Form 4 NOTES

General Agriculture

*_Natural Disasters_*

- Crop production is dependent on environmental conditions

- Optimum conditions often result in high levels of quality crop production and yield

- Natural events and disasters often result in harsh environmental conditions that *Threaten* Crop
growth,development and survival.

*Effects of Natural disasters on Agriculture*

1. *_HAILSTORM_*

- A form of precipitation (rainfall)that falls as ice stones that vary in sizes(chimvuramabwe)

* leaf damage

* fruits fall prematurely

* nailing effect of chains of falling ice stones

*Death of small livestock's

* damage vegetation reducing the amount of fresh feeds for animals

* damage of buildings

* may disrupt electricity distribution

* breaks windscreens of farm machinery

2. *FLOODS*

- A condition resulting from heavy and excessive rainfall of high intensity

* most crops do not adapt to survive under water logged conditions

* flood waters uproot crops by weakening the root anchorage

* drowning of animals

* introduction of water borne diseases

* animal handling facilities might be swept away

3. *DROUGHT*

- Occurs when inadequate rain falls during the rain season such tht insufficient food is produced

* crop failure

* little or no harvest by the farmers from raised crops

* Animals die from dehydration

* little breeding activities from animals

* less quality animal products

_They are other natural disasters that can affect agriculture like_

* Heat wave

* Whirlwinds

* Cyclones

* Veldfires

*Importance of weather forecasting*

* Helps farmers to put in place precautionary measures that reduce the risk posed by the forecasted
disaster

* adequate time for farmers to vaccate the place of danger

*Disaster preparedness*

* The state and farmer shld be prepared to manage and reduce the impact of the natural disaster.

* Make awareness to the farmers of the natural disaster forecasted

* trained personal from the civil protection Unit (CPU)

* encourage farmers to insure their farms against such risks

* farmers shld put up conservative structures against such disasters

* dams are constructed to catch flood waters and reduce the risk of flooding down stream
*Conservation structures to reduce the risk of disasters*

*Dams

* Fireguards

*AGROFORESTRY*
* Is the integration of conventional crop production ,livestock production and multipurpose forest

*Benefits*
* Increased output of valuable tree products

* improved yields of crops in the system

* increased labour efficiency

* soil conservation

* nutrients are utilised

*integration of purposes( trees act as wind breaks to crops,animals providing manure to crops)

*Products of Agroforestry system*

* wood and timber products

* green manure

* fruits and nuts

* medicines

* Edible and industrial oil

* Charcoal

* fruits and sap beverages

* Honey and wax

* vegetables

*Types of Agroforestry*
* Systems are classified according to their function,nature of components and how these components
are arranged in the system.

*1. Agro solve pastoral system*

* There is integration of crops ,trees and livestock

*2. Agro solve cultural system*

* This involves the integration of trees and crops

*3. Silvia agricultural system*

* In this system trees are the dominant component and some crops

*4. Silvopastoral system*

* This system is characterised by the integrated production of Woody perrenial trees and animals such
as beef or dairy cows.

1. *SEQUENTIAL ARRANGEMENT*

* Crops and trees do not exist at the same time

* There is minimum direct competion between crops and trees are planted in alternating successive
phases *e.g in shifting cultivation, woodlots( trees planted and harvested and crops are grown during
the farrow period of trees 2-3yrs)*

2. *Simultaneous*

* Trees and crops exists at the same time

* Competition can be negative if not properly managed

*Indigenous trees used in Agroforestry system*

*Wild fig (Mutsamvu)

* Cape fig (Mukuyu)

* Mobola plum(Muhacha/Muchakata)

* Marula(Mupfura)

* Wild loquat (muzhanje/Mushuku)

* African Ebony(Mushumha)

*Exotic trees used*

*Fern leaf acacia(

Pigeon pea(Nyandoro/Ndodzi)

* Jatropha(mujirimono)

* moringa(musagowa)

*WILDLIFE*
*Conflicts and Conventions
Conflicts*

 Poachers kill endangered species such as black rhino and elephants so that they can sell

their tusks for which there is a market.

 Wildlife invades agricultural grown crops leading too people killing the animals.

 Fencing around the game when animals naturally roam freely and unhindered all over the

land.

 Wildlife such as leopards, hyena, lions and cheetah kill domestic animals.

 Conflicts between nations which differ in opinion on the trade of wildlife products.

*Endangered Species*

 These are animals facing the danger of extinction.

 These are animals whose survival as a species is unlikely if the threats to them continue to operate.

 Included in this category are species whose numbers have been reduced to a critical level

or whose habitats have been drastically diminished in size, or so degraded that theya re no longer
supported.

 Examples are black rhino, elephant, and fish eagle.

*Problem animals*
 These are animals that cause persistent harm to human beings and their activities.

 They cause destruction of crops, killing of domestic animals and loss of lives amongst themselves.

 Examples include:

- lions which kill cattle and sometimes people when it grows old and

weak that it would not be able to hunt proper prey effectively.

 Leopard kills young domesticated animals.

 Hippopotamus, bush pig and elephants cause problems on cropped land.

 Crocodiles may kill people who will be fishing and local people crossing water sources.

*The Parks Estate is divided into 6 categories namely;*

1. National parks (11)

2. Safari areas (16)

3. Recreational parks (14)

4. Botanical gardens (3)

5. Botanical reserves (11)

6. Sanctuaries (6)

*Soil and Water*

*Soil Fertility*
*This refers to the nutrient and organic status of the soil

*NITROGEN CYCLE*

* This is the flow of Nitrogen in different chemical forms between plants ,Organisms and the
atmosphere.

* The cycling of nitrogen is done mainly by particular strains of bacteria.(Nitrifying bacteria such as
_Azotobacta,Clostridium pasteurianum_)

* Denitrifying bacteria into the soil remove nitrogen from the soil to the atmosphere

* Denitrifying bacteria does well in anaerobic (no or less oxygen environment)

 (DRAW THE DIAGRAM SHOWING THE NITROGEN CYCLE)

*Water conservation*
* Water is an essential element tht sustains plant and animal life.

*Water Pollution*
* This is the contamination of surface and ground water sources by pollutants of various forms tht are
directly or indirectly discharged into the water

*Causes of water pollutions*

* poor farming methods like over use of chemicals

* Improper diaposa of chemical containers

* Animal waste

* Discharge from Industries

* Burst sewage pipes

* Inorganic wastes

*Types of Water Pollution*

*1. Ground water pollution*

* This happens when toxic chemicals from industries ,pesticides,herbicides and fertilisers are leached
down to underground water.

*2. Surface water pollution*

* Is when chemical pollutants and plastics are washed by ground surface runoff to streams,rivers,dams
and lakes

*3. Nutrient Pollution*

* This is when sewage and fertilisers are washed into water bodies

*4. Discharge of biodegradable matter*

* Oxygen depletion resulting from discharge of large volumes of biodegradable matter such as sewage
waste,promote rapid multiplication of microorganisms which use up a lot of oxygen demand....this will
result n organisms which depend on oxygen like fish to die

*Effects of Water pollution*

*a. Infestation of water bodies by over grown algae or water weeds

*b. Death of aquatic life

*c. Bio-accumulation of toxic metals and pollutants in food chains

* d. Disease outbreak

*e. Low quality degraded water

*WAYS OF REDUCING WATER POLLUTION*

*Education:* educate farmers and industrialist of the effects of pollution

*Environmental laws:* strict laws and law enforcement and fines to avoid offenders

*Minimum and correct use of agrochemicals* farmers shld not over use pesticides and herbicides

*Proper disposal of sewage and domestic wastes:* disposal of organic and inorganic home chemical
wastes in proper places

*Treatment of Industrial wastes* treatment of gasses and chemical wastes to a less harmful state

*Correct application of Irrigation water* farmers should apply correct amount of water to crops not to
over irrigate which will result in leaching

*Irrigation*
*This is the artificial application of water to the soil to meet the plant water requirements

*Equipment*

* Piped irrigation systems are established on various water sources such as dams,perrenial rivers and
deep sunk boreholes

*Irrigation Pumps*

* Piped irrigation water needs to be drawn from the water sources and should be pumped to the fields
at very high pressure.

*1. _Fuel(Diesel/Petrol) Centrifugal Pumps_*

*2. _Electric centrifugal pumps_*

*3. _Electrical submersible pump_*

*Irrigation pipes and Connections*

*PVC/Aluminium pipes* they convey water from the pump to the field dispensers
*Connectors 90,45 degrees* connects water delivery pipes at 90/45 degrees angles

*T.Connector* connects water pipes from a Tm Junction

*Y shaped connector* connects 3 pipes or hoses in a y intersection

*Threaded end cap* It blocks pipe ends

*Hydrant* Water connection points from the main line of water supply

*Riser* Upright pipes connected to ground laid water supply pipes on which the _Sprinkler head_ is
connected

*Shut valve* Used for manual turning on and Off the flow of water

*Non Return valve/Back flow preventer* It prevents the back flow of water and allows one direction
flow of water

*Sprinkle head* Operated by water pressure and rotates at a central pivot distributing a fine spray of
water to the crops

*Moisture sensors* detect moisture levels and sends signals to electronic switch or timer control to
switch off or on

*CROP PROTECTION*
* As farming is a business, profits should be realised by moving any loses from the production process

* loses can be caused by diseases and pests which attack the crops

*AGRO-CHEMICALS*

*This refers to those chemicals that are used in the control of pests,parasites and diseases in the
production of crops and animals in Agriculture.

*Groups of Agrochemicals*

*1. Insecticide* control of Insects

*2. Herbicides* Control of weeds

*3. Acaricides* Used for the control of ticks

*4. Antibiotics* Used for treatment of bacterial disease

*5. Nematicides* Chemicals used to control nematodes

*6. Fungicides* Chemicals used to control fungal diseases

_Others include rodentcides for rodents...arboricides for trees and bushes...bactericides for bacterial
infections_

*Advantages of Agrochemicals*

* Fast method for the control of pests,diseases and parasites in crops and animals

* Herbicides reduce cost of labour in weed control

* make production process cheap ( in disease prevention by vaccination)

*Disadvantages*

* Need skilled manpower for effective use

* Have residual effect

* May scotch plants if not correctly applied

* Errors in calibration can cause disastrous effects on both plants and animals

*Precautions when using Agrochemicals*

* keep chemicals under lock and key

* Shld be used by skilled and knowledgeable people

* Wear protective clothing

* Avoid eating or drinking when using chemicals

* Avoid harvesting of the crops before the expiry of the chemical

* Read and follow instructions

*Toxicity levels of Agrochemicals*

* Refers to how poisonous a substance is.

*Green* Caution,can be used in homes

*Orange/Amber* Poison,

*Red* Dangerous poison

*Purple* Very Dangerous poison

*Mode of Action of pesticides*

*1. Stomach Poisons* Used to control leaf eating,hitting and chewing pests like rats..termites..locusts..
*2. Contact poisons* These kill pests when they come in contact with the pests' skin or cuticle

* these affect the nervous system or respiratory system of the pest to kill it.

*3. Systemic poison* These penetrate the vascular system of the plant and poison the plant cell sap.

* pests that suck the poisoned cell sap become poisoned and die.

*4. Fumigants* They kill by forming poisonous gas that is inhaled into the respiratory system of the
intended pests.

(*DRAW THE KNAPSACK SPRAYER*)

*calibration** Is a method of measuring and setting the chemical appliances and applicators so that
they release the correct amount of the chemical per unit area.

*Tools used in Calibration*

* Knapsack sprayer

* Stop watch

* Tape measure

* measuring sylinder

*Reproduction In Ruminants*
* These are animals with four chambered stomachs

*Reproductive system of a Bull*

* Its main function is to produce sperms which are male sex cells which are produced through division of
genetic material.

(DRAW THE DIAGRAM SHOWING)

*Penis* It is an organ of copulation(sexual procreation) and Urination

*Testis* Produces male sex cells and produce male sex hormones called _Testosterone_

*Scrotum* a bag of skin hanged between the hind legs that accommodates the two testis

*Seminal Vesicle* The organ produces seminal fluid during mating at enjaculation of sperms to form
semen , The fluid lubricates,nourishes,protects,protects and dilutes sperms.
*Prostate gland* It produces prostate fluid which is part of semen

*Vas deferens* This is the passage of sperms from the testis to the urethra.it is also known as the
Spermduct.

*Urethra* The passage of both sperms and Urine

*Epididymis* Stores manufactured sperms for maturity

*Sigmoid flexture* is an s-bend that allows the penis to be accommodated in the penal sheath when it
is not erect.

*Reproductive of the Cow*

(DRAW THE DIAGRAM SHOWING)

*Uterus* This is where the foetus/zygote develops

*Ovary* This is the structure that produces ova(eggs) or female sex cells

*Funnel of Oviduct* It receives eggs from the Ovary during Ovulation and channel them into the oviduct
or fallopian tube.

*Fallopian Tube/Oviduct* it is where fertilisation takes place after mating

*Cervix* it separates the vagina from the uterus...Also prevents foreign bodies from entering the uterus

*Vagina* The birth canal passage....Also is where sperms are deposited during mating

*Vulva* outside opening of the vagina

*Animal Nutrition*
*_Ration_*

* Is a measured around of feed given to an animal per day

*Maintenance Ration*

* This is a measured amount of feed given to an animal to maintain its state,keeping it alive doing
necessary daily activities

*Production Ration*

* The extra feed outside maintenance given so that the animal produces products I.e eggs,meat,draught
power,milk

*Calculations for Production Rations*

* The quantity of a ration entirely depends on the following

- Type of animal

- Age of the animal

- Purpose of which the animal is kept

- Type of feed

- Quality of feed

- Nutritional value of the feed

*Pearson Square Method*

* This is a method used to determine the mixing ratios of feed components especially when essential
nutrient is of main concern

*Procedure*

*1.* Draw the Pearson sq and make diagonal arrows that touch opposite angles

*2.* Write the desired digestible protein concentration at the centre of the square

*3.* Top left hand corner of the sq write the protein concentration (Cp)
%ge(soyabeans/Groundnuts/Sunflower)

*4.* Bottom left corner u write Crushed Maize concentration.

*5.* Subtract the desired protein concentration %ge from the Soyabean/Groundnuts/Sunflower and
write the answer to the _opposite bottom right corner_

*6.* Subtract the crushed maize wth the desired percentage on the centre and write the answer to the
opposite top right corner.

*Nb* The mixing ratios should be given as directed or as a ratio *_Concentrates : Maize_* or the other
way round.

*ANIMAL IMPROVEMENT AND HEALTH*

*Breeding*
* Is the art and science of using knowledge of genetics to improve animals in Production efficiency

* Its also a process that is used by famers to select and allow only animals with the desired
characteristics to become parents of the next generation.

*Importance/Advantages of Breeding*

* Improves the growth rate of animals

* Breeding Improves animal productivity (Better yield of products like eggs,meat,milk)

* Animal improves resistance to parasites and diseases

* Improves adaptability of animals to harsh and adverse climatic conditions

* Improves feed conversion ration

* Improved Animal fertility

*Types of Breeding Methods*

*1. *Inbreeding* its a method whereby genetically related animals are mated i.e Father and daughter
or Mother and son

*Advantages*

* superior desired traits are continuously passed on to offsprings

* helps in maintaining uniformity

*Disadvantages*

* Abnormalities occurring

* weakens genes ,resulting in poor resistants to diseases.

*2. Crossbreeding* This is when two different breeds of animals of the same species are mated,they
will produce a hybrid offspring

*Advantages*

* increased performance of offspring hybrid vigour

* well adapted to the environment offsprings

* improved performance
*Disadvantage*

* record keeping is needed for performance of animals

3. Pure Breeding/Line*

* This is mating of pure bred animals of the same specie I.e Brahman bull to Brahman cow

*Advantages*

* offsprings have superior traits like their parents

* true to type breeds

*4. Upgrading*

* this is when a pure breed is mated to a cross bred animal

*Advantages*

* The system is cheap and easy to practice

* Offsprings produced outperform their parents

*Effects of environment on breeding*

* The process of breeding is affected by factors such as genotype

_Nb_ Factors from the environment which interfere with the genotype of the offspring are:

- Availability and type of feed in the area

- local temperatures

- types of pests and prevalence

- disease occurance and nature of the disease

- availability of water

- Nutritional level of balance

*Artificial selection (Some call it bhuru remugaba)*

* This is the process of choosing the best animals for breeding based on the appearance or outside
features

*Factors to Consider on artificial selection*

* _Physical size_ select large animals which are well built for breeding
* _Growth rate_ farm animals which have a fast growth rate are selected

* _Confirmation_ Look at the body structure and features of the animal

* _Disease resistance_ animals with good resistance to diseases should be selected.

*TEST CROSSING*
*_NB_* Note that some words abt test crossing were discussed and covered in level 3 (Form 3) of the
syllabus

* This is when animals of known genotypes are crossed to determine the level of heritability of certain
characteristics that were being bred for or to determine the unknown genotype of a particular animal

*Animal Health*
* Health of an animal is of importance as it influences productivity and quality of animals.

*Parasites*

* These are invertebrate living organisms whose life depends on sucking blood from other animals

*Types of parasites*

*1. Internal (Endo-Parasites)*

* These live and feed while inside a host animal

*a)* _RoundWorms_ These are non segmented worms which are cylindrical with pointed ends on either
side of the body.

* They are found in the abomasum of the host

*Life cycle*

* This refers to the developmental stages through which a parasite undergoes in its life to become
mature

* most of the life is completed in the host.

*Eggs* Passed out in the dung of a cattle and they hatch into _Larva_

*Larva* they are in very small worms which are able and capable to infect their host in 6 days

* they climb on blades of grass so that it is ingested

*Adult* when they are mature they mate and the eggs are released out in dung.

*Symptoms of Roundworms*
* loss of body weight

* Anaemia characterized by fast breathing rate

* severe loss of body condition

* Bottle jaw in Shoats(sheep/goats) in cases of severe infestation

*Control*

* These internal parasites are controlled through dosing

*Prevention*

* Avoid high stocking rates

* Practise rotational grazing

* Should have a well dosing programme

*_They are other internal parasites such as Flatworms,Tapeworms_

(*Diagram of an Internal parasite*)

*2. External Parasites*

* These are organisms which feed on the blood of host animals while outside the animal

*a) Ticks*

* They are classified into 2 types the hard and the soft ticks

* Hard ticks have a hard dorsal shield which covers the body

* Soft ticks have a soft dorsal upper cover

*Life Cycle*

* They have a complete life cycle with four stages

* Their life cycle is classified into the number of Hosts (animal bodies) they feed on
*_One host_* live and complete life on one animal

*_Two host_* live a life on Two different animal bodies

*_Three Host_* Live a life on 3 different animal bodies

*Eggs* Mated female ticks sucks blood and gets engorged with blood and then falls off the host and lays
eggs on the ground or tree barks

*larva* The tiny six legged larva climbs on grass waiting for a host animal

*Nymph* This remains on the same host and has nw 8 legs

* when it feeds on blood and becomes engorged it moults(shedding off the outer skin) and becomes an
adult

*adult* they suck blood and mate

*_Other external parasites include mange mites,lies,tsetsefly_

*Diagram of a One Host Tick*

*Control*
* They are controlled by dipping and spraying the animals

Cattle dipped once per week in summer and once in 2 weeks in winter

*Practice rotational grazing to break the life cycle

* Burn paddocks periodically

*Methods of preventing and controlling diseases*

*Good management and stockmanship is important in preventing disease

*The Animal Health Act*

* The gvnt and relevant authorities make laws and regulations to control livestock diseases

*The act contains rules and regulations concerning:

- _Quarantining of imports and exports of animals_

- _How to control notifiable diseases_

- _Dipping of animals for ticks_

- _The keeping of stock registers_

- _Immunisation/Vaccination of animals_

- _Destruction of infected animals_

- _Permits to animal movement_

*Quarantine* Is the placement of animals in a confinement under laid down rules for a specific period
of time so as to detect if animals are affected by a disease.

*Notifiable disease** These are diseases which when there is an outbreak they should be reported to
the Vertinary service dept because they cause considerable loses.

*_Examples_*

* Anthrax

* Foot and Mouth

* Rabies

* Newcastle

* Swine fever

* Trypanosomiasis

*Other methods of disease control*

*a.)* _Disinfectants_* These are chemicals used to kill pathogens on surfaces like walls, floors, troughs
and foot of workers.

*b.)* _Antibiotics_* These are chemicals or drugs in liquid form or tablets which are used to kill bacteria

*c.)* _Antiseptic_* These are chemicals which are put on wounds to prevent rotting and further growth
of microorganisms.

*d.)* _Serum_* Is a liquid part of red and white blood cells would have been removed

*e.)* _Vaccines_* These are chemicals used to prevent occurance of specific diseases by boosting
animals resistance against certain diseases.

*f.)* _Drenching_* Is the process of forcing animals to drink a liquid chemical or a drug for controlling
internal parasites
*Immunity* This occurs when an animal suffers from a disease and the animal produces antibodies to
protect it from the disease.

*Types of Immunity*_Basically we have 2 main types of Immunity_

*1.)* Natural Immunity

* This is an immunity which develops when an animal is not vaccinated

*2.)* Artificial Immunity

* This type is as a result of a vaccine or injection into an animal.

*RABBITS*
* These are small livestock kept by farmers mainly for their cholesterol-free meat and pelts(Skin)

*Slaughtering of Rabbits*

* When killing a rabbit, it should not be subjected to pain and suffering

*METHODS*

*1. Stunning** is a process that makes an animal lose consciousness and is brought into a state of
shock.

* This is done by hitting the rabbit behind the head with a heavy stick so that it dies

*2. Neck dislocation** the rabbit is held comfortably and kept calm,placed on the table while holding
both hind legs then pull and twist the neck

* After stunning u cut the throat and hang the rabbit with the head upside down

*3. Stunning by Electrocution** It is brought into a state of shock by electricity

*Dressing a Rabbit*

* A rabbit should be skinned immediately after bleeding when the body is still warm.

* Make 2 cuts inside each hind leg(back legs) then pull and peel off the skin starting from the rear
legs(front legs)

* skinning is done using a knife

* Remove the offals from the inside

* Wash the rabbit and hang it so that water drains out

* Stretch the pelt(skin) on a flat surface to dry

*Preparation of pelts (skins) for Marketing*

*a.) Soacking in water*

* soack it in water for 3-4 hrs

*b.) Pinning it on a flat board*

* pin it on a flat board while stretched lightly and the fur should be downwards on the board

*c.) Removing fats and meat*

* remove any left meat and fats on the skin

*d.)Treating with salt and chrome alum*

* This prevents it from rotting

*e.) Drying*

* Brush off the pelts on both sides and dry it off in a cool dry and well ventilated place awaiting
marketing

*Management of Ruminants*

*_CATTLE_*

* This is a common practice in both communal and commercial farms in Zimbabwe

*Indeginous Breeds*
* These are cattle found in Zimbabwe like Afrikaans,Tuli,Nguni,Mashona

* These are called _Bos Indicus_

*1. Afrikaans*

*_Characteristics_*

* common in the sourthen part of Africa

* Adaptable to hot and cold temperatures

* Can survive in dry dry and low rainfall climatic conditions

* Resistance to many local and tropical diseases as well as parasites

* They have a hump.

*2. Mashona*

*_Characteristics_*

* They are hardy

* have a small statue

* have good fertility rate

* They are docile and easy to handle

* Resistance to diseases

*3. Tuli*

*_Characteristics_*

* Very large cattle

* The coat is smooth and thick

* Highly fertile and a prolific breeder have few problems during calving

* Can travel long distances in search of water and good grazing

* There is no black colour in Tuli cattle

_Another breed is a Nguni_

*ADVANTAGES OF INDIGENOUS BREEDS*

* Resistance to diseases and parasites

* Adapt to hot and very low temp

* Can calve easily

* They are good for drought power

*Disadvantage*
* Slow growth

* Small statue and produce small calves

* Produce poor beef quality

*EXOTIC BREEDS OF CATTLE*

* These are breeds of cattle which came from Europe and are kept in Zimbabwe

* These are called _Bos Taurus_

* These include Hereford,Simmentaler,Aberdeen Angus,Brahman.

*1. Brahman*
* Originated from.India

* Characterised by a hump

* They vary in colour

* Adaptable to a wide range of feeds and climate

* Intermediate in size

*2. Aberdeen Angus*

* Originated in Scotland

* Very highly fertile

* Naturally polled

* Best interms of calving

* Produces high beef quality

*3.Simmentaler*
* Dual purpose breed with exercellent beef and milk

* The bulls are used for breeding

* They are no or less calving problems

*4.HEREFORD*

* Originated in England
* A large Cattle breed

* Good grazers

_Other exotic breeds include Sussex,Short horned_

*ADVANTAGES OF EXOTIC BREEDS*

* Have a fast growth rate

* high food to meat conversion ratio

* They are larger than indeginous breeds

* They produce large calves

*Disadvantages*

* Less adapted to local environment

* They are more prone to local and tropical diseases

* They tend to have calving problems because they produce big calves

* They require first class management and stockman

*CATTLE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES*

*a) Dehorning*

* This is the removal of horn buds so that the animal doesn't grow horns

* It helps reduce injuries

* Easy handling of animals

* Occupy less space in feeding pens

* This reduces fighting and bullying among cattle herds.

*Methods of Dehorning*

*1.Hot iron*

*A red hot iron is placed on horn buds as soon as they appear on calves

*2. Use of caustic soda*

* it has a burning effect on the horn buds.

* Apply petroleum jelly near the skin of the calve to avoid caustic soda to burn the flesh

*3.Use of tight rubber ring** A tight rubber ring is put around the horn buds at the base of the head's
skin.

*4. Use of guillotine** cut the long horn using a tool called guillotine

*b. Dosing** This is killing of internal parasites

*c.Supplementary feeding** Is giving of additional feed to animals during time of dry grasses

*d. Dipping**This is done to remove external parasites

*e.Mating** This is done as a way of multiplying the animals

*f. Castration** Is a way of removing the ability of a bull to reduce by depriving the animal of using its
testicles.

*1.Castrarion methods*

*Bloodles castrator

*Rubbering castrator

* Open knife castrator

* Chemical castration.

*g.Weaning** is a process of stopping calves from suckling,normally done at about 8 months

*Animal Identification methods*

* Branding using a hot iron

* Ear tagging

* Ear notching

* Tattooing

*Signs of Heat in Heifers*

* The cow is restless

* Mounting of other cows

* Stand still when mounted by other animals

* Vulva becomes swollen

* Milk output declines

*Artificial Insemination*
* This is a process of artificially placing sperms into the vagina using an Insemination tube.

*Management of Shoats (sheep and Goats)*

*SHEEP*
* Sheep production is common as goat production.

*Indigenous breeds*
- blackhead Persian _originated in the middle east but are now being kept in Zimbabwe as indigenous_

-Sabi _Smaller than Blackhead Persian, brown and white in colour_

-Dorper _a cross breed from a Black head Persian and a Dorset horn_

*Exotic breeds*
-Merino _Originated in Germany,have very good mothering ability_

-Suffolk _Originated from Britain,it has a black head and legs with a white body_

-Dorset horn _Origin is Britain, has a white face and grey whitish body wool_

*GOATS*
*_Boer_*

* Origin is Southafrica

* larger than all indigenous breeds

* they are hardly and can live in harshy conditions

* they are resistants to diseases and internal parasites

*Angora*

* white in colour and have long curly silky hair

* small sized breeds as compared to Boer

* have low fertility

*Saanen*

* White in colour

* they require less food because of their small stature

* they are docile

*Management Practice of Shoats*

*a.* Dosing

*b.* Castration

*c.* Vaccination

*d.* Hoof trimming

*e.* Wool shearing

*f.* Docking or detailing of lamb

*FARM STRUCTURES AND MACHINERY*

*FENCING*

*_ANCHORS_*

* These are supporters or structures which are used to strengthen fence corner posts and straining
posts so that they resist the force of pull in the direction of strain during straining.

*Importance*

* Support corner posts and straining posts

* strengthen fencing wire strands preventing surging of the wire strands

*stabilising of the fence

* Keep posts tight

*TYPES OF ANCHORS*

*1. STAY ANCHOR*

* Stay(strut) anchor is used to support straining posts in position along the line of fence.

*Advantages*

* easy to construct

* This require less material

* support the fence pulled in their direction of construction

*Disadvantage*

* its not very strong and can fall if subjected to great tension of pull

2.*WIRE AND WOOD STRUT ANCHOR*

* Is constructed along the line of the fence.

*Advantages*

* Durable and easy to construct

* less material is needed to construct it

* used where wire fence is pulled in two directions or wire is pulled to either side of it

*Disadvantages*

* require technical skill to put the wooden strut on the two upright poles

* It can't be used on corners of fence.

3.*WIRE AND DEADMAN ANCHOR*

* Used to keep straining posts in their position.

*Advantages*

* Durable

*Easy to construct

* requires less material to construct

* can be used when pulling wire fence in two directions

*Disadvantages*
* requires technical skill

* if iron is used it can succumb to rust.

*DOUBLE BOX ANCHOR*

* Used at a 90 degrees corner

*Advantages*

* made of material readly available

*Disadvantages*

* the structure may weaken with time if not properly tightened

* expensive to construct

*GATE POST ANCHOR*

* Used at gate construction

*Advantages*

* simple to construct

* less material to construct

*Disadvantages*

* can not be used on corners

*CALCULATIONS OF QUANTITIES AND STRENGTH OF FENCING MATERIALS*

_Number of straining posts = {Distance to be fenced ÷ Space of straining posts} +1_

_See diagrams of the Anchors_

1. Stay Anchor

2. Wire and deadman anchor

3. Wire/wooden strut anchor

4. Double box anchor

5. Gate post anchor

*Farm Buildings*
* These are structures which are constructed at the farm for the purposes of storing produce,inputs and
animals.

*Materials used in Construction*

* bricks,cement,Window frames,cement,

*Determining the cost effectiveness of each material*

* This shows weather a product is worth the cost.

(see cps agriculture bk 4 page 115/116)

*FARM ROADS*
* Network of farm roads is essential so that a farm will be able to reach every part of the farm

*Materials and Equipment*

*1.* _Gravel_ For improving drainage

*2.* _Drainage pipes_ are used to make culverts in low lying areas and streams

*3.* _Cement_ to make concrete for putting culverts and inverts

*4.* _Quarry stones_ Used to make concretes and mix with cement

*5.* _Grader_ Is used to shape the road crest and for leveling road surfaces

*6.* _Dumpy level_ Used for siting and leveling of the road

*7.* _Axes_ For cutting trees and shrubs

*8.*_Wooden pegs_ For marking the road edges and centre of the road during construction

*Construction of the farm roads*

* Construction process follows a laid plan

a) *Siting of the road** should be well sited because if not well sited it creates problems emanating
from erosion

b) *Marking and pegging** Should be pegged and marked along the path that needs to be placed
under construction
c) *Clearing** The trees and shrubs in the marked and pegged area should be cleared using axes and
mattocks

d) *Grading** This is shaping of cleared road path using a self propelled or tractor drawn Grader.

e) *Construction of mitre drains** These are channels which are constructed on the sides of the road at
45° angle to carry away water

f) *Road surfacing with gravel** Apply gravel or laterite(reddish clayey material) on the road surface to
compact it with a tractor drawn rammer

g) *Construction of Culverts** These are structures which drain water across the road.

* Water moves underneath the road surface

_ Fig 1_ Diagram

h) *Inverts*
* These are structures constructed to divert water across the road

* The surface allows water to pass on top of the road to the other side

*MAINTANANCE OF A ROAD*

* Open silted mitre drains

* resurface the road with gravel periodically

* cut grasses along the road

* closing of potholes

* remove soils inside culverts and inverts

*APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY*
* Refers to the rightful and correct technology for farmers depending on their level of operation and
circumstances.

*Maize and Groundnuts sheller*

* A maize sheller is used to separate or remove maize grains from the cobs

* These machines can be manually operated or power driven

* The implement consist of a feeder tray for cobs with conveyor belt

* Cobs are conveyed to a rotating threshing drum fitted with beater bars.
* the cobs are squeezed or forced through a limited space between beater bars and a concaved
concrete plate with holes.

* the grains fall through the plate into a chute where air blows through cleaning off chaff and impurities

*Groundnuts sheller*

* Groundnuts sheller is used for the purpose of removing groundnut seeds from the shells

* is made up of a feeder metal box where nuts to be shelled are fed through

* Beater bars are fitted to an Arm of shaft which is moved backwards and forward.

*Parts and functions*

_Base_ : Main structural frame

_Removable Grid_: Acts a base plate that creates limited space to assist the decorticating bars in
splitting the pods realising the nuts

_Handle_ : Operates the sheller by moving the bars back and forth against the removable grid.

_Decorticating bars_ : Squeeze the pods releasing the nuts

_Hopper Box_: Holds unshelled nuts during processing

_Adjustable throat slide_ : Regulates the amount of groundnuts fed into the sheller during shelling.

*AGRIBUSINESS*
* This is a branch which deals with the financial management of a farm as a business.

*Principles of Economics*
*The Law of Deminishing Returns*

* This states that there is a positive relationship between input applied and the yield obtained but only
to a certain point where continuous application of the input on a fixed factor of of production will not
lead to a corresponding increase in output

*Implications*

* farmers should apply the correct amount of fertiliser in the field to.obtain maximum yields
* Fertiliser should not continuously be applied because they will get fewer yields and it will be a waste of
resources

* A point of inflection is reached the yield will start to decline

*_Diagram of the Law of diminishing returns_*

*Risks and Uncertainties*

*RISK* Is a hazard or danger which a farmer can predict its occurrence and as a result the farmer can
insure against it.

*TYPES OF RISKS*

*Weather changes*-: production depent on the weather patterns experienced in agriculture

*Fire* -: Produce can be distroyed by fire or fire bunning tobacco during curing.

*Theft* -: Theft of produce can reduce the profit of the farm

*Pests and diseases* -: Occurance of some pests and diseases can wipe off crops and resulting in failure
of obtaining yield.

*Crop failure* -: failure due to various reasons can result in a farmer getting a loss.

*Accidents of employees* -: misfortunes to employees on the job can delay operations on the farm

*UNCERTAINTY*

* These are unforeseen threat to farming business experienced by farmers in Agriculture

*TYPES*

* Change in demand

* Price fluctuations

* Transport availability and reliability

* Unavailability of labour

* Technological changes

* Breach of contract

* Changes in government policy.

*Ways of Minimising Effects of Risks and Uncertainty*

*1. Insurance cover* a Farmer can obtain insurance cover and obtain a policy to provide cover for policy.

*2. Diversification of farming projects* farmer should implement many farming enterprises.

*3. Keep enough food reserves* Farmers should keep enough food reserves for animals

*4. Growing crops on contract* farmers grow crops based on that the contractor will provide them with
inputs

*DECISION MAKING*
* This refers to Informed management ,the choosing and deciding on how resources are best used or
allocated on the farm.

*Importance*

* helps farmer to make correct and sound decisions

* Avoiding suicidal decisions are avoided

* Farmers will establish risks before they are encountered

*Factors influencing decision Making*

*Availability of money* amount of money on the farm will influence the farmer's decision

*Market* Availability of market before the crop is established

*Farmers Knowledge* The technical nowhow and experience of the farmer can also influence a
decision.

*Availability of labour* as the most important factor or resource on the farm the farmer has to consider
it before making a decision.

*Transport* Transport to ferry inputs into the farm and outputs out of the farm

*Environment* the business surrounding is to be considered as some environment have a lot of threats

*MARKETING*
* This is the buying and selling of goods or farm produce and services

* A market is a place where buying and selling occurs

*Marketing legislation*
* there saling of agriculture commodities is governed by the act called _Agricultural products marketing
act_

* Some produce are regulated by agricultural marketing authority.

*Effects of marketing legislation*

* More products are sold if the prizes gazzetted are favourable

* grading systems and marketing standards are maintained

* help farmers to sell their products at once

* Trade imbalances are addressed ( small farmers access to lucrative markets)

* delays in payments for delivered Goods