NAME: AKHIMIEN JOY IBHADE

MATRIC NO:170108153

PROJECT TOPIC: FEMINISM AND FEMINIST ISSUES IN

NIGERIA HOME VIDEOS: A Case study of Chinwe Egwuagu
“Mr and Mrs” and Joy Aiyegbeni “In Line”
 CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Background to the Study

This study was motivated by the growing awareness of issues relating to gender

inequality in Nigerian society. According to the World Bank's collection of development

indicators, women and girls make up around 49% of Nigeria's population, making it a very

populous country. In Nigeria, women and girls have experienced unfair treatment at some

time in their lives simply because of their gender. In the social, economic, political, and

cultural spheres, they have frequently been the victims of discrimination and inequity. Many

feminist concerns have come up over time, including behaviors related to widowhood, female

genital mutilation, child marriage, human trafficking, and discrimination against women.

These problems have impacted women, some of whom have even suffered damage. In

Nigeria's patriarchal society, women are forced to watch as their male counterparts take

center stage. The women are educated from an early age how to be daughters, wives, and

mothers. They are also taught how to cook, how to maintain a home, and that it should be of

highest significance to please their husbands and maintain a good home. Women in Nigeria

are viewed as the less intelligent and physically weaker sex, and they are also seen as having

little to no political, social, or economic significance in the culture. For instance, after the

first lady of Nigeria questioned her husband political judgement and suggested she might not

vote for him in the future, President Muhammad Buhari delivered a response in front of the

German press stating: “ I don’t know the party my wife belongs to but she belongs to my

kitchen and my living room and the other room”

This statement made by the President goes further to prove that they do not value the roles of

women in politics and possibly view their opinions as invalid or insignificant

This action limits women's productivity and affects their self-worth and self-esteem. As a

result of the culture's acceptance of male superiority, some males have taken use of their

power to oppress, denigrate, and mistreat the women in their immediate vicinity.

The goal of a feminist reading is to identify the common problems that women in society

confront, as seen in the movies Mr. and Mrs. and In Line. In many cases, the oppressed

characters that women play in movies reflect the genuine nature of their social status.

The portrayal of women in Nigerian films has started to change, though, in response to

societal changes. One major reason for this is the recent influx of female producers and

directors, who are using the medium of film to highlight issues Nigerian women face in the

social, economic, political, and domestic spheres. The two movies that were used in this

research focuses on feminism and topics including violence, oppression, subordination, and

degradation. The movies highlighted the situation of Nigerian women and demonstrated how

they were able to advance from a position of disadvantage and oppression to one of self-

awareness and realization. It demonstrated how these women overcame by attempting to

gain independence and the right to independently define their own lives in contrast to the

"reduced" lives imposed by their male partners.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Notwithstanding the protests for women's liberation and equality in Nigerian society, there

has been very little to no significant progress for women. In terms of political, economic, and

social engagement, they face discrimination and marginalization. Nigeria's cultural and

religious customs are one of the causes of this issue. When it comes to socioeconomic growth

in Nigeria, the agitations have not produced very beneficial results, and women have not yet

attained the same platform as males. This quote from Adichie's We Should all be Feminist
may help to clarify the issue because it demonstrates the terrible social injustice against

women that exists today. “We teach girls to shrink themselves To make themselves smaller

we say to girls you can have ambition but not too much, you should aim to be successful but

not too successful otherwise you will threaten the man because i am female im expected to

aspire to marriage im expected to make my life choices always keeping in mind tha marriage

is most important

1.3 Aim and Objectives.

The aim of this study is to discus feminism and the feminist issues in Nigeria home videos

Objectives

i. To unveil the issues faced by women in the Nigerian society and Nigerian home videos

ii. To determine why these issues are still prevalent.

iii. To proffer solutions to this feminist issues.

1.4 Scope and Delimitation of the study

The scope of this study is focused on the issues that women in Nigeria encounter in society

that have an impact on and limit them. Analyses of the movies In Line and Mr. and Mrs. are

included in the study. It is not however limited to this alone as ideas from other books and

materials would be used too.

1.5 Research Questions

i. What are the preceding factors of feminism

ii. What are the feminist issues found in Egwuagus’s “Mr and Mrs”

iii What are the feminist issues found in Aiyegbeni’s “In Line”
1.6 Significance of the study

The significance of this study is that it will operate as a pedagogic tool for illuminating

and addressing the limitations placed on women in society, particularly in the domestic

sector. The issues raised above will be thoroughly examined, and then a deductive argument

or solution will be put out in an effort to potentially solve all of the issues raised. This study

is very important because it will discuss some of the problems and issues that women in

Nigerian society confront as well as potential solutions to these issues.

1.7 Theoretical Framework

For the purpose of this research work, the researcher will be adopting two methods which are

Womanism

A branch of feminism called womanism was created by Mary Kolawole and Chikwenye

Ogunyemi. According to Ogunyemi, Womanism is rooted in "the ideals of Black life," and is

concerned "as much with the Black sexual power tussle as with the world power structure

that subjugates Blacks." They contend that cultural and societal factors have a role in the

problems women experience and that African women's problems differ greatly from those of

Western women, making it impossible to successfully apply western feminist theories to the

problems women face in Nigeria.

Snail-Sense feminism theory

This theory recognizes the oppressive conditions women have to deal with the Nigerian

society; the difficult conditions which it aptly describes as “boulders, rocks, thorns, crags and

rough terrains...”(27). It strongly advocates that women should adopt a snail-like way of

“conciliatory or cooperative attitude towards men” as they negotiate their way through these
very difficult conditions littered with harsh objects in the manner a snail crawls over the very

harsh conditions or rough terrains:

smoothly and efficiently with a well lubricated tongue which is not damaged or destroyed by

these harsh objects. Moreover, the snail carries its house on its back without feeling the

strain. It goes wherever it wishes in this manner and arrives at its destination intact. If danger

looms, it withdraws into its shell and is safe (27).

The theory further alleges that “this is what women often do in our society to survive in

Nigeria’s harsh patriarchal culture” (27) and that our fore-mothers adopted this approach and

lived well in their society.

1.6 Research methodology

The two main categories of the research methodological technique for data collecting for this

work are primary sources and secondary sources.

In Line and Mr. and Mrs., two Nigerian movies, are the primary sources, while papers,

journals, published books, etc. are the secondary sources.

1.7 Definition of Terms.

Feminism: Feminism is an interdisciplinary approach to issues of equality and equity based

on gender, gender expression, gender identity, sex, and sexuality as understood through social

theories and political activism.

Feminist: A person who believes in the equal opportunities of the sexes

Inequality: The unfair difference between groups of people on the society

CHAPTER TWO
 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

African feminism are a collection of many equalist ideologies and movements working to

improve the status of African women. The premise of African feminism is that patriarchal

benefits are given to men at the expense of women. They work to correct perceived injustices

against women that have been perpetuated over time. From the myth of Eden to the present,

social constructions of masculine and feminine gender roles have tended to reinforce certain

stereotypes: women are viewed as the passive cause of much of the harm done to man and, by

extension, to humanity, while men are seen as having an assertive and authoritarian nature

that supports their dominance of women. Because of the tight distinctions between social

classes, it tends to dictate unequal roles for men and women while misrepresenting the

different temperaments within each group. The arrangement gave rise to the first feminist

movement, which challenged the status quo and advocated a uniform strategy for addressing

problems that affect women.In order to lessen, if not completely remove, women's

oppression, feminism "seeks to understand the ways in which women are oppressed—

socially, economically, politically, and psychologically" (Bressler 144). The feminist

movement has been characterized by rebellion throughout its stages, starting with the white

woman's rejection of male dominance. Feminism is a sensitive topic till this day and there

have been pioneers, researchers, scholars who have within its scope defined and explained

the basis and concept of feminism and as such, this thesis will be following in such pattern to

discuss feminism and feminist issues in Nigeria.

2.1 Historical overview of feminism

Feminism is a belief in social, economic, and political equality of the sexes in every stage of
the society.The French radical socialist and utopian philosopher Charles Fourier coined the
term "feminism" in 1837 to describe "the illness of womanly qualities appearing in men"
(Delap, 2007). The United States and Europe are where feminism first emerged; later, it
extended to Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and slowly to other continents before becoming
widely accepted on all seven continents. It serves as a catch-all phrase for a variety of social
phenomena connected to the patriarchal oppression of women (Dicker, 2008).Bell hooks
notes in “Feminism; A Movement to End Sexist Oppression” that “a central problem within
feminist discourse has been our inability to either arrive at a consensus of opinion about what
feminism is or accept definition(s) that could serve as points of unification” (Kemp &
Squires, 1997, 22). In her essay, Carmen Vasquez tacitly and angrily conveys this
displeasure. “Towards A Revolutionary Ethics”, when she says :we can’t even agree on what
‘Feminist’ is, never mind what she would believe in and how she defines the principles that
constitute honor among us. In consonance with the American capitalist obsession for
individualism and anything goes so long as it gets your want, “feminism in America has
come to mean anything you like, honey. There are as many definitions of feminism as there
are feminists. (Kemp & Squires, 1997, 23).Hooks, however, defines feminism as: a struggle
against sexist oppression. Its aim is not to benefit solely any specific group of women, any
particular race or class of women. It does not privilege women over men. It has the power to
transform in a meaningful way all our lives. Most importantly, feminism is neither a life style
nor a ready-made identity or role one can step into (Hooks, 2003, 51).
In Barbara Berg’s “The Remembered Gate: Origins of American Feminism”, she defines
feminism as a ‘broad movement embracing numerous phases of woman’s emancipation’.
Expanding on her definition, she adds:
It is the freedom to decide her own destiny: freedom from sex determined role; freedom from
society’s oppressive restrictions; freedom to express her thoughts fully and to convert them
freely into action. Feminism demands the acceptance of woman’s right to individual’s
conscience and judgment. It postulates that women’s essential worth, stems from her
common humanity and does not depend on the other relationships of her life (Kemp &
Squires, 1997, 24).
Feminism comprises a number of social, cultural, political movements, theories and moral
philosophies concerned with gender inequities and equal rights for women. The main aim of
feminism therefore is not only to challenge as Bell Hooks suggests, but to dismantle the see-
ming insidious patriarchal institutions .Adichie says a feminist is a woman or man who sees
something wrong with gender as it is today and agrees that we can fix it and do better. Most
importantly, feminism is neither a life style nor a ready made identity or role one can step
into.(5)

2.2 Waves of Feminism

Feminism is a social philosophy and political movement that advocates for the eradication of
all forms of societal oppression, including sexism, sexual exploitation, commonplace sexism,
and sexual discrimination (Fan, 2017). The issues that feminist political activity addresses
include representation, income equality, voting rights, domestic violence, abortion rights,
educational rights, domestic violence, maternity leave, and sexual harassment, gender
discrimination, and sexual assault (Fan, 2017).The history of the feminist movements is
divided into four waves.Each wave denotes a certain cultural era and women's media
participation. The social, political, and cultural standing of women in society is changed by
the feminist movement, which is based on a number of political and social initiatives. Though
feminism has taken many different forms and gone through numerous waves, its significance
for easing women's oppressed status in contemporary societies continues to grow
(Malinowska, 2020).
Feminism is described as happening in waves just like actual waves because after one comes
another wave with same agenda however with slight differences in structure and organisation.
The wave analogy was a demonstration that until all women’s rights are achieved, the
movement is an ongoing process.( Amadi, 2015)

First wave of feminism

Journalist Martha Weinman Lear first used the phrase "The First Wave of Feminism" in an

essay titled "The Second Feminist Wave: What Do These Women Want?" published in the

New York Times Magazine in March 1968. It is classified as concentrating on the struggle

for women's political authority (Lear, 1968).Its main objective is to secure voting rights and

equal rights for women (Rampton, 2015; Malinowska, 2020). It is a crucial period in history

that brings about substantial social change and establishes a larger foundation for equality for

women in every sphere, including the right to vote, the right to educate, the right to inherit

father's property, and others. It seeks to liberate society from patriarchal and racial bias
oppression (Jepsen, 2000; Dicker, 2008). The movement also tackled other issues such as

women's property rights, equal rights under the law, opposition to chattel marriage, and the

ownership of women by their husbands. The movement was mainly comprised of middle-

class white women who were dissatisfied with the societal roles assigned to them.This wave

of feminists prioritizes public demonstrations, speeches, and writing as a means of resistance.

There are many publications owned and edited by women at this time, including The Lily,

The Lady's Magazine, Provincial Freeman, etc. (Malinowska, 2020).

Some Achievements of the first wave feminism

i First birth control clinic was founded in Brooklyn in 1916

ii Women's property act was first passed in New York in 1839.

iii Right to vote was granted.

Second wave feminism

The second wave of feminism began in the 1960s and ended three decades later, in the 1990s.

The main topics in this movement are sexuality and reproductive rights. In 1968, Martha

Lear, who had previously named the first wave of feminism, also coined the phrase "second

wave feminism" (Lear, 1968). When a large number of women start working after World

War II, the movement begins to challenge preconceived ideas about what women's place is in

the home, the workplace, and society (Dominelli, 2002). Numerous political feminisms,

including Marxist, socialist, and ecological feminisms, became more prevalent in society

throughout this wave (Jaggar, 1983). The Miss America Pageants protests in Atlantic City,

New Jersey, in 1968 and 1969 serve as the catalyst for the movement. As a result,

"oppressive" feminine artifacts like bras, girdles, high heels, cosmetics, and false eyelashes

are thrown into the trash, objectifying women's attractiveness (Freeman, 1975). The activists

claim that pageant contestants are treated like cattle and that "women were victims of a
patriarchal, commercialized, oppressive beauty culture"; as a result, they want for the

competition to be stopped [Snyder, 2008]. The second wave of feminism broadened the scope

of feminist politics to include women's personal lives in the fight against sexist male

behavior.The first wave of feminism is led by only white middle-class women of the west,

but the second wave is propelled by both white and non-white women of west as well as in

developing countries (Alhumaid, 2019). The movement is supported to empower the women

on reproductive rights and sexuality. It functions in opposition to civil rights and anti-war

emotions (Davis, 2017).Although the first wave of feminism gave women political rights,

they nevertheless feel limited to domestic duties as mothers and housewives (Friedan,

1963).The oppression of women on a sexual, psychological, and personal level cannot be

included in political rights, they have remarked. According to them, feminist-owned

restaurants, financial unions, and bookshops are important gathering places and sources of

income for women (Munro, 2013). In the second wave, women from developing countries are

involved, and an effort is made to give the wave a color based on the philosophy of

sisterhood and solidarity. American activists note a lack of cohesion in the women's

movement (Rampton, 2015). White feminists frequently silence or dismiss the struggles and

voices of women of color. Women create a social class to make up for this shortcoming,

whereby race, gender, and class combine to cause both direct and indirect oppression of the

patriarchal class (de Beauvoir, 1949). Some of the requests in this wave are reasonable and

obviously required for women. The feminist sex conflicts within feminism, which center on

topics like sexuality and pornography, put a stop to this movement (Gerhard, 2001).

Major Achievements of the second wave

 Equal pay act of 1963

  Civil right act of 1964

 Title Ix passed on 1972

The third wave of Feminism

The third wave feminism is represented by diverse modes of thoughts and extents from the

1990s to 2000s. Heteronormativity and body positivity concerns are brought to light (Kurtis,

2016). Rebecca Walker, an American writer, feminist, and activist who is the daughter of

feminist Alice Walker, created the phrase "third wave feminism" in her well-known piece

"Becoming the Third Wave" in 1992 (Walker, 1992). It is driven by Generation X academics

and activists who were born in the developed world in the 1960s and 1970s. In reality, many

third-wave feminists are the offspring of second-wave feminists (Munro, 2013). Third wave

feminists feel they have "more opportunities and less sexism" than first and second waves

and regard themselves as capable, powerful, and assertive social agents (Baumgardner &

Richards, 2000). The third wave of feminism is frequently referred to as "power feminism"

because working women in a variety of occupations are not exposed to sexist patriarchy

during this time (Wolfe & Goldberg, 2000; Iannello, 2010). It defends women's right to

choose and campaigns against rape, gang rape, and unjust maternity leave laws. It also

promotes reproductive rights. It celebrates sexuality in a positive way and is universal since

"women are of many colors, ethnicities, nationalities, religions, and cultural backgrounds"

(Fisher, 2013; Brunell & Burkett, 2021). Lipstick feminism, girlie feminism, riot grrl

feminism, cybergrrl feminism, transfeminism, netgrrl feminism, and grrl feminism are a few

examples of feminist methods found in the third wave of feminism (Ferriss & Young, 2006;

Stermitz, 2008; Lankford, 2010).

Achievements of the third wave

  1993: Family and medical leave act was created

 1993: Janet Reno became the first female Attorney General of the United States of

America

 1994: Gender equity in education act was created

 1994: Marital rape was declared illegal

 1995: The fourth world conference on women held in China.

 1996: Eve Ensler released the feminist play the Vagina Monologues.

Fourth Wave Feminism

The fourth wave of feminism is seen to have its roots in social networking sites like Facebook

and Twitter (Rivers, 2017). The majority of these interactions and exchanges between women

happen online (Rampton, 2015). Social media social justice movements like the #MeToo and

#TimesUp movements have erupted throughout this time. The "culture of call-out" that

establishes hubs for women as "consciousness-raising groups" and dates back to roughly

2008 has been dubbed "Hashtag Feminism" by Ealasaid Munro (Baumgardner, 2011; Munro,

2013; Blevins, 2018). In this movement, social media acts as a real catalyst to combat media

sexism, gender shaming, professional discrimination against women, and harassment of

women in the workplace. By encouraging acceptance of all potential bodies, it seeks to

empower men, women, and transgender persons (Phillips & Cree, 2014; Maclaran, 2015). It

has a lot to do with using social media, including blogs, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram,

Facebook, and Tumblr. Justice for women, an end to sexual assault and violence against

women by men, and other goals of this wave (Chamberlain, 2017). Weibo, often known as

China's version of Twitter, has developed into a forum for Asian women where local

feminists may express their opinions as part of new bottom-up movement (Lixian, 2015).
Following its popularity in China, Tiktok later gains traction in the USA, where it is used to

share fifteen to sixty second short films. Weibo has strong anti-male views, but TikTok likes

to fight for women's rights. Both of these support the fourth wave feminism's emphasis on

body acceptance, sexual liberation, and female ambition. TikTok does not have authority

over the Chinese government, although Weibo does (Kaye et al., 2021, 2022).

2.4 Feminism in Nigeria

Feminism has been a distant tool of intellectual discourse and political action to the majority

of women scholars and activists in Sub‐Saharan Africa  (Adamu, 5) In Nigeria records of

women's struggles have been in existence since the 19th century. Nigerian women have

played significant roles throughout the history of Nigeria from its pre-colonial times down to

its post-colonial periods. Nigerian women have strongly influenced the political and social

spheres during these periods. The disproportion in rights, properties and opportunities

brought about the rise in agitating for equality in Nigeria. The women, plagued by cultural

and religious constraints such as patriarchy and sexism began to demand for improvement for

the status of women which has been the basis of these agitations. To properly discuss

feminism in Nigeria, it is imperative to discuss women's struggles through the three stages of

precolonial, colonial and post-colonial rule.

Feminism is Nigeria has a broad history spanning different periods; the precolonial,

colonial and post-colonial. Feminism is often interpreted as being anti-male, anti-culture and

anti-religion in its theoretical framework. It therefore becomes challenging for a woman

writer who shares none of these ideologies» to take-on the feminist tag (Nkealah 133).
However, feminist activities have continued to thrive. Most people would rather say women

liberation movement rather than feminist movement because of the bias associated with the

term feminism in Nigeria. Feminist activities in Nigeria have continued in form of women

liberation movements and non-governmental organization by a select few, mostly devoid of

the passion and rage that was witnessed in the first and second waves of feminist movement.

Most of these women empowering mediums aim to moderately reform society without

offsetting the cultural balance of patriarchy. Hence they advocate against some feminist

issues such as domestic violence, rape, human trafficking etc. and leave those like male

domination and discrimination. Nigeria has come a long way in development of rights for

women. Laws such as the child right act against child marriages have been created. However

these laws are hardly implemented, so the plight of women remains the same. According to

Osofisa; In various places and on various platforms, our women have repeatedly voiced their

bitterness against men, for reasons ranging from economic exploitation to cultural

misrepresentation to political abuse. Thus all men by virtue of being male stand condemned

(12).

In the above, Osofisan points out that these women have truly agitated against these issues

but still there are little or no changes.

2.5 Variants of Feminism in Nigeria

Many ideas that would better address the woman issue by having an awareness of their

cultural and sociological background were developed in response to the goal to construct a

feminist vision that embraces the backgrounds of African women. African women perceive

the world differently due to their diverse cultures, hence western feminism will not

adequately address their situation. Feminist theories that are appropriate for Nigerian culture

and society have been proposed by a number of well-known feminist scholars, including
Catherine Acholonu, Chioma Opara, Molara Ogundipe, Helen Chukwuma, Chikwenye

Ogunyemi, and Mary Kolawole. Motherism, Stiwanism, Snail Sense Feminism, Femalism,

African Womanism, and others are a few of these theories.

African womanism

Chikwenye Ogunyemi presented this notion in the 1980s. In order to better support the

feminist philosophy of the African woman, womanism aims to combine culture, race, and

other influencing variables. Womanism, in Ogunyemi's opinion, is a better phrase to

characterize women's participation in social change. She claims that when considering

feminism, "African womanism strives to include African, racial, cultural, economic, and

socio-political problems" (55).

Another author, Mary Kolawole, makes the case for a womanism that is strongly influenced

by African principles. She contends that topics like lesbianism, which is theorized in Western

feminism, are unrelated to our ideals. Womanism, according to Kolawole, is "the entirety of

feminine self-expression, self-retrieval, and self-assertion in positive cultural ways"

(1997,15). And like Joseph Adeleke (Adeleke:34), one would be tempted to wonder if

lesbianism and the destruction of heterosexuality aren't a shift in the direction of what Black

women once claimed they opposed as being pro-white culture and somehow an anomaly

among Blacks. Considering this recent development, can one still view marriage and family

as being vitally important to Black women?

These difficulties cast doubt on the place of womanism in the context of the African female

experience in Africa, necessitating the search for either a fusion of the existing theories to

account for the apparent peculiarities or the development of a new set of theories to

specifically address the African woman in Africa.

Motherism

Catherine Acholonu made this claim in her book Motherism(1995) An Afro-centric

Alternative to Feminism. As an African alternative to feminism that emphasizes the

significance of motherhood in the experience of African women, she proposes the idea of

motherism:

An Afrocentric feminist theory, therefore, must be anchored on the matrix

of motherhood  which is central to African metaphysics and has been the basis of the survival

and unity of the black race through the ages. Whatever Africa’s role may be in the global

perspective, it could never be divorced from her quintessential position as the Mother

Continent of humanity, nor is it coincidental that motherhood has remained the central focus

of African art, African literature (especially women's writing), African culture, African

psychology, oral traditions, and empirical philosophy. Africa’s alternative to Western

feminism is Motherism and Motherism denotes motherhood.

A motherist is one committed to the survival of mother earth and who embraces the woman

struggles. motherist can be a man or a woman. She advocates for male-female

complementarity for motherism to work.

Stiwanism

This strand was developed by Omolara Ogundipe-Leslie.(1994,1) Stiwanism was coined

from social transformation. She argues that more attention should be paid to the sociological

structures that oppress women. And she says

“Wanted to stress the fact that what we want in Africa is social transformation. It is not about

warring with men, the reversal of role, or doing to men whatever women think that men have
been doing for centuries, but it is trying to build a harmonious society. The transformation of

African society is the responsibility of both men and women and it is also in their interest.

The new word describes what similarly minded women and myself would like to see in

Africa. The word “feminism” itself’ seems to be a kind of red rag to the bull of African men.

Some say the word by its very nature is hegemonic or implicitly so. Others find the focus on

women in themselves somehow threatening. Some who are genuinely concerned with

ameliorating women’s lives sometimes feel embarrassed to be described as ‘feminist’ unless

they are particularly strong in character”.

Snail-sense feminism

Snail-Sense One of the Afro-centric feminist theories, aims to end male dominance and

female subjugation throughout Africa, with a focus on Nigeria in particular. This theory was

proposed by Akachi Adimora-Ezeigbo. She advocates for Nigerian women to have the

patience and dexterity of a snail when navigating "boulders, rocks, thorns, crags and harsh

terrains" (Adimora-Ezeigbo 27). That is they should copy the slow movement of a snail in

their dealings with men especially in a highly patriarchal society. She encourages women to

learn acute survival skills to enable them live well despite the patriarchal nature of the

Nigerian society. She advocates that women should make use of effective dialogue and

negotiation in their dealings with men.

2.6 Roles of women in Nigeria from Pre-colonial to post-colonial

The pre-colonial era was the period preceding the colonial era, the period before the

colonialists settled down in Nigeria. During the pre-colonial period, women participated in

the economic, social and political sectors. Women were farmers they assisted their husband
together with their children at the farm, they were traders and they mainly sold produce from

their farms. Some others were professionals in mat weaving, pottery making etc. Politically

women had rights with both in unison and individually. For older women and wives in the

different tribes in Nigeria, the participation of women defers. Women had political rights

during the pre-colonial period because the political organization was the family and in a sort

of arrangement, women had considerable authority over her children. Women in the pre-

colonial times played complimentary roles and not subjective roles. The only region were

women were seriously discriminated against was in Northern Nigeria and it was due to their

religion. However some women still made impact and one of such women that made impact

was Queen Amina of Zazzau, Zaria in 1576, she was the undisputed ruler of the Zazzau

Kingdom in Northern Nigeria and she extended her rule down to where we know today as

Bauchi.

In the Western part of Nigeria, there was Moremi of Ife. In the West, women played

significant roles such as high priestess and also they had formidable organization such as the

market women organisation with the Iyalode as their leader. In old Benin Kingdom, women

held political powers by virtue of being wives and mothers to royalty. The traditional stool of

the Queen mother was a very important and dignified one. Other prominent women were

Emotan of Benin, Queen Idia etc. In the Eastern part of Nigeria, women had economic

freedom as lots of them were farmers who also doubled as traders during the market days.

Women in this region such as the priestesses and Lolos (wives of the king) were granted

certain political powers.

In the Southern part of Nigeria, women were good in fishing and had prominent women like

Omu Okwei of Ossomari( Delta state) who was crowned in 1935. She was a Queen who

oversaw women's needs and settled disputes. According to different sources, she was a
prominent Palm oil trader with the royal oil company and she amassed vast fortunes and was

also elected market queen and chairwoman of the council of mothers .

Okoh opines that several arguments have been made in favour of and against the issue of

feminism existing before the colonialists came in with their Victorian culture. Some critics

have argued that it was there white man that brought with him to Africa their sexist Victorian

culture. In the case of Nigeria, the critics usually refer to legendary women who saved their

communities and those who have featured prominently in Nigerian history. These women

include the Moremi of Ife and the Inkpi of Igala. Iyalode Efunseta Aniwura of Ibadan, Omu

Okwei of Osomari, Queen Daura of Daura, Queen Amina of Zazzau, Queen Kambassa of

Bonny, Nana Asma'u of Sokoto, Madam Tinubu of Lagos, and Madam Ransome Kuti. Aduni

Oluwole, the Queen Mothers of Benin City, the Aba Women's Riot leaders, the Omu of

Western Igboland, the Iyalode and Iyaloja of various Yoruba villages, as well as the

combined power of the Ibo's Umuada were all present.

Women were known to have played complimentary roles and were not denied of economic

and social participation until the colonial Lords arrived and sidelined women from active

participation.

Colonial period

Women were excluded from participating in the activities of the country during this time.

The majority of early colonial regulations and statues were sexist and biased towards women

at a time when the British were experiencing the first wave of feminism. Due to their inability

to obtain significant loans, women were unable to participate in the trading world. The

colonialists' laws and regulations had restrictions on women. Nonetheless, at this time,

women discovered their strength in numbers and organizations like the market women

association that gave them a voice. Women have always worked the land and cultivated crops
before colonization arrived, but as a result of legislation implemented during this time, they

now claim the majority of the lands that these women previously farmed. Due to this, women

lost economic powers and had to depend more on their husbands and these brought male

dominance and supremacy to light and a loss of female identity, to an extent

The colonialists also established a significant trend with their very narrow perspective of

women and their role in daily life. It was expected of Victorian women to carry out their jobs

without much in the way of personality or presence. While playing a significant role in

creating the houses and nurturing the children of their men, the African women quickly felt

their status and power in society being taken from under them. The colonialists believed that

women weren't allowed to have personalities or act pretend, as Victorian women did. Women

were persistent in seeking inclusion and involvement, and this resulted in a number of

measures. There is no doubt that colonialism presented African women with a variety of

challenges and negative effects. However, as a display of their resilience, these women

responded, in many cases, by learning to protest and stand up for their rights. They adapted as

they needed to, and were determined to preserve their identities. An example of taking such

initiative to regain their ‘voice’ is the British West African Ladies Club, established in 1929

in Nigeria. This organisation was designed to encourage women to express themselves and to

give them a platform upon which to do so.

The Aba women's riot in 1929 and the Abeokuta market women's protest in 1948 are only

two examples of how they used protest and riots to reclaim their voices. As a result of the

British creating unfavorable economic conditions, which led to the women's riot in Aba, the

women vehemently denounced British taxation because the small profit they made was

insufficient to cover such exorbitant tax fees. The same problem of exorbitant taxes and the

failure of the traditional authorities to defend their interests were the driving forces for the

Aba women's riot, which occurred over ten years before the Abeokuta women's protest. The
king abdicated/vacated the throne as a result of this protest, which was organized by

Olufummilayo Ransome-Kuti. Soon after this the agitation for other favourable policies and

independence were consistent. The National Women's Union was created in 1947; it's known

to be the first national women's organisation. Their agitation yielded results as in the 1950's

women were appointed into the State parliament, women like Olufumilayo Ransome-Kuti

representing the west, Margaret Ekpo and Janet Mokelu representing the Eastern region.

These women joined forces with the men to bring about the emancipation of Nigeria from the

clutches of Great Britain. However the women failed to confront other feminist issues like

male dominance and patriarchy.

Post-colonial era

At the start of this period, women were given room to play active roles in the nation's

development especially in agriculture. In 1960, women were granted franchise with the

exception of the Northern women and so in 1960, a woman by name Mrs. Wuruola Adam

emerged as the first female member of the Federal parliament, her victory was followed

closely by that Chief (Mrs.) Margaret Ekpo as the representative of the Aba urban north

constituency in the eastern house of Assembly. However in Northern Nigeria due to cultural

and religious bias women were not given the vote until 1979. During these periods of early

independence, women and girls still lacked formal education as there was preference for the

male child than female was it came to education.

In the 1970's and 1980's women liberation groups began to rise and they began to push

against cultural constraints and horrible practices such as widowhood rites, female genital

mutilation etc. As of today, Nigerian women enjoy freedom to a certain extent. Education is

now more accessible and the tertiary institutions are more populated by females. Some

feminist argues that Nigeria has produced exceptional women who in one or the other have
impacted greatly on the society, however they argue that these women are too few when

compared with the huge population of women, In Nigeria, a few laudable achievements by

women such Margaret Ekpo and others have been recognised and are probably the few

exceptional women Tori Moi in Sexual/Textual politics refer to when she said. Throughout

history a few exceptional women have indeed managed to resist the full pressure of

patriarchal ideology becoming conscious of their own oppression and voicing their

opposition to male power

In Nigeria, discrimination against women still exists howbeit more in some cultures than

others. In Igbo land women cannot inherit properties and have less say in their home or

outside the home where as in the Yoruba culture, women are allowed to inherit properties. In

the Hausa culture, the treatment of women is still as it was decades ago; wives are expected

to be docile and subservient. The United Nations has equally helped in promoting the rights

of women in Nigeria including through conferences such as the Beijing conference of 1995.

However a large portion of women in Nigeria still suffers hiccups on several issues such as

patriarchy, violence, Male dominance and gender roles.

Some Feminist Issues in Nigeria

 Patriarchy

 Female genital mutilation

 Widowhood Practices.

Widowhood practices: The practice of these traditions which is mostly prevalent in the

Eastern part of Nigeria has decimated in recent times. However before now the widowhood

rights consisted of very barbaric practices such as shaving of hair, eating from dirty disposed

utensils. Being kept in seclusion and the unhealthiest of all, the Ndakpo Uzu practice of

drinking water from the washed corpse or embracing the corpse three times to prove ones
innocence of having a hand in her husband’s death. Amongst the Yoruba some widowhood

practice includes wearing of black for a long period of time

According to Aransola and Ige (2010) widowhood practices is observed among the

Yoruba to protect the woman from being harmed by the spirit of the husband; for the

woman to prove innocence of the death of her husband and for the husband family to

ascertain if the woman had been pregnant as at the time the husband died so that

they can claim responsibility and care for the woman among other reasons.

Widowhood practices in Yoruba also include sitting on the floor, going into seclusion and

according to Adekanye: A widow is expected to express her sorrow of losing her husband

through wearing of black clothes. Crying and often falling into the ready hands of others to

prevent her from injuring herself. In the Eastern part of Nigeria, when a woman's husband

dies, her hair is shaved off and she is made to sit on the floor and forbidden to touch any

objects.

Another major widowhood practice in Igbo land is the confiscation of properties by the

husband’s relatives. Nzewi was quoted in Akinbi Joseph’s Widowhood Practices in some

Nigerian Societies: A Restropective Examination: among the Igbo people of Nigeria, the

relatives demand for document relating to the deceased properties including lands,

investment and bank account and the widows were required to take oaths as proof

that the knowledge of relevant land and personal property of the deceased were not

concealed. Subsequently, the widows were required to provide expensive items like a

white goat and two jars of palm wine for purification purpose to the female members

of their husbands lineage who made and implemented decision on every matter

concerning widows. The widows were forbidden to touch any object including

themselves without defilement. Hence they were given piece of sticks to scratch their
bodies, while their food is also cooked in old pots rather than those normally used

for cooking for other members of the family. Also, they were to sleep on old mats

placed on wooden planks which would be burnt at the end of the mourning period. If

a woman dies during the one year mourning period, she is perceived as being

responsible for her husband’s death and therefore commits an abomination (9).

However due to factors such as the intervention of the United Nations, Christianity, education

and modernization some of these practices have been laid to rest but some still exist.

Female genital mutilation

According to the World Health Organization, female genital mutilation includes all practices

that include the partial or complete removal of the external female genitalia and/or harm to

the female genital organs, whether done for cultural or other non-therapeutic purposes.

Nigeria has the biggest absolute number of FGM instances in the world due to its enormous

population and widespread usage of the procedure, which accounts for around one-fourth of

the estimated 115–130 million circumcised women globally.[2]

In Nigeria, the south-south has the highest prevalence of FGM (77%) among adult women,

followed by the south east (68%) and the south west (65%), although the north strangely has

a lower prevalence and tends to perform FGM in a more radical manner.

GM comes in four different forms, including Type I clitoridectomy, Type II Sunna, Type III

Infabulation, and Type IV, which involves removing a portion of the clitoris. Due to

excessive bleeding, female genital mutilation has tragically resulted in the deaths of innocent

women. Since the timely intervention of the World Health Organization, United Nations,

Federation of International Gynecologists and Obstetricians, and some other relevant bodies,
FGM has been steadily declining; however, FGM still occurs in some areas, and the majority

of cases involve adult circumcision.

Patriarchy

The word patriarch, which has its roots in the ancient Greek word patriarkhia, is the source

of the word patriarchy. Patriarchy is a set of societal norms and systems in which men are

viewed as masters and women as their subordinates. According to Okpe, patriarchy is a

complex network or system of hierarchical organization that spans the political, economic,

social, religious, cultural, industrial, and financial spheres and is characterized by the

overwhelming predominance of males in leadership roles. Because men are seen as the

dominant gender and women as the submissive, the patriarchal nature of Nigerian society has

resulted in significant discrimination against women. Male children are seen as being more

significant than female children, and they are raised with the idea that they are in charge and

that women should be subordinate to them. This establishes a dominant pattern from birth,

with the subjection of women as the inevitable outcome. Women will significantly boost their

ability to contribute to society and be seen as relevant if patriarchal structures are destroyed.

In many Nigerian traditions, women are indoctrinated to constantly view the men in their

lives as their owners and are thus prohibited from making decisions, participating in

government, or making decisions for themselves. Due to this, Hartman claims Heterosexual

marriage, female childrearing and housework, women's economic dependence on men

reinforced by labor market arrangements, the state, and the numerous institutions based on

social relations among men -- clubs, sports, unions, professions, universities, churches,

corporations armies -- are key aspects of patriarchy as we currently experience it (97).

Women are taught to aspire to marry and not aspire to have ambition; men are taught to have

ambitions because they are the heads. Although with more participation of women in formal

education, women now know they can achieve more than being housewives and a mother
confined to the kitchen. However, women are striving to step out of the confinement of

patriarchy and have ambitions.

Women are advancing to prominent jobs that were formerly dominated by men. Even now,

there are companies run entirely by women. It is obvious that women are significantly

contributing to the advancement of contemporary civilization.

2.8 History of the development of Nigerian video films

The evolution of Nigerian video films is a complex topic with colonial influences and the

tenacity of independent producers who, despite challenging circumstances, persisted until

Kenneth Nnebue's 1992 film Living in Bondage ultimately achieved success. The colonial era

and the post-colonial era are two time periods that can be used to categorize the history of

film production. Charles Ginsburg invented the first video tape recorders. This marked the

start of the development of video films from video coverage, which was mostly utilized for

social recording because it was regarded as being superior to still photography.

The Colonial era

Nigeria was first exposed to film by the colonial authorities. There were two ways that film

first appeared in Nigeria.

1 Independent commercial production

2 Colonial government sponsored production

The very first record of film in Nigeria can be traced back to the year 1903 when merchants

began to exhibit films regularly to a fee paying audience from 12-22 August 1903. The first

medium was first introduced into Nigeria in 1903 courtesy of Hebert Macaulay and the
Balboa collaboration. This film was exhibited at the captain John Glover memorial hall,

Lagos. Thus, the "Glover memorial hall", became the epicenter of film show (Daramola 202).

Following the well-documented success of Mr. Balboa's silent film exhibition in Nigeria, a

European businessman by the name of Stanley Jones started showing his films on a regular

basis to paying audiences for a fee of 3 shillings each. As soon as more European film

exhibitors arrived in Nigeria, the film industry flourished. The August 3, 1904 screening of a

documentary on the Alake of Abeokuta's trip to England was a significant occasion that

promoted the film industry. The first big box office success was this.

The first religious propaganda film was shown to a school audience in 1907 by a group of

missionary Catholic fathers. This event launched the practice of spreading religion through

motion pictures. The first feature film created in Nigeria, Palaver, by Geoffrey Barkas, was

shown shortly after colonial filmmakers started making movies for native viewers. In the

movie, there were also speaking roles for actors from Nigeria. By 1921, Lagos, Nigeria had

four cinemas showing films twice a week as the commercial film industry expanded. The

excitement of the movie experience led to widespread patronage by both young and old

people. Christian missionaries exploited the development of film as a means of spreading

their religious message, which had a significant impact on cinema culture as well.

By the 1930s and 1940s, there was evidently significant investment in the movie industry as

wealthy businessmen started to open large commercial theaters. One of the most notable

theater operators in Nigeria was the west African Pictures Company, which was run by Mr. S.

Khali and was responsible for theaters like the Regal Cinema, the Royal Cinema, the Rex

Cinema located in Ebute Meta in Lagos, among others. The Capitol Theater, the Odeon

Theater, the Central Theater, etc. were some additional well-known movie theaters of the

time. In spite of the fact that Nigerian cinema was thriving at the time, production and
distribution were under the hands of foreigners, hence they lacked Nigerian substance. A

censorship board was established in 1937 by the colonial government of Nigeria to supervise

issues relating to the construction and operation of cinemas.

Colonial government sponsored productions

In order to educate the population about a plague outbreak that had broken out in the Lagos

protectorate, the colonial authorities started making movies in 1929. William Sellers, the

chief health officer, was in charge of this program. In addition to enlisting their assistance in

eradicating the plague-carrying rats, William Sellers used video to explain to the residents of

the Lagos protectorate how rodents spread the disease. This public education campaign was

effective in halting the propagation of erroneous stories and superstitions about the origins of

the pandemic in the protectorate. The colonial authorities decided to use film as a teaching

tool in the predominantly pre-literate community at the time due to the experimentation's

effectiveness (Shaka, 230).

The colonial government dispatched mobile theater vans to transport educational films

throughout all of Nigeria as a result of the reported success in 1931. The development of

mobile film units was a result of this. However, the colonial government's involvement was

primarily propagandistic in nature. The colonial overlords made the decision to get involved

in cinema exhibition based on the popularity of the movie shown by the Balboa film

exhibition company. However, theirs served a propaganda purpose! Thus, they showed the

Tarzan series, a propaganda film that depicts the white man as being superior to blacks

(Okome 29).

The colonial government used this medium to promote its war ideology, such as "the

Germans were a common enemy," and a colonial cinema unit was established to successfully

promote this agenda during the Second World War, when its propagandistic agenda was fully
developed. The Federal Film Unit (FFU), which was established to replace the CFU and

increase the amount of indigenous Nigerian content in cinemas, was renamed the CFU in

1946 after the war.

The Federal Film Unit (FFU) was established to take the place of the Colonial Film Unit

(CFU) upon the achievement of independence. The goal was to develop films that focused on

Nigerian culture and indigenized the film's substance. According to Mgbejume, "the Federal

Film Unit did not make any appreciable effort to create an indigenous cinema; instead, it

started the exhibition of the same colonial documentary" (44). According to Shaka, the

colonial government of Nigeria sent Adamu Haiku, A. A. Fajemisin, J. A. Oriana, and

mallam Yakubu Aina for training at the Accra film training school. They worked under the

direction of N. F. Sure, who was then the Chief Film Officer of the FFU. Empire Day

festivities in Nigeria (1948), leprosy (1950), smallpox (1950), the Port Harcourt municipal

council election (1955), and Queen Elizabeth's visit to Nigeria are only a few of the

documentaries made by the FFU during its heyday (Shaka, 232-233).

Post-colonial era

Foreign movies, including western and Indian melodramas, became widely available in

Nigeria after she attained independence in 1968. However, when former theater

professionals entered the film industry in Nigeria in the early 1970s, feature film production

began there.

Osei Davies created a version of Kongi's Harvest by Wole Soyinka in 1970. Filmmakers like

Ola Balogun, Hubert Ogunde, Eddie Ugbomah, Adamu Haiku, Afolabi Adesanya, and others

launched the movement for local film production in the middle of the 1970s. Dinner with the
Devil by Sanya Dosunmu and Amadi by Ola Balogun were the two full-length feature films

that were released in 1975. The first films with entirely Nigerian material and language were

produced as a result. The Nigerian film industry was at its height between the early 1970s and

the early 1980s (Ayakoroma 3).

The Yakubu Gown organization decree, which was issued in 1972 and resulted in the transfer

of various film houses from foreign owners to Nigerians, was one of the major factors that

contributed to the expansion of indigenous film production in Nigeria. This promoted more

Nigerian participation, and the country's rising prosperity during the oil boom of 1973–1978

resulted in the creation of several new theaters, notably the 5,000-seat national arts Theatre,

Iganmu, in 1976. Over 50 films were released in Nigeria between 1975 and 1985,

representing a steady growth in the country's film productions: Ola Balogun, who received

his training at the renowned institution de Hautes Etudes cinématographiques in Paris,

France, played a significant role in the decade-long boom in the production of movies.

Alpha (1974), Amadi (1975), Ajani Ogun (1976), Musik man (1977), Black goddess (1978),

scream for freedom (1981), and money power (1982) are some of his personal films in

addition to documentaries. (Shaka, 133).

Other movies made around this time include The Mask (1979), Ija ominira (1982), and

Vengeance of the Cult (1982).

The advent of television series/soap operas that quickly became a family favorite, the

structural adjustment program (SAP), the unceasing rise in crime, the lack of financial

support, and poor film quality all contributed to the decline of cinema films in Nigeria and

paved the way for video films/ho895me videos in that country.

2.9 DEVELOPMENT OF HOME VIDEOS IN THE 1980's.

 In 1980, Jimi Odumosu's film Evil Encounter was broadcast on television, but due to

extensive pre-release hype, the film became an immediate hit and sparked a chain of events.

Video copies of Evil encounter were made available illegally a few days following its

television premiere. Following that, selling recorded versions of television programs became

popular. The majority of individuals gained an understanding of how profitable selling video

films could be thanks to this recent development, which sparked the shoddy manufacture of

video films in important towns like Onitsha and Lagos. The prominent Igbo film producer

Mr. Solomon Eze, who went by the online alias Mike Oriehwdinma, is credited with starting

the experiment in Onitsha. His films were not scripted but mostly improvisations and he

released video films like Ocho Ifekwu, Adaeze and others.

Sonso Meji (1988) by Ade Ajiboye was the first full-length movie created on video in

Nigeria; it was only shown in a few theaters. Alade Mujideen Aromire's 1989 film Ekun,

which was shown at the National Theatre, Iganmu, was soon after published on video. Later,

Aromire released additional movies like Sisi London and Obirin Asiko. Soon after, new

producers started to appear, including Gbenga Adewusi and the Ojo Ladipo Theatre three,

which included Jide Kosoko, Kenneth Nnebue, and Adebayo Salami. They were responsible

for producing films such Asirin Nla (1989) and Ine lote (1990), both directed by Kenneth

Nnebue.

The 1992 masterpiece Living in Bondage by Kenneth Nnebue/Nek video connections, which

started the genre of supernatural horror movies in Nigeria, was the major break for video

films in that country.

A flood of newcomers entered the Nigerian film business as a result of the enormous

popularity that the film Living in Bondage achieved. Soon after, more video movies like Evil

Passion for Zeb Ejiro (1994), Glamour Girls 1 & 11 (1994), Jezebel by Francis Ago, and
others were published. Nollywood, often known as the Nigerian film industry, has had

significant growth since that time. According to Wikipedia, at least four to five films were

made in Nigeria every day as of 2004. The Nigerian film industry has the title for being the

second-highest producer of movies worldwide, behind only India and barely ahead of the

United States of America. Since the initial upsurge in 1992, video film in Nigeria has

continued to exist.