1

UNIFORM OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

F1

Fig. 1: Uniform flow in Open Channels (Daugherty et. Al)

 In uniform flow, cross section through which flow occurs is constant along the channel,
and so is velocity. Thus, y1 = y2 and V1 = V2. Also, the Channel bed, water surface, and
energy line are Parallel.
∆Z
 Sw = So = - = Tan θ; while S = hL/L = Sin θ where θ is the angle the slope makes
∆X
with the horizontal.
 In most open channels (engineered), the bed slope is small (θ < 5.7o). In this case, sin θ ≈
tan θ; and thus So = Sw ≈ S.
 Considering Fig. 1, flow is steady. Summing forces along the channel, the hydrostatic
forces F1 and F2 balance each other since there is no change in depth y between points 1
and 2. The only force in the direction of flow is the gravity component (of fluid weight)
that must be resisted by the average boundary shear stress τ o, acting over the area PL,
where P is wetted Perimeter of the section.

Therefore, W Sin θ = τ o PL i.e. γAL sin θ = τ o PL

But Sin θ = hL/L = S.

A
Solving for τ o yields τ o = γ P S = γ Rh S, where Rh is hydraulic radius, and for all small
slopes (θ < 5.7o), So may be taken as equal to S.

V2
Rem.: Average Shear stress at bounding wall, τ o = Cf ρ
2
 2

Replacing S with So, we obtain

2
V
Cf ρ = γ Rh So
2
 This may be solved for V in terms of either friction coefficient Cf or the conventional
friction factor f to give (Rem. f = 4 Cf):
2g 8g
V = √( C Rh So) = √( R h So )
f f

 Chezy in 1775 postulated that velocity in an open channel varied as √(Rh So), which led
to the Chezy formula:
V = C √ (Rh So)
8g
Seen: Chezy Constant, C = √ (and clearly a friction factor constant)
f

 Considerations for C apply to those for f. Most channels are generally relatively large
compared to pressurized flow pipes, and thus give much higher Reynold’s numbers.
Also, open channels are generally frequently more rough than pipes, and so, with high
Reynold’s numbers and high relative roughness, value of f (in this case C) becomes
practically independent of R and depends only on the relative roughness.
1
 Manning (1890) found from many tests that the value of C varied approximately as R 6 ,
h
and others observed that the proportionality factor was very close to the reciprocal of n,
the coefficient of roughness in the classical Kutter Formula. This led to the following
Manning’s formula, in Metric units (m/s):
1 2 1
V= 3 2
n Rh S o
Manning’s n values are attached at the rear end of this notes for your ease of reference.
 The empirical Kutter formula for obtaining Chezy Constant C, using Manning’s n
values is:

S = Bed Slope

Manning’s and Chezy’s Formulae

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Open Channel flow is generally turbulent. In steady conditions (wholly developed flow), the
hydrostatic forces on both sides of the flowing fluid element control volume balance out. The
driving force for flow obtains from the gravitational component of the fluid element in the flow
direction. This gravitational component will be equal and opposite to shear force obtaining
between channel boundary and flowing fluid.
Thus:
τ wP dx = ρg (sinα) A dx
Where,
 α is angle of slope of channel bed
 A and P are Channel CSA and Wetted Perimeter, respectively
Thus.
A
τ w = ρg (sinα)
P
1 1
Defining; τ w = λρ V2 = fρV2
2 8
We get:
8g A
V2 = . sinα
f P
or
A
V = C√ √(sinα)
P

Considering Channel slope to be small in value, we have sinα = α, where α is in Radians. Hence,
A
V = C√ α
P
A
Defining m = = Hydraulic Mean Depth, then,
P
V = C√ mα

This equation is called Chezy’s Formula, and,

8g
C=√ Chezy’s Constant.
f
 4

 The Chezy’s Constant C comprising Channel friction factor f is calculated from empirical
formulae such as the one from Manning.
Example 1.1
A rectangular channel of width 1.4m is laid on a slope of 1m in 1.5km length. The channel
bed is brick-lined with cement (Manning’s n value 0.013). The water level in the channel is
85cm. Calculate the volume flow rate.
Solution:
A = 1.4 x 0.85 = 1.9 m2
P = 1.4 + 2 x 0.85 = 3.1 m
A 1.9
m= = = 0.384 m
P 3.1
1
α = 1/(1.5 x 1000) =
1500
1 1 1 1
C = m( ) ¿ x (0.384) = 65.57
n 6 0.013 6
0.384
V = C√ mα = 65.57 x √( )
1500
V = 1.049 m/s
Q = AV = 1.2484 m3/s

Optimum Channel Shapes

 Artificial channels can be designed for maximum discharge (minimum excavation).
 Flow for a given cross-sectional area is maximum when P is minimum.
A: Rectangular Channel
Considered of width b and depth of liquid h
Area = bh Wetted Perimeter = b + 2h
A bh
Hydraulic Mean Depth m = =
P b+2 h
Flow rate Q = AV = A C√ mα or Q = C√¿α)
Cognizant of fact that flow is maximum when P is minimum:
A
P = b + 2h = + 2h
h
 5

dP A
Or =- 2 +2=0
dh h
2h2 = A = bh
b
hopt =
2

B: Trapezoidal Channel
I: General
Trapezoidal channel has a base b, depth of liquid h. and sides inclined at an angle θ, slope s.
1
Tan θ =
s

b + 2 sh

h
l
θ
b

Each of the inclined sides has a length l = h√(1 + s2)

Total cross-sectional area A = (b + sh)h (Meaning: b = A/h – sh) ………………I
Wetted Perimeter P = b + 2h √(1 + s2) {i.e. P = A/h + [2√(s2 + 1) – s] h} …II
As in the case for rectangular channel, flow rate will be maximum when P is minimum.

A A
Expressing b = - sh, we obtain P = – sh + 2h √(1 + s2)
h h

dP A A
= - 2 – s + 2√(1 + s2) = 0 2 + s = 2√(1 + s )
2
dh h h

Substituting for A, b + 2(s - √(1 + s2h) = 0

 6

Hence, optimum depth, hopt = b / 2(√[1 + s2] – s) [ or b = 2 h (√[1 + s2] – s) ] …III

b
[Note: The Special Case of a Rectangular section (s = 0), hopt = (As obtained earlier)]
2

II: Most Efficient (Trapezoidal) Section

Side slopes for the section that will give the greatest possible efficiency obtains as follows, the
value of b being that for optimum efficiency:
Area A = bh + sh2 = 2h2[√(s2+1)−s ¿ + sh2
= h2[√(s2+1)−s ¿
So, for maximum efficiency,
1
A2
h= 1
2
[√ (s +1)−s ] 2

Substituting into Equation II;

1 1
P = 2 A 2 [√ (s 2 +1)−s ]2 ………………………………………………..IV

Cognizant of fact that flow is maximum when P is minimum, and P2 is minimum when P is
minimum, it is convenient to square equation IV:

P2 = 4A¿]

2
d (P ) 2s
= 4A ( 2 - 1) = 0
ds √ (s + 1)

2s = √ s 2 +1
 7

1
Squaring, 4s2 = s2 + 1 giving s=
√3
Meaning: If θ is the angle of the side of the horizontal, then Tan θ = 1 / s = √ 3, and θ = 60o.

 Therefore, the cross-section of flow of greatest possible efficiency will be a half-

hexagon.

Example 2.1
A trapezoidal channel has side slopes of 3 horizontal to 4 vertical. The slope of its bed is 1 in
2000. Determine the optimum dimensions of the channel if it is to carry water at 0.5 m3s-1. Use
1
Chezy’s coefficient C = 80 m 2 s-1.

Solution:
Based on discussion on Trapezoidal Channels,

32 3 ¿
b = 2 h (√[1 + s2] – s) = 2h [√ (1 + )-
4 4
5 3
= 2h ( - ¿=h
4 4

3 2 3 7
A = bh + h = h2 + h2 = h2
4 4 4

5 7
P=b+2x h= h
4 2

1
m=A/P= h
2

Substituting in the Chezy formula,

 8

1 1
1 1 7 2 1
Q = ACm 2 i 2 = h x C( h ¿ ¿ 2 i 2
4 2
1 1
Putting Q = 0.5 m3s-1; C = 80 m 2 s-1; and i =
2000
Depth, h = 0.552 m
Base Width, b = h = 0.552 m

Example 2.2 – Takeaway Question

Water flows through a trapezoidal channel of base width 1.3 m, and of optimized cross-section.
The channel is laid at 1 in 1300, and has a Manning’s n of 0.011. Calculate the optimum flow in
this channel. [Ans. 3.774 m3/s]
C: Circular Channel
 Circular channel filled to depth h.
 Θ – Half-angle subtended the water surface with the Channel centre

O
r θ
A C

Flow area A = Area of sector OABCO – Area of triangle OAC

Or A = r2θ – r2 sin θ cos θ
sin 2θ
A = r2 (θ – ) ……………………………………………………..I
2
Wetted Perimeter P = 2rθ ……………………………………………………………….II
A
Flow velocity V = C√(mα) and m =
P
 Circular geometry, therefore both V and Q = AV are non-linear functions of θ, and hence
h. Therefore, depth can be optimized separately for maximum velocity and for flow rate.
 9

Maximum Velocity
 Velocity is maximized when m is maximized
A
m=
P
dm 1 dA dP
= 2 (P -A )=0
dθ P dθ dθ
dA dP
Or P =A …………………………………………..III
dθ dθ

dA
From Equations I and II; = r2 (1 – cos 2θ)
dθ
dP
And = 2r
dθ

Substituting in Equation III;

sin 2θ
2r3 θ(1 – cos2θ) = 2r3 [θ - ]
2
Or 2θcos 2θ = sin 2θ
Or 2θ = Tan 2θ …………………………………….IV
Giving θopt = 128.75o ……………………………………V
Implying hopt = r(1 – Cos θ) = 1.626r

Implying: hopt = 0.813 Diameter of Channel

Maximum Discharge
A
Discharge Q = AV = A x C√ ( α)
P
3
A
= C√ ( α)
P
Rearranging and Differentiating, variables being A and P (for Maximum discharge):
 10

dA dP
3A2P = A3
dθ dθ
dA dP
Or 3P =A …………………………………..VI
dθ dθ

Substituting for dA/dθ and dP/dθ into equation VI, and re-arranging.
sin 2θ
6r3θ (1 – cos 2θ) = 2r3 (θ - )
2
6θ – 6θ cos 2θ = 2θ – sin 2θ (or: 6θ cos 2θ - sin 2θ = 4θ)…….VII

Yielding θOpt = 154o (Note: 2θ = 2.68 Rads)

Or hOpt = r (1 – cos 154o)
= 1.9r
Implying hOpt = 0.95 Diameter of Channel (for Maximum Discharge)

Comparison of Qfull and Qmax Conditions

 Note that any slight increase in depth will cause a reduction in Q that the channel can
carry. Therefore, design usually is done on the assumption that the section will run
full.
Hydraulic mean depth for discharge running full, m1 = r ¿ ¿
2


= 0.574 r

 Hydraulic mean depth for discharge running full, m2 = 0.5 r

Discharge Running Full m2 0.5

Maximum Discharge = √( m1 ) = √( 0.574 ¿

 Meaning: Discharge running full = 0.933 x Maximum discharge).

Example 3.1 – Takeaway Question
 11

Calculate the hydraulic mean depth for a circular channel of 1m diameter for maximum velocity
and maximum discharge. [Ans For Max. V, m = 0.3043; For Max. Q, m = 0.2866m]
 12

Manning’s n Values
Reference tables for Manning's n values for Channels, Closed Conduits Flowing Partially Full,
and Corrugated Metal Pipes.
 
Manning's n for Channels (Chow, 1959).
Type of Channel and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
Natural streams - minor streams (top width at floodstage < 100 ft)
1. Main Channels      
  a. clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools 0.025 0.030 0.033
  b. same as above, but more stones and weeds 0.030 0.035 0.040
  c. clean, winding, some pools and shoals 0.033 0.040 0.045
  d. same as above, but some weeds and stones 0.035 0.045 0.050
  e. same as above, lower stages, more ineffective
0.040 0.048 0.055
  slopes and sections
  f. same as "d" with more stones 0.045 0.050 0.060
  g. sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools 0.050 0.070 0.080
  h. very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways
0.075 0.100 0.150
  with heavy stand of timber and underbrush
2. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep, trees and brush
along banks submerged at high stages
  a. bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders 0.030 0.040 0.050
  b. bottom: cobbles with large boulders 0.040 0.050 0.070
3. Floodplains      
  a. Pasture, no brush      
  1.short grass 0.025 0.030 0.035
  2. high grass 0.030 0.035 0.050
   b. Cultivated areas      
  1. no crop 0.020 0.030 0.040
  2. mature row crops 0.025 0.035 0.045
  3. mature field crops 0.030 0.040 0.050
    c. Brush      
  1. scattered brush, heavy weeds 0.035 0.050 0.070
  2. light brush and trees, in winter 0.035 0.050 0.060
  3. light brush and trees, in summer 0.040 0.060 0.080
  4. medium to dense brush, in winter 0.045 0.070 0.110
  5. medium to dense brush, in summer 0.070 0.100 0.160
    d. Trees      
  1. dense willows, summer, straight 0.110 0.150 0.200
  2. cleared land with tree stumps, no sprouts 0.030 0.040 0.050
  3. same as above, but with heavy growth of sprouts 0.050 0.060 0.080
  4. heavy stand of timber, a few down trees, little
0.080 0.100 0.120
  undergrowth, flood stage below branches
 13

  5. same as 4. with flood stage reaching  branches 0.100 0.120 0.160
4. Excavated or Dredged Channels      
a. Earth, straight, and uniform      
 1. clean, recently completed 0.016 0.018 0.020
 2. clean, after weathering 0.018 0.022 0.025
 3. gravel, uniform section, clean 0.022 0.025 0.030
 4. with short grass, few weeds 0.022 0.027 0.033
b. Earth winding and sluggish      
 1.  no vegetation 0.023 0.025 0.030
 2. grass, some weeds 0.025 0.030 0.033
 3. dense weeds or aquatic plants in deep channels 0.030 0.035 0.040
 4. earth bottom and rubble sides 0.028 0.030 0.035
 5. stony bottom and weedy banks 0.025 0.035 0.040
 6. cobble bottom and clean sides 0.030 0.040 0.050
c. Dragline-excavated or dredged      
 1.  no vegetation 0.025 0.028 0.033
 2. light brush on banks 0.035 0.050 0.060
d. Rock cuts      
 1. smooth and uniform 0.025 0.035 0.040
 2. jagged and irregular 0.035 0.040 0.050
e. Channels not maintained, weeds and brush uncut      
  1. dense weeds, high as flow depth 0.050 0.080 0.120
  2. clean bottom, brush on sides 0.040 0.050 0.080
  3. same as above, highest stage of flow 0.045 0.070 0.110
  4. dense brush, high stage 0.080 0.100 0.140
5. Lined or Constructed Channels      
a. Cement      
 1.  neat surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
 2. mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
b. Wood      
 1. planed, untreated 0.010 0.012 0.014
 2.  planed, creosoted 0.011 0.012 0.015
 3. unplaned 0.011 0.013 0.015
 4. plank with battens 0.012 0.015 0.018
 5. lined with roofing paper 0.010 0.014 0.017
c. Concrete      
  1. trowel finish 0.011 0.013 0.015
  2. float finish 0.013 0.015 0.016
  3. finished, with gravel on bottom 0.015 0.017 0.020
  4. unfinished 0.014 0.017 0.020
 14

  5. gunite, good section 0.016 0.019 0.023

  6. gunite, wavy section 0.018 0.022 0.025
  7. on good excavated rock 0.017 0.020  
  8. on irregular excavated rock 0.022 0.027  
d. Concrete bottom float finish with sides of:      
  1. dressed stone in mortar 0.015 0.017 0.020
  2. random stone in mortar 0.017 0.020 0.024
  3. cement rubble masonry, plastered 0.016 0.020 0.024
  4. cement rubble masonry 0.020 0.025 0.030
  5. dry rubble or riprap 0.020 0.030 0.035
e. Gravel bottom with sides of:      
  1. formed concrete 0.017 0.020 0.025
  2. random stone mortar 0.020 0.023 0.026
  3. dry rubble or riprap 0.023 0.033 0.036
f. Brick      
  1. glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
  2. in cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.018
g. Masonry      
  1. cemented rubble 0.017 0.025 0.030
  2. dry rubble 0.023 0.032 0.035
h. Dressed ashlar/stone paving 0.013 0.015 0.017
i. Asphalt      
  1. smooth 0.013 0.013  
  2. rough 0.016 0.016  
j. Vegetal lining 0.030   0.500
 
 
Manning's n for Closed Conduits Flowing Partly Full  (Chow, 1959).
Type of Conduit and Description Minimum Normal Maximum
1. Brass, smooth: 0.009 0.010 0.013
2. Steel:      
Lockbar and welded 0.010 0.012 0.014
Riveted and spiral 0.013 0.016 0.017
3. Cast Iron:      
Coated 0.010 0.013 0.014
Uncoated 0.011 0.014 0.016
4. Wrought Iron:      
Black 0.012 0.014 0.015
Galvanized 0.013 0.016 0.017
5. Corrugated Metal:      
Subdrain 0.017 0.019 0.021
 15

Stormdrain 0.021 0.024 0.030

6. Cement:      
Neat Surface 0.010 0.011 0.013
Mortar 0.011 0.013 0.015
7. Concrete:      
Culvert, straight and free of debris 0.010 0.011 0.013
Culvert with bends, connections, and some
0.011 0.013 0.014
debris
Finished 0.011 0.012 0.014
Sewer with manholes, inlet, etc., straight 0.013 0.015 0.017
Unfinished, steel form 0.012 0.013 0.014
Unfinished, smooth wood form 0.012 0.014 0.016
Unfinished, rough wood form 0.015 0.017 0.020
8. Wood:      
Stave 0.010 0.012 0.014
Laminated, treated 0.015 0.017 0.020
9. Clay:      
Common drainage tile 0.011 0.013 0.017
Vitrified sewer 0.011 0.014 0.017
Vitrified sewer with manholes, inlet, etc. 0.013 0.015 0.017
Vitrified Subdrain with open joint 0.014 0.016 0.018
10. Brickwork:      
Glazed 0.011 0.013 0.015
Lined with cement mortar 0.012 0.015 0.017
Sanitary sewers coated with sewage slime with
0.012 0.013 0.016
bends and connections
Paved invert, sewer, smooth bottom 0.016 0.019 0.020
Rubble masonry, cemented 0.018 0.025 0.030
 
 
Manning's n for Corrugated Metal Pipe  (AISI, 1980).  
  Type of Pipe, Diameter and Corrugation
n
Dimension
  1. Annular 2.67 x 1/2 inch (all diameters) 0.024
  2. Helical 1.50 x 1/4 inch  
8" diameter 0.012
10" diameter 0.014
  3. Helical 2.67 x 1/2 inch  
12" diameter 0.011
18" diameter 0.014
24" diameter 0.016
 16

36" diameter 0.019

48" diameter 0.020
60" diameter 0.021
  4. Annular 3x1 inch (all diameters) 0.027
  5. Helical 3x1 inch  
48" diameter 0.023
54" diameter 0.023
60" diameter 0.024
66" diameter 0.025
72" diameter 0.026
78" diameter and larger 0.027
  6. Corrugations 6x2 inches  
60" diameter 0.033
72" diameter 0.032
120" diameter 0.030
180" diameter 0.028