in
test administration instructions, and take cognizance of the fact that pilot testing generally require large
sample and may ask participants about the testing experience.
150 Patricia Odinaka Eze, Vera Victor-Aigbodion, Osita Victor Ossai,
Amanda U. Ugwoezuonu, Nkechi T. Egenti and Chiedu Eseadi

After trial-testing, choosing the final items requires weighing each item’s content validity, item
difficulty and discrimination, inter-item correlation, and bias. When new items need to be added or
items need to be revised, the items must again be pilot tested to ensure that the changes produced the
desired results.

Test Evaluation
When the final revision of a test yields scores with evidence of reliability and validity, test developers
would then conduct cross-validation which is the final round of test development to another sample.
According to Ifelunni(1997), test evaluation is done by considering the quality of the test itself and also
the quality of the test-takers’ responses. In respect of the quality of the test, emphasis is placed on the
validity, reliability and usability of the test. And during the evaluation, the testees’ attitude and views
about the test often unveil some irrelevant and ambiguous aspects of the test which was unknown to
the developer.
Furthermore, at this stage of test evaluation, the developer carries out the final testing of the
items and then establishes the norm. The final testing of the items involves administering the validated
test to a large representative sample of the testees for whom the test was designed and who did not
participate on the trial testing (Anastasi, 1976). The scores of the testees in the final testing are usually
used in establishing the norms for a test. Such norms may be the age, sex, location and grade norms.
Examiners use norms of tests to compare students’ performances. Hence, norms serve as the standard
for judgement(Osegbo & Ifeakor, 2008). When the norms are established, the test becomes ready for
printing and publication.

Production of the Test

This is the last stage of the test development. After establishing the norms of a test, the final copy of
the test is produced. Accompanying the final copy of a standardized test are the answer sheets, scoring
stencils, and a manual of the test. The test is usually printed and produced in large quantity with the
test manual. A test manual, according Thordike and Hagen (1977) should contain detail information on
the functions it was designed to measure and the general procedure by which it was developed, as well
as instructions for administering the test, scoring the test, norms for appropriate reference group,
evidence on reliability, evidence on the inter-correlations of subscores, relationship of test to other
factors, and guides for using the test and for interpreting results obtained with it.

Conclusion
Most readily available tests are defective because most of them are usually concentrated on one aspect
of the course content leaving other very important aspects. As a professional counselor and test
developer, one must endeavor to identify item topics by consulting test plan (this increases content
validity); ensure that each item presents a central idea or problem; write items drawn only from testing
universe; write each item in clear and direct manner; use vocabulary and language appropriate for the
target audience (e.g., age, education, culture); take into account sexist or racist language, make all
items independent (e.g., one question per question); and ask an expert to review the test items to reduce
ambiguity and inaccuracy. Overall, test construction and development must span through test planning,
test preparation, trial testing, and test evaluation prior to test production.
 Procedures for the Construction and Development of Psychological Test 151

References
[1] Anastasi, A. (1976).Psychological Testing.(4th ed.). New York: Macmillan Coy.
[2] American Psychological Association. (1986). Standards for Educational and Psychological
Tests and Manuals. Washington, DC: author
[3] Domino, G. & Domino, M. L. (2012). Psychological Testing: An Introduction. (2nd ed). West
Nyack, New York: Cambridge University Press.
[4] Ifelunni, I.C.S. (1997). Psychometric and Ethical Consideration in Counselling. Enugu: Auto-
Century Publishing.
[5] Onunkwo, G.I.N. (2002). Fundamentals of Educational Measurement and Evaluation. Owerri:
Cape Publishers.
[6] Osegbo, I.E. & Ifeakor, A. (2008). Psychological Measurement and Evaluation in Education:
Issues and Applications. Onitsha: Noben Press.
[7] Thordike, R.L. & Hagen, E.P. (1977). Measurement and Evaluation in Psychology and
Education. (4th ed). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
[8] Trobst, K.K. (2016). Test Development. Retrieved from
www.psych.yorku.ca/peterp/3090/powerpoint /Test_Development.ppt
[9] Zumbo, B.D., Gelin, M.N, & Hubley, A.M. (2004).Psychology – vol. II - The Construction and
Use of Psychological Tests and Measures. Retrieved from http://www.eolss.net/sample-
chapters/c04/e6-27-03-04.pdf. Accessed June 27, 2016.

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