The monogfaph is based on wide ranging experimental and_ theoretical studies and results of expeditions spréad over several years. Full scale investigations on stationary objects were conducted on specially constructed bank protection measures and stations equip- ped with unique instrumentation for hydrometeorogical investigation of lake type waves. Since the publication of the Russian edition of the book, new, more accurate data, which enhances the reliability of the engineering recom- mendations has been obtained. The main feature of the book is that the design of slope protection measures has been dealt with by considering a wide range of variation of the elements constituting a storm effect (irregular wind waves) accompained by an analysis of the limiting strength, deformation and other states of the structures. This has been achieved by applying new methods of calculating the affect of ice and other factors and applying generalised data relating to construction and maintenance of slope protection measures under different conditions of service. Attention has also been devoted to engineering estimation of the causes and conse- quences of damage to protection measures. This is a problem of topical interest because there are no clearly defined criteria of assessing the hazard rating of various effects on the per- formance of structures, including the life of the materials used in. construction. The book contains recommendations on determination of initial data for various poselble—designe—of the protect measures. The book is meant for scientists, engineers and designers working in the fields of hydraulic engineering, con- struction of bank protection measures, engineering ecology and for personnel associated with maintenance of bank protection structures.PROTECTION OF EARTH SLOPES OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURESGEOTECHNIKA 15 Selected translations of Russian geotechnical literature_# a PROTECTION OF EARTH SLOPES OF HYDRAULIC STRUCTURES The Institution of Enginse! Bangunas 46720 Petaling Jaya, (UBRARY) — V.S. SHAITAN K.V. SHAITAN D.V. MOROZOVA 008701 Donated by Engineeiing Technical Division A.A. BALKEMA/ROTTERDAM/BROOKFIELD/1997Translated from Russian. © 1997 A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam Dr. N.K. Mehta Ms. Margaret Majithia Translator General Editor Pp UYS Sra OPN S > 23097 a 2@ 4 ISBN 90 5410 176 8 Distributed in USA and Canada by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, Old Post °! Road, Brookfield, VT 05036, USA.List of Important Symbols and Units of Measurements: = x _— height of system of irregular waves in m with probability of exceedance /%. — mean height of system of irregular waves in m length of system of irregular waves in m with probability of exozedance /%. — . mean length of system of irregular waves in m — — declivity of wave; m, = /h - depth of water inm wind velocity in m/s — velocity of water low in m/s — temperature in °C — pressure in tf/m? — height of wave run-up on slope in m — variable height, depth in m length in m width in'm — thickness of ice cover in m — thickness of layer or whole bedding in m — thickness of covering layer or slab in m — length of side of slab in m + diameter in m ormm — inverse gradient of slope; m = cote — angle of inclination of slope with respect to the horizontal gravitational acceleration in m/s? — _ base of natural logarithm 2a R | so 4S Sr3” | SOREN 2 Il 230 De a | oa | ts, Old PostConstructic tures and < ab’ ork ¢ water. Varic | ment slope conditions : muttiplicity boc ‘uring Worns are ic nical proper ‘ In view sures with h ‘complex pre processes ¢ simulation ir retical analy: construction gestions witt eters using ¢ ducted in thi Full-scale sit eral ars (¢ incluae asse also experim instrumentati: ies on mode andt’ ‘r res: goveriung the This bool generalised measures, res ‘ t-design-of— ‘sideration of tl of covering la taining to specPreface to Russian Edition Construction in regions near reservoirs of hydrotechnical and transport struc- tures and also near industrial and public buildings often involves consider- able work on strengthening of earth slopes subjected to the erosive action of | __ water. Various protection measures are employed for the safety of embank- i ment slopes. Protection works provided at reservoirs operate under complex conditions as they are exposed to the action of irregular wind waves and a multiplicity of hydrodynamic processes arising due to movement of the water body during storms. Other factors that affect the working of these protection works are ice conditions, erosive effect of water and other media, geotech- nical properties of the soil of the slope, hydrogeological conditions etc. In view of the above, efficient construction of slope protection mea- sures with high technoeconomic indices represents an extremely broad and complex problem requiring comprehensive full-scale investigation of various Processes on actual structures, as these processes are not amenable to simulation in laboratory conditions. Apart from full-scale studies and theo- retical analysis of their results, the solution to this complex problem requires construction of experimental models for evaluation of various technical sug- gestions with prolonged monitoring of the regimes and performance param- eters using suitable instrumentation. Such comprehensive studies are con- ducted in the Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory, of the VODGEO Institute. Fullscale site investigations have been condutted by VODGEO for sev- eral years (since 1957) in the Kakhov basin region. These investigations. include assessment of the working of various large protection works and also experimental studies on specially constructed models using suitable instrumentation. Field investigations are supplemented by laboratory stud- ies on models simulating some of the aspects of the general processes and their results are used for developing theoretical fundamentals and laws governing the individual processes. This book deals-with part of the available research material, including generalised regime observations required for design of reservoir protection measures, results of research studies and methods developed on their basis ____ for design of beddings of protection measures, recommendations for con ——____ sideration of the effect of ice on the protection, recommendations for design of covering layers of reinforced concrete slabs and recommendations per- taining to specific aspects.viii Due to limitations of size, several topics have been omitted, viz., engi- neering methods for evaluating the ability of soil of the slope to serve as the base for protection, research findings and recommendations on design of other types of covering layers, analysis of damages and disastrous failures of protection measures under various conditions and comparative analysis of the numerous methods proposed for design of protection measures under the action of regular waves. The author would like to record his appreciation for the significant con- tributions made by A.F. Evseeva, V.F. Lukonin and N.P. Rzhegutsky of the Hydraulics Engineering Laboratory of VODGEO Institute to their research investigations and analysis of their results. su co de wi va ob six sic we at Ts ice va co no da deingi- 5 the nof res ysis der son- the woh Preface to Revised and Enlarged English Edition The first nine chapters of this edition are taken from the original Russian book of the same title written by V.S, Shaitan and published in 1974 upon comple- tion of a comprehensive research plan ‘spanning a period of approximately 15 years, Research has continued since 1974, however, covering a wide range of aspects, including theoretical analysis, experimental studies on hydraulic Physical models and full-scale studies at two permanent sites in the region of Kakhov reservoir. The authors of this English edition of Protection of. Earth Slopes of Hydraulic Structures have therefore suitably revised the original Russian publication and added findings recorded these last 20 years. Full-scale studies were conducted on the following bank-protection mea- Sures of the Kakhov reservoir: more than 40 specially constructed experi- mental slope protection segments of various types and sizes from reinforced ‘sonerete and rockiill, covering a total area of more than 60,000 m?; beach deposits with unstrengthened banks as well as embankments strengthened with detrital material, jetties of various types; underwater breakwaters and various other structures. Investigations at the permanent sites also included observations on existing coastal protection structures ‘spread over a length of about 40 km. Measuring and recording instrumentation with remote control was exten- sively used at the experimental bank-protection structures. Readings were taking at fixed times throughout the day the whole year round and electrical signals from the measuring devices were recorded on suitable media. Data was also collected from two primary offshore hydrometeorological stations. In addition to the aforesaid investigations, control readings were taken at periodic intervals on the protected slopes and banks of the reservoirs at Tsimlyansk, Gorki, Samarsk, Volgograd, Kremenchug and elsewhere. Results from new research studies enabled the authors to make signif- icant changes in the first nine chapters of the book and revise the ‘subject matter, conclusions and recommendations (including additional numerical values in Figures) in the light of the additional data. More than a hundred Corrections have been incorporated in the text in view of changes in the norms and standards on design of slopes, new research findings and design data, new results concerning the effect of various factors, new relations for determining the parameters of the elements of protection measures andx fundamentally new concepts about limit states of protective structures and their durability. ‘A new section (5) has been added in Chapter 3 to deal with problems of geotechnical engineering, local stability and dynamics of the bases of slope protection measures. Similarly, section 7 has been added in Chapter 7 to include new data and relations for determining the force of irregular storm waves on slopes. The book has been enlarged with the addition of Chapters 10 and 11 dealing with the design of protection measures of stores and analysis of case studies pertaining to deformations and operational failures of individual protection measures, so as to derive useful conclusions directed towards optimisation of design solutions and prevention of accidents on strengthened slopes. The authors hope that this revised form of the book will provide readers with a more accurate and comprehensive picture of the state-of-the-art on various problems associated with construction of slope protection measures. This book is dedicated to the memory of Diya Vasilevna Shaitan, whose contribution is invaluable, V.S. Shaitan KV. Shaitan D.V. Morozovaad of pe to "1 of sal ds ed os ‘on 28, se an an va 6 -WIND AND WAVE CONDFHONS-AND- RESERVOIR Contents List of Important Symbols and Units of Measurement Preface to Russian Edition Preface to Revised and Enlarged English Edition PART | Construction Details and Data for Design of Protection Measures of Slopes 1. FIELD OF APPLICATION, CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR PROTECTION MEASURES OF RESERVOIR SLOPES. 1.1. Use of Protection Measures at Reservoirs for Safety of Embankment Slopes against Water Erosion 1.2 Structural Elements of Protection’Measures and Main ‘Types of Protective Covering Layers 1.3 Continuous Protective Covers from Oast-in-place Reinforced Concrete 1.4 Continuous Protective Covers ftom Grouted Precast 1 Reinforced Concrete Slabs 1.5 Discontinuous Protective Covers froth Precast Reinforced Concrete Slabs 4 1.6 — Protective Covers from Stone Riprap. 1.7 Beddings for Protective Covers \ 1.8 Supports and Parapets of Slope Protection Measures | 1.9 Contitions of Application of Various Types of Protective | Covers i 1.10 General Design Considerations for Slope Protection Measures OPERATING CONDITIONS AND DATA FOR DESIGN OF SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES DEPENDING i LEVEL REGIME. 2.1 Important Factors Influencing Operating Conditions of | Slope Protection Measures 2.2 Forecasting Wind and Wave Conditions at Reservoirs 10 14 17 19 21 23 24 28 28 30xii 23 Design Parameters of Irregular Wind Disturbance at Reservoirs 39 2.4 Water-level Regimes of Reservoirs 59 ; 3. SERVICE CONDITIONS AND DESIGN DATA FOR SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES DEPENDING ON WINTER REGIMES OF RESERVOIRS, TEMPERATURE AND CORROSIVE EFFECTS OF WATER, ICE AND SOIL AND GEOTECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BASE 72 3.1 Ice Regimes and Physical and Mechanical Properties of Ice in Reservoirs. 72 3.2 Temperature Regimes of Protection Measures and Their Y Bases 81 3.3 Aggressive Effects of Water on Protection 92 3.4 Important Requirements of Construction Materials of \ Protection Measures based on Aggressiveness of the i] Medium and Durability of Protection 95 | 3.5 Analysis of the Condition of Bases of Slope Protection | Measures 98 i 3.5.1 Geotechnical characteristics and hydrogeo- | logical regimes of slope bases 98 | 3.5.2 Requirements of general stability of slopes. 101 i 3.5.3 General problems of dynamics of bases of \ slope protection measures 102 i 3.5.4 Local deformations of the bases of slope, : protection measures . qt 3.5.5 Prediction of local dynamic consolidation of | soil of bases of slope protection measures 124 ‘ PART Il 1 General Problems of Design of Slope Protection Measures 129 4... BOUNDARIES OF PROTECTION MEASURES OF SLOPES UNDER IRREGULAR DISTURBANCE 131 i 41 Classification of Protection Measures Based on Slope Height 131 % 4.2 _ Determination of Lower Boundary of Light Protection the Slop 434 43. Determination of Intermediate Boundaries of Slope , Protection Measures 134 4 4.4 Determination of Upper Boundary of the Main Slope Protection 1364.5 Calculation of Height of Run-up of System of Irregular xii > Waves on Slopes for Determining the Upper Boundary 5 ' of Protection 138 4.6 Some Construction Measures for Reducing Height of Run-up of Waves on Protected Slopes 182 5. DESIGN OF BEDDINGS OF PROTECTIVE COVERS —187 5.1 Initial Conditions for Design of Beddings of Continuous A and Discontinuous Covering Layers of Protection Measures 187 5.2 Seepage Processes in Beddings of Discontinuous ce 4 Covering Layers under Wave Action 189 ‘i 5.3 Main Results of Full-scale studies on Beddings of > Discontinuous Covering Layers 201 5.4 Analysis of Results of Investigations on Grain-size i Distribution in Beddings of Discontinuous Covering / Layers 241 eo 5.5 Determination of Grain-size Distribution in Single-layer Beddings of Discontinuous Covering Layers 248 ce 5.6 Determination of Grain-size Distribution of Layered 8 Beddings of Discontinuous Covering Layers 251 5.7 Determination of Thickness of Beddings of Covering n ' Layers 252 ! 6. ICE LOADS ON SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES 2 4 AND THEIR ESTIMATION 254 6.1 Design Loads on Slope Protection due to Ice Cover 254 ui 6.2 Load due to Continuous Ice Cover Adhering to Slope | Protection during Water-level Fluctuations 255 24 4 6.3 Analysis of Stability of Slope Protection Measures under : Iee Loads 268 eS i 6.4 _ Design of Covering Layers for Strength under Ice Loads 275 5 PART Ill 31 Design of Covering Layers of Slope Protection Measures 277 7. HYDRODYNAMIC LOADS ON COVERING LAYERS 31 ? UNDER IRREGULAR FLUCTUATIONS 279 7.1 Hydrodynamic Loads Considered in the Design of Slope 3t Protection Measures 279 72 Factors Governing Hydrodynamic Loads on Slope 34 4 Protection Measures 283 7.3 Formulation of Experimental Studies on Dynamic Storm 36 \ Loads Acting on Slope Protection Measures 290xiv TA 75 76 77 84 82 83 8.4 85 91 9.2 93 10. 10.1 10.2 Dynamic Storm Loads on External Surface of Covering Layer due to Crashing of Irregular Waves Hydrodynamic Uplift Loads on Continuous Protective Covers under Irregular Wave Disturbance Dynamic Uplift Storm Loads on Continuous Covering Layers of Slabs under Irregular Disturbances Results of Additional Investigations into Storm Loads on External Surfaces of Concrete Covering Layers of Slope Protection Measures under Irregular Disturbance DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS REINFORCED CONCRETE PROTECTIVE COVERS ‘Computations Involved in Design of Continuous Reinforced Concrete Covering Layers Design of Continuous Protective Covering Layer for Overall Stability under Hydrodynamic Uplift Loads Design of Continuous Protective Covering Layer for Strength under Hydrodynamic Uplift Loads Design of Continuous Protective Covering Layer for Strength under Dynamic Storm Load Acting in the Zone of Disintegration of Irregular Waves Design of Continuous Protective Covering Layer for Deformations under Hydrodynamic Upitt Loads DESIGN OF DISCONTINUOUS REINFORCED CONCRETE PROTECTIVE COVERING LAYERS Computations Involved in Design of Discontinuous Reinforced Concrete Covering Layers . Design of Individual Slabs of Discontinuous Reinforced Concrete Covering layers for Stabilty under Hydrodynamic Uplift Load Design of Precast Reinforced Concrete Slabs of Covering Layers for Strength under Non-uniform Settlement of Base due to Assembly and Transportation Loads DESIGN OF STONE COVERING LAYERS FOR SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES Types of Covering Layers of Stones. Fundamental Concepts and Computations Involved in the Design Process ‘Structure and Composition of Stone Riprap of Unsorted Stone for Covering Layers of Slope Protection Measures 299 329 340 352 359 359 360 363 374 374 379 379 379 388 390 390 393 ur179 388 390 390 393 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 W4 11.2 11.3 114 11.5 11.6 117 Effect of Hydraulic Factors on Elements of Stone Riprap of Unsorted Stone in Covering Layers of Slope Protection Measures Calculation of Stone Size Used in Stone Riprap of Unsorted Stone for Covering Layers of Slope Protection Measures Restructuring under Wave Action. Design of Profile and Calculation of Thickness of Stone Riprap Design Check of Covering Layer of Stone Riprap under Uprooting Effect of Ice Load EXAMPLES OF DAMAGE TO SLOPE PROTECTION MEASURES DURING SERVICE PERIOD OF A STRUCTURE Main Factors Causing Damage to Protection Measures Damage to Protection Measures due to Waves Damage to Protection Measures due to Fluctuations in Reservoir Water Level and Groundwater Level Damage to Protection Measures due to Ice Cover Damage to Protection Measures due to Non-uniform Settlement of Soil Base Corrosion of Materials Used in Protection Measures under the Aggressive Effect of Water, Air and Soil, Damage to Protection Measures due to Unsatisfactory Quality of Construction. LITERATURE CITED xv 396 399 415 420 421 421 422 445 447 450 453 463 469| PARTI CONSTRUCTION DETAILS AND DATA FOR DESIGN OF PROTECTION MEASURES OF SLOPESae 1 Field of Application, Construction Details and Design Considerations for Protection Measures of Reservoir Slopes 1.1 Use of Protection Measures at Reservoirs for Safety of Embankment Slopes against Water Erosion Execution of hydraulic construction works at intand water basins including reservoirs generally involves several measures whose purpose is protection of embankment slopes against erosion and abrasive wear. Strengthening of slopes is undertaken during construction of dams [55], pressure and free flow jetties, moles and breakwaters, dykes, roadbeds, foundations of industrial buildings [51], dam intakes and other structures. Conservation of strategic land and mineral resources at reservoir sites, protection of industrial buildings, transport structures, inhabited territories and other constructions often require large-scale implementation of engingering measures such as Strengthening of earth slopes of jetties, counterbeams for landslide controf* etc. [1, 42, 65, 143, 210]. Similar measures are undertaken at watér basins for drainage from shallow segments of reservoirs and for protection of impor. tant buildings and installations that happen to lie close to banks subjected to erosion, particularly when such may result in banks receding by tens of metres per year. Special protection measures are mostly employed for strengthening soil Structures and stabilisation of steep natural embankments with an inverse Gradient less than 5. These protection measures provide reliable protection even to such earth slopes as are prone to readily collapse under the action of flowing water, water waves, ice cover, wind, atmospheric precipitation and her factors; The importance of slope strengthening measures in the overall context of hydraulic engineering problems associated with reservoirs can be gauged from the experience gained in the construction and operation of protection works at the existing inland storage besins, Expenditure on construction4 of protection measures, including those aimed at strengthening embank- ments, generally constitutes a considerable part of the total expenditure on reservoir construction [16]. For example, this expenditure was 35% of the total cost of construction of the reservoir in Kuibyshev, 30% in Vol- gograd, 50% in Gorki, 40% in Saratov and 55% in Kakhov. Of the total expenditure on protection measures, generally 35-40% is spent directly on protection of earth slopes of hydraulic structures and strengthening of reser- voir banks: Improvements in technoeconomic viability of protection measures of earth slopes at inland water basins have considerable significance for the economy of the nation because the unprotected water front is in excess of 20,000 kilometres just for large reservoirs and the area of protection Measures. executed on earth slopes and embankments is of the order of 100 million m?. In the next few years the area of protection measures on slopes is expected to almost double the present area. Hence, even a 1% eduction in cost of execution of protection measures is certain to com- Pensate the expenditure on research devoted to this problem. It should be noted, however, that sometimes large sums of money have to be spent on regular repairs, capital repairs and restoration of these structures after major breakdowns in view of their poor durability. Modern construction practice does not fully utilise the potential of pro- tective measures to enhance the strength of slopes and is yet to realise the achievable technoeconomic benefits from their application. This is due ‘mainly to the lack of sufficient information on the performance of protec- tion measures, delay in development of proper design recommendations and relatively slow application of the research findings dele to the passive attitude of design and engineering organisations dealing with experimen- ‘tal constructions. The last factor is extremely important for verification of research recommendations and conclusions and development of new ones. Future research investigations must aim to achieve radical improvement in technoeconomic indices associated with the construction and operation Of protection measures on slopes. This would help to prevent typical criti- cal deformations and breakdowns of these structures reported briefly and analysed in earlier works of V.S. Shaitan (180, 182]. Technical details about the important types of reinforced concrete and stone covering layers and the new methods of design of protection measures (described mainly in Parts 2 and 3 of this book) coupled with design rec- ake it possiby gM protection measures of earth slopes with sufficient durability against erosion and abrasive wear. However, this envisages that certain norms be followed in selecting the initial design data and assuring proper quality of the construction and maintenance of the protection measures.ank- ture % of Vol- total yon ser- s of “the cess ation 2 of son 1% som- dbe aton rajor pro- alise due otec- tions ssive nen- on of ones. ment ation criti- rand sand sures 1 rec- earth BVET; esign of the 1.2 Structural Elements of Protection Measures and Main Types of Protective Covering Layers Protection measures of various types are applied at inland water basins to strengthen earth slopes of hydraulic structures. Almost all protection: mea- sures consist of three main structural components: 1) Covering layer, which is meant to withstand the mechanical effect of environment and must there- fore be built to have sufficient strength and stability; 2) bedding, which serves. as drainage medium or structural element, depending on the conditions under which the slope protection functions; and 3) support, which is meant to shield the slope protection against displacement and undercutting from below. Depending on the intensity of the effect of the harmful factors on the slope protection measures, the latter are classified on the basis of slope height as main or major and light or minor (Fig. 1.1). The experience gained from construction and operation of hydraulic structures, especially earthworks and embankments and the availability of local building materials constitute the main reasons behind the wide use of the following main types of covering layers and riprap work in the erst- while USSR and abroad [199, 203, 205, 210]: a) continuous covering layers from cast-in-place reinforced concrete, b) continuous covering layers from grouted precast reinforced conerete slabs, c) discontinuous covering lay- ers from precast reinforced conorete siabs, hinged to each other to form a ‘carpet’, d) riprap af unsorted stone and e) riprap of relatively large stone or paving of relatively fine stone. Use of the last type of protective cov- ers is gradually decreasing because it is much more time-consuming than the others. For slopes submerged under water at the time of execution of ’ Fig. 1.1: Details of structural elements of protection measures of earth slopes. ‘Hight protection; 2—support of main protection, 3—covering layer of main protection, 4—bedaing of covering layer of main protection, 5—parapet.6 the protection measures, it is advisable to use either covering layers from pre-cast reinforced concrete slabs or stone riprap. In carry over storage Feservoirs, a combination of cast-in-place or precast slabs with a high stone wedge as support is sometimes employed for the portion of slope that is permanently under water. ‘Asphalt conorete and other types of bituminous cement covering layers are not yet widely used in our country despite their high technoeconomic per- formance reported on the basis of their widespread application abroad {7, 9, 43, 161, 174, 213}. The limited application of bituminous cement covering layers is due to certain difficulties in producing high-quality black cements in requisite quantities and the tough conditions under which the protection mea- sures function at many reservoirs. These conditions refer mainly to the effect, of waves and ice but there are other factors that further compound the prob- lem. Application of bituminous cement covering layers is held back by the lack of reliable methéds of analysis for strength, stability, deformability and durability of these structures under special conditions of exploitation. Little light has been thrown on the solution to these problems in the recommenda- tions and data published abroad. The acceptance of relatively new covering layers, often effective under certain conditions, suffered due to the sad expe- rience of wrong experimental application under unsuitable conditions, e.g., at the Kremenchug reservoir. In view of insufficient experience in using bitumi- Nous cement covering layers under conditions of wind and ice loads typical of our reservoirs, the authors have included no generalisation of data and Tecommendations on bituminous cement covering layers in this book. The authors consider that the primary task at present is to improve the construction and operation of the protection measures'that have stood the test of time in providing protection to slopes with compressed profiles. Keeping this in mind and the availability of data collected from numerous Protection measures (more than 150) long in operation under different con- ditions, the authors have devoted particular attention to various types of protection measures from reinforced concrete and stones, because they do ot require complex construction technology. This facilitates comprehensive mechanisation of the whole process of construction of protection measures. For these reasons, the authors have not included in the book experimental protection measures that have not been validated or adequately tested in field conditions and are, therefore, not backed by properly justified meth- ods of analysis nor recommendations about the limits of application under different operative condition: 1.3 Continuous Protective Covers from Cast-in-place Reinforced Concrete Cast-in-place protective covers are generally employed on slopes with an inverse gradient from 2 to 4; however, they have been used in exceptional7 from cases on slopes with a steepness of 1:1.5 to 1.6, The soils of slopes occur in a wide variety: fine, medium coarse and coarse sands, gravelly and rubble rage t soils, sandy loams, loams (including fine loess-like loams), clays etc. [47, 48]. tone Depending on the conditions of construction and operation of the slope a and its soil, the base for a cast-in-place reinforced concrete protective cover may be provided by a reverse filter, single-layer bedding of the detrital soil or ea the earth slope itself. One of the simple arrangements of structural elements of protection measures for a sand slope is shown in Fig. 1.2. It consists of a a[7, | cast-in-place protective cover with a single layer bedding of regular gravel. ea | Continuous cast-in-place reinforced concret® covers are divided by joints into individual slabs (Fig. 1.3) to reduce the effect of temperature and shrink- nea | age deformation. Generally, square slabs are used with their dimensions aioe in plan varying in a wide range. Cast-in-place slabs may be as small as eich 1.5-2.0 m and large enough to cover the whole width’of the slope from y the the parapet to the support, occupying an area up to 400-450 m2. However, vane A slabs of 5 to 15 m_are generally used. Dimensions of the slabs in plan are Ce selected mainly from design considerations, taking into account the width of ering pede the slope along the normal to the waterline and the production capacity in ering that the rate of supply of concrete should be sufficient to ensure casting of axpe- | the complete slab without interruption. In addition, non-uniform settlement g., at | of the slope should be taken into consideration if there is a possibility of tumi- { an adverse effect on slabs of exceptionally large dimensions. Cast-in-place ‘ical | reinforced concrete protective covers are usually made to a thickness of vand | 0.2-0.35 m. 1 ‘To ensure that the protection measure is impervious to water and soil, pie ! the joints between slabs are packed with tar-coated boards 30-40 mm thick stood placed on edge. Sometimes additional packing in the form of 5-10 om thick files. and 25-30 cm wide reinforced concrete tiles is algo employed. More complex eros) i methods of packing using rubber keys designed at Gidroproekt and other oral i organisations are also used, but this is rare. Sometimes protective covers 2y do nsive cures. venta’ | ed in i neth- ‘ under | i | Fig. 1.2: Slope protection measure using castin-place reinforced concrete protective cover. | ‘ight protective layer of pavior and gravel; 2—reinforced concrete support for main protection; ith an i ‘S—einforced concrete protective cover; 4~single-layer bedding; 5—filing of regular gravel or al detital sol.Fig. 1.3: Castin-place reinforced concrete protective cover from 0.25 x 12 x 12,0.4 x 12x 12 and 0.4 x 8 x 12 m slabs after 12 years of service, during which it was exposed to storms for a total duration of more than 13,000 hours and waves up to 2.7 m in height. from cast-in-place reinforced concretes are made discontinuous with open joints. In such cases the formwork is removed from the joints after conoret- ing of the slabs has been completed. A mesh of bars passing through the joints provides continuous reinforcement to the protective cdver throughout the area affected by expansion and settlement joints. Continuous reinforce- ment of cast-in-place protective covers made of slabs of various dimensions has shown positive results in tests conducted on experimental models at VODGEO Institute; the reinforcement was provided in these tests between expansion and settlement joints placed up to 40-60 m apart and between the upper and lower boundaries of the main protection of the slope. The Upper boundary may be the edge of the slope at the crown of the structure or the outer face of the parapet, while the support or toe may serve as the lower boundary. When the protection measures are provided on high struc- tures, the beams dividing the slope may serve as the vertical boundaries of individual segments. Th the case of a single mesh, the reinforcement for the slab 1s fabri- cated at the erection yard in segments which are later welded at the slope site to form a common mat. In the case of double mesh, reinforcement frames sometimes as large as the whole slab are fabricated at the erec- tion yard. The lower mesh of these frames is welded to adjacent slabs oflax oms. the continuous protective cover. In the case of heavy alternating loads, the double-mesh reinforcement is placed either over the whole area of the slab or as a 1-2 m wide strip in the upper portion of the slab all along its contour. Commercially fabricated mesh reinforcement may be used if bars of small section are sufficient to provide reinforcement for the continuous protective cover. Single-mesh reinforcement is placed in the lower portion of the sec- tion of the protective cover. Reportedly, reinforcement has also been placed at the level of the neutral axis in the belief that under alternating loads rein- forcement placed in the middle of the section would partially contribute to resisting tensile stresses. It was assumed that in the case of disintegration of the continuous reinforced concrete cover, reinforcement so placed would serve as an anchor joint and prevent individual blocks of the disintegrated cover from rolling down the slope. However, this arrangement is not advis- able in properly designed cast-in-place protective covers as it reduces their durability. In the existing (protection measures the grade of concretes selected on the basis of strength varies between 100-200, but mostly between 150-170. The water imperviousness index is generally taken less than V-4 while the grade of frost resistance varies between Mrz 50 and Mrz 100. A typical design (Series 3.505-2, ‘Typical Structures and their Com- ponents’) developed at Giprorechtrans in 1967 advises the use of square reinforced concrete slabs of side length 5, 6, 7, 8 and 10 m and thickness 150 30 cm when the height of the waves lies between 1 and 3 m. Concrete of grade 200 is used for casting of slabs, which are reinforced by means of a continuous lower mesh and an upper mesh along the contour. The slabs are connected by means of joints between short interlinking bars. The joints are packed with wooden boards impregnated with kerozit (light aggregate) and reiriforced concrete tiles 7-10 em thick (depending on slab size), 30 om wide and 2.2-2.8 m long according tothe slab dimensions in plan. A 15-cm thick bedding of gravel or crushed stone is laid under the slab. ‘The advantage of cast-in-place reinforced conerete protective covers lies in that they do not allow penetration of soil and are almost totally impervious to water. The degree of water imperviousness can be regulated according to the requitements of drainage at the slope. By using cast-in-place technology itis possible to obtain protective covers of any desired strength and stiffness, which is very important when the loads are heavy and the soil of the slopes is weak. Construction of protection measures by this method can be carried out with a high degree of mechanisation. Under certain conditions of operation of protection measures, is nec essary to make restricted use of castin-place protective covers given their rigidity. Preparation of cast-in-place protective covers is complicated by sev- eral factors during winter, such as large area of slope to be protected, need to clean the base of snow and ice crust, relatively small thickness of the layer10 of concrete to be placed, low temperature and other climatic conditions. All these factors adversely affect the quality of the protection works. From the experience of design, construction and operation of cast-in- place reinforced concrete protective covers, a number of recommendations have been formulated, of which the important ones are discussed below. Cast-in-place reinforced concrete protective covers are divided into square slabs with sides up to 20 m long; in rare cases square slabs of bigger side length may be used. The distance between expansion and settlement joints of cast-in-place reinforced concrete protective covers should not be greater than 40-60 m. To ensure that individual slabs of cast-in-place protective covers work in tandem, it is necessary to provide them continuous reinforcement in the lim- its between the upper and lower boundaries of the cover and also between the expansion.and settlement joints. Continuous reinforcement may be sub- stituted by bars passing through the expansion and settlement joints into the adjacent slabs. The joints are packed with treated boards placed on edge, asphalt tiles, bitumen locks with cement plaster and reinforced concrete tiles placed under the joints. These measures are applied individually or jointly to improve ero- sion resistance of filler under wave impact and to increase its durability under the effect of harmful factors. The formwork used for concreting of individual slabs and sometimes for packing of joints is tightly secured to the reinforcement bars so that it is not displaced during erection of the protec- tion measures. The tolerance on distortion of the formwork should lie within £5 mm. Concrete placed on the slope is thoroughly mixed, especially in the cor- ners and-aiong the joints between the slabs. After levelling, the surface of the concrete should be free of protrusions, furrows, sireaks and other coarse manifestations of surface unevenness. For cast-in-place protective covers it is advisable to use stiff concrete with the water-to-cement ratio not greater than 0.5-0.55. Coarse inert inclusions should not be greater than 1/8 of the slab thickness, subject to a maximum of 150 mm. To improve the stability of concrete against enhanced corrosive action of external factors in the zone of, variable water level, itis desirable to apply vacuum treatment on the surface of cast-in-place protective covers. 1.4 Continuous Protective Covers from Grouted Precast Reinforced Concrete Slabs K protective cover of this type consists of precast slabs of square or rec- tantular shape with side inserts for connecting the individual elements. An example of this type of protective cover is the one used for protection of a breakwater earth slope [39] with an inverse gracient of 2.5 against 1 to 2.2 m high waves at a large reservoir (Fig. 1.4). Slabs 0.1 and 0.2 m thickAll we de tts ter RsQzF "1 Fig. 1.4: Protective cover from precast reinforced concrete slabs grouted along the contour. with dimensions in plan 1.5 x 2.5,2.5 x 2.5 and 2.5 x 3.5 m.were grouted along the contour by welding 5 mm steel plates (inserts) and filling the joints with 1:3 cement mortar, The slabs were made from hydraulic concrete of grade 200 and Mrz 50. They were reinforced with commercially produced double mesh of 7.5 mm bars. Every 100 slabs constituted a grouted mat of 25 x 35 m, Reinforced concrete tiles 0.1 x 0.4x 2.5 m were placed under the joints. The slabs rested on a 0.1-m thick layer of gravel 40 mm in size. This type of protection measure is in use in an area totalling 40,000 m2. A different structural arrangement was employed in construction of an experimental protective cover ftom precast grouted slabs for the ‘embankment slope of inclination 1:3 at the Kremenchug reservoir. The cover was grouted in strips normal to the waterline using reinforcement bundles (16 bars up to 5 mm in size) that were placed inside through channels up to 45 mm in size spaced 0.5-1.0 m apart between the support and the Parapet. The reinforcement was stressed by means of hydraulic jacks and the channels were filled with cement mortar. Joints between the strips were not grouted and reverse band fi joi thick bedding of gravel varying between 0 to 80 mm served as the base of the protective cover. The precast slabs were 0.14 m thick and 2.5 x 8m in plan. The slabs were cast from concrete of grade 300, Mrz 50, V-2. Reinforcement for the slabs was prepared from double mesh of 5 mm bars with a spacing of 0.22 m in the lower mesh and 0.44-0.50 m in the upper12 mesh. The protection measure was destroyed during a storm in which waves about 2 m high hit the slope. On an experimental basis the suggestions of F.F. Molero [116] were implemented by preparing flexible protective covers from prestressed, thin (6-8 om) reinforced concrete slabs with grouted equistrength stressed joints covering a considerable area of the slope. Protective covers of this type were arranged in different configurations on slopes with an inverse gradient of 3-4. These slopes of medium coarse sand were without a bedding or rested on a single layer bedding of gravel. In all the case studies (one at Kakhov and two at Kremenchug reservoir) the flexible covers were destroyed during storms due to their low rigidity and light weight. Ina typical design of slope protection developed at Giprorechtran (Series 3.505-2, 1967) it is advised that precast grouted slabs with equistrength joints be used-to prépare a mat up to 40 m long along the waterline and 15-22 m wide, depending on wave height. The typical slab dimensions are 2.5 x 3.5 mwith unstressed reinforcement and 2.5 x 3 and 2.5 x 3.5 m with prestressed reinforcement, The concretes used are grade 200 and 300. Depending on wave height the thickness of the slabs varies between 0.1 and 0.2 m. The slabs are grouted by welding the inserts, packing 0.1 x 0.3 x 2.5 m reinforced concrete tiles in the joints and filling the latter with 1:3 cement mortar reinforced with bar mesh. The precast protective cover is prepared on a 0.1-m thick bedding of gravel or crushed stones. Protective covers from precast slabs have yet to find adequate appli- cation on reservoir slopes. However, several organisations [39, 141] have reported that the labour involved in construction of protection measures with these covers is several times less than in other types of protection mea- sures. In’ the first example of precast grouted protective cover discussed above, a group of 3 persons laid 25 slabs (more than 250 m? of protective cover) in a single shift using one crane. A team of 15 workers laid 3000 m? of complete protection in one month. The better durability of precast protection measures vis-8-vis cast-in- place ones is confirmed by data collected over several years by observing the performance of the two types of protection measures prepared from the same grade of concrete, cement and filer and operating under identical con- ions. This is due in large measure to better compaction of the concrete mixture and curing of concrete. Precast reinforced concrete prepared in a plant has a denser structure. On the exposed surface subjected to maxi- mum effect of the external factors, the cement mattix of precast protective cover holds far better than the matrix of a cast-in-place reinforced conerete cover. Without going into details of the problem at this juncture, it may be mentioned that precast reinforced concrete is more convenient for carrying out the work in winter. The major drawback of grouted protection covers is that they require thorough packing of the joints.13 The following major conclusions may be drawn from a summary of the experience related to design, construction and operation of protective covers made of grouted precast slabs. Precast slabs may be square or rectangular ia in plan. Rectangular precast slabs should be laid with their longer side at 5 a right angle to the waterline to reduce the number of longitudinal joints. xe Dimensions of precast reinforced concrete slabs in plan are selected on ea ‘the basis of the available handling equipment, conditions of transportation or and placement of the slabs and the comparative technoeconomic feasibility ea of the various possible versions. From design considerations, the thickness id of precast reinforced conerete slabs with simple reinforcement is not taken ' less than 12 cm. In the case of precest reinforced concrete slabs with pre- as stressed reinforcement, the slab thickness is specified in accordance with th the appropriate standards and norms. id Precast reinforced concrete slabs prepared by the usual methods should te i be reinforced with double mesh because they are subjected to alternating if load due to waves, ice and other regime factors. Double-mesh reinforcement a is also preferred in the case of non-uniform settlement of slopes and when Fi loading, unloading and transportation operations are carried out while the : construction work is in progress. a Precast reinforced concrete slabs are grouted by first making joints (by or welding and other methods) between moulded inserts protruding out of the sides of the slabs and then filing them with cement mortar or concrete using it iner filler of a particuler coarseness depending on the joint width. At least le ' two joints should be made on each side of a precast slab to provide adequate th 4 rigidity to the segment of the protecive cover lying above the water level. a { The distance between expansion joints of continuous protective covers from ef precast reinforced concrete slabs should not ba,more than 30-40 m. e Reinforced concrete tiles or sufficiently reliable packings of other types 2 i should be used under the joints to improve the rigidity and strength of protec- tive covers from grouted precast reinforced concrete slabs. These measures ne also help to improve the jointing technology and the watertightness of the 9 joints. Itis advisable to use expansive compositions to make joints between 8 ile; 1 for eric wall a Fig. 1.10: Parapet from precast reinforced concrete members with'a plane front face. 1.9 Conditions of Application of Various Types of Protective Covers For a given case the type of slope protection is selected on the basis of local weather conditions, available local building rtiaterials, conditions under which a construction work is implemented, special features of the protection measure and comparative technoeconomic analysis of the various types of protective covers under consideration. Protective covers of cast-in-place reinforced concrete are distinguished by high rigidity. Non-uniform deformation of slope has an adverse effect on their working. The use of these protective covers is restricted to slopes with an inverse gradient less than 3.5 because on steep bases it is difficult to obtain the dense concrete essential in high-quality cast-in-place protective covers without taking recourse to special technics of concrete placement. A special base is required for cast-inplace protective covers exposed to hen concreting is carried out in water. Cast-in-place protective covers are well suited for slopes of loose soil that deform under dynamic surface loads if unprotected. They are also recommended for slopes that require tough protective covers due to severe operating conditions, including high levels of mechanical load due to the action of waves, ice, flowing water etc.24 Protective covers of grouted precast slabs are used mainly when reduc- tion of construction period is a major requirement. These covers can be erected by extensively mechanised technics and produce protection mea- sures that are waterproof and impermeable to soil. Application of these covers is not advisable when joints between the slabs are loose, the slope experiences non-uniform settlement and reliable packing of the grouted joints cannot be guaranteed. Grouted protective covers should not be used when design waves are more then 3 m high, unless special measures are undertaken to properly pack the joints and strengthen the connectors. Protective covers from precast slabs with open joints are used mainly for slopes that experience non-uniform settlement and also for protection of underwater slopes. These covers are highly effective when fluctuations in storage water level and groundwater level in the slope are large, the seep- ing groundwater has to be drained from the slope, the protection measure is exposed to the corrosive action of the medium, construction of the pro- tection is to be carried out in winter months, it is required to mechanise the construction activity and to reduce the period of construction, and when the tough working conditions of the protection have an adverse effect on the strength and durability of the grouting composition used in the joints. It is not advisable to use discontinuous covers when the design height of waves is more than 2.5 m and the inverse gradient of the slope less than 3.5 (unless measures are taken to anchor the slabs to the edge of the slope or special arrestors are provided in the joints to close them up and prevent slab slippage. Protective covers from unsorted stone riprap are used when the suitable material is locally available, the base experiences considerable non-uniform settlement, the protection measure is exposed to a highly corrosive medium, fluctuations of water level are large, construction work is carried out in winter months and tough climatic conditions, and also when a protection measure is required for underwater slopes and beds. It is not advisable to use protective covers from unsorted stone riprap for slopes with an inverse gradient less than 3 because on steep slopes the non-homogeneity of stone grading must be kept within reasonable limits from considerations of slope stability. The height of design waves imposes no restrictions on the application of this type of protective cover. 1.10 General Design Considerations for Slope Protection Measures the-first-step-in-ck A P specify the requirements that they must satisfy to serve the purpose of the protected structures without violating architectural norms. Attention is additionally given to auxiliary functions of the protected structure, local con- ditions prevailing at the site and the resources that affect-the choice of type of protection and methods of its erection. Further, the expected ‘operating25 fuc- conditions of the protection at the given reservoir are also analysed, Next, be : a number of technically feasible designs are identified based on tHe data vea- collected, weather conditions during the period of erection and due date of ese completion of the protection measure. ope Design solutions with the best technoeconomic indices are recom- tted mended for application on the basis of a comparison of the construction sed and operative costs. are The contents and details of the initial data for design depend on the complexity and significance of the slope, local conditions and other fac- tinly tors. In general, in order to arrive at reliable and rational design solutions it not is necessary to collect a large volume of data covering the following main sin aspects: a) hydrological features of the storage pond and the region in which rep- | the structure is located for different conditions of operation of the slope. For vure : slopes of reservoirs that are under construction, it is necessary to collect, oro- * data on the filing regime; b) meteorological features of the regions in which rise the reservoir and the structure are located; c) geological and hydrogeolog- hen . ical features of the base of the structure or the bank to be protected; data on on these features is also collected for regions adjacent to the bank and the nts. Portion of the bed contiguous with the slope; d) technical details of the slope; a of e) expected settlement of the slope; f) special requirements for the structure, an the slope to be protected and the protection measure; g) construction meth ope ods to be employed at the reservoir and the structure and the due dates vent of completion of both; h) physical and mechanical properties of the locally \ available materials that are suitable for construction of the protection; and able i i) the topographical data. corr For reliable and rational design solutions of slope protections, it is impor- um, tant to correctly determine and specify the lodtis, other effects and their nter combinations. All these are specified based on the working conditions of the ee structure at the reservoir. According to the existing standards and norms, stive the loads and effects are classified either as permanent or temporary. Tem- less porary loads and effects are further classified as long-term, short-term or Ls special (occurring only in exceptional cases). i The design of protective covers is based on appropriate Sections of SNiP 4-79 ‘Bases and Foundations’, SNiP 2.02.01-83 ‘Foundations of Buildings and Structures’, SNiP 2.01.07-85 ‘Loads and Effects’, SNiP 2.02.02-85 ‘Foundations of Hydraulic Structures’ and SNiP Il-vi-1-62 s | ‘Riverine Hydraulic Structures, Important Design Considerations’. The yto design of the protective cover is based on the following combinations 2 of ‘of permanent loads and effects that have the. potential for occurring nis simultaneously in a given case: a) dead weight of the protective cover and 2on- temporary long-term loads and effects that appear under different working type conditions of the structure; b) hydrostatic uplift load; c) uplift load due to the ating action of groundwater; d) Weight of frozen base soil that gets attached to the ie26 Protective cover; e) seasonal and operational variations of water level in the storage pond; f) corrosive effect of water (medium); and g) corrosive effect of atmospheric conditions. Short-term loads and effects that are considered together with the com- binations of loads and effects of varying durations are: h) dynamic storm load on the exposed face of the protection measure and the soil of the slope; i) storm-induced uplift load; j) wave run-up on the slope protection; k) wind-induced waves and other forms of water flow that are capable of eroding the bed near the foot of the slope or the earth slope itself; !) wind and wave-induced fluctuations of water level; m) different types of ice loads and effects (ice blocks sliding onto the slope or dropping on it, impact of floating icebergs that are set in motion by water flow or wind, temperature-induced deformation of continuous ice cover, deformation of ice due to change of water table etc.); n) abrasive action of bodies moving along the slope pro- tection; 0) effect of temperature and climate; and p) loads associated with transportation and assembly of the precast elements of protective covers. Besides the above, in some cases the following factors may also be included in some load combinations: q) loads due to non-uniform settlement and 1) seismic perturbances. Even if the base of the structure is subjected to seismic shocks, a separate seismic analysis of the slope protection is generally not carried out. The stability of the earth slope is analysed as a whole with consideration of the additional load exerted on it by the protection. Keeping in view the above-mentioned natural factors and construction activities that have an adverse effect on slopes, it is recommended that the optimum design solution for slope protection measures should be developed in stages in a particular sequence as follows {214}: 3 a) Preliminary calculations to determine and confirm the numerical values of the important factors and to identify their features (wind and wave param- eters, hydrometecrological conditions, ice and temperature regimes and geological and topographical data etc.) that are essential inputs for the design. b) Calculation of loads and other forces acting on the protection elements due to the various factors considered in the different solutions. ©) Checking of overall static and dynamic stability of the earth slope, taking into account its settlement and local subsidence. 4) Determination of the boundaries of various zones of the protection mea- sure (both in plan and height), taking into account the effect of wind and waves, geological, topographical and other factors. Additional factors that are considered include erosion of the base of the slope, bed adjoining the slope, sides and top of the slope (outside the protected zone) and proba- ble settlement of the earth base of the protection during construction and subsequent service.27 he ©) Calculation of the size of the protection elements (stone, slabs etc.) based et i on stability of the protection under the forces acting on it in the given design solution. m ) Checking on the strength and rigidity (flexure) of the individual elements ™m of the protective cover as well as the cover as a whole to ensure that ne they conform with the stability requirements mentioned at in ‘e’ above. n; Apart from the forces acting on the protection, additional loads arising in of the process of erection should be taken into account while carrying out nd these checks. ad 9) Checking of the grain-size distribution and other parameters of the bed- ag ding (intermediate layer between the protective cover and slope) for the ad various design solutions. of hh) Specifications of requirements of the materials used in constructing the o- protection, taking into account local conditions in which the construction th : work is carried out, operating conditions of the structure“and planned life e of the protection measure. de i) Comparative technoeconomic analysis of the various feasible protection nt designs. od i) Completion of preliminary design of slope protection by selecting the fe design that is optimum from technoeconomic considerations and also a satisfies the necessary anthropogenic, architectural and other local a requirements. onl Design steps ‘a-j' listed above are relevant to protection measures of is , slopes with a so-called compressed profile or banks. ad Alternate protection measures are adopted for shallow (inclination less than 1:5) slopes and beaches. These slopes are either left with no protection of or are equipped with regulating structures such’as jetties and submerged i breakwaters. They may also be provided a biological protective cover using 1d ‘ detrital soils and other materials, the choice of materials depending on the 5 geological structure of the slope and soil of the structure and several other factors. ts Design of the various types of protection measures for shallow slopes and beaches requires application of awide range of special analytical tech- oy nics. Hence, given the framework of the present book, protection measures for slopes other than banks have not been discussed even in a general a manner. id re te » id2 Operating Conditions and Data for Design of Slope Protection Measures Depending on Wind and Wave Conditions and Reservoir Level Regime 2.1 Important Factors Influencing Operating Conditions of Slope Protection Measures Protection measures of reservoir slopes are subjected to the action of vari- us interrelated factors that depend on the features of the given water basin and the particular earth structure or embankment. Natural factois that affect the operating conditions of protection measures are local climatic features, topography of the region in which the slope is located, soil deposition at the site and hydrogeological conditions. The effect of the natural factors is linked with the conditions prevailing at the given reservoir,and is influ- enced by such factors as size of the reservoir and its configuration in plan, depth of the water basin, location of the slope, regulating system of river discharge, nature of utilisation of the water resources, planned water levels, of the basin and other regime variations (4, 24, 33, 56, 69, 122, 126, 127, 156 and others). The operating conditions of slope protection measures are also affected by technical parameters, such as height of structure, contour of the shoreline in plan, inclination of the slope, magnitude and nature of the settlement of the base and earth bank, purpose and operating conditions of the installation etc. A comprehensive analysis and prediction of the performance of slope protection measures at the design stage is essential to ensure their durabil- ily and reliabiliy. This analysis is based mainly on factors associated with wind and wave conditions at the reservoir and the water area adjoining the structure. Other factors considered in the analysis include flow regime in the coastal region, water-level regime in the basin, groundwater regime in the slope to be protected, temperature regime of air and other atmo- spheric effects, corrosive effect of water (medium), physical and mechanicalw wi sin 29 properties of the slope soil, non-uniform deformation of the slope and other local processes. The quantitative values of all the aforesaid natural fac- tors serve as initial design data for the given structure. Further, the initial design data includes specifications of the protection measures based on th operating conditions, durability and, if necessary, special requirements. Pro- tection measures of slopes constitute one of the most important group of hydraulic structures, particularly among earth structures. However, they are also among the most complex structures to design because of the nature of their work, variety of factors influencing their function and various processes accompanying their operation. Some protection measures are schematically depicted here to offer some idea about the various factors influencing their performance and the pro- ‘cesses accompanying their operation. When waves strike a protected slope, the crests break up at a reduced depth. The water mass associated with these waves hits the frontal surface of the protection at irregular intervals, equal to the time periods of the waves. Immediately thereafter, the wave load is transmitted to the lower face of the protective cover and further into the Protection measure, finally being damped by the bedding or the slope scil. After the impact of the wave crest, part of the water body thrown on the slope Moves upwards at a considerable initial velocity. In the case of discontinuous protective covers a highly aerated infitration stream moves simultaneously in the same direction under the cover, but at a much lower velocity. After exhausting the reserves of kinetic energy, the water body that has risen up the slope begins to slide back. The difference between dynamic pressure exerted by the earth slope on the protective cover and the dynamic pressure acting on the top surface of the protection determines the uplift force acting on the protective cover from underneath in an upward direction. Under the action of waves the protection may experience deformation due to displace- ment or breakage of the protective cover or its individual elements, erosion of the bedding and slope and undercutting at the boundary of the protection measure. ‘As water flows along the protected slope, a low-pressure zone develops ‘on the top face of the protection and shearing forces begin to act on the elements of the protective cover. Water seeps through the protection ele- ments that are pervious to water and also through the area in contact with the earth slope. Under unfavourable conditions this produces shifting of the elements of the protective cover, thereby forcing out the bedding material and eroding the earth slope or the bed near the slope base. Variation of water level in the basin Pressure that acts on the protection and slope soil from underneath in an upward direction. It may also result in seepage of water across the thickness of the protection measure and the area of contact with the earth slope. Uplift Pressure can result in displacement of the elements of the protective cover30 or failure of the slope whereas water seepage can result in washout of the bedding or slope soil. Ice cover on the water basin affects the protection measures of earth slopes in a variety of ways and manifests as pressure exerted by ice blocks set in motion by wind, water flow or thermal expansion of ice; pull-out force that appears when the ice crust coalesces with the protection surface or when variation of water level occurs; and abrasion of the protection surface by ice. ‘Atmospheric phenomena such as wind, rain and snow can produce erosion of the unprotected segments of earth slopes or ernbankments and cause partial damage to the protection measure. Changes in ambient tem- perature and the associated variation of water temperature together with variation in air humidity etc. can lead to weathering and corrosion of the protection elements, thereby reducing their durability and strength. Corrosion of construction materials is aggravated by the corrosive action of water (medium) and the flora and fauna present in it, which contribute to corrosion in the course of their vital activity and decomposition. This adversely affects the strength of the protection and reduces the normal operative life of the structure. The physical and mechanical properties of the slope soil significantly influence selection of the type and design of protection and may in some cases play a prominent role in arriving at the specifications of the protection measures. The performance of protection measures is adversely affected in partic- ular by non-uniform settlement of the earth slope due to consolidation of the base and structure body. It depends mainly on the extemal load, properties of the soil used in the structure, design of the structure, period of construc- tion, method of construction and the geological structure of the base and natural slope. Settlement disturbs the contact between the protective gover and the bedding or earth slope, which may result in irreversible deformation of the protection. Depending on local conditions, the performance of protection is fur- ther influenced by additional factors such as seismic shocks, drifting of ice blocks and other bodies along the protected slopes, human activity, delay in carrying out repairs and unsatisfactory monitoring of the conditions of the protection. These local factors are not dealt with in this book. 2.2 Forecasting d and Wave Conditions at Reservoirs Ind WAVE CONITIONS aT the Teservoir Where protection oi the earth slope is sought to be implemented constitutes an inalienable part of the whole project. Correct forecasting of the intensity of wave action on protection plays a prominent role in trouble-free functioning of the protection, reliability of the protection measures and durability of the construction. 1 latir udehe rth ce or ce ce nd ith he tis 31 Under naturail conditions, wave action on slopes is invariably accompa- nied by certain hydrodynamic phenomena due to storms in the region of the structure. Based on available data, it may be stated that in many cases these hydrodynamic phenomena significantly affect the nature and intensity of wave action. Irrespective of the contribution of wave effect and accom- Panying phenomena in formation of the hydrodynamic regime in the region Of the slope, the irregular loads and other wave disturbances acting on the protection should be generally considered as complex storm-related inputs. Wind agitation is a complex natural process that depends on several fac. tors. Turbulent winds acting on the water surface give rise to excited orbital vibratory motion of water particles. This initial motion and the subsequent movements of water particles are affected by local pulsed (and sometimes shock) variations of air pressure on the free surface of the water basin, fric- tional forces at the water-air interface and gravitational forces. Under the influence of various wave-forming forces acting in different directions, pri- ‘mary vibrations that are initially harmonic in nature appear on the water surface in the form of visible variations of the water level. This is how dis- placement of water particles takes place in the form of waves spreading out from the point of application of the force. Distribution of instantaneous atmospheric pressure and wind velocity above the water surface and displacements of water particles produced by them are highly non-uniform and unstable. The degree of irregularity increases with wind velocity, particularly in the case of gusts. Aerodynamic forces also increase and exert a stronger influence on development of agi- tation when the air stream flows around the incipient waves that appear on the water surface. The wave motion is transmitted in different directions through the adjacent layers. It gradually weakens jn intensity with depth but calms down at a much slower pace in a horizontal direction. As these waves Propagate in various directions they come across similar wave formations originating in other segments of the water area. As they meet at differ- ent angles and interact with each other, the resultant interference produces complex vibratory motion of the particles, producing irregular waves that are visible on the water surface. Consequently, the outline of the water surface in the form of visible waves may be represented as alt aggregate (36, 94] of several simpler combinations of the initial harmonic vibratory waves with random phase shift (Fig. 2.1). The spectral components of irregular wind waves are the outcome of surface excitations but, apart from this, they are also influenced by peripheral displacements of particles occurring according Continuous input of wind energy into the surface water layer in excess Of the energy dissipated through wave flow leads to increase in amplitude of the vertical particle displacements over time as well as along the path of the air mass. This process explains the increase in height of waves, though32 unc dey vat bre pre gat unt nov ani dis vis che hei as 10 ine Fig. 2.1: Schematic representation of the superposition of spectral components during forma- tion of irregular disturbance. | | only up to a certain point, with an increase in duration of gale and distance If the bed lies at a depth which is within the range of intense particle ts t , | energy exceeds input wind energy, the agitation gradually dies out. | ee | displacement in orbital waves, then restructuring of the waves occurs ofa ree, | ole i =| i 33 under the braking effect of the bed. When there is continuous reduction of depth, restructuring of the waves proceeds with varying speed, which depends mainly on the height and length of the waves and the degree of variation of depth in the path of wave propagation. At critical depth the wave breaks due to severe deformation of its profile, generating new waves in the Process. The parameters of the new waves and the nature of their propa- gation are governed by local conditions of wave formation and motion. At unlimited depth comprising more than half the wavelength, the effect of the bed on wave parameters can be ignored for all practical purposes. As of now, only parameters of the visible waves can be successfully employed in analysis; hence only this type of wave will be considered in subsequent discussions. Likewise for probabilistic analysis of continuous systems of visible irregular waves that describe individual storms as well as for the empirical wave parameters and their probabilistic-cum-statistical characteristics, Keeping in view the aforementioned factors that affect waves, the height of visible waves with probability of j% exceedance is’ determined as hy% = {(W, D, H, t,£)%) while in the case of stable agitation f% = f(W, D, H,*¥;%), wherein W is wind velocity, D starting length of waves, H depth of path of wave propagation, t duration of wind action and €% and +,% random functions of the process of formation of irregular visible waves in continuous wave systems. The parameters of irregular wind waves, such as height, length, petiod, energy etc. Vary not only along the path of wave propagation due to mod. ifications in wave-forming factors, but also over time. This variation occurs even in unconstrained water areas at unlimited depths under stable wind conditions and constant starting length of waves: Wave parameters vary in the instantaneous profiles of wave systems consisting of a succession of waves converging from different directions. They also vary at different Points of water surface during the period of propagation of an individual wave system. These variations are random in nature and occur in a wide range (Fig. 2.2). However, the wide limits of wave variation and the complexity of the wave-formation phenomenon notwithstanding, irregular agitation fol- lows the laws of stochastic steady processes. The irregularity of wind waves can be judged, for instance, by the probability of occurrence or probability of exceedance of a particular wave height in continuous wave systems passing through a given point of unconfined water area (Fig. 2.3). The term ‘probability of exceedance’ is used here and henceforth as a fe itis 1e Various physical parameters of stochastic variable processes, such as elements of irregular wind waves, the dynamic parameters of the associated phenomena and the parameters of hydrometeorological conditions ete. According to the existing Russiane £ x wf si ° me Bop Py +r ‘ 1 . : le |g 84. Epo Bute zl Bul ea. hee he id ere B22 Eb 8 $4 VY ot fo Frees Ewl AN 3 fn 5 v E 3 Ho. bad a 3 a co 8 7 g We € 2 z » & WW s z & \ lo 8 Wye # Ha | 0 "2030405060800 SEQUENCE NUMBER OF WAVE IN THE SYSTEM Fig: 2.2: Variation of parameters of irregular waves in confnuous wave gystems based on readings taken by a wave recorder at a point of unconstrained water area th a reservoir. ‘height of wave; 2—energy of wave; S—declivity of wave; 4—tength of wave. standards [215] it,is calculated by the following formula: __m-03 = neo % 100 where j — probability of exceedance in per cent; m —— sequence numbers of the numerical values of the physical parameters placed in decreasing order; n_ — total number of values in the given series of observations. TOCESSES Of rreguiar it hydrodynamic phenomena on water areas during storms produce similar effects on the structures and shores. The intensity of these effects on protec- tion measures is determined mainly by the energy characteristics of storms. This is a special problem, briefly touched upon here solely for establishing WAVE HEIGHT hm Fi w t fc35 2 5 7 z hs Bg rT ls - * _ 4 hy E ar 5 { 60 8 & & = So AS. w 5 Zz 08] FL “1 | 4 0. —+- S ed on on + § 10 30 50 70 9098 99 999 PROBABILITY OF EXCEEDANCE, % Fig. 2.3: Probability of exceedance of wave ‘eight in continuous wave systems based on readings taken by a wave recorder at a point of unconstrained water area in a reservo'. ‘inital stage of storm; 2—during stage of full development of storm with wind velocity W < 10-12 mis; 3—same, at W > 15 m/s; 4—during stage of weakening of storm. the trends: of engineering analysis of wind and wave conditions, essential for the design of protection measures. sical Design estimates of random hydrodynamic effects of storms are based on regime forecasts that take into account the local situation and the stochas- ons. tic distribution functions of the parameters of irregular waves. Forecasts of —table design storms must cover the entire period of projected Ife of the object imitar under construction. In the case of protection measures the design storms otec- are decided in accordance with the Norms [154, 216], depending on the orms. type of structure and its capital investment. The energy characteristics of shing the selected design storm should conform to the specified probability of SEE En36 exceedance over a span of several years for protection measures as well | as other hydraulic structures. Wave height with 1% probability of exceedance or mean wave height of { the wave systems typical of the given design stom serve as the main storm | regime characteristics. While designing structures subjected to wave action, | it may sometimes be necessary to consider other storm characteristics such | | as wavelength, period etc. Preliminary observations (extending over a period of at least 15 years) at offshore hydrometeorological stations in the region of the object under construction provide the data for determining the parameters of wave regime for quadrants that are open to the structure. For construction of structures at new water basins, the storm forecasts are made by analytical methods [22, tl 25, 89, 95, 102, 112, 138, 144, 185, 196 and others] or by applying suitable b correction factors to the data collected over a period of at least 25 years at n inland meteorological stations in the given region. d Random distribution functions of the parameters of wind waves supple- i t ment the forecasts of wind and wave regimes for arriving at an estimate a of the design storms. These functions are found by conducting studies at the water basins under suitable conditions and generalising the results of s observations by a special method. Alternately, the data from similar inland T | reservoirs may be employed for this putpose. P ‘Sometimes serious errors are committed in estimation of irregular storm iP effects on structures by directly applying the relations derived for monochro- qd matic waves. The analytical formulas for regular effects such as height of wave run-up on slope, wave load on structure etc. are modified by including Parameters of irregular waves with probability of exceedance equal to that 4 Of the original parameters (run-up, load etc.), assuming a strong functional it relationship between the two. This approach contradicts the fundamental in postulates of the method of determination and analysis of real probabilities al of functions. It introduces an element of uncertainty about the accuracy of fit the analysis since it fails to take into account the important role played in Fi the formation of hydrodynamic effects by the simultaneous action of adjacent A waves, fluctuation of instantaneous water levels of the basin in the vicinity of th the structures, wind and water streams and various other phenomena aris- 1 1 | ing from local restructuring of waves ‘due to interaction with the structure, | ee bed, wind etc. A scientifically correct idea about complex hydrodynamic (storm-related) os rocesses acting on structures |__t_ be obtained by examining the probability functions over the full period of MS a design storm. In this method the design storm effects are not associated m with an individual wave approaching the structure with the same parameters tJ as that observed in regular agitation. The various phenomena are not only ic generalised for the whole design period of the storm, but are also examined awell atof orm ion, uch ars) der ime sat (22, able | ‘sat ple- rate s at s of and onm hro- it of ding that onal intal ities y of din sent y of atis- | ure, J ted) can ated sters, only ned 37 from the viewpoint that they are influenced by interaction and superposition of the associated random physical processes. This is the particular way in which the effect of hydrodynamic phenomena produced by systems of adja- cent waves are taken into account. These include the preceding waves that prepare to some extent the ground for the design wave and the restructured waves (at least one) acting on the slope subsequent to the impact of the design wave. For the purpose of practical application, the design parameters estab- lished according to the method of estimation of storm effects described above are correlated with the main wave (energy) characteristics of the design storm. The nature of correlation is dictated in each specific case by the physical features of the phenomenon under consideration. As mentioned before, several criteria can be adopted to describe storms with particular reference to their role in the various phenomena and effects influencing the design of structures. These criteria include mean wave height considered together with the irregularity function, such as hig,/h or wave height of an arbitrary probability of exceedance j% during the period of the design storm. Wind velocity data collected from offshore andginland meteorological stations in the region refers to the values at 10 m above the water surface. The probability of occurrence of design wave is established by statistical processing of the maximum navigation velocities (in a year or during the Period when the water course is free of ice) in each of the eight bearing directions that are open with respect to the slope to be protected. For a correct assessment of the wave regimes, in addition to the data on design wind velocities, it is necessary to have information on the expected duration of wind action, possible dimensions of wind fields that have veloc- ity equal to or close to the design velocity in thé segment of the reservoir in which the waves gain momentum, expected starting length of waves and the bed relief and depths in the given segment. This has been con- firmed by observations that high wind velocities continue for long periods at reservoirs. For example, observations carried out by VODGEO Institute at the Kakhov reservoir using suitable instrumentation established that in the navigation periods between 1957-1967 and in subsequent years, indi- vidual storms from southerly and westerly directions with wind velocities of 20-22 m/s continued to rage for up to 20-30 h. Winds continuously blowing at speeds of 15-18 m/s for 40 h at a stretch were also recorded, Cases of storms continuing for 70-80 h and more have been reported. Data collected mean for all ns can be summarised as follows: duration of indi ual storms 70-75 h at wind velocity up to 10 mis (height of waves up to 1.2 m), 48-50.h at wind velocity up to 15 mvs (height of waves up to 1.8 m) and 20-25 h at wind velocity 20-24 mm/s (height of waves between 2.4 and38 2.7 m). It is important to draw attention to an important factor which unfor- tunately has not been analysed so far, nor taken into consideration while ‘specifying the initial conditions for design of structures. It also finds no place in the publications of GUGMS. This factor is the total duration of storms at reservoirs during the navigation period, which affects the durability of struc- tures and in some cases, their stability and strength as well. For example, the total duration of storms at Kakhov reservoir in the direction of struc- tures on the right bank comprised almost 16,000 h (more than 1250 storms) during the 15 years of its existence. During the same period 1958-60 the annual duration of storms in the direction of structures on the right bank was between 1200-1700 h. Prolonged strong storms were also observed at the Tsimlyansk reservoir [83]. In 1952, a storm exceeding 28-30 m/s in veloc- ity continued to rage NNE between 9-14 November. In 1954, similar storms were observed 6-10 November and 18 Novemberto 1 December. According to data provided by Komsomolskaya. hydrometeorological station [21, 123, 162], strong gales of 20-24 mis velocity continued to rage at the Kuibyshev reservoir for a day or more on several occasions (10-12 June 1956; 9-12 August 1957; 26-30 Upvember 1958 and 24-26 October 1962 etc.) At the Gorki reservoir, during the period 1960-1963 (synoptic period with relatively weak sun activity), winds of more than 8 m/s velocity sometimes continued to blow unabated for up to 96 hours (18-22 August 1961), producing strong agitation. Severe storms with wind velocity exceeding 12 m/s sometimes continued for up to 50 hours (wind velocity between 18-24 m/s NNW was recorded 20-22 September). From observations at reservoirs and in particular the observation posts of VODGEO Institute at the Kakhov reservoir, it was establighed that in the case of severe gales of medium starting length, treated as design storms for hydraulic structures, strong agitation sets in approximately 12 hours after a stable wind direction is established. Further, it should be taken into account, as rightly pointed out by E.F. Semenov [145], that the ratio c/W between velocity of wave propagation and wind velocity decreases as the severity of the storm increases. Observations at the Tsimlyansk hydrometeorological station have shown that at wind velocity of 14 m/s the ratio c/W does not exceed 0.3. When the starting length of the waves is much greater, of the ‘order of 50 km and more, stable agitation sets in 18-24 h after commence- ment of a storm blowing in a steady direction. Thus, from actual observations of the duration of storms and the time lapsed before agitation sets in at ier comparing the forecasts of design wave regimes. Only wind waves of steady regimes need be considered in the design of hydraulic structures. Observations from different geographic regions helped in determining the limits of propagation of wind (storm) fields with relatively uniform mean ul lo tr in « re tr ic <0