Professional Documents
Culture Documents
a1 陆
a1 陆
Land
Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is
the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by
the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2%
of Earth's surface and includes all continents and
islands. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered
by regolith, a layer of rock, soil, and minerals that
forms the outer part of the crust. Land plays important
roles in Earth's climate system, being involved in the
carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, and water cycle. One third
of land is covered in trees, another third is used for
agriculture, and one tenth is covered in permanent
snow and glaciers. The remainder consists of desert, Land abutting a body of water
savannah, and prairie.
Land terrain varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other
landforms. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: Mountain ranges and
relatively flat interiors called cratons. Both form over millions of years through plate tectonics.
Streams – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the landscape, carve rocks, transport sediments,
and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or latitudes, snow is compacted and recrystallized over
hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earth's
crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than
it gains from precipitation. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though Earth's rotation and
uneven sun distribution also play a part.
Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth.[1] The word land may also collectively
refer to land cover, rivers, shallow lakes, natural resources, non-marine fauna and flora (biosphere),
the lower portions of the atmosphere (troposphere), groundwater reserves, and the physical results of
human activity on land, such as architecture and agriculture.[2] The boundary between land and sea is
called the shoreline.[3]: 625 [4]
Though modern terrestrial plants and animals evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's first cellular
life likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on fresh water from rivers, streams, lakes, and
glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human
activity throughout history has occurred in habitable land areas supporting agriculture and various
natural resources. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to
manage land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring degraded soil,
preserving biodiversity, protecting endangered species, and addressing climate change.
Etymology
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 1/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
The word land derived from the Old English word land, meaning "ground, soil", and "definite portion
of the earth's surface, home region of a person or a people, territory marked by political boundaries".
It evolved from the Proto-Germanic *landą and from the Proto-Indo-European *lendʰ- "land, open
land, heath". The word has many cognates in other languages, such as Old Norse: land, Old Frisian:
land, Gothic: land, German: Land, Old Irish: land, Middle Welsh: llan "an open space", Welsh: llan
"enclosure, church", Breton: lann "heath", Church Slavonic: ledina "wasteland, heath", and Czech:
lada "fallow land". Etymological evidence within Gothic usage suggests that the original meaning of
land was "a definite portion of the earth's surface owned by an individual or home of a nation." The
meaning was extended to "solid surface of the earth". The original meaning is now associated with
"country".[5][6]
A country or nation may be referred to as the motherland, fatherland, or homeland of its people.[7]: 43
Many countries and other places have names incorporating the suffix -land (e.g. England,[8]
Greenland,[9] and New Zealand[10]). The equivalent suffix -stan from Indo-Iranian, ultimately derived
from the Proto-Indo-Iranian *sthāna-,[11] is also present in many country and location names, such as
Pakistan, Afghanistan and others throughout Central Asia.[12] The suffix is also used more generally,
as in Persian rigestân (" )ریگستانplace of sand, desert", golestân (" )گلستانplace of flowers, garden",
gurestân (" )گورستانgraveyard, cemetery",[13] and Hindustân (" )هندوستانland of the Indo people".[14]
Physical science
The study of land and its history in general is called geography. Mineralogy is the study of minerals,
and petrology is the study of rocks. Soil science is the study of soils, encompassing the sub-disciplines
of pedology, which focuses on soil formation, and edaphology, which focuses on the relationship
between soil and life.
Formation
Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by volcanic activity and outgassing that included water
vapour. The origin of the world's oceans was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by
asteroids, protoplanets, and comets.[19] In this model, atmospheric "greenhouse gases" kept the
oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% luminosity.[20] By 3.5 bya, the
Earth's magnetic field was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped
away by the solar wind.[21] The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by
eroding and transporting solids on the surface.[22]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 2/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Earth's crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to form a solid mass[23]
as the accumulated water vapour began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of
supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of millions of years, expanding continually except
when punctuated by mass extinctions.[24]
The two models[25] that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day
forms[26] or, more likely, a rapid growth[27] early in Earth history[28] followed by a long-term steady
continental area.[29][30][31] Continents are formed by plate tectonics, a process ultimately driven by
the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On time scales lasting hundreds of millions of
years, the supercontinents have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 750 mya (million years
ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, Rodinia, began to break apart.[32] The continents
later recombined to form Pannotia, 600–540 mya, then finally Pangaea, which also broke apart
180 mya.[33]
Landmasses
Terrain
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 3/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Relief refers to the difference in elevation within a landscape; for example, flat terrain would have
"low relief", while terrain with a large elevation difference between the highest and lowest points
would be deemed "high relief". Most land has relatively low relief.[41] The change in elevation between
two points of the terrain is called a slope or gradient. A topographic map is a form of terrain
cartography which depicts terrain in terms of its elevation, slope, and the orientation of its landforms.
It has prominent contour lines, which connect points of similar elevation, while perpendicular slope
lines point in the direction of the steepest slope.[42] Hypsometric tints are colors placed between
contour lines to indicate elevation relative to sea level.[43]
A difference between uplands, or highlands, and lowlands is drawn in several earth science fields. In
river ecology, "upland" rivers are fast-moving and colder than "lowland" rivers, encouraging different
species of fish and other aquatic wildlife to live in these habitats. For example, nutrients are more
present in slow-moving lowland rivers, encouraging different species of macrophytes to grow
there.[44] The term "upland" is also used in wetland ecology, where "upland" plants indicate an area
that is not a wetland.[45] In addition, the term moorland refers to upland shrubland biomes with
acidic soils, while heathlands are lowland shrublands with acidic soils.[46]
Geomorphology
Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating
landforms.[47]: 3 Erosion and tectonics, volcanic eruptions, flooding, weathering, glaciation, the
growth of coral reefs, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's
surface over geological time.[48][49]
Erosion transports one part of land to another via natural processes, such as wind, water, ice, and
gravity. In contrast, weathering wears away rock and other solid land without transporting the land
somewhere else.[3]: 210–211 Natural erosional processes usually take a long time to cause noticeable
changes in the landscape—for example, the Grand Canyon was created over the past 70 million years
by the Colorado river,[50][51] which scientists estimate continues to erode the canyon at a rate of 0.3
meters (1 foot) every 200 years.[52] However, humans have caused erosion to be 10–40 times faster
than normal,[53] causing half the topsoil of the surface of Earth's land to be lost within the past 150
years.[54]
Plate tectonics refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move
over the mantle.[3]: 66 This results in continental drift, with continents moving relative to each
other.[55] The scientist Alfred Wegener first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in 1912.[56]
More researchers gradually developed his idea throughout the 20th century into the widely accepted
theory of plate tectonics of today.
Several key characteristics define modern understanding of plate tectonics. The place where two
tectonic plates meet is called a plate boundary,[57] with different geological phenomena occurring
across different kinds of boundaries. For example, at divergent plate boundaries, seafloor spreading is
usually seen,[3]: 74–75 in contrast with the subduction zones of convergent or transform plate
boundaries.[3]: 78–80
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 4/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Earthquakes and volcanic activity are common in all types of boundaries. Volcanic activity refers to
any rupture in Earth's surface where magma escapes, therefore becoming lava.[3]: 170–172 The Ring of
Fire, containing two-thirds of the world's volcanos, and over 70% of Earth's seismological activity,
comprises plate boundaries surrounding the Pacific Ocean.[58][59]: 68 [60]: 409–452 [a]
Climate
Earth's land interacts with and influences its climate heavily, since
the land's surface heats up and cools down faster than air or
water.[61] Latitude, elevation, topography, reflectivity, and land
use all have varying effects on climate. The latitude of the land will
influence how much solar radiation reaches its surface. High
latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.[61] The
land's topography is important in creating and transforming
airflow and precipitation. Large landforms, such as mountain Clouds above Djibouti's, Eritrea's,
ranges, can divert wind energy and make air parcels less dense Somalia's and Yemen's land
and therefore able to hold less heat.[61] As air rises, this cooling territories
effect causes condensation and precipitation.
Different types of land cover will influence the land's albedo, a measure of the solar radiation that is
reflected, rather than absorbed and transferred to Earth.[62] Vegetation has a relatively low albedo,
meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun's energy. Forests have an albedo of 10–
15 percent while grasslands have an albedo of 15–20 percent. In comparison, sandy deserts have an
albedo of 25–40 percent.[62]
Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are
warmer and create urban heat islands that have effects on the precipitation, cloud cover, and
temperature of the region.[61]
Features
A landform is a natural or manmade[63] land feature. Landforms together make up a given terrain,
and their arrangement in the landscape is known as topography. Landforms include hills, mountains,
canyons, and valleys, as well as shoreline features such as bays and peninsulas.
The shoreline is the interface between the land and the ocean. It migrates each day as tides rise and
fall, and moves over long periods of time as sea levels change. The shore extends from the low tide
line to the highest elevation that can be reached by storm waves, and the coast stretches out inland
until the point where ocean-related features are no longer found.[3]: 625–626
When land is in contact with bodies of water, the land is likely weathered and eroded. The weathering
of a coastline may be impacted by the tides, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies
of water.[47]: 352–353 [64] The precise length of Earth's coastline is indeterminable due to the coastline
paradox.[65] According to The World Factbook, the coastline is around 356,000 kilometres
(221,000 mi), while according to the World Resources Institute, it is 1,634,701 kilometres
(1,015,756 mi).[66][67]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 5/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
According to a United Nations atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.[70]
Because of their importance in society and high concentration of population, the coast is important
for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many ecosystem services to
humankind. For example, important human activities happen in port cities. Coastal fisheries
(commercial, recreational, and subsistence) and aquaculture are major economic activities and create
jobs, livelihoods, and protein for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like
beaches and seaside resorts generate large revenues through tourism. Marine coastal ecosystems can
also provide protection against sea level rise and tsunamis. In many countries, mangroves are the
primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal) and building material. Coastal ecosystems like
mangroves and seagrasses have a much higher capacity for carbon sequestration than many
terrestrial ecosystems, and as such can play a critical role in the near future to help mitigate climate
change effects by uptake of atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide.[71]
Mountains are features that usually rise at least 300 metres (980 ft) higher than the surrounding
terrain.[75] The formation of mountain belts is called orogenesis, and results from plate
tectonics.[3]: 448–449 For example, where a plate at a convergent plate boundary pushes one plate
above the other, mountains could be formed by either collisional events, such that Earth's crust is
pushed upwards,[3]: 454–460 or subductional events, where Earth's crust is pushed into the mantle,
causing the crust to melt, rise due to its low density, and solidify into hardened rock, thickening the
crust.[3]: 449–453
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 6/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Wide, flat areas of land are called plains, which cover more than
one-third of Earth's land area.[80] When they occur as lowered
areas between mountains, they can create valleys, canyons,
gorges, and ravines.[81] A plateau can be thought of as an elevated
plain. Plains are known to have fertile soils and be important for
agriculture due to their flatness supporting grasses suitable for
livestock and facilitating the harvest of crops.[82] Floodplains
provided agricultural land for the some of the earliest A small, incised alluvial plain from
civilizations.[83] Erosion is often a main driver for the creation of Red Rock Canyon State Park
plains and valleys, with rift valleys being a noticeable exception. (California).
Fjords are glacial valleys that can be thousands of meters deep,
opening out to the sea.[84]
Any natural void in the ground which can be entered by a human can be considered a cave.[85][86]
They have been important to humans as a place of shelter since the dawn of humanity.[87]
Craters are depressions in the ground, but unlike caves, they do not provide shelter or extend
underground. They are many kinds of craters, such as impact craters, volcanic calderas, and isostatic
depressions, such as the one in Greenland. Karst processes can create both solution caves, the most
frequent cave type, and craters, as seen in karst sinkholes.[88]
Layers
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 7/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
The pedosphere is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil and
subject to soil formation processes. Below it, the lithosphere encompasses both Earth's crust and the
uppermost layer of the mantle.[89] The lithosphere rests, or "floats", on top of the mantle below it via
isostasy.[3]: 463 Above the solid ground, the troposphere and humans' use of land can be considered
layers of the land.[2]
Land cover
Land cover change detection using remote sensing and geospatial data provides baseline information
for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in
the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary
land change science, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate.[92] Land
change modeling is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use.[93]
Soil
Given its complexity and strong internal connectedness, soil ecologists regard soil as an
ecosystem.[98] Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for soil organisms, a recycling system for
nutrients and organic wastes, a regulator of water quality, a modifier of atmospheric composition, and
a medium for plant growth, making it a critically important provider of ecosystem services.[99] Since
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 8/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
soil has a tremendous range of available niches and habitats, it contains a prominent part of the
Earth's genetic diversity. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of
species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.[100][101]
Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-
reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from ozone depletion and
global warming to rainforest destruction and water pollution. With respect to Earth's carbon cycle,
soil acts as an important carbon reservoir,[102][103] and it is potentially one of the most reactive to
human disturbance[104] and climate change.[105] As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils
will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased biological activity at higher temperatures,
a positive feedback (amplification).[106] This prediction has, however, been questioned on
consideration of more recent knowledge on soil carbon turnover.[107]
Continental crust
The composition of land is not uniform across the Earth, varying between locations and between
strata within the same location. The most prominent components of upper continental crust include
silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, and magnesium.[110] The continental crust consists of lower density
material such as the igneous rocks granite[111] and andesite. Less common is basalt, a denser volcanic
rock that is the primary constituent of the ocean floors.[112] Sedimentary rock is formed from the
accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and compacted together. Nearly 75% of the
continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.[113]
The most abundant silicate minerals on Earth's surface include quartz, feldspars, amphibole, mica,
pyroxene and olivine.[114] Common carbonate minerals include calcite (found in limestone) and
dolomite.[115] The rock that makes up land is thicker than oceanic crust, and it is far more varied in
terms of composition. About 31% of this continental crust is submerged in shallow water, forming
continental shelves.[110]
Life science
Land provides many ecosystem services, such as mitigating climate change, regulating water supply
through drainage basins and river systems, and supporting food production. Land resources are
finite, which has led to regulations intended to safeguard these ecosystem services, and a set of
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 9/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Land biomes
A biome is an area "characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and wildlife."[116][117] There are five
major types of biomes on land: grasslands, forests, deserts, tundras, and freshwater.[116] Other types
of biomes include shrublands,[b] wetlands,[c] and polar ice caps.[119] An ecosystem refers to the
interaction between organisms within a particular environment, and a habitat refers to the
environment where a given species or population of organisms lives. Biomes may span more than one
continent, and contain a variety of ecosystems and habitats.[120]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 10/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Land plants evolved from green algae, and are called embryophytes. They include trees, shrubs, ferns,
grass, moss, and flowers. Most plants are vascular plants, meaning that their tissues distribute water
and minerals throughout the plant.[127] Through photosynthesis, most plants nourish themselves
from sunlight and water, breathing in carbon dioxide and breathing out oxygen. Between 20 and 50%
of oxygen is produced by land vegetation.[128]
Unlike plants, terrestrial animals are not a monophyletic group—that is, a group including all
terrestrial animals does not encompass all lineages from a common ancestor. This is because there are
organisms, such as the whale, that evolved from terrestrial mammals back to an aquatic lifestyle.[129]
Many megafauna of the past, such as non-avian dinosaurs, have become extinct due to extinction
events, e.g. the Quaternary extinction event.[130]
Culture
Ancient Near Eastern cultures conceived of the world as a flat disk of land surrounded by ocean. The
Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed Nun (the ocean) was a
circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands").[138] The Hebrew Bible,
drawing on other Near Eastern ideas, depicts the Earth as a flat disc floating on water, with another
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 11/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
expanse of water above it.[139] A similar model is found in the Homeric account of the 8th century BC
in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the
begetter of all life and possibly of all gods."[140]
The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early Greek philosophers, a belief espoused by
Pythagoras. Contrary to popular belief, most educated people in the Middle Ages did not believe the
Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "Myth of the Flat Earth". As evidenced by
thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, the European belief in a spherical Earth was widespread by this
point in time.[141] Prior to circumnavigation of the planet and the introduction of space flight, belief in
a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels
drawn with the shape of other planets.[142]
Travel
Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence.
The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures
in relative isolation.[146] Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed
the Ice Age land bridge from Siberia to Alaska and moved southbound to settle in the Americas.[147]
For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each other's existence.[146] The second period,
occurring over roughly the last 10,000 years, saw increased cross-cultural exchange through trade
and exploration, marking a new era of cultural intermingling.[146]
Trade
Human trade has occurred since the prehistoric era. Peter Watson dates the history of long-distance
commerce from c. 150,000 years ago.[148] Major trade routes throughout history have existed on land,
such as the Silk Road which linked East Asia with Europe[149] and the Amber Road which was used to
transfer amber from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean Sea.[150] The Dark Ages led trade to
collapse in the West, but it continued to flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East,
India, China, and Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the economic centre of
the world, and luxury goods were commonly traded in Europe. Physical money (either barter or
precious metals) was dangerous to carry over a long distance. To address this, a burgeoning banking
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 12/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
industry enabled the shift to movable wealth or capital, making it far easier and safer to trade across
long distances. After the Age of Sail, international trade mostly occurred along sea routes, notably to
prevent intermediary countries from being able to control trade routes and the flow of goods.
In economics, land refers to a factor of production. It can be leased in exchange for rent, and use of its
various raw material resources (trees, oil, metals).[151]
Land use
Agriculture includes both crop farming and animal husbandry.[155] A third of Earth's land surface is
used for agriculture,[156][157]: 126 with estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and
33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.[91] This has had significant impacts on Earth's
ecosystems. When land is cleared to make way for agriculture, native flora and fauna are replaced
with newly introduced crops and livestock.[152]: 31 Excessively high agricultural land use is driven by
poor management practices (which lead to lower food yields, necessitating more land use), food
demand, food waste, and diets high in meat.[157]: 126
Urbanization has led to greater population growth in urban areas in the last century. Although urban
areas make up less than 3 percent of Earth's land area, the global population shifted from a majority
living in rural areas to a majority living in urban areas in 2007.[152]: 35 People living in urban areas
depend on food produced in rural areas outside of their cities, which creates greater demand for
agriculture and drives land use change well beyond city boundaries.[152]: 35 Urbanization also
displaces agricultural land because it mainly takes place on the most fertile land. Urban expansion in
peri-urban areas fragments agricultural and natural lands, forcing agriculture to move to less fertile
land elsewhere. Because this land is less fertile, more land is needed for the same output, which
increases the total agricultural land use.[158]: 119
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 13/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Another form of land use is mining, whereby minerals are extracted from the ground using a variety
of methods. Evidence of mining activity dates back to around 3000 BCE in Ancient Egypt.[152]: 34
Important minerals include iron ore, mined for use as a raw material; coal, mined for energy
production; and gemstones, mined for use in jewellery and currency.[152]: 34
Law
The phrase "the law of the land" first appeared in 1215 in the Magna Carta, inspiring its later usage in
the United States Constitution.[159] The idea of common land also originated with medieval English
law, and refers collective ownership of land, treating it as a common good.[2] In environmental
science, economics, and game theory, the tragedy of the commons refers to individuals' use of
common spaces for their own gain, deteriorating the land overall by taking more than their fair share
and not cooperating with others.[160] The idea of common land suggests public ownership; but there
is still some land that can be privatized as property for an individual, such as a landlord or king. In the
developed world, land is expected to be privately owned by an individual with legal title, but in the
developing world the right to use land is often divided, with the rights to land resources being given to
different people at different times for the same area of land.[2] Beginning in the late 20th century, the
international community has begun to recognise Indigenous land rights in law, for example, the
Treaty of Waitangi for Māori people, the Act on Greenland Self-Government for Inuit people, and the
Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the Philippines.[133]
Geopolitics
The aggression of Nazi Germany in World War II was motivated in part by the concept of
Lebensraum ("living space"), which had first became a geopolitical goal of Imperial Germany in
World War I (1914–1918) originally, as the core element of the Septemberprogramm of territorial
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 14/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
expansion.[168] The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the Nazi Party (NSDAP).
Lebensraum was one of the leading motivations Nazi Germany had in initiating World War II, and it
would continue this policy until the end of World War II.[169]
Environmental issues
Land degradation is "the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity"
of land as a result of human activity.[170]: 42 Land degradation is driven by many different activities,
including agriculture, urbanization, energy production, and mining.[170]: 43 Humans have altered
more than three-quarters of ice-free land through habitation and other use, fundamentally changing
ecosystems.[171] Human activity is a major factor in the Holocene extinction,[172] and human-caused
climate change is causing rising sea levels and ecosystem loss. Environmental scientists study land's
ecosystems, natural resources, biosphere (fauna and flora), troposphere, and the impact of human
activity on these.[2] Their recommendations have led to international action to prevent biodiversity
loss and desertification, and encourage sustainable forest and waste management.[173] The
conservation movement lobbies for the protection of endangered species and the protection of natural
areas, such as parks.[174]: 253 International frameworks have focused on analyzing how humans can
meet their needs while using land more efficiently and preserving its natural resources, notably under
the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals framework.[173]
Soil degradation
Desertification is a type of land degradation in drylands in which fertile areas become increasingly
arid as a result of natural processes or human activities, resulting in loss of biological
productivity.[175] This spread of arid areas can be influenced by a variety of human factors, such as
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 15/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
Pollution
Ground pollution is soil contamination via pollutants, such as hazardous waste or litter. Ground
pollution can be prevented by properly monitoring and disposing of waste, along with reducing
unnecessary chemical and plastic use. Unfortunately, proper disposal of waste often is not
economically beneficial or technologically viable, leading to short-term solutions of waste disposal
that pollute the earth. Examples include dumping harmful industrial byproducts, overusing
agricultural fertilizers and other chemicals, and poorly maintaining landfills. Some landfills can be
thousands of acres in size, such as the Apex Regional landfill in Las Vegas.[181]
Water pollution on land is the contamination of non-oceanic hydrological surface and underground
water features such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, wetlands, aquifers, reservoirs, and groundwater
as a result of human activities.[182]: 6 It may be caused by toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals, plastics,
pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, industrial waste products),[183] stressful conditions (e.g.,
changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, unpleasant taste or
odor, and changes of salinity),[184] or pathogenic organisms.[185]
Biodiversity loss
Biodiversity loss can sometimes be reversed through ecological restoration or ecological resilience,
such as through the restoration of abandoned agricultural areas;[170]: 45 however, it may also be
permanent (e.g. through land loss). The planet's ecosystem is quite sensitive: occasionally, minor
changes from a healthy equilibrium can have dramatic influence on a food web or food chain, up to
and including the coextinction of that entire food chain. Biodiversity loss leads to reduced ecosystem
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 16/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
services, and can eventually threaten food security.[187] Earth is currently undergoing its sixth mass
extinction (the Holocene extinction) as a result of human activities which push beyond the planetary
boundaries. So far, this extinction has proven irreversible.[188][189][190]
Resource depletion
Although humans have used land for its natural resources since ancient times, demand for resources
such as timber, minerals, and energy has grown exponentially since the Industrial Revolution due to
population growth.[152]: 34 When a natural resource is depleted to the point of diminishing returns, it
is considered the overexploitation of that resource.[191] Some natural resources, such as timber, are
considered renewable, because with sustainable practices they replenish to their previous
levels.[192]: 90 Fossil fuels such as coal are not considered renewable, as they take millions of years to
form, with the current supply of coal expected to peak in the middle of the 21st century.[192]: 90
Economic materialism, or consumerism, has influenced destructive patterns of modern resource
usage, in contrast with pre-industrial usage.[193]
See also
Public land
Solid earth
Notes
a. The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source. This
number excludes Antarctica and the western islands of Indoesia and includes the Izu, Bonin, and
Mariana Islands.
b. World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes Temperate grasslands, savannas and
shrublands, Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub, and Deserts and xeric shrublands.[118]
c. World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes Flooded grasslands and savannas, and
Mangroves, which are both wetlands.[118]
References
1. Allaby, M.; Park, C. (2013). A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. p. 239. ISBN 978-0-19-964166-6.
2. "Chapter 1 – Meaning of Land" (https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20E
nglish_Ch1.pdf) (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification. 2017. p. 21. ISBN 978-92-95110-48-9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022
0920172701/https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch1.pdf)
(PDF) from the original on September 20, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
3. Tarbuck, Edward J.; Lutgens, Frederick K. (2016). Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology
(12th ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-407425-2.
4. Gniadek, Melissa Myra (August 2011). Unsettled spaces, Unsettled stories; Travel and Historical
Narrative in the United States, 1799-1859 (PhD). Cornell University.
5. Harper, Douglas. "land" (https://www.etymonline.com/?term=land). Online Etymology Dictionary.
Retrieved July 18, 2021.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 17/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 18/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
20. Guinan, E.F.; Ribas, I. (2002). "Our Changing Sun: The Role of Solar Nuclear Evolution and
Magnetic Activity on Earth's Atmosphere and Climate". In Montesinos, Benjamin; Gimenez,
Alvaro; Guinan, Edward F. (eds.). ASP Conference Proceedings: The Evolving Sun and its
Influence on Planetary Environments. San Francisco: Astronomical Society of the Pacific.
Bibcode:2002ASPC..269...85G (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002ASPC..269...85G).
ISBN 1-58381-109-5.
21. University of Rochester (March 4, 2010). "Oldest measurement of Earth's magnetic field reveals
battle between Sun and Earth for our atmosphere" (http://www.physorg.com/news186922627.htm
l). Physorg.news. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110427064855/http://www.physorg.co
m/news186922627.html) from the original on April 27, 2011.
22. "Ocean Literacy" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141127095900/http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/edu
cation/literacy/ocean_literacy.pdf) (PDF). NOAA. Archived from the original (http://oceanservice.no
aa.gov/education/literacy/ocean_literacy.pdf) (PDF) on November 27, 2014.
23. Chambers, John E. (2004). "Planetary accretion in the inner Solar System". Earth and Planetary
Science Letters. 223 (3–4): 241–252. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.223..241C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.e
du/abs/2004E&PSL.223..241C). doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.04.031 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.eps
l.2004.04.031).
24. Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Ferry, P. A. (2010). "Links between global taxonomic diversity,
ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/a
rticles/PMC2936204). Biology Letters. 6 (4): 544–547. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024 (https://doi.org/
10.1098%2Frsbl.2009.1024). PMC 2936204 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2936
204). PMID 20106856 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20106856).
25. Rogers, John James William; Santosh, M. (2004). Continents and Supercontinents. Oxford
University Press US. p. 48. ISBN 978-0-19-516589-0.
26. Hurley, P.M.; Rand, J.R. (June 1969). "Pre-drift continental nuclei". Science. 164 (3885): 1229–
1242. Bibcode:1969Sci...164.1229H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969Sci...164.1229H).
doi:10.1126/science.164.3885.1229 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.164.3885.1229).
PMID 17772560 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17772560).
27. De Smet, J.; Van Den Berg, A.P.; Vlaar, N.J. (2000). "Early formation and long-term stability of
continents resulting from decompression melting in a convecting mantle" (https://dspace.library.u
u.nl/bitstream/1874/1653/1/desmet_etal_00.pdf) (PDF). Tectonophysics. 322 (1–2): 19.
Bibcode:2000Tectp.322...19D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000Tectp.322...19D).
doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(00)00055-X (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0040-1951%2800%2900055-
X). hdl:1874/1653 (https://hdl.handle.net/1874%2F1653). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0210331100352/https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/handle/1874/1653/desmet_etal_00.pdf;jsess
ionid=72BE4EE7164C98D3E91FAC2C1347084F?sequence=1) from the original on March 31,
2021. Retrieved October 2, 2019.
28. Armstrong, R.L. (1968). "A model for the evolution of strontium and lead isotopes in a dynamic
earth". Reviews of Geophysics. 6 (2): 175–199. Bibcode:1968RvGSP...6..175A (https://ui.adsabs.
harvard.edu/abs/1968RvGSP...6..175A). doi:10.1029/RG006i002p00175 (https://doi.org/10.102
9%2FRG006i002p00175).
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 19/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
29. Kleine, Thorsten; Palme, Herbert; Mezger, Klaus; Halliday, Alex N. (November 24, 2005). "Hf-W
Chronometry of Lunar Metals and the Age and Early Differentiation of the Moon" (https://semantic
scholar.org/paper/2fbe0a8a70b7c3a6603c288d95707ef454841f6c). Science. 310 (5754): 1671–
1674. Bibcode:2005Sci...310.1671K (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005Sci...310.1671K).
doi:10.1126/science.1118842 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1118842). PMID 16308422 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16308422). S2CID 34172110 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corpus
ID:34172110). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210723151043/https://www.semanticschol
ar.org/paper/Hf-W-Chronometry-of-Lunar-Metals-and-the-Age-and-of-Kleine-Palme/2fbe0a8a70b7
c3a6603c288d95707ef454841f6c) from the original on July 23, 2021. Retrieved December 1,
2019.
30. Hong, D.; Zhang, Jisheng; Wang, Tao; Wang, Shiguang; Xie, Xilin (2004). "Continental crustal
growth and the supercontinental cycle: evidence from the Central Asian Orogenic Belt". Journal of
Asian Earth Sciences. 23 (5): 799. Bibcode:2004JAESc..23..799H (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/
abs/2004JAESc..23..799H). doi:10.1016/S1367-9120(03)00134-2 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1
367-9120%2803%2900134-2).
31. Armstrong, R.L. (1991). "The persistent myth of crustal growth". Australian Journal of Earth
Sciences. 38 (5): 613–630. Bibcode:1991AuJES..38..613A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/199
1AuJES..38..613A). CiteSeerX 10.1.1.527.9577 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?d
oi=10.1.1.527.9577). doi:10.1080/08120099108727995 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08120099108
727995).
32. Li, Z. X.; Bogdanova, S. V.; Collins, A. S.; et al. (2008). "Assembly, configuration, and break-up
history of Rodinia: A synthesis" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304231035/http://www.bdewael
e.be/pdfs/Lietal_IGCP440_map_2008.pdf) (PDF). Precambrian Research. 160 (1–2): 179–210.
Bibcode:2008PreR..160..179L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PreR..160..179L).
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.021 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.precamres.2007.04.021).
Archived from the original (http://www.bdewaele.be/pdfs/Lietal_IGCP440_map_2008.pdf) (PDF)
on March 4, 2016. Retrieved February 6, 2016.
33. Murphy, J.B.; Nance, R.D. (1965). "How do supercontinents assemble?" (https://web.archive.org/
web/20070713194319/http://scienceweek.com/2004/sa040730-5.htm). American Scientist. 92 (4):
324–333. doi:10.1511/2004.4.324 (https://doi.org/10.1511%2F2004.4.324). Archived from the
original (http://scienceweek.com/2004/sa040730-5.htm) on July 13, 2007. Retrieved March 5,
2007.
34. Nijman, Jan; Muller, Peter O.; de Blij, H.J. (2017). "Introduction". Regions: Geography: Realms,
Regions, and Concepts (17th ed.). Wiley. p. 11. ISBN 978-1-119-30189-9.
35. McColl, R.W., ed. (2005). "continents" (https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&pg=
PA215). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Vol. 1. p. 215. ISBN 978-0-8160-7229-3. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20220101165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=DJgnebGbAB8C&
pg=PA215) from the original on January 1, 2022. Retrieved August 25, 2022 – via Google Books.
36. "Continent" (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/Continent). National Geographic.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221001044025/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/
resource/Continent/) from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved September 9, 2022.
37. Dwevedi, A.; Kumar, P.; Kumar, P.; Kumar, Y.; Sharma, Y. K.; Kayastha, A. M. (January 1, 2017).
Grumezescu, A. M. (ed.). "15 – Soil sensors: detailed insight into research updates, significance,
and future prospects" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B978012804299100016
3). New Pesticides and Soil Sensors: 561–594. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-804299-1.00016-3 (http
s://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-804299-1.00016-3). ISBN 978-0128042991. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20221011143409/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B97801280
42991000163) from the original on October 11, 2022. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 20/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
38. "What Is The Difference Between Elevation, Relief And Altitude ?" (https://mapscaping.com/what-i
s-the-difference-between-elevation-relief-and-altitude/). December 17, 2021. Archived (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20221009071034/https://mapscaping.com/what-is-the-difference-between-elev
ation-relief-and-altitude/) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
39. National Geophysical Data Center. "Hypsographic Curve of Earth's Surface from ETOPO1" (http
s://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_histogram.html). ngdc.noaa.gov. NOAA. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20170915114233/https://ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/global/etopo1_surface_
histogram.html) from the original on September 15, 2017. Retrieved September 22, 2022.
40. "Land area where elevation is below 5 meters (% of total land area) | Data" (https://data.worldban
k.org/indicator/AG.LND.EL5M.ZS?end=2010&start=1990&view=chart). data.worldbank.org. World
Bank. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220920173625/https://data.worldbank.org/indicato
r/AG.LND.EL5M.ZS?end=2010&start=1990&view=chart) from the original on September 20,
2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
41. Summerfield, M.A. (1991). Global Geomorphology. Pearson. p. 537. ISBN 978-0582301566.
42. Mark, David M.; Smith, Barry (2004). "A science of topography: From qualitative ontology to digital
representations". In Bishop, Michael P.; Shroder, John F. (eds.). Geographic Information Science
and Mountain Geomorphology. Springer-Praxis. pp. 75–100.
43. Siebert, E. A.; Dornbach, J. E. (1953). "Chart Altitude As A Function Of Hypsometric Layer Tints".
Journal of the Institute of Navigation. 3 (8): 270–274. doi:10.1002/j.2161-4296.1953.tb00669.x (htt
ps://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.2161-4296.1953.tb00669.x).
44. Staniszewski, Ryszard; Jusik, Szymon; Kupiec, Jerzy (January 1, 2012). "Variability of Taxonomic
Structure of Macrophytes According to Major Morphological Modifications of Lowland and Upland
Rivers With Different Water Trophy". Nauka Przyroda Technologie. 6.
45. Lichvar, Robert W.; Melvin, Norman C.; Butterwick, Mary L.; Kirchner, William N. (July 2012).
National Wetland Plant List Indicator Definitions (https://www.fws.gov/wetlands/documents/nationa
l-wetland-plant-list-indicator-rating-definitions.pdf) (PDF). U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20221012213651/http://www.fws.gov/wetlands/documents/national-w
etland-plant-list-indicator-rating-definitions.pdf) (PDF) from the original on October 12, 2022.
Retrieved October 11, 2022.
46. Polunin, Oleg; Walters, Martin (1985). A Guide to the Vegetation of Britain and Europe. Oxford
University Press. p. 220. ISBN 0-19-217713-3.
47. Huggett, Richard John (2011). Fundamentals Of Geomorphology. Routledge Fundamentals of
Physical Geography Series (3rd ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-86008-3.
48. Kring, David A. "Terrestrial Impact Cratering and Its Environmental Effects" (http://www.lpi.usra.ed
u/science/kring/epo_web/impact_cratering/intro/). Lunar and Planetary Laboratory. Archived (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20110513055527/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/science/kring/epo_web/impact_
cratering/intro/) from the original on May 13, 2011. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
49. Martin, Ronald (2011). Earth's Evolving Systems: The History of Planet Earth (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC). Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN 978-0-7637-8001-2.
OCLC 635476788 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/635476788). Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20221016144551/https://books.google.com/books?id=agaOKrvAoeAC) from the original on
October 16, 2022. Retrieved September 22, 2022 – via Google Books.
50. Witze, Alexandra (February 26, 2019). "A deeper understanding of the Grand Canyon" (https://kno
wablemagazine.org/article/physical-world/2019/deeper-understanding-grand-canyon). Knowable
Magazine. doi:10.1146/knowable-022619-1 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fknowable-022619-1).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220623131708/https://knowablemagazine.org/article/phy
sical-world/2019/deeper-understanding-grand-canyon) from the original on June 23, 2022.
Retrieved June 23, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 21/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
51. B. Wernicke (January 26, 2011). "The California River and its role in carving Grand Canyon" (htt
p://www.geo.umass.edu/structure/StrSem/Werneckie-GSABull-InPresJan2011-Canyon.pdf)
(PDF). Geological Society of America Bulletin. 123 (7–8): 1288–1316.
Bibcode:2011GSAB..123.1288W (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011GSAB..123.1288W).
doi:10.1130/B30274.1 (https://doi.org/10.1130%2FB30274.1). ISSN 0016-7606 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0016-7606). Wikidata Q56082876.
52. "Canyon" (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/canyon). National Geographic.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221013023737/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/
resource/canyon/) from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved October 12, 2022.
53. Dotterweich, Markus (November 1, 2013). "The history of human-induced soil erosion:
Geomorphic legacies, early descriptions and research, and the development of soil conservation
– A global synopsis". Geomorphology. 201: 1–34. Bibcode:2013Geomo.201....1D (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2013Geomo.201....1D). doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.07.021 (https://doi.org/1
0.1016%2Fj.geomorph.2013.07.021).
54. "Soil Erosion and Degradation" (https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradatio
n). World Wildlife Fund. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220925194817/https://www.worl
dwildlife.org/threats/soil-erosion-and-degradation) from the original on September 25, 2022.
Retrieved October 10, 2022.
55. University of the Witwatersrand (2019). "Drop of ancient seawater rewrites Earth's history:
Research reveals that plate tectonics started on Earth 600 million years before what was believed
earlier" (https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/08/190801104108.htm). ScienceDaily.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190806072854/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/20
19/08/190801104108.htm) from the original on August 6, 2019. Retrieved August 11, 2019.
56. Hughes, Patrick (February 8, 2001). "Alfred Wegener (1880–1930): A Geographic Jigsaw Puzzle"
(http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Features/Wegener/wegener_2.php). On the Shoulders of
Giants. Earth Observatory, NASA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221014154657/https://
earthobservatory.nasa.gov/features/Wegener/wegener_2.php) from the original on October 14,
2022. Retrieved December 26, 2007. "... on January 6, 1912, Wegener... proposed instead a
grand vision of drifting continents and widening seas to explain the evolution of Earth's
geography."
57. "What are the different types of plate tectonic boundaries?" (https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/
plate-boundaries.html). Ocean Explorer. NOAA. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202210090
82707/https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/plate-boundaries.html) from the original on October 9,
2022. Retrieved October 9, 2022.
58. Venzke, E., ed. (2013). "Volcanoes of the World, v. 4.3.4" (https://volcano.si.edu/gvp_votw.cfm).
Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. doi:10.5479/si.GVP.VOTW4-2013 (https://doi.
org/10.5479%2Fsi.GVP.VOTW4-2013). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220805173609/h
ttps://volcano.si.edu/gvp_votw.cfm) from the original on August 5, 2022. Retrieved October 14,
2022.
59. Siebert, L.; Simkin, T.; Kimberly, P. (2010). Volcanoes of the World (3rd ed.). Smithsonian
Institution; Berkeley; University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-94793-1.
60. Duda, Seweryn J. (November 1965). "Secular seismic energy release in the circum-Pacific belt".
Tectonophysics. 2 (5): 409–452. Bibcode:1965Tectp...2..409D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/
1965Tectp...2..409D). doi:10.1016/0040-1951(65)90035-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0040-195
1%2865%2990035-1).
61. "The Effect of Land Masses on Climate" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092309/http://ww
w.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ttv10.sci.ess.land/the-effect-of-land-masses-on-climate/). PBS
Learning Media. PBS. Archived from the original (http://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/ttv10.
sci.ess.land/the-effect-of-land-masses-on-climate/) on April 2, 2015.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 22/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
62. Betts, Alan. "The Climate Energy Balance of the Earth" (https://web.archive.org/web/2015030504
1546/http://alanbetts.com/understanding-climate-change/question/the-climate-energy-balance-of-t
he-earth). Alan Betts: Atmospheric Research. Archived from the original (http://alanbetts.com/und
erstanding-climate-change/question/the-climate-energy-balance-of-the-earth/) on March 5, 2015.
63. Howard, Jeffrey (2017). "Anthropogenic Landforms and Soil Parent Materials". In Howard, Jeffrey
(ed.). Anthropogenic Soils. Progress in Soil Science. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
pp. 25–51. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-54331-4_3 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-54331-4_3).
ISBN 978-3-319-54331-4.
64. Stewart, Robert H. (September 2006). Introduction to Physical Oceanography (https://open.umn.e
du/opentextbooks/textbooks/20). Texas A&M University. pp. 301–302.
65. Mandelbrot, Benoit (May 5, 1967). "How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self-Similarity
and Fractional Dimension" (https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.156.3775.636). Science.
156 (3775): 636–638. Bibcode:1967Sci...156..636M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967Sci...
156..636M). doi:10.1126/science.156.3775.636 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.156.3775.63
6). PMID 17837158 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17837158). S2CID 15662830 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:15662830). Retrieved October 26, 2022.
66. "Coastline – The World Factbook" (https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/field/coastline/). CIA.
Retrieved January 2, 2023.
67. "Coastal and Marine Ecosystems — Marine Jurisdictions: Coastline length" (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20120419075053/http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/coastal-marine/variable-61.html). World
Resources Institute. Archived from the original (http://earthtrends.wri.org/text/coastal-marine/varia
ble-61.html) on April 19, 2012. Retrieved March 18, 2012.
68. Heckbert, S.; Costanza, R.; Poloczanska, E. S.; Richardson, A. J. (2011). "12.10 – Climate
Regulation as a Service from Estuarine and Coastal Ecosystems" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/
science/article/pii/B9780123747112012110). In Wolanski, Eric; McLusky, Donald (eds.). Treatise
on Estuarine and Coastal Science. Vol. 12. Waltham: Academic Press. pp. 199–216. ISBN 978-0-
08-087885-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221013120334/https://www.sciencedirect.c
om/science/article/pii/B9780123747112012110) from the original on October 13, 2022. Retrieved
October 11, 2022.
69. "Coral Reefs" (https://www.marinebio.org/creatures/coral-reefs/). marinebio.org. June 17, 2018.
Retrieved October 28, 2022.
70. "Human Settlements on the Coast" (https://web.archive.org/web/20180705135719/http://www.oce
ansatlas.org/subtopic/en/c/114/). UN Atlas of the Oceans. July 5, 2018. Archived from the original
(http://www.oceansatlas.org/subtopic/en/c/114/) on July 5, 2018. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
71. "Coastal functions « World Ocean Review" (https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-5/living-with-the
-coasts/coastal-functions/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221012180749/https://worldo
ceanreview.com/en/wor-5/living-with-the-coasts/coastal-functions/) from the original on October
12, 2022. Retrieved October 11, 2022.
72. Gillespie, Rosemary G.; Clague, David A., eds. (2009). Encyclopedia of Islands (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=g9ZogGs_fz8C&pg=PAxxxi). University of California. ISBN 978-0520256491.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211223073352/https://books.google.com/books?id=g9Zo
gGs_fz8C&pg=PAxxxi) from the original on December 23, 2021. Retrieved October 22, 2022 – via
Google Books.
73. "Island Biodiversity – Why is it Important?" (https://www.cbd.int/island/whymatters.shtml).
Convention on Biological Diversity. October 19, 2009. Retrieved October 24, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 23/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
74. Darwin, Charles R. (1842). The structure and distribution of coral reefs. Being the first part of the
geology of the voyage of the Beagle, under the command of Capt. Fitzroy, R.N. during the years
1832 to 1836 (http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F271&pageseq
=1). Darwin Online. London: Smith Elder and Co. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20060925
140420/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F271&viewtype=text&pageseq=1)
from the original on September 25, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2022.
75. "Mountains" (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/mountains). National
Geographic. October 15, 2018. Retrieved April 30, 2023.
76. Leong, Goh Cheng (1995). Certificate Physics And Human Geography (https://books.google.com/
books?id=XhJ4RAAACAAJ&q=certificate+physical+and+human+geography) (Indian ed.). Oxford
University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-19-562816-6. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022101
6144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=XhJ4RAAACAAJ&q=certificate+physical+and+huma
n+geography) from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 11, 2022 – via Google
Books.
77. Duszyński, F.; Migoń, P.; Strzelecki, M.C. (2019). "Escarpment retreat in sedimentary tablelands
and cuesta landscapes–Landforms, mechanisms and patterns". Earth-Science Reviews. 196
(102890): 102890. Bibcode:2019ESRv..19602890D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019ESR
v..19602890D). doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2019.102890 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2019.
102890). S2CID 198410403 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:198410403).
78. Migoń, P. (2004a). "Mesa". In Goudie, A.S. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Geomorphology. London:
Routledge. p. 668. ISBN 978-0415272988.
79. Neuendorf, Klaus K.E.; Mehl Jr., James P.; Jackson, Julia A. (2011). Glossary of Geology
(5th ed.). American Geosciences Institute. ISBN 978-1680151787.
80. Brown, Geoff C. [in German]; Hawkesworth, C. J.; Wilson, R. C. L. (1992). Understanding the
Earth (https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgk4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93) (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-42740-1. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2016060
3090000/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kgk4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93) from the original on
June 3, 2016 – via Google Books.
81. Rood, Stewart B.; Pan, Jason; Gill, Karen M.; Franks, Carmen G.; Samuelson, Glenda M.;
Shepherd, Anita (February 1, 2008). "Declining summer flows of Rocky Mountain rivers: Changing
seasonal hydrology and probable impacts on floodplain forests". Journal of Hydrology. 349 (3–4):
397–410. Bibcode:2008JHyd..349..397R (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JHyd..349..397
R). doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2007.11.012 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jhydrol.2007.11.012).
82. Powell, W. Gabe (2009). Identifying Land Use/Land Cover (LULC) Using National Agriculture
Imagery Program (NAIP) Data as a Hydrologic Model Input for Local Flood Plain Management
(Applied Research Project). Texas State University.
83. Leroy, Suzanne A.G. (2022). "Natural Hazards, Landscapes and Civilizations". Treatise on
Geomorphology. Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences. pp. 620–634.
doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-818234-5.00003-1 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-818234-5.0000
3-1). ISBN 978-0-12-818235-2. PMC 7392566 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC73
92566).
84. "Fjord" (https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/fjord). National Geographic. Archived (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/fjo
rd/) from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 14, 2022.
85. Whitney, W. D. (1889). " "Cave, n.1." def. 1.". The Century dictionary: An encyclopedic lexicon of
the English language. Vol. 1. New York: The Century Company. p. 871.
86. "Cave". Oxford English Dictionary (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 2009.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 24/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
87. Marean, Curtis W.; Bar-Matthews, Miryam; Bernatchez, Jocelyn; Fisher, Erich; Goldberg, Paul;
Herries, Andy I. R.; Jacobs, Zenobia; Jerardino, Antonieta; Karkanas, Panagiotis; Minichillo, Tom;
Nilssen, Peter J.; Thompson, Erin; Watts, Ian; Williams, Hope M. (2007). "Early human use of
marine resources and pigment in South Africa during the Middle Pleistocene" (http://doc.rero.ch/re
cord/15550/files/PAL_E2962.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 449 (7164): 905–908.
Bibcode:2007Natur.449..905M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Natur.449..905M).
doi:10.1038/nature06204 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature06204). PMID 17943129 (https://pub
med.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17943129). S2CID 4387442 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4387
442).
88. "Solution Caves – Caves and Karst" (https://www.nps.gov/subjects/caves/solution-caves.htm).
U.S. National Park Service.
89. Skinner, B. J.; Porter, S. C. (1987). "The Earth: Inside and Out". Physical Geology. John Wiley &
Sons. p. 17. ISBN 0-471-05668-5.
90. "Land Cover" (https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/LC/visualize). Food and Agriculture
Organization. Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220106
022112/https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/LC/visualize) from the original on January 6, 2022.
Retrieved September 18, 2022.
91. Hooke, Roger LeB.; Martín-Duque, José F.; Pedraza, Javier (December 2012). "Land
transformation by humans: A review" (https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/archive/22/12/pdf/gt12
12.pdf) (PDF). GSA Today. 22 (12): 4–10. Bibcode:2012GSAT...12l...4H (https://ui.adsabs.harvar
d.edu/abs/2012GSAT...12l...4H). doi:10.1130/GSAT151A.1 (https://doi.org/10.1130%2FGSAT151
A.1). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180109181247/https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoda
y/archive/22/12/pdf/gt1212.pdf) (PDF) from the original on January 9, 2018. Retrieved
September 22, 2022.
92. Verma, P.; Singh, R.; Singh, P.; Raghubanshi, A.S. (January 1, 2020). "Chapter 1 – Urban ecology
– current state of research and concepts". Urban Ecology. Elsevier. pp. 3–16. doi:10.1016/B978-
0-12-820730-7.00001-X (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-12-820730-7.00001-X). ISBN 978-
0128207307. S2CID 226524905 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226524905).
93. Brown, Daniel G.; et al. (2014). Advancing Land Change Modeling: Opportunities and Research
Requirements. Washington, DC: The National Academic Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-0-309-
28833-0.
94. Voroney, R. Paul; Heck, Richard J. (2007). "The soil habitat". In Paul, Eldor A. (ed.). Soil
microbiology, ecology and biochemistry (3rd ed.). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Elsevier. pp. 25–
49. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-047514-1.50006-8 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FB978-0-08-047514-1.5
0006-8). ISBN 978-0-12-546807-7.
95. Taylor, Sterling A.; Ashcroft, Gaylen L. (1972). Physical edaphology: the physics of irrigated and
nonirrigated soils (https://archive.org/details/physicaledapholo0000tayl). San Francisco,
California: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0818-6.
96. McCarthy, David F. (2014). Essentials of soil mechanics and foundations: basic geotechnics (http
s://fr.book4you.org/book/3555343/0f8f97) (7th ed.). London: Pearson. ISBN 978-1292039398.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144604/https://fr.b-ok.cc/book/3555343/0f8f97)
from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved March 27, 2022.
97. Gilluly, James; Waters, Aaron Clement; Woodford, Alfred Oswald (1975). Principles of geology (htt
ps://archive.org/details/principlesofgeol0000gill) (4th ed.). San Francisco, California: W.H.
Freeman. ISBN 978-0-7167-0269-6.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 25/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 26/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
104. Pouyat, Richard; Groffman, Peter; Yesilonis, Ian; Hernandez, Luis (2002). "Soil carbon pools and
fluxes in urban ecosystems" (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S02697491010
02639). Environmental Pollution. 116 (Supplement 1): S107–S118. doi:10.1016/S0269-
7491(01)00263-9 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0269-7491%2801%2900263-9). PMID 11833898
(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11833898). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220531094
946/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0269749101002639) from the original
on May 31, 2022. Retrieved April 3, 2022. "Our analysis of pedon data from several disturbed soil
profiles suggests that physical disturbances and anthropogenic inputs of various materials (direct
effects) can greatly alter the amount of C stored in these human "made" soils."
105. Davidson, Eric A.; Janssens, Ivan A. (2006). "Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition
and feedbacks to climate change" (https://www.nature.com/articles/nature04514.pdf) (PDF).
Nature. 440 (9 March 2006): 165‒73. Bibcode:2006Natur.440..165D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2006Natur.440..165D). doi:10.1038/nature04514 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature04514).
PMID 16525463 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16525463). S2CID 4404915 (https://api.semant
icscholar.org/CorpusID:4404915). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220706182824/https://
www.nature.com/articles/nature04514.pdf) (PDF) from the original on July 6, 2022. Retrieved
April 3, 2022.
106. Powlson, David (2005). "Will soil amplify climate change?" (https://fr.art1lib.org/book/10543301/52
8a68). Nature. 433 (20 January 2005): 204‒05. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..204P (https://ui.adsabs.h
arvard.edu/abs/2005Natur.433..204P). doi:10.1038/433204a (https://doi.org/10.1038%2F433204
a). PMID 15662396 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15662396). S2CID 35007042 (https://api.se
manticscholar.org/CorpusID:35007042). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220922110017/h
ttps://fr.art1lib.org/book/10543301/528a68) from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved
April 3, 2022.
107. Bradford, Mark A.; Wieder, William R.; Bonan, Gordon B.; Fierer, Noah; Raymond, Peter A.;
Crowther, Thomas W. (2016). "Managing uncertainty in soil carbon feedbacks to climate change"
(http://fiererlab.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Bradford_etal_2016_NCC.pdf) (PDF). Nature
Climate Change. 6 (27 July 2016): 751–758. Bibcode:2016NatCC...6..751B (https://ui.adsabs.har
vard.edu/abs/2016NatCC...6..751B). doi:10.1038/nclimate3071 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnclim
ate3071). hdl:20.500.11755/c1792dbf-ce96-4dc7-8851-1ca50a35e5e0 (https://hdl.handle.net/20.5
00.11755%2Fc1792dbf-ce96-4dc7-8851-1ca50a35e5e0). S2CID 43955196 (https://api.semantics
cholar.org/CorpusID:43955196). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170410025316/http://fier
erlab.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/Bradford_etal_2016_NCC.pdf) (PDF) from the original on
April 10, 2017. Retrieved April 3, 2022.
108. Fairbridge, Rhodes W., ed. (1967). The Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences and Astrogeology.
New York: Reinhold Publishing. p. 323. OCLC 430153 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/430153).
109. McGuire, Thomas (2005). "Earthquakes and Earth's Interior". Earth Science: The Physical
Setting. AMSCO School Publications Inc. pp. 182–184. ISBN 978-0-87720-196-0.
110. Rudnick, Roberta L.; Gao, S. (2014). "Composition of the Continental Crust" (https://www.science
direct.com/science/article/pii/B9780080959757003016). In Holland, Heinrich D.; Turekian, Karl K.
(eds.). Treatise on Geochemistry (https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080983004/t
reatise-on-geochemistry). Vol. 4: The Crust (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 1–51. ISBN 978-0-08-098300-
4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220903010959/https://www.sciencedirect.com/referen
cework/9780080983004/treatise-on-geochemistry) from the original on September 3, 2022.
Retrieved September 3, 2022.
111. Davis, George H.; Reynolds, Stephen J.; Kluth, Charles F. (2012). "Nature of Structural Geology".
Structural Geology of Rocks and Regions (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-471-
15231-6.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 27/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 28/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
125. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Terms and definitions (http://www.fao.org/3/I8661E
N/i8661en.pdf) (PDF). Rome: FAO. 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2021120819263
6/https://www.fao.org/3/i8661en/i8661en.pdf) (PDF) from the original on December 8, 2021.
Retrieved October 11, 2022.
126. Gibson, David J. (2009). Grasses and grassland ecology. New York: Oxford University Press.
pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-19-154609-9. OCLC 308648056 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/308648056).
127. Puttick, Mark N.; Morris, Jennifer L.; Williams, Tom A.; Cox, Cymon J.; Edwards, Dianne; Kenrick,
Paul; Pressel, Silvia; Wellman, Charles H.; Schneider, Harald (2018). "The Interrelationships of
Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte" (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2018.
01.063). Current Biology. 28 (5): 733–745.e2. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063 (https://doi.org/10.10
16%2Fj.cub.2018.01.063). PMID 29456145 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29456145).
128. "How much oxygen comes from the ocean?" (https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/ocean-oxygen.h
tml). National Ocean Service. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved
August 21, 2022.
129. Garwood, Russell J.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (September 2011). "Early Terrestrial Animals,
Evolution, and Uncertainty" (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12052-011-0357-y). Evolution: Education
and Outreach. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. 4 (3): 489–501. doi:10.1007/s12052-
011-0357-y (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12052-011-0357-y).
130. Malhi, Yadvinder; Doughty, Christopher E.; Galetti, Mauro; Terborgh, John W. (January 2016).
"Megafauna and ecosystem function from the Pleistocene to the Anthropocene" (https://www.ncbi.
nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4743772). PNAS. 113 (4): 838–846.
Bibcode:2016PNAS..113..838M (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016PNAS..113..838M).
doi:10.1073/pnas.1502540113 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.1502540113). PMC 4743772 (htt
ps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4743772). PMID 26811442 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/26811442).
131. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "Fujisan, sacred place and source of artistic inspiration" (https://
whc.unesco.org/en/list/1418/). UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20221017180110/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1418/) from the original on October 17,
2022. Retrieved February 11, 2022.
132. "Bhumi, Bhūmi, Bhūmī: 41 definitions" (https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/bhumi). Wisdom
Library. April 11, 2009. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221010184441/https://www.wisdo
mlib.org/definition/bhumi) from the original on October 10, 2022. Retrieved October 10, 2022.
"Earth (भूमि, bhūmi) is one of the five primary elements (pañcabhūta)"
133. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. "State of the World's Indigenous
Peoples, Volume V, Rights to Lands, Territories and Resources" (http://www.un.org/development/d
esa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2021/03/State-of-Worlds-Indigenous-Peoples
-Vol-V-Final.pdf) (PDF). Retrieved October 20, 2022.
134. Bar, Doron (March 9, 2022). "The changing identity of Muslim/Jewish holy places in the State of
Israel, 1948–2018" (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00263206.2022.2047655).
Middle Eastern Studies. 59: 139–150. doi:10.1080/00263206.2022.2047655 (https://doi.org/10.10
80%2F00263206.2022.2047655). S2CID 247371134 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24
7371134). Retrieved October 20, 2022.
135. Werner, E.T.C. (1922). Myths & Legends of China (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15250).
New York: George G. Harrap and Co. Ltd. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2008090715042
2/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15250) from the original on September 7, 2008. Retrieved
March 14, 2007.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 29/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
136. Lindow, John (2002). Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC). Oxford University Press. p. 205. ISBN 978-0-19-
983969-8. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221014075024/https://books.google.com/book
s?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC) from the original on October 14, 2022. Retrieved October 10, 2022 – via
Google Books.
137. Pinch, Geraldine (2002). Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Handbooks of World Mythology. ABC-
CLIO. pp. 135, 173. ISBN 1-57607-763-2.
138. Pritchard, James B., ed. (2016). Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with
Supplement (https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA374). Princeton
University Press. p. 374. ISBN 978-1400882762. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210923
022133/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA374) from the original on
September 23, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2020 – via Google Books.
139. Berlin, Adele (2011). "Cosmology and creation" (https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUa
UoC&q=Bible+Cosmology&pg=PA189). In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.). The Oxford
Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. pp. 188–189. ISBN 978-0-19-973004-
9. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160611032518/https://books.google.com/books?id=hK
AaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA189&dq=Bible+Cosmology&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jvHuTu_wDcStiQeFz62dBw&v
ed=0CGcQ6AEwCTgo#v=onepage&q=Bible%20Cosmology&f=false) from the original on June
11, 2016 – via Google Books.
140. Gottlieb, Anthony (2000). The Dream of Reason (https://archive.org/details/dreamofreasonhis00a
nth/page/6). Penguin. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-393-04951-0.
141. Russell, Jeffrey B. "The Myth of the Flat Earth" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110903182955/htt
p://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html). American Scientific Affiliation. Archived
from the original (http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html) on September 3,
2011. Retrieved March 14, 2007; but see also Cosmas Indicopleustes.
142. Jacobs, James Q. (February 1, 1998). "Archaeogeodesy, a Key to Prehistory" (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20070423055810/http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html). Archived from the original
(http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html) on April 23, 2007. Retrieved April 21, 2007.
143. Hofmann-Wellenhof, Bernhard; Legat, K.; Wieser, M.; Lichtenegger, H. (2007). Navigation:
Principles of Positioning and Guidances. Springer. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-3-211-00828-7.
144. "LANDMARK | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary" (https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dic
tionary/english/landmark). dictionary.cambridge.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202108
13232254/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/landmark) from the original on
August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 2, 2020.
145. "2012 Tourism Highlights" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120709215809/http://mkt.unwto.org/site
s/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf) (PDF). World Tourism Organization. June 2012.
Archived from the original (http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf)
(PDF) on July 9, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2012.
146. Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2007). Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-24247-8.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=6bY
QAAAAQBAJ) from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022 – via Google
Books.
147. Royal Geographical Society (2008). Atlas of Exploration (https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8
SAQAAIAAJ). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-534318-2. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ) from the original on
October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022 – via Google Books.
148. Watson, Peter (2005). Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers. Introduction. ISBN 978-0-06-621064-3.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 30/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
149. National Geographic Society (July 26, 2019). "The Silk Road" (http://www.nationalgeographic.org/
encyclopedia/silk-road/). National Geographic Society. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
20323201006/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/silk-road/) from the original on
March 23, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
150. Singer, Graciela Gestoso. "Graciela Gestoso Singer, "Amber in the Ancient Near East", i-Medjat
No. 2 (December 2008). Papyrus Electronique des Ankou" (https://www.academia.edu/241848).
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220925203419/https://www.academia.edu/241848) from
the original on September 25, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
151. "Understanding Land in Business and Economics" (https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/land.as
p). Investopedia. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220926020450/https://www.investopedi
a.com/terms/l/land.asp) from the original on September 26, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.
152. "Chapter 2 – Brief History of Land Use" (https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20
English_Ch2.pdf) (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95110-48-9. Retrieved November 3, 2022.
153. Ellis, Erle; Goldewijk, Kees Klein; Gaillard, Marie-José; Kaplan, Jed O.; Thornton, Alexa; Powell,
Jeremy; Garcia, Santiago Munevar; Beaudoin, Ella; Zerboni, Andrea (August 30, 2019).
"Archaeological assessment reveals Earth's early transformation through land use". Science. 365
(6456): 897–902. Bibcode:2019Sci...365..897S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019Sci...365..
897S). doi:10.1126/science.aax1192 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.aax1192).
hdl:10150/634688 (https://hdl.handle.net/10150%2F634688). ISSN 0036-8075 (https://www.world
cat.org/issn/0036-8075). PMID 31467217 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31467217).
S2CID 201674203 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201674203).
154. Ellis, Erle C.; Gauthier, Nicolas; Goldewijk, Kees Klein; Bird, Rebecca Bliege; Boivin, Nicole; Díaz,
Sandra; Fuller, Dorian Q.; Gill, Jacquelyn L.; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; Locke, Harvey
(April 27, 2021). "People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years" (https://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8092386). Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences. 118 (17): e2023483118. Bibcode:2021PNAS..11823483E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2021PNAS..11823483E). doi:10.1073/pnas.2023483118 (https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2
023483118). ISSN 0027-8424 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424). PMC 8092386 (https://w
ww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8092386). PMID 33875599 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.go
v/33875599).
155. Safety and health in agriculture (https://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC&pg=PA77).
International Labour Organization. 1999. p. 77. ISBN 978-92-2-111517-5. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20110722061757/http://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC) from the
original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved September 13, 2010 – via Google Books. "defined agriculture
as 'all forms of activities connected with growing, harvesting and primary processing of all types of
crops, with the breeding, raising and caring for animals, and with tending gardens and nurseries'."
156. "Agricultural land (% of land area) | Data" (https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS).
data.worldbank.org. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20190530044611/https://data.worldban
k.org/indicator/ag.lnd.agri.zs) from the original on May 30, 2019. Retrieved September 25, 2022.
157. "Chapter 7 – Food Security and Agriculture" (https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-0
6/GLO%20English_Ch7.pdf) (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to
Combat Desertification. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95110-48-9. Retrieved November 14, 2022.
158. "Chapter 6 – Scenarios of Change" (https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20Eng
lish_Ch6.pdf) (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95110-48-9. Retrieved November 14, 2022.
159. "Law of the land" (https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/law_of_the_land). Cornell Law School. Cornell
University. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220215152017/https://www.law.cornell.edu/we
x/law_of_the_land) from the original on February 15, 2022. Retrieved October 15, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 31/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
160. Purvis, V. (March 14, 1970). "Self-interest and the Common Good" (https://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmj.
1.5697.692-c). BMJ. 1 (5697): 692. doi:10.1136/bmj.1.5697.692-c (https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.
1.5697.692-c). ISSN 0959-8138 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0959-8138). PMC 1700606 (http
s://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1700606). S2CID 71492205 (https://api.semanticschol
ar.org/CorpusID:71492205). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144555/https://www.
bmj.com/content/1/5697/692.4) from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 15,
2022.
161. Slater, Terry (2016). "The Rise and Spread of Capitalism". In Daniels, Peter; Bradshaw, Michael;
Shaw, Denis; Sidaway, James; Hall, Tim (eds.). An Introduction To Human Geography (5th ed.).
Pearson. p. 47. ISBN 978-1-292-12939-6.
162. Sidaway, James; Grundy-Warr, Carl (2016). "The Place of the Nation-State". In Daniels, Peter;
Bradshaw, Michael; Shaw, Denis; Sidaway, James; Hall, Tim (eds.). An Introduction To Human
Geography (5th ed.). Pearson. p. 449. ISBN 978-1-292-12939-6.
163. Morgan, David (1986). The Mongols (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12806959). Oxford: Blackwell.
p. 5. ISBN 0-631-13556-1. OCLC 12806959 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12806959).
164. Merk, Frederick; Merck, Lois Bannister (1963). Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History
(https://books.google.com/books?id=GhYJTaZiuxwC&pg=PA215). pp. 215–216. ISBN 978-
0674548053 – via Google Books.
165. Howe, D.W. (2007). What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 (https://
books.google.com/books?id=TTzRCwAAQBAJ). Oxford History of the United States. Oxford
University Press. p. 706 (https://books.google.com/books?id=TTzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA706).
ISBN 978-0-19-972657-8 – via Google Books.
166. Randazzo, Michele E.; Hitt, John R. (2019). LexisNexis Practice Guide: Massachusetts
Administrative Law and Practice (https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu3kDwAAQBAJ) (6 ed.).
LexisNexis. p. 29 (https://books.google.com/books?id=Cu3kDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR29). ISBN 978-
1522182887 – via Google Books.
167. Byrnes, Mark Eaton (2001). James K. Polk: A Biographical Companion (https://books.google.com/
books?id=C8ufqRJuwy8C) (illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. p. 128 (https://books.google.com/books?id
=C8ufqRJuwy8C&dq=%22manifest+destiny%22+%22widely+held%22&pg=PA128). ISBN 978-
1576070567 – via Google Books.
168. Evans, Graham; Newnham, Jeffrey, eds. (1998). Penguin Dictionary of International relations (http
s://archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000evan). Penguin Books. p. 301 (https://archive.org/deta
ils/penguindictionar0000evan/page/301). ISBN 978-0140513974. Geopolitics (excerpt). (http://ww
w.yourvietbooks.com/2015/04/ir-one-definition-day-geopolitics.html)
169. Smith, Woodruff D. The Ideological Origins of Nazi Imperialism. Oxford University Press. p. 84.
170. "Chapter 3 – Drivers of Change" (https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20Englis
h_Ch3_0.pdf) (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification. 2017. ISBN 978-92-95110-48-9. Retrieved November 4, 2022.
171. Ellis, Erle C.; Ramankutty, Navin (October 1, 2008). "Putting people in the map: anthropogenic
biomes of the world" (https://doi.org/10.1890%2F070062). Frontiers in Ecology and the
Environment. 6 (8): 439–447. doi:10.1890/070062 (https://doi.org/10.1890%2F070062).
ISSN 1540-9295 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1540-9295). S2CID 3598526 (https://api.semantic
scholar.org/CorpusID:3598526).
172. Turvey, Samuel T. (2009). Holocene Extinctions (https://books.google.com/books?id=mbU-F42JU
1AC). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-157998-1 – via Google Books.
173. "Goal 15 | Department of Economic and Social Affairs" (https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal15). United
Nations. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220926130028/https://sdgs.un.org/goals/goal1
5) from the original on September 26, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 32/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
174. Evans, James (2016). "Social Constructions of Nature". In Daniels, Peter; Bradshaw, Michael;
Shaw, Denis; Sidaway, James; Hall, Tim (eds.). An Introduction To Human Geography (5th ed.).
Pearson. ISBN 978-1-292-12939-6.
175. Geist, Helmut [in German] (2005). The causes and progression of desertification (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=acbWdynlU3cC). Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-4323-4. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20221016144553/https://books.google.com/books?id=acbWdynlU3cC)
from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved September 26, 2022 – via Google Books.
176. Liu, Ye; Xue, Yongkang (March 5, 2020). "Expansion of the Sahara Desert and shrinking of frozen
land of the Arctic" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7057959). Scientific Reports. 10
(1): 4109. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.4109L (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..10.4109
L). doi:10.1038/s41598-020-61085-0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-61085-0).
PMC 7057959 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7057959). PMID 32139761 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32139761).
177. Zeng, Ning; Yoon, Jinho (September 1, 2009). "Expansion of the world's deserts due to
vegetation-albedo feedback under global warming". Geophysical Research Letters. 36 (17):
L17401. Bibcode:2009GeoRL..3617401Z (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009GeoRL..361740
1Z). doi:10.1029/2009GL039699 (https://doi.org/10.1029%2F2009GL039699). ISSN 1944-8007
(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1944-8007). S2CID 1708267 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:1708267).
178. "Sustainable development of drylands and combating desertification" (http://www.fao.org/docrep/v
0265e/v0265e01.htm). Food and Agriculture Organization. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/
20170804222104/http://www.fao.org/docrep/v0265e/v0265e01.htm) from the original on August 4,
2017. Retrieved June 21, 2016.
179. An, Hui; Tang, Zhuangsheng; Keesstra, Saskia; Shangguan, Zhouping (July 1, 2019). "Impact of
desertification on soil and plant nutrient stoichiometry in a desert grassland" (https://www.ncbi.nl
m.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6603008). Scientific Reports. 9 (1): 9422.
Bibcode:2019NatSR...9.9422A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2019NatSR...9.9422A).
doi:10.1038/s41598-019-45927-0 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-019-45927-0).
PMC 6603008 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6603008). PMID 31263198 (https://
pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31263198).
180. Han, Xueying; Jia, Guangpu; Yang, Guang; Wang, Ning; Liu, Feng; Chen, Haoyu; Guo, Xinyu;
Yang, Wenbin; Liu, Jing (December 10, 2020). "Spatiotemporal dynamic evolution and driving
factors of desertification in the Mu Us Sandy Land in 30 years" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
articles/PMC7729393). Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 21734. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1021734H (https://
ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..1021734H). doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78665-9 (https://doi.
org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-78665-9). PMC 7729393 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC7729393). PMID 33303886 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33303886).
181. Schoenmann, Joe (December 17, 2008). "Official calls for sort reform" (http://m.lasvegassun.com/
news/2008/dec/17/official-calls-sort-reform/). Las Vegas Sun. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20090108081527/http://m.lasvegassun.com/news/2008/dec/17/official-calls-sort-reform/) from
the original on January 8, 2009. Retrieved December 20, 2008.
182. Von Sperling, Marcos (2015). "Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal" (https://iwap
online.com/ebooks/book/72/). IWA Publishing. 6. doi:10.2166/9781780402086 (https://doi.org/10.2
166%2F9781780402086). ISBN 978-1780402086. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022062
1151651/https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/72/) from the original on June 21, 2022. Retrieved
September 26, 2022.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 33/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
183. Burton Jr GA, Pitt R (2001). "2". Stormwater Effects Handbook: A Toolbox for Watershed
Managers, Scientists, and Engineers (https://web.archive.org/web/20090519035716/http://unix.en
g.ua.edu/~rpitt/Publications/BooksandReports/Stormwater%20Effects%20Handbook%20by%20%
20Burton%20and%20Pitt%20book/MainEDFS_Book.html). New York: CRC/Lewis Publishers.
ISBN 0-87371-924-7. Archived from the original (http://unix.eng.ua.edu/~rpitt/Publications/Booksa
ndReports/Stormwater%20Effects%20Handbook%20by%20%20Burton%20and%20Pitt%20book/
MainEDFS_Book.html) on May 19, 2009. Retrieved January 26, 2009.
184. "Reactive Nitrogen in the United States: An Analysis of Inputs, Flows, Consequences, and
Management Options, A Report of the Science Advisory Board" (https://web.archive.org/web/2013
0219045824/http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabproduct.nsf/67057225cc780623852578f10059533
d/%24file/epa-sab-11-013-unsigned.pdf) (PDF). Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). EPA-SAB-11-013. Archived from the original (http://yosemite.epa.gov/sab/sabprod
uct.nsf/67057225CC780623852578F10059533D/$File/EPA-SAB-11-013-unsigned.pdf) (PDF) on
February 19, 2013.
185. Von Sperling, Marcos (2015). "Wastewater Characteristics, Treatment and Disposal" (https://iwap
online.com/ebooks/book/72/). IWA Publishing. 6: 47. doi:10.2166/9781780402086 (https://doi.org/
10.2166%2F9781780402086). ISBN 978-1780402086. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
20621151651/https://iwaponline.com/ebooks/book/72/) from the original on June 21, 2022.
Retrieved September 26, 2022.
186. "Biodiversity loss | Causes, Effects, & Facts" (https://www.britannica.com/science/biodiversity-los
s). Britannica. April 27, 2023. Retrieved April 30, 2023.
187. Cardinale BJ, Duffy JE, Gonzalez A, et al. (June 2012). "Biodiversity loss and its impact on
humanity" (https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf) (PDF). Nature. 486
(7401): 59–67. Bibcode:2012Natur.486...59C (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2012Natur.486...
59C). doi:10.1038/nature11148 (https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature11148). PMID 22678280 (http
s://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22678280). S2CID 4333166 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusI
D:4333166). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170921233215/http://pub.epsilon.slu.se/102
40/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf) (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved
September 26, 2022. "...at the first Earth Summit, the vast majority of the world's nations declared
that human actions were dismantling the Earth's ecosystems, eliminating genes, species and
biological traits at an alarming rate. This observation led to the question of how such loss of
biological diversity will alter the functioning of ecosystems and their ability to provide society with
the goods and services needed to prosper."
188. Bradshaw CJ, Ehrlich PR, Beattie A, et al. (2021). "Underestimating the Challenges of Avoiding a
Ghastly Future" (https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffcosc.2020.615419). Frontiers in Conservation
Science. 1. doi:10.3389/fcosc.2020.615419 (https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffcosc.2020.615419).
189. Ripple WJ, Wolf C, Newsome TM, Galetti M, Alamgir M, Crist E, Mahmoud MI, Laurance WF
(November 13, 2017). "World Scientists' Warning to Humanity: A Second Notice" (https://doi.org/1
0.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix125). BioScience. 67 (12): 1026–1028. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix125 (https://
doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix125). "Moreover, we have unleashed a mass extinction event,
the sixth in roughly 540 million years, wherein many current life forms could be annihilated or at
least committed to extinction by the end of this century."
190. Cowie RH, Bouchet P, Fontaine B (April 2022). "The Sixth Mass Extinction: fact, fiction or
speculation?" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9786292). Biological Reviews of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society. 97 (2): 640–663. doi:10.1111/brv.12816 (https://doi.org/10.111
1%2Fbrv.12816). PMC 9786292 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9786292).
PMID 35014169 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35014169). S2CID 245889833 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:245889833).
191. Ehrlich, Paul R.; Ehrlich, Anne H. (1972). Population, Resources, Environment: Issues in Human
Ecology (2nd ed.). W. H. Freeman and Company. p. 127. ISBN 0-7167-0695-4.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 34/35
5/31/23, 9:05 AM Land - Wikipedia
External links
PhysicalGeography.net educational website (http://www.physicalgeography.net/)
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land 35/35