The Power of Plants

Vegetation drives the planet

Each arrow represents an important
exchange between plants and the wider
environment. The value in green
represents the flow of material in a single

The key to life on land

square metre of European meadow during
A meadow community one summer’s day, whilst the value in
blue estimates the flow from all vegetation
The plants shown here grow intimately globally in a whole year.
entwined with one another in meadows on
floodplains across Europe. Up to 40 species By regulating the exchange of water,
of plant can coexist in a single square metre, Small tortoiseshell carbon dioxide and oxygen between the
making this one of our most diverse plant
Aglais urticae
Great burnet land and the atmosphere, plants affect the
Water (H2O) Sanguisorba weather and influence the effects of a
communities. Such a variety of plants sustain
3 kg officinalis
changing climate. Plants take carbon from
a wide array of fungi and animals, both above 260 trillion tonnes
and below ground. the atmosphere some of which moves to
enter the
atmosphere the soil, where it can stay for centuries.
Plants exchange huge quantities of water, Grassland plants are often very deep
carbon, oxygen and other elements with both rooted; they extract water and deliver
the atmosphere and the soil. We can measure carbon 2 or 3 m below the surface.
their impact on global cycles, whilst also Meadow fescue
appreciating them in our own backyard. Festuca pratensis Plants produce oxygen (through
Cocksfoot Banded photosynthesis) but they also absorb it
Dactylis glomerata demoiselle
Several food chains can be seen here: a grass Calopteryx (through respiration) to release the energy
Meadow buttercup
root feeds an aphid, which feeds an ant, which, Ranunculus acris
splendens
they need to work. Plants absorb nitrogen
in turn, feeds a bird. But plants do not simply from the soil in a variety of forms; they
support their local wildlife; they also form part need it to make proteins, the building
of a global system: they release water vapour blocks of all living cells.
to the atmosphere, ultimately creating rain,
they absorb carbon dioxide from the air to Froghopper larvae
in cuckoo spit
build complex molecules, and they liberate Philaenus spumarius
oxygen to the air, allowing other organisms to
breathe. The world we know today is
completely dependent on plants, so let’s Ox-eye daisy
appreciate them fully! Leucanthemum
vulgaris

Meadow foxtail
Alopecurus pratensis

O
Carbon

xy 13 on t pira nd
10 sed ov

ge g onn tion
dioxide (CO2)

7 in e g
u ab

n
bi re ro
50 g

(
lli s u

O2
)
447 billion tonnes
absorbed for use in

es
photosynthesis

Black knapweed
Centaurea nigra

Seven-spot ladybird
Coccinella septempunctata

Red-tailed
bumblebee
Bombus
lapidarius

Hoverfly
Syrphus ribesii

A greenfly (Myzus persicae) taking

sap from a flower stem with a
ladybird larva about to eat the
aphid. Magnification x10

Carbon
dioxide (CO2) Yarrow
18 g Achillea millefolium

224 billion tonnes Autumn hawkbit

Leontodon autumnalis
released by
respiration

Carnation sedge
Carex panicea

Seven-spot Smooth-stalked
ladybird larva meadow grass
Coccinella Poa pratensis
septempunctata
Red clover
Trifolium pratense

Crested dogstail Common red Common spotted orchid

Cynosurus cristatus soldier beetle Dactylorhiza fuchsii
)2
ph em llio g (O

Rhagonycha fulva
s
bi 36 n

nt by ne
ge

sy d n
to itte to
xy

s
n

si
O

he
5

Green woodpecker
32

Picus viridis
o

Rove beetle
Omalium rivulare
Red ant
Myrmica rubra

Field vole
Microtus agrestis

Meadow waxcap
Cuphophyllus pratensis

Yellow
meadow ant
Lasius flavus

Earthworm
Mycorrhizal fungus Lumbricus
Glomus intraradices terrestris
Ni
tro
ge
ab bill 0.2 n (
1
)
(C

so ion g N)
le bil 0. on

r
m d of e s

be t
un lub ead il

d b onn
co an rm o th ne
po so d so
c he d n t g
b

ls fo int n
in as lio 3
ar

y r es
o
C

oo
ds le

ts
e
3

Oxygen (O2)
re

Water (H2O)
t
el

3 litres A root aphid (Geoica utricularia) feeding 7g

on the sap of a grass root with a meadow 55 billion tonnes
260 trillion tonnes ant (Lasius flavus) feeding on honeydew it
for respiration
taken up excretes. Magnification x10
below ground
from the soil
 The key to life on land
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Dr Julia Cooke
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A plant ecologist
specialising in how plants
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He has 30 years’
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Meadows Partnership.
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Published in 2021 by The Open University,
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Planet, a BBC Studios production for the BBC,
and first broadcast on BBC ONE in 2022.
Broadcast Commissioner for the OU:
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Prof. David Gowing
OU poster ‘The Power of Plants’
Authors: Dr Julia Cooke, Dr Yoseph Araya
and Prof. David Gowing
Graphic Designer & Illustrator: Glen Darby
Editors: Amy Leon and Lubna Asif
Broadcast Project Manager: Matthew Ray
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IMAGE: The leaves and bulbous stem of an ant-
plant, growing on the tree’s trunk.
E A
piphytes, or plants that grow on the branches
of other plants, are most abundant in tropical
systems. This growth form is a clever strategy
for small plants to access light in dense forests.
Epiphytes are an example of convergent
evolution – where unrelated species have evolved
similar traits as a solution to the same problem
– and species from many families can be found
growing high in canopies. High rainfall and
humid air provide water for these aerial growers.
However, epiphytes are not parasites (they don’t
take nutrients from the larger plants they grow on)
hence the acquisition of nutrients is a challenge
to which epiphytes have evolved numerous
solutions.
In some rainforests you can find ant-plants
(Hydnophytum sp.). These plants grow spiny,
IMAGE: Multicoloured flowers in the Antelope
Valley California Poppy Reserve.
D
espite the word ‘desert’ meaning ‘deserted
or barren’, deserts are actually not. Many
different types of plants live in this challenging
environment, adapted to survive with little water.
Plants that brave it here have to be adept and
efficient in obtaining water and using it. They do
spells or tolerate extended periods of drought.
Some plants have seeds that lie dormant for years,
ready to germinate, flower and set seed with a
hint of any rain, sometimes in a matter of days,
creating what is called a desert bloom. California’s
state plant, the California poppy (Eschscholzia
californica) is an example that does just that,
creating magnificent orange fields.
Other plants, such as living stone plants (e.g.
Lithops spp.) of Southern Africa’s deserts, have
bulbous stems (see inset image) with many tunnels
running through them. Ants live in these protected
chambers, and their faeces provide the plants
with nutrients. Epiphytic bromeliads and pitcher
plants, such as Nepenthes epiphytica, hold water
in modified leaves, in which animals either drown
and decompose, or live and release their waste,
providing nutrients for the plants in both cases.
Epiphytic ferns, such as the staghorn ferns,
(Platycerium spp.), can grow on vertical trunks.
They have large spreading leaves to catch
falling plant debris from which the ferns then get
nutrients as the dead material decomposes. There
are hundreds of species of epiphytic orchids, such
as the white Madagascan orchid pictured here
(main image). They attach to trunks and branches
and obtain nutrients from dust, debris and
mycorrhizal fungi. Tropical forests conjure images
of vast trees and vines, but many species never
touch the ground.
Many houseplants originate from the tropics.
Their adaptations to the understory of
rainforests suit them to the low light and
humid conditions in houses. Examples are
the swiss cheese plant (Monsteria deliciosa)
from Central America and the pathos plant
(Epipremnum aureum) from Mo’orea in
French Polynesia.
miniaturised themselves and have thick leaves,
which, apart from looking deceptively lifeless,
have significantly reduced water loss. Meanwhile,
Prosopis cineraria, a type of mesquite from the
Indian subcontinent, maximises water uptake
through its roots.
The roots can extend up to 20 m in search of water
deep underground. Still others, like the candelabra
tree (Euphorbia candelabrum) typical in the African
Sahel, use a special form of photosynthesis. They
open their stomata (leaf pores) only at night when
it’s cooler to reduce water loss.
The survival strategies of desert plants allow them
to support other organisms, including humans,
living in such extreme environments. Just think
of fruits such as dates from a date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera) and pears from the prickly pear cactus
(Opuntia vulgaris). Current research is focusing on
how to utilise these plant adaptations for resilient
future agricultural crops.
Many desert plants are a popular choice
as houseplants due to their low water
requirements. They also tend to be slow
growing and can live for several years with
little need for maintenance. Keep an eye
out for their small, shiny, leathery leaves or
even spines in place of leaves. Common
examples include cacti and aloes.
IMAGE: Sellers of fruits and vegetables in the
Kimironko market, Kigali, Rwanda.
lthough humans have foraged plants for food
and shelter since hunter-gatherer times, a
step up in this partnership occurred approximately
12 000 years ago with the domestication of wild
plants for agriculture.
Domestication meant humans were able to
settle in one place and access a larger and
more reliable supply of food and hence sustain
a larger population. This resulted in social and
environmental change catapulting civilisation into
a new age of urbanisation.
As humans travelled around the world, they took
edible plant species with them to grow in new
places, incorporating them into the local cuisines.
For example, tomatoes originated from South and
Central America, oranges from the south-east
IMAGE: Each leaf is an individual duckweed plant,
and the frog shows just how small they are.
T
he term ‘macrophyte’ is given to plants that
grow in or very near water and either float,
emerge from the water or grow completely
submerged. They are distinct from algae because
macrophytes evolved from terrestrial plants to
grow in water again.
A key challenge for macrophytes is that the
wavelengths of light they need for photosynthesis
don’t penetrate far into water, particularly if it is not
clear. Hence, many of these plants have floating
leaves with large air-filled cells to make them
buoyant. The stomata (leaf pores) that allow carbon
dioxide and oxygen in and out, and water out, are
found only on the air-facing side. They can stay
open all the time because the watery environment
means they have ample water available.
Himalayas, and peanuts from South and
West Africa.
Although domestication and cultivation are well-
known examples of partnerships, various other
less overt management practices still exist. For
example, controlled forest burning is practised in
subtropics where humans release nutrients locked
in trees, as well as to create open spaces for
cultivation and grazing.
However, when this delicate balance in the
partnership of humans, plants and their
environment is disrupted, consequences can
be severe, an example being the decline of
civilisations such as in Mesopotamia (present-day
Iraq) and on Easter Island in the Pacific.
To avoid irreversible loss of species and habitats,
conservationists employ, both in situ (i.e.
protecting in own natural habitat) and ex situ (i.e.
relocation to other suitable location) strategies.
Due to human selection over time, current
crops are different to their ancestors, be it in
appearance, nutrient content or even where
they grow. For example, modern tomato
fruits are much larger, wheat matures earlier,
grapes are now seedless, and the prickly
pear has lost its spines. In a less subtle way,
apple varieties differ in colour and taste.
The leaves of completely submerged aquatic
plants are narrow and feathery to withstand
currents and flowing water. Many such plants
produce flowers on stems above the water surface
so that they can be pollinated by flying insects.
In contrast, seagrasses, including Posidonia
oceanica (main image) flower underwater and
their pollen is mainly circulated by water, but
tiny crustaceans move pollen between flowers
too. Seagrass meadows feed turtles, dugongs
and many other herbivores, which distribute
seagrass seeds in their faeces. Seagrass leaves
are tough enough to withstand wave action and
this, together with limited oxygen, means they
decompose slowly. Dead plant material builds
up on the seafloor making it one of the habitats
most able to sequester carbon. This ‘blue carbon’
storage could help mitigate climate change.
Seagrass meadows, threatened by modern fishing
operations and pollution, need protection.
Duckweeds include the world’s smallest
flowering plants. The smallest, Wolffia
globosa, is <0.2 mm long with no roots at
all. Other duckweeds in the genus Lemna
are common on suburban ponds (see inset
image), also with tiny leaf-like thalli and a
single root hanging down into the water.
IMAGE: Vivid autumn foliage in the forests
of Vermont.
M
ost environments on Earth experience
seasonal changes in weather as the angle
between the Earth and the Sun changes. The most
significant change may be in extreme temperature
or the balance of rainfall and evaporation,
depending on where you are. These changing
conditions impose stress on plants. Being rooted
to the spot, plants have to be able to tolerate
changes. The harshest stress is usually associated
with the availability of water.
If one season is very harsh (i.e. all the available
water either freezes or simply dries up) then the
plant must have a strategy to survive. These
strategies fall into three categories:
Some plants die when the harsh season
(cold winter or hot dry season) begins, having
O
ver a quarter of a million plant species have been identified and described, and there
may be several thousand more still to be discovered. Classifying these species is helped
by grouping them into families according to evolutionary relationships. Plant size and leaf
shape can change quickly in evolutionary time, but flower structure is more constant.
It is, therefore, flower structure that guides identification to family.
Rose family (Rosaceae)
Along with the wild rose, this meadow species
(great burnet; left) belongs to the Rose family as
although their individual flowers are small, they
have a similar structure to a single rose: perfect
symmetry around a central ovary. Apple, plum
(right) and peach trees also belong to this family.
Grass family (Poaceae)
The crested dog’s-tail grass is pictured left;
note the purple anthers shedding pollen. It is a
huge family and perhaps the most economically
important of all. It includes rice, maize and
bamboo (right).
reproduced by seed before they succumb
to stress. The seeds then tolerate the
inhospitable conditions and they germinate
once the season changes.
Other plants sleep either below ground or
as just a wooden frame. In both cases, the
leaves are lost to prevent the plant from losing
water. They may live below ground as a bulb
or a rhizome. This is a particularly effective
strategy in habitats prone to wildfires. Others
sleep inside well-protected buds on a wooden
structure such as a bush or a tree. Either way,
the plant sprouts new leaves once the season
changes.
A third group simply persist. They tough out
the harsh conditions. Thick bark can protect
them against fire, silvery hairs can protect
against strong sunshine, waxes against water
loss and internal antifreeze against prolonged
cold spells.
Can you identify the survival strategies of
plants around you? Look for clues. If they
flower young and make many seeds, they
probably die (e.g. poppies and chickweed).
If there is a bulb, they probably hide (e.g.
crocuses and chives). If they have waxy
skin or a dense coat of hair, they likely
persist (e.g. ivy and foxgloves).
Pea family (Fabaceae)
The individual flowers of this species (red clover;
left) show the characteristic petals of the pea
flower, an upright ‘banner’ petal at the top and a
lower ‘keel’ petal enclosing the sex organs. Some
of the biggest tropical trees belong to this family,
including the false acacia (right).
Orchid family (Orchidaceae)
Orchids are found around the world in all sorts of
habitats, from tropical forests to Arctic sand dunes.
They all have the same basic flower structure
with three sepals and three petals and tend to be
distinctly asymmetric (common spotted orchid;
left). Vanilla we eat comes from an orchid (right).