Air-cooled heat

exchangers

Contents
3.8.1 F. Product thermal number aPpr,,d 3.852
AIR AS COOLANT FOR G. Coolant design number K 3.8.5-2
INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES: H. NTU number 3.852
COMPARISON TO WATER, I. Coolant thermal number Qc 3.8.5-3
P. Paikert 3.8.1-1 J. Effective mean temperature difference
EMTD 3.8.5-4
3.8.2 K. Surface area A 3.8.5-4
CUSTOM-BUILT UNITS, P. Paikert 3.8.2-l L. Face area S 3.855

References for Section 3.8.5 3.855

A. Mechanical draft fan coolers 3.8.2-l
B. Natural draft heat exchangers 3.8.2-l
3.8.6
3.8.3 TUBE-SIDE FLOW ARRANGEMENT.
FIN-TUBE SYSTEMS FOR AIR P. Paikert 3.8.6-l
COOLERS, P. Paikert 3.8.3-l

A. Applications of common fin tubes 3.8.3-2 3.8.7

B. Fin efficiency and temperature COOLING AIR SUPPLY BY FANS,
distribution in fin tubes 3.8.3-3 P. Paikert 3.8.7-l

A. Selection of fan type and size 3.8.7-l

3.8.4 B. Power consumption of fans 3.8.7-l
FIN-TUBE BUNDLES, P. Paikert 3.8.4-l C. Fan drive design 3.8.7-2
D. Air design temperature 3.8.7-2
3.8.5 E. Economic operation and control of the
THERMAL RATING, P. Paikert 3.8.5-l cooling air flow 3.8.7-3
F. Exchange rate during flow outages 3.8.7-3
A. Estimation of the tube-side heat transfer
coefficients Qli 3.851
B. Selection of fin tubes 3.8.5-l 3.8.8
C. Selection of the cooling air velocity u 3.8.5-l COOLING AIR SUPPLY IN
D. Overall heat transfer coefficient U 3.852 NATURAL DRAFT TOWERS,
E. Number of tube rows ??R 3.8.5-2 P. Paikert 3.8.8-l

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Contents 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS

3.8.9
SPECIAL FEATURES OF AIR
COOLERS, P. Paikert 3.8.9-l
A. Sound power and sound pressure levels 3.8.9-l
B. Vacuum condensers 3.8.9-2
C. Air-cooled exhaust steam condensers 3.8.9-2
D. Gas/vapor mixtures with a nonlinear
t/h curve 3.8.9-2

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.1-l

3.8.1
Air as coolant for industrial
processes: Comparison to water

P. Paikert

n In many industrial processes a large amount of sated for by a number of advantages that air has over
heat is developed, which must be removed by cooling water, namely:
systems. In the past, cooling was done only by water.
Availability in unlimited quantities
However, with growing industrialization the large
Higher purity, uniform over the entire year
quantities of water needed for cooling can no longer
No scale, calcerous, salt, or mud deposits, no
be procured economically, so that atmospheric air is
formation of algae or growth of other biological sub-
now often used as coolant.
stances in the cooling system
In spite of its relatively bad cooling properties, air
Fewer corrosion and cleaning problems
has been successfully introduced as an economical
No permanent supervision of quality required, no
coolant in many fields of industrial cooling by the use
treatment or retreatment with chemicals
of suitable heat exchangers.
No costs for procurement and waste disposal
The poor cooling properties of air are compen-
Little impact on the environment.

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3.8.3
Fin-tube systems for air coolers

P. Paikert

n The relatively low heat transfer coefficients of

flowing cooling air as compared to those of the
products to be cooled or condensed may be partly
compensated by a surface extension on the air side.
This is realized by fin-tube heat exchanger bundles.
By finning the tubes, the heat exchange surface
may be extended to 10 to 2.5 times the bare tube
surface. The surface extension is optimized on the
basis of considerations of economy and manufacture.
One criterion for the optimization is the specific
performance increase in the heat transfer attainable per
cost unit C, which first grows with increasing surface
extension A/LI~ but decreases after having reached the
optimum value (Fig. 1). The vertex of this function
indicates the optimum surface extension, which grows
with increasing tube-side heat transfer coefficient. 1 2 4 6 810 20 40

In the optimization coefficient UA/S/C, according - AlAi

to Fig. 1, both A/S and U depend on the surface Figure 1 Optimum surface extension of fin tubes.
extension. The parameter A/S, the surface area in
contact with air per square meter of face area, is Cooling air velocity
merely a geometric factor and can be determined easily Spacing between the fins
according to Fig. 2 on the basis of the selected Geometric shape of the fins (round, ellipti-
fin-tube type. cal, rectangular)
The quantity U, the heat transfer coefficient, Degree of turbulence of the cooling air
however, is very complex. According to Eq. (l), it Artificial turbulence intensifiers on the sur-
depends on a large number of parameters in addition face
to the surface extension A/A;. vF = fin efficiency as defined by Eq. (2) below
1 1 and Fig. 3, depending on
-= p-+&+Ri (1) The fin geometry (height, thickness, cross-
UA vfi-~oA , ,
sectional shape)
where a0 = mean value of the locally varying air-side The fin material (thermal conductivity co-
heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K). It also efficient)
depends on the following characteristics: The heat transfer coefficient.

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3.8.3-2 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.3 Fin-Tube Systems for Air Coolers
Figure 2 Customary fin-tube systems of varying geometry and with various fin-to-tube connections.
oi = product-side heat transfer coefficient of
the fluid in the tubes (W/m2 K).
Ri = further heat transfer resistances from the
cooling air side up to the product side
(m K/W), in which the contact resistance
between fin and bare tube as well as the
tube-side fouling may be essential quanti-
ties, whereas the thermal conductivity re-
sistance of the tube wall and the fouling
on the air side, which are also contained in
Ri, mostly play a minor role.
A = reference area for the overall heat transfer
coefficient U. This reference area is arbi-
trary and may be any real or assumed
surface, e.g., the internal tube surface, the
external tube surface, the total surface
area, or a combination of various surfaces.
Consequently, the quantity of the overall
heat transfer coefficient U is no standard
of valuation. It is only admissible for a
comparison of various fin tubes where the
reference area A in Eq. (1) is identical.
A. Applications of common fin tubes
Figure 2 shows a selection of typical fin tubes for
air-cooled heat exchangers and various methods of
Figure 3 Temperature distribution in a fin tube (definition of
fin efficiency).
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fixing the fins on the bare tube. Although a general
evaluation is not possible, the various systems have
their typical fields of application.
The contact resistance at the base of the fin is
decisive for the maximum operating of the fin tubes.
Round fin tubes: Aluminum fins wrapped on steel
tubes under tension according to Fig. 2, a and d, have
a high contact resistance which quickly increases with
the operating temperature so that their application is
limited to temperatures of 100C or less, since other-
wise the tension would be reduced until the fins loosen
due to the higher thermal expansion of aluminum.
Fins mounted in a groove and back filled as shown
in Fig. 2f are usable up to a temperature of approxi-
mately 350C but require a bare-tube wall thickness
increased by the groove depth.
Fins extruded from a thick-walled aluminum sleeve
as shown in Fig. 2g provide good contact properties
even when thin-walled, high-quality core tubes are used
so that operating temperatures up to 250C are admis-
sible.
Metallic fin-to-bare tube connections such as
shown in Fig. 2, b, h, and k, have a minor contact
resistance and are applicable up to the solder melting
temperature.
Plate fin tubes as shown in Fig. 2b allow the use
of any type of tube section and any fin shape and size.
Elliptical tubes with rectangular fins are widely
used, especially in Europe, for compact units with low
flow resistance.
Plate-type fins permit the mounting of turbulators
to increase the air-side heat transfer while maintaining
low cooling air velocities and low pressure drops.
By hot-dip galvanization, the fin tubes receive a
uniform metal coat, which also serves as additional
protection against corrosion.
3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.2-l

3.8.2
Custom-built units

P. Paikert

n Air-cooled heat exchangers are constructed either fans

as mechanical draft fan coolers or as natural draft forced- d r a f t ’ ‘induced draft
cooling towers.

A. Mechanical draft fan coolers verhcal

With mechanical draft fan coolers, the cooling air may

be pushed (forced draft) or pulled (induced draft)
through the heat exchanger. With a forced draft
arrangement, the fan always supplies cooling air at
ambient temperature, whereas with induced draft,
heated air is discharged by the fan (Fig. 1).
Consequently, when both types of fans supply the
same air volume, a higher cooling air mass flow and a
better cooling efficiency are obtained by forced draft
units. To reach the same cooling efficiency (i.e., the
same cooling air mass flow) as in the forced draft fan,
the induced draft fan must deliver a higher air volume
and thus requires more horsepower.
In spite of these thermodynamic disadvantages, the
induced draft arrangement is often chosen for other
advantages, such as
More even distribution of air across the bundle
Protection of the heat exchange surface against roof type cell type
damage under extreme climatic conditions, e.g., sleet,
hail, heavy rainfall, snow, and sun rays. Figure 1 Arrangement of air-cooled heat exchangers.

B. Natural draft heat exchangers
Air coolers of the natural draft type always pull the
cooling air through the heat exchangers, the cooling air
supply being assured by the draft effect in a lOO- or
150-m-h&h tower, which is due to the difference in
density between the heated air in the tower and the
ambient air.
With high towers and a high rise in air tempera-
ture, the draft may grow considerably, so that a

o 1983 Hemisphere 1 lblishing Corporation

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3.8.2-2 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.2 Custom-Built Units

(a) peripheral arrangement (bl cross~sectii arrangement

Figure 2 Arrangement of cooling bundles in natural draft dry cooling towers.

cooling air velocity in the heat exchanger, that is, a
cooling air supply rate, may be obtained that equals
that in a fan-cooled air cooler.
The types of natural draft heat exchangers depend
on the shape and size of the towers. Towers with
smaller diameters may be more conveniently equipped
with heat exchangers at the tower periphery, where a
zigzag arrangement is possible which would increase
the air inlet cross section (Fig. 2). Towers with large
diameters for higher heat duties are usually equipped
with heat exchangers over their entire cross section.
The exchangers may be arranged horizontally or zigzag
and on one plane or in the form of stairs within the
tower cross section (Fig. 2b).

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.3 Fin-Tube Systems for Air Coolers 3.8.3-3

Welded fins as shown in Fig. 2h are used where
high temperatures (over 400C) are involved and where
fin tubes described above cannot be used.
UF = -
B. Fin efficiency and temperature
distribution in fin tubes
The thermodynamic quality of a fin tube is expressed
by the fin efficiency, which indicates the temperature
loss in the fin and is defined as follows:
effective temperature difference between
fin center and atmospheric air
VF =
temperature difference between fin base
and atmospheric air
6F M - Q2
VF = (2)
79 E-F - *2
according to Fig. 3. For most fin types there is no
definite mathematical solution for nF.
The known solution for the specific case of the
flat fin of constant thickness
tanh X
(3)
X
where
(41
These factors are
h = fin height (m); often not constant (e.g., Fig. 2b)
o(~ = external heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 K); vary-
ing locally over the entire fin
hF = thermal conductivity coefficient of the fin material
(W/m K); with galvanized plate fins, a value com-
bined from fin sheet and zinc layer
6F = fin thickness (m); often not constant
Figure 3 illustrates the typical temperature curve
through a tin tube. The temperature variation is pro-
portional to the heat flow resistance.

Nomenclature for Section 3.8.3 appears at the beginning of Part 3.

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.4-l

3.8.4
Fin-tubebundles

P. Paikert

n The fin tubes selected for an actual requirement

are arranged in rectangular cooler bundles up to 3 m in
width and 15 m in length, mostly with four to eight
tube rows. The arrangement substantially influences
the cooler bundle performance.
With in-line arrangement of the fin tubes, the
pressure loss is up to 60% lower and the heat transfer (a) all welded (blremovoble (c)removable plugs
cover plate
coefficients approximately 30% lower than with the
staggered arrangement, which is most commonly used
Figure 1 Product distributing and collecting headers.
because of its compactness.
The mean heat transfer coefficient decreases as
more rows are installed. Heat transfer coefficients
often relate to six-row systems. Correction values for All-welded headers assure good air-tight sealing but
units with much more or less than six rows and with make mechanical cleaning of the tubes impossible.
in-line or special tube arrangements must be defined by Bolted headers must be provided in case the tubes
the fin-tube manufacturer. require regular cleaning from product-side deposits.
Fin-tube bundles must be designed with considera- Typical solutions are removable cover plates or plugs
tion of the fan diameter and number. Within certain (Fig. 1, b and c). The thermal expansion of the tubes
limits, longer tube bundles are less expensive than must be accounted for by a floating tube plate. Large
short ones, since fewer tubes and fewer tube-to- variations in the temperature of the product to be
tubesheet welds are needed. cooled make additional measures necessary-for ex-
Product distribution headers may be welded or ample, the splitting of the headers.
bolted onto the tube plates (Fig. 1). Figure 2 shows a typical fin-tube bundle structure.

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3.8.4-2 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.4 Fin-Tube Bundles

PROFILE HEADER IINLE

FLOATING TUBESHEE

, - -STATIONARY TUBESHEET
GASKET
VENT CO/:: PLATE

Figure 2 Fin-tube bundle of GEA air-cooled heat exchanger.

0 1983 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation

3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.5-l

3.8.5
Thermal rating

P. Paikert

n The thermal rating first requires a reasonable adap- Table 2 Estimated heat transfer coefficients
tation of the means to be selected to the specified of condensing vapor
requirement. This implies a certain experience. Shape,
Condensing vapor cq, w/m K
size, finning, and fin-tube material must be suitable for
the fluid to be cooled or condensed and must be Steam 3 000-5 000
adapted to its physical properties. The rating is then Paraffins 800-l 600
carried out by the following step-by-step method. Benzene/toluene 1 400-l 800
Ethanol 1 500-2 000
Methanol 1 600-2 200
A. Estimation of the tube-side heat Ammonia 2 500-3 000
transfer coefficients (Yi Refrigerant R 12 1000-l 500

On the basis of the specified task, an initial guess of

the expected CY~ values may be made by means of
Tables 1 and 2 or Fig. 1. The indicated values refer to
typical conditions of air coolers and air condensers.
When the tube-side conditions such as flow veloc-
ity and temperature of the streaming fluids or the
temperature difference of condensing or evaporating
fluids are specified or known, the tube-side heat trans-
Table 1 Estimated heat transfer coefficients
of flowing liquids inside tubes (fluid velocity
about 1 m/s, service values)
Liquid q, W/m K
fer coefficients may be determined more exactly-for
example, in accordance with Part 2 of this handbook.
B. Selection of fin tubes
The estimated heat transfer coefficient gives a first idea
of the required and expedient surface area ratio A/Ai
of the fin tube to be chosen according to Fig. 3.8.3(l).
The thermal and hydraulic data of the selected fin
tube should be available as a function of the cooling
air velocity u, as shown in Fig. 2 or according to E q .
3.8.3(l) (obtained from the fin-tube manufacturer).

Cooling water 2 000-4 000 C. Selection of the cooling air velocity u

Paraffins (C,H,,-C,, H,,) 800-l 200
Benzene/toluene 1 000-I 500 The cooling air velocity is fixed within rather narrow
Methanol 1 400-l 700 limits, since the increase of the air-side pressure drop
Ethanol 1 100-l 500 with growing velocity is almost square and due to the
Hexanol 600-800
Octanol 400-600
low static pressure of 100 to 200 Pa developed by
conventional fans. It ranges mostly from 2 to 4 m/s,

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The fouling resistance afoul may be taken from perti-

nent manuals or gotten from experience.
Generally, air-side fouling need not be considered
for the U value. Although relatively high air-side
fouling may adversely affect the air flow through the
unit and thus decrease the effective temperature differ-
ence, it scarcely influences the U value because of the
relatively small air-side heat flux.

E. Number of tube rows nR

The number of tube rows needed depends on both the
specific requirement and the efficiency of the selected
fin-tube system. Roughly estimated, these two factors
Figure 1 Mean heat transfer coefficient of flowing mineral oils
can be expressed by a quantity a, which includes the
(estimate). temperature difference between product and cooling
air inlet as well as the value U(A/S) of the fin tube
depending on the face area, the number of tube rows (Fig. 3).
n, and on the admissible and feasible temperature rise
Iprod, in - tair, in AGO
of the cooling air. a= UA/S
(2)
UAIS =-

nR = cl a G (3)
D. Overall heat transfer coefficient (I
where C1 = 24 for fin tubes of the kind according
After the (Yi value and the cooling air velocity have to Fig. 2
been determined, the overall heat transfer coefficient c, = 0 . 4 9
for a selected fin-tube system may be obtained from
Fig. 2 or Eq. 3.8.3(l). When an additional product-side
fouling afoul needs to be taken into account, the F. Product thermal number aprOd
actual service value Olism is first determined. Then:
One auxiliary term for the further thermal rating is the
1 dimensionless number
= + + lfoul
%serv
Atprod Iprod, in - tprod, out
cp prod = - = (4)
Fin-tube characteristic i Ago tprod,in - tair,in
L-Foot
- I sm&
-
ll FPI
It is used later to determine the effective mean temper-
A,& = 28 A& ature difference (EMTD) and the surface area needed.
\

’,/
G. Coolant design number K
The dimensionless design number applicable for one
tube row is now calculated on the basis of the
available results.

where cP is the specific heat of air at constant

pressure.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B
H. NTU number
The dimensionless NTU number (number of transfer
Figure 2 Overall heat transfer coefficient U and air-side pressure units) is obtained by the product of the coolant design
drop Afair as function of air velocity U. number and the number of tube rows:

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.5 Thermal Rating 3 . 8 5 3

Figure 3 Optimum tube rows for air coolers.

Atair
N T U = nR K = EMTD (6)
+,. = 1 _ eN=U/*
(9)
For optimum design it normally lies in the range of
0.8 < NTU < 1.5. This quantity already represents a Arrangement 3: counter flow
control value for the available quantities u and HR.
On the tube side four or more passes in the counter-
flow direction to the air flow:
I. Coolant thermal number aah
The dimensionless value <Pair = Atai,/Ago for various (10)
types of flow in air coolers is given in [ 1, 21. For
three typical flow arrangements with air coolers (1,
cross flow; 2, cross-counter flow return bend; 3,
counter flow), @air is given by Eqs. (7), (8), and (10)
or may be obtained from Figs. 4-6. Besides the known
quantity NTU, the equations also contain the quantity
7 = AtprodI Atair, which must first be estimated in
order to obtain @air. 7 generally lies between 0 and 1,
but may also be higher.
For isothermal condensation, Atprod = 0 a n d
7 = 0, SO the same ~air is obtained for all flow types.
06

Arrangement I: cross j70 w

On the tube side, one or more passes, side by side:

1 - exp [- ~(1 - edNTU)]

@air =
7 (7)

Arrangement 2: cross-counter-flow return bend

On the tube side two passes in the counter-flow

1 (8)
direction to the air flow: 021
OS 06 07 08 09 10 1s

1 - NTU
1-
1 + (1 - l&/2) (PVo - 1) Figure 4 Coolant thermal number @air for cross flow.

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3.854 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.5 Thermal Rating

t when high temperature differences are involved.

+A Prod {,T 31," Arrangement 2 applies to liquid coolers with small
volumes and low temperature differences. Arrangement
3 applies to high-pressure coolers or coolers where the
temperatures of the two flows approach or overlap
each other.

06
J. Effective mean temperature difference
EMTD
The EMTD is obtained from the definition of NTU
according to Eq. (6) as follows:

Atair @air A~O

EMTD = NTU =
NTU (11)
In order to simplify the calculation and avoid a
trial-and-error procedure, Eqs. (7)-(10) can be re-
arranged to get the expression

021 ""'I"" "I"

05 is " L 15 (12)
- NTll

Figure 5 Coolant thermal number @air for counter-flow return which can be solved graphically as a function of
bend. Atprod and NTU. This is shown in Figs. 7-9 for the
three arrangements.
The flow arrangements are selected according to
the product volume to be cooled or condensed and K. Surface area A
the temperature difference between the product and
the cooling air. Arrangement 1 applies when large The surface area needed is
product volumes are to be cooled or condensed or

0.6

02
05 06 07 08 09 10
.~--w NT(,

F i g u r e 7 Effective .nean temperature difference (EMTD) for

Figure 6 Coolant thermal number @air for counter flow. cross flow.

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.5 Thermal Rating

06

-05 06 07 CB 09 10 '1 '2 13 iL

Figure 8 Effective mean temperature difference (EMTD) for
- NTU
counter-flow return bend.
Figure 9 Effective mean temperature difference (EMTD) for
counter flow.
d (13)
A=UEMTD
in which 0 is the total heat transferred in the ex-
changer.
This face area is so apportioned to length and width
that reasonable bundle dimensions are obtained.
L. Face area S
The coolant-side face area needed is obtained from the
expression

Nomenclature for Section 3.8.5 appears at the beginning of Part 3.

REFERENCES FOR SECTION 3.8.5

1. Bosnjakovic, F., VDI-Forschungsheft 432. Deutscher Inp. Verlag, Diisseldorf, Band 17.
2. Bosnjakovic, F., Quersinnig gekoppelte Wirmeaustauscher UT, 2.5 (1953), Nr. 11.

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.6-l

3.8.6
Tube-side flowarrangement

P. Paikert

n To determine the tube-side flow arrangement, the cooling air velocity. The pressure loss is obtained
carry out the following steps. from the fin-tube characteristic and the number of
1. Calculate the tube-side heat transfer coefficient tube rows as follows:
oi. This may require correction of the initial guesses.
2. Determine the tube-side pressure loss as a func- &‘st = &air nR Cn (1)

tion of the product velocity, the fluid properties, and
the geometric characteristics of the cooler bundle,
according to Part 2 of this handbook.
3. Calculate the air-side static pressure loss of heat
exchangers for the volume of the cooling air flow and
I
where c, is a correction factor that must be defined
by the fin-tube manufacturer and that accounts for the
fact that due to the losses at the inlet and outlet the
pressure drop is not directly proportional to the num-
ber of tube rows.

Nomenclature for Section 3.8.6 appears at the beginning of Part 3.

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3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.7-l

3.8.7
Cooling air supply by fans

P. Paikert

charts or from the air flow and the effec-

A. Selection of fan type and size
tive fan cross section SvE ; and
To supply cooling air, axial-flow fans are used that can
handle large volumes at low pressure. To assure good &dyn =
air distribution, the following ratio between face area S
and cross-sectional area of the fan S, should be &dyn = 40-60 Pa
observed: qv = fan efficiency (often, nV = 0.6-0.7)
when reading the fan power from fan charts, it must
1.8 <f < 2.6 (1) be noted that these charts apply only to a certain
temperature and that the power must be converted to
Usually, axial-flow fans are provided with four to eight the air temperature over the fan cross section. Figure 1
blades. Both the fan cost and the air volume supplied
at the given fan speed increase with increasing blade
kW
number. N
When the air volume remains unchanged, the rpm A

can be reduced with increasing blade number. This has

30
the favorable effect of reducing noise and increasing
efficiency. 20~

B. Power consumption of fans

0
The energy consumption of axial-flow fans often
accounts for 1% to 3% of the cooling capacity.
Roughly estimated, the following result is obtained
from the volume supplied and the pressure difference:

WPstat + kdyn) kW
N = (2)
1 OOOTj

where P = cooling air rate (m3 /s) 0 20 40 80 100 120 140

ap stat = static pressure difference (Pa) --- In% Ar Volme

&?dyn = dynamic pressure difference over the fan Figure 1 Fan chart: air volume, static pressure, and power
cross section (Pa) to be calculated from fan consumption at fan shaft.

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shows a typical fan chart for an axial-flow fan. To
minimize the calculation work, in such a chart the fan
efficiency and the dynamic pressure are already in-
cluded and one needs only the static pressure and the
air volume to get the blade angle from the lower part
of the diagram and then get from the upper part the
power consumption of the fan out of the blade angle
and the air volume.
C. Fan drive design
Fans and drives should be low cost, solid, and reliable.
Therefore, fans up to a diameter of 1.5 m are often
mounted directly on the motor shaft. When fans with
larger diameters are used, the fan rpm must be reduced
to avoid the development of noise growing with the tip
velocity. The cheapest solution for speed reduction is a
V-belt drive mounted between the motor and fan. V
belts are used up to driving powers of 30-40 kW. For
higher driving powers, various types of reduction gears
are used. These may be installed on the ground with
an extended fan shaft or on a supporting structure
directly on the fan hub (Fig. 2).
Direct
V belt
Gear (compact)
Gear (separate)
Figure 2 Normal fan drives.
0 1983 Hemisphere I
r
HL
8760 100%
divwd
8 000 HWS
t 7000 6 000
5
r" 5000
EL000
B 3000
a
-2
: 2000
1 cl00
0
30 20 10 0 10 20 30 36°C
D-y-Rib Temperature -
Figure 3 Temperature distribution of outside air.
Since a fan always supplies a constant air volume,
an increase in driving power is required at low air
temperature, especially in winter, because of higher air
density. This must be taken into account when rating
the driving motor for fans that are not autovariable. In
this case the motor must be oversized by 25-30%. For
fans where the blades are mechanically adjusted for
summer and winter operation the motor must be 15%
oversized.
D. Air design temperature
The cooling air design temperature tarr is of great
importance for cooler design and thus for investment
cost, since the temperature difference between product
and coolant inlet is directly proportional to the surface
area needed. Because of seasonal temperature variations
in atmospheric air, a design temperature must be
chosen that is at the tolerable limit for the cooling
process and still appears reasonable for the investment
cost. In general, this temperature is not the statistical
maximum air temperature at the plant location but
often the temperature that is not exceeded during
94-96% of the annual operating hours.
By renouncing the full cooling capacity for the
remaining 4-6% of the annual operating hours, it is
possible to reduce the air design temperature by 12-
14C and the investment cost by 50-60%, for example,
when the temperature of the product to be cooled is
60C and a typical air temperature chart as shown in
Fig. 3 applies. These annual air temperature charts are
available for many places or may be obtained from
meteorological stations. Unless a reduction of the
cooling capacity is allowable for the few hours per
year or in case the product temperatures are still
lower, the capacity may be increased by humidifying
the air and thus cooling it down to almost its wet-bulb
temperature. For example, the wet-bulb temperature of
atmospheric air of 32C is approximately 20-24C,
depending on the relative humidity.
lkhing corporation
.I
3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.7 Cooling Air Supply by Fans
Air humidification should be practiced over short
periods only, and should be confined to special cases
since otherwise problems may arise by corrosion attack
or deposits on the fin tubes.
E. Economic operation and control
of the cooling air flow
Because of the variations in the atmospheric air temp-
erature, a fan without control supplies too much
cooling air most of the year and thus often has the
unwanted effect of subcooling the product. Further-
more, the horsepower consumption of the fan supply-
ing the full air volume is unnecessarily high.
By adapting the cooler air volume to the actual
requirements, much power may be saved since the
latter goes with the third power of the air volume. The
air volume may be reduced by the following measures:
1. Shutdown of individual fans (expedient only
when more than three fans are installed)
2. Pole-changing driving motors. (By throttling the
speed to two-thirds of the rated rpm, the driving
power may be reduced by approximately 70%)
Nomenclature for Section 3.8.7 appears at the beginning of Part 3.
0 1983 Hemisphere I lblishing Corporation
7
A
N
3.8.7-3
3. Autovariable blades (These fans automatically
adjust pitch in response to a preset product outlet
temperature.)
The annual saving in energy achieved by the three
measures still depends on the difference between
product and air design temperature and on the number
of fans installed. The amount of energy saved varies
with each specific case and must always be investigated
separately. Savings of 2040% of the rated horsepower
are possible.
F. Exchange rate during fan outages
In case of fan failure, the air in the cooler bundles first
heats up considerably and then leaves the bundle by
free convection so that ambient air can flow in. The
height of the horizontal cooler bundle and, with an
induced draft arrangement, the height of the plenum
chamber, forms a chimneylike unit filled with hot air
with corresponding draft. Calculation of the air flow
through the unit and thus of the exchange rate can
proceed according to Sec. 3.8.8.
3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.8-l

3.8.8
Cooling air suY natural draft
towers

P. Paikert

1 When exchange rates above 100 MW are to be
handled, the energy consumption for the cooling air
supply by fans becomes so important that natural draft
towers are more economical in most cases.
The air flow rate in a natural draft tower is
determined by the hot air draft in a tower of height H.
The draft equals the resistance of the tower plus the
resistance of the cooling bundles:
nP = A~tow + aPstat = Heff AP g (1)
where Ap= difference in density between the atmo-
spheric air and the hot air in the tower
(kg/m3 >
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2)
Heff = effective height of tower (m)
= difference in height between the center of
the cooling bundle and the tower outlet
Aptow = pressure losses in the tower including the
pressure caused by the air supply, turn, and
outlet (Pa)
It often reaches the same value as the static pressure
difference of the cooler bundle.

Nomenclature for Section 3.8.8 appears at the beginning of Part 3.

o 1983 Hemisphere 1 lblishing Corporation

L
tTc
3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS 3.8.9-l

3.8.9
Special features of air coolers

P. Paikert
w = tip velocity (m/s)
A. Sound power and sound pressure levels stat = static pressure rise (Ba)
np
Definitions: P = air quantity (m3 /s)
D = fan diameter (m)
Sound power level: objective quantity; the total The sound pressure level at a distance R (m) from the
sound emitted by a system to the environment. It is fan is approximately
identical to the sound pressure level related to a
reduced surface of 1 m2. LP = L w - 10 log 27rR’ dB(A) (2)
Sound pressure level: subjective quantity; the mea-
If n identical fans are installed in a plant, the total
sured sound pressure related to a fixed value, largely
noise is obtained by the expression
depending on the distance from the noise source.
The sound power emitted to the environment by
(~5~)~ = Lw + 10 log n dB(A) (3)
air-cooled heat exchangers originates almost entirely A reliable prediction of the sound power of the
from the fans and drives. The fan drive-motor and electric motors and fan drives is not possible. The
gear unit-often accounts for as much sound power as sound power of these units is near the following
the fan itself, a fact that should not be neglected. values:
The noise developing in the fan by interruptions
of the air flow and by air turbulence has a low basic
Electric motors up to 50 kW 60-70dB(A)
frequency resulting from the product of the number of SO-100 kW 70-80 dB(A)
blades and the rpm, and therefore is resented less with V belts 20-40 kW 60-65 dB(A)
decreasing basic frequency. All measures likely to Gear boxes 40-60 kW 70-80 dB(A)
reduce the turbulent vortex within the range of the fan 60-100 kW 80-100 dB(A)
help decrease the noise and increase the fan efficiency.
This applies particularly to the air inlet.
Approximate equation for the sound power: With a larger number of smaller fans and drives, the
increased sound power must always be taken into
ap p account by the summation according to Eq. (3). This
L,=c+3Ologw+1Olog ls;;o -5logDdB(A)
may result in a considerable additional impact on the
environment.
(1) In natural draft towers, noise may develop to a
where c = specific basic level; 44 dB(A), normal de- minor extent by air vibrations in the exchanger bundle
sign; 37 dB(A), low-noise design at high air velocities.

o 1983 Hemisphere I lblishing Corporation

H M

*. - IT- .- .-. . . --- ...^. ..-.. . .- -..---

3.8.9-2 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS /
B. Vacuum condensers
Air-cooled condensers with the product flowing inside
the tubes are usually provided with long tubes for
economic reasons. For calculating these units, not only
the condensation heat to be removed but also the
product-side pressure loss must be taken into account.
In vacuum condensers with a pressure below 30 torr,
the change in pressure often is of the same order of
magnitude as the absolute pressure, which has the
effect of considerably increasing the volume coupled
with a still higher pressure loss. This may cause a quick
approach to the maximum flow limit of a condenser,
which is reached when the fluid flows at sonic velocity
at the tube inlet.
In many cases this maximum flow, not the heat
amount to be removed, is the dominant factor for the
rating of a condenser. Furthermore, pressure losses
occurring before the fluid enters the tubes as a conse-
quence of acceleration and of the entry into the
headers must be taken into consideration. For sharp-
edged tubes, the absorption limits may be as low as
50-600/O of the sound velocity of the vapor to be
condensed, related to the geometric tube cross section
so that short tubes of 1.0 or 2.0 m must be used.
C. Air-cooled exhaust steam condensers
The direct condensation of the turbine exhaust steam
of power stations often causes specific problems at low
ambient temperatures during the winter season. The
plant must be designed for full load at the maximum
summer temperature of the cooling air and is thus
oversized for operation under partial load, which may
become necessary at low winter temperatures. In this
case subcooling of the condensate and freezing must be
feared unless special provisions are made. Figure 1
shows a schematic of a properly built exhaust steam
condenser. The exhaust stream from the turbine flows
through the exhaust steam piping first into the upper
collecting headers of the condensers and is cooled and
Upflow condenser Downflow condenser
;.a,
Figure 1 Air-cooled condenser for power stations.
0 1983 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation
3.8.9 Special Features of Air Coolers
partly condensed when flowing down the tubes. The
remaining steam enters the succeeding condenser
bundles, where the steam rises and continuously heats
the down-streaming condensate and thus prevents
freezing.
However, if the steam is not properly distributed
between the downflow and upflow units, flooding may
be caused at the tube inlet of the upflow unit by
excess vapor velocity so that the performance is con-
siderably reduced, and the tubes blocked by the con-
densate may freeze. The shares of the downflow and
upflow units in the plant may be varied by means of
control valves in the distribution piping.
The tube portions of the upflow unit that are not
used for condensation contain inert gas (air), which
must be permanently removed by a vacuum pump in
order to maintain the condensation performance. The
moisture contained in the air may freeze on the tubes
until they are blocked.
D. Gas/vapor mixtures with a nonlinear
t/Q curve
When gas/vapor mixtures are cooled or condensed, the
EMTD cannot be determined as defined in Sec. 3.8.55,
where the determination of the EMTD is based on a
linear temperature curve plotted against the heat load
(t/i, curve). This applies only to the cooling and
condensation of pure fluids (Fig. 2, a and b). For
gas/vapor mixtures with heavily curved temperature/
heat load curves similar to Fig. 2c, the EMTD and the
exchanger surface must be calculated in several steps
after the t/e curve has been linearized. Because of the
Figure 2 Temperature distribution for cooling and condensing
pure fluids and gas/vapor mixtures. (a) Cooling product with
constant specific heat. (b) Condensing pure vapor with negligible
pressure loss. (c) Condensing gas/vapor mixture.
3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.9 Special Features of Air Coolers 3.8.9-3

varying (Yi values in the individual sections, which Chosen dimensions:

decrease with increasing curvature (= increasing gas
Four bundles, each 10 m long, 2.2 m width
content), the following expression must be used:
Size of aircooler: 11 m X 9.2 m overall
Number of tubes per bundle: nTn = 128
Atot = iAiEtl(~s,$
i=l
(4)
Number of tubes per flow pass: np = 256 (cross-
counter-flow return bend)
Water flow in tubes:
Problem: An air-cooled water retooler has to be
* =--c! - 120kg/s
designed for a closed-cycle process. mw
At, cw
Heat load 0 = 5 X lo3 kW Water velocity in tubes:
Water inlet t, = 55C
u, = m, = 1.49 m/s
Water outlet tp = 45C pw npdizd4
Ambient air tair = 25C and therefore oli = 4 000 W/m2 K from Table 8.5(l) is
Determine size, power consumption, noise power, and justified.
noise pressure level at a distance of 300 m from the air Fan selection and power consumption:
cooler.
Air temperature rise:
Solution: For a closed-cycle cooling process and
low temperature level, a design with induced draft and Atair = NTU EMTD = 16.8 K Eq. 3.8.5(8)
horizontal cooler bundles similar to Fig. 3.8.2(l) and
Cooling air volume:
an L-foot fin tube as in Fig. 3.8.3(2a, d) has been
chosen. Fin-tube characteristics are given in Fig. 2 7 3 + tair + Atair
3.8.5(2). Pair = (SU) = 272 m3/s
2 7 3 + tair
Air velocity (chosen): Chosen: four fans, each 68 m3/s air volume capacity
u = 3.0 m/s Dv = 3.65 m
Fig. 3.8.7(l)
&air = 21 Pa Fig. 3.8.5(2) DN = 1.2 m 1
(Yi = 4 000 W/m2 K Table 3.8.5(l) rpm = 288
U= 33 W/m2 K Fig. 3.8.5(2) V-belt drive Fig. 3.8.7(2)
Number of tube rows: Static pressure:
a = 0.032 Eq. 3.8.5(2) Cooler bundle: 4 X 21 Pa = 84 Pa
nR = 4 Eq. 3.8.5(3) Entrance losses (estimated) = 26 Pa
Product thermal number: 417stat = 110Pa
cp prod = 0 . 3 3 Eq. 3.8.5(4) Power consumption:
Effective mean temperature difference: N = 15 kW at 7.5 fan blade angle Fig. 3.8.7(l)
Eq. 3.8.5(5) or
NTU = 1.06
Eq. 3.8.5(6)
N = 68 (11’ + 30)= 14.7 kW Eq. 3.8.7(2)
Em=053 lo3 X 0.65
Fig. 3.8.5(8)
Ar.YO .
Motor size:
EMTD = 15.9 K
Nmot = 2 0 kW
Surface area:
Sound power level:
A = 9 530 m2 Eq. 3.8.5(13)
L, = 4 4 + 3 0 log 55 + 10 log 110 x 68
1 ooo
Face area:
S= 86m2 Eq. 3.8.5(14) - 5 log 3.65 = 102 dB(A) Eq. 3.8.9(l)

o 1983 Hemisphere E Ming Corporation

i
3.8.9-4 3.8 AIR-COOLED HEAT EXCHANGERS / 3.8.9 Special Features of Air Coolers

With four fans: Sound pressure at 300-m distance:

L w4 = 102 + 10 X 0.6 = 108 dB(A) Eq. 3.8.9(3) Lp = 108 - 10 X 5.75 = 50 dB(A) Eq. (2)

Nomenclature for Section 3.8.9 appears at the beginning of Part 3.

0 1983 Hemisphere Publishing Corporation