Стилістика або лексикологія

Stylistics (Лектор доц. Грабовецька О.С.
)
1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Types of stylistics (stylistics of
language vs stylistics of speech; literary stylistics vs lingua-stylistics; stylistics of
decoding vs stylistics encoding; practical stylistics; discourse stylistics).
2. Functional styles; forms of styles;
3. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.
4. Key notions of stylistics: imagery (Verbal Image).
5. Key notions of stylistics: contextual meaning, transference, transferred meaning.
Stylistic Devices, groups of SD.
6. Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the primary and contextual
meanings; Quantitative tropes ([hyperbole]; [ meiosis, litotes]).
meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis,
euphemism]).
meanings; Qualitative tropes ([metaphor, antonomasia, personification, allegory];
[irony]).
9. Figures of identity (Simile, Quasi-identity, Replacers); Figures of contrast
(Oxymoron, Antithesis)
10. Figures of inequality (Specifiers, Climax, Anti-climax, Pun, Zeugma,
Tautology);
11.Phonetic level of stylistics: Sound symbolism. Alliteration and its functions.
Assonance, consonance, paronomasia. Onomatopoeia.
12.Syntactic EM (the reduction of the initial model).
13.Syntactic EM (the extension of the initial model).
14.Syntactic EM (the change of the order of components within the frame of initial
model)
15.Syntactic SD (types of combination of various syntactic models (sentences) within
the frame of passage, text).
Lexicology (Лектор проф. Андрейчук Н.І.)
16.The word as a fundamental unit of the language. Criteria of the definition.
17.Morphemic structure of words. Types of morphemes. IC analysis.
18.Types of word-formation in modern English. Principles of classification.
19.Derivation as the most productive type of word-formation in English.
20.Compounding as the type of word formation. Types of compounds.
21.Shortening as the type of word formation. Types of shortenings.
22.Approaches to the study of lexical meaning. The notions of meaning and sense.
23.The notion of polysemy. Componential analysis.
24.Semantic groups of words: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms,
hyponyms, meronyms.
25.Stylistically marked layer of the vocabulary: “learned” words.
Stylistics (Лектор доц. Грабовецька О.С.)
1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Types of

stylistics (stylistics of language vs stylistics of speech;
literary stylistics vs lingua-stylistics; stylistics of decoding vs
stylistics encoding; practical stylistics; discourse stylistics).
1. The definition of Stylistics.
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics which investigates the
entire system of expressive resources available in a particular
language.
As a separate linguistic discipline Stylistics began to form
only in the 20-30s of the XXth century. But in general Stylistics is
defined as a branch of linguistics which studies the principles and
effect of choice and usage of different language elements for
rendering thought and emotion under different conditions of
communication [Арнольд, 1990:7].
2. The object and subject-matter of Stylistics.

As a linguistic discipline Stylistics investigates a natural
language (object.) There are 2 basic subjects of Stylistics:
(1) special linguistic means (stylistic devices and expressive
means) which secure the desirable effect of the utterance; (2)
certain types of texts “discourse” which due to the choice and
arrangement of the language are distinguished by the pragmatic
aspect of communication (functional styles).
3. Types of Stylistics.
General Stylistics studies universal stylistic language means,
which exist in any language as well as regularities of language
functioning irrespective of the content, aim, situation and sphere
of communication.
Stylistics of a national language deals with the expressive
resources of a definite national language.
Some more types of Stylistics are singled out on the basis of
the following principles:
1) The principle of language manifestation.
According to the principle of language manifestation
Stylistics is subdivided into Stylistics of language and Stylistics
of speech.
Stylistics of language deals with inherent (permanent)
stylistic properties of language means while Stylistics of speech
analyses acquired stylistic properties, i. e. which appear only in
the context.
2) According to the type of stylistic research we can distinguish
literary Stylistics and lingua-Stylistics.
Both study the common ground of:
a) the literary language from the point of view of its
variability;
b) the idiolect (individual speech) of a writer;
c) poetic speech that has its own specific laws.
Lingua-Stylistics studies
a) functional styles (in their development and current
state).
b) the linguistic nature of the expressive means of the
language,
c) the systematic character of the expressive means of
the language,
d) the functions of the expressive means of the
language.
Lingua-Stylistics examines the correlation between a speech
situation and linguistic means used by speakers and hence –
different functional styles of speech and language. Lingua-
Stylistics is also called Functional Stylistics. It is defined as a
linguistic science that studies peculiarities and regularities of
language functioning in different communicative situations.
Literary Stylistics is focused on

a) the composition of a work of art,
b) various literary genres,
c) the writer's outlook.
Literary Stylistics falls into three types:
Author’s Stylistics (or Stylistics of encoding) is interested in
individual styles of writers focusing on their biography, beliefs,
interests and other factors which could influence their literary
creative work.
Reader’s Stylistics (or Stylistics of perception or decoding)
combines concepts of poetics, literary Stylistics, semasiology,
theory of communication, text theory, sociolinguistics, pragma-
and paralinguistics, aesthetics, hermeneutics, etc. It focuses on the
reader‘s perception of a literary text, his reaction to it.
Immanent Stylistics studies a literary text as some immanent fact,
without taking into account the author‘s intentions or how this text
is interpreted by the reader.
There are other types of Stylistics such as:

Practical Stylistics is a discipline which deals with general
knowledge about language and speech styles, stylistic norms,
stylistic means, and ways of employment of language means for
correct organization of speech.
Discourse Stylistics. Present-day Stylistics is interested in
language as function of texts in context, and acknowledges that
they are produced in a time, a place, and in a cultural and
cognitive context. In a word, it considers language as discourse,
that is a text‘s status as discourse, a writer‘s employment of
discourse strategies and the way a text means‘ as a function of
language in context (how it functions as discourse).
Discourse stylistics refers to the study of how language is used stylistically within a
particular discourse or text. It focuses on the analysis of linguistic features, such as
vocabulary, grammar, sentence structure, and rhetorical devices, to examine how they
contribute to the overall meaning, effect, and style of a piece of communication.
Norm is the invariant of the phonetic, morph., synt. patterns,

incirculations during the given period in a particular language.
Genre – established literary form.
above
2. Functional styles; forms of styles;

The notion of style has to do with how we use the language under
specific circumstances for a specific purpose.
• S. Chatman – “Style is the product of individual choices and
patterns of choices among linguistic possibilities”
• O. Akhmanova – “Style is one of distinctive varieties of
language, language subsystem with the peculiar vocabulary,
phraseology”
• Y. Skrebnev - “Style is the peculiarity set of specific features of
a text type or of a concrete text”
Style is first and foremost the result of our choice of content of
message and the appropriate range of language means to deliver
the message effectively.
The term 'functional style' reflects peculiar functions of the
language in this or that type of communicative interaction.
Functional stylistics embraces all possible varieties, or concrete

representations of “language in use”, including those used in
literary communication which are called functional styles.
According to Galperin: Functional Style is a system of

interrelated language means serving a definite aim in
communication. It is the coordination of the language means and
stylistic devices which shapes the distinctive features of each style
and not the language means or stylistic devices themselves. Each
style, however, can be recognized by one or more leading features
which are especially conspicuous.
in general, theoreticians single out 5 functional styles.
Galperin distinguishes five styles in present-day English:
1. the belles-lettres functional style, (novels, short stories,
poems, plays, and other creative writings.) Examples: "Her eyes
were pools of sparkling sapphires, reflecting the moonlight's
gentle caress. With each step, she danced through the garden, her
laughter like a symphony in the air."
2. the publicistic functional style, (opinion articles, editorials,
political speeches, persuasive essays, and other forms of
persuasive or argumentative writing) Examples: "In this era of
political unrest, we must rise above the turmoil and demand
justice for all. Let our voices unite as we strive for a society built
on equality, compassion, and the pursuit of truth."
3. the newspaper functional style (newspapers and online news
platforms. It includes news articles, reports, feature stories,
interviews, and other forms of journalistic writing) Examples:
"Breaking News: Local Community Comes Together to Rebuild
After Devastating Fire. Volunteers and donors rallied in a
tremendous display of solidarity, offering support and resources
to those affected."
4. the scientific prose style, (scientific research papers, academic
journals, scientific articles, conference proceedings, and scholarly
publications.) Examples: "The experiment was conducted under
controlled laboratory conditions with a sample size of 100
participants. The results indicate a statistically significant
correlation between variables X and Y, supporting our
hypothesis."
5. the official documents functional style. (government
documents, legal texts, official announcements, policies, treaties,
contracts, and other formal written documents) Examples: "By the
power vested in me, I hereby declare the building officially open
for public use. This facility will serve as a center for education,
innovation, and community engagement, fostering growth and
development for years to come."
Other classifications:
Arnold classification consists of four styles:
1.Poetic style
2. Scientific style
3. Newspaper style
4. Colloquial style
The Belles-Lettres Style
The belles-lettres style, or the style of imaginative literature is “the
richest register of communication”. The Belles-lettres style has its
own specific function to inform the reader and to impress the
reader aesthetically.
(novels, short stories, poems, plays, and other creative writings.)
Examples: "Her eyes were pools of sparkling sapphires, reflecting
the moonlight's gentle caress. With each step, she danced through
the garden, her laughter like a symphony in the air."
The means of this functional style are:
- the use of emotional language to enhance the expressiveness of
the utterance (these might be emotionally coloured words as well
as different EMs and SDs of various levels)
- the use of words in its contextual meaning;
- the individual choice of vocabulary which reflects the author's
personal evaluation;
- a peculiar individual selection of syntax;
- the introduction of elements of other styles;
The belles-lettres functional style has the following substyles:
a) poetry;
b) emotive prose;
c) drama;
Poetry is characterized by:
 its orderly form which is based mainly on the rhythmic and
phonetic arrangement of the utterances;

 brevity of expressions,
 fresh unexpected imagery; image is the reflection of the outer
world in the consciousness.

 emotional coloring promoted by
synonyms,epithets,metaphors,similies,etc;
 specific means of syntactical connection;
 the synthesis of formal and informal English.

Emotive prose. Emotive prose is a combination of the literary
variant of the language and the colloquial one, which is presented
by the speech of the characters which is stylized that means it has
been made "literature like" and some elements of conversational
English were made use of. Emotive prose allows the use of
elements of other styles but the author changes them and fulfils a
certain function.
Drama is the language of plays which mainly consists of
dialogues. The author's speech is in the form of stage remarks.
Any presentation of a play is an aesthetic procedure. The language
of a play has the following peculiarities:
- it is stylized (retains the modus of literary English);
- it presents the variety of spoken language;
- it has redundancy of information caused by necessity to amplify
the utterance;
- monologue is never interrupted;
- character's utterances are much longer than in ordinary
conversation;
It will be worth mentioning author’s style here, as it is a sort of
imprint of the author’s personality on his works, which reflects,
among other things, his individual usage of language means. Each
talented writer is original in selecting lexical-syntactic devices and
vocabulary in general. As we know, a special branch of functional
stylistics, the stylistics of the encoder, studies the author’s
idiostyle, the correlations between his/ her creative concepts and
language. This helps to reveal the message of the writer’s works,
enjoy and perceive more profoundly his/her ideas, appreciate the
language and manner of presentation.
The Pubicistic Style

The pubicistic style treats certain political, social, economic,
cultural problems. The aim of this style is to form public opinion,
to convince the reader or the listener.
(opinion articles, editorials, political speeches, persuasive essays,
and other forms of persuasive or argumentative writing)
Examples: "In this era of political unrest, we must rise above the
turmoil and demand justice for all. Let our voices unite as we
strive for a society built on equality, compassion, and the pursuit
of truth."
Substyles:
• a) oratory;
• b) essays;
• c) articles in newspapers and magazines;
• d) book reviews
• e) pamphlets
The main features:
 a logically precise clear cut syntax (the use of 1st person
pronouns, various repetitions, a developed system of

connectives,)
 a carefully and thoroughly thought out selection of words;
 the use of emotive words and numerous stylistic devices aiming
at producing a highly emotional impact on the reader

 the use of sd and em;
 carefull paragraphing;
 intonation full of conviction and persistence;
 conciseness
Oratory. The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the

publicist style. It makes use of a great number of expressive means
to arouse and keep the public's interest: repetition, gradation,
antithesis, rhetorical questions, emotive words, elements of
colloquial speech. Similes and metaphors are generally traditional.
It is prepared beforehand and it is a monologue. It has some
special formulas of address and conclusion (Examples ladies and
gentlemen).
Radio and TV commentary is less impersonal and more
expressive and emotional.
The essay is very subjective and the most colloquial of the all
substyles of the publicistic style. It is a literary composition of
moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic, subjects. It
makes use of expressive means and tropes. It is characterized by:
 brevity of expressions,
 the use of the 1-st person singular (personal approach to the
problem)
 expanded use of connections;
 naturalness of expressions;
 the abundant use of emotive words;
 use of similes and sustained metaphors.
The journalistic articles.

All the above mentioned features of PFS are to be found in any
article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject
chosen affects the choice and use of SDs. Words of emotive
meaning, for example, are few in popular scientific articles. It is
full of bookish, high- flown words, neologisms, parenthesis.
A book review is a form of literary criticism in which a book is
merely described (summary review) or analyzed based on content,
style/ A book review's length may vary from a single paragraph to
a substantial essay. Such a review may evaluate the book on the
basis of personal taste.
A pamphlet is an unbound book (that is, without a hard
cover or binding). Pamphlets may consist of a single sheet
of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in thirds,
or in fourths, called a leaflet or it may consist of a few pages that
are folded in half/ The pamphlet has been widely adopted in
commerce, particularly as a format
for marketing communications. There are numerous purposes for
pamphlets, such as product descriptions or instructions, corporate
information, events promotions or tourism guides and they are
often used in the same way as leaflets or brochures.
The Newspaper Style, its Substyles and their Peculiarities
(newspapers and online news platforms. It includes news articles,
reports, feature stories, interviews, and other forms of journalistic
writing) Examples: "Breaking News: Local Community Comes
Together to Rebuild After Devastating Fire. Volunteers and
donors rallied in a tremendous display of solidarity, offering
support and resources to those affected."
To understand the language peculiarities of English newspaper
style it will be sufficient to analyse the following basic newspaper
features:
1) brief news items;
2) advertisements and announcements;
3) headlines;
4) the editorial.
Brief items: its function is to inform the reader. It states only facts
without giving comments. Specific vocabulary features are:
a) special political and economic terms (Examples gross output,
president);
b) non-term political vocabulary (Examples. public, progressive );
c) newspaper clichés (Examples. vital issue );
d) abbreviations (Examples. UNO, NATO);
e) neologisms.
Grammatical peculiarities:
 Complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;
 Verbal constructions (infinitive, gerundial, participial);
 Passive Voice;
 Syntectical complexes;
 Specific word-order
Headlines. The headline is a dependent form of newspaper

writing. The main function is to inform the reader briefly of what
the text that follows is about. Syntactically headlines are
represented by sentences of various structure:
 very short and catching sentences,
 full declarative sentences,
 interrogative sentences (Examples Do you love war),
 nominative sentences (Examples forgotten worker),
 elliptical sentences with different elements omitted (e.g. well
win),
 headlines including direct speech,
 phrases with verbals (Examples fighting that tax).
Advertisements and announcements. The function of
advertisements and announcements is to inform the reader. There
are two types of them: classified and non-classified. The latter has
no fixed form or subject matter; while the former is arranged in a
number of stereotyped patterns regularly employed, each being
governed by the subject-matter.
The main features:
 may be built on the elliptical pattern;
 brevity of expressions;
 vocabulary is neutral.
To attract potential customers’ attention adverts should be eye-

catching, both graphically and semantically. One of the ways of
doing it is to employ various types of wordplay. The following
collection of captions to ads dealing with tourism (visiting famous
cities) illustrates the point:
• PISA cake (cf. A piece of cakc (idiom/sl) = something very easy)
• CANNES do (‘can do’)
The editorial. Editorials are special articles in a newspaper. They
give an opinion on some topical issues and are usually written by
the editor. Editorials may be qualified as belonging to both
newspaper and publicist styles. These and other materials are
characterized by a number of features typical of that functional
style. Among them we can mention the following:
1. the use of special graphical means, such as the changing of
types, space ordering, etc.;
2. a lot of dates and names (geographic, personal, names of
institutions);
3. specific vocabulary:
a) special political and economic terms (Examples gross output,
elections)',
b) non-term political vocabulary (Examples nation, government)-,
c) newspaper idioms and cliches (Examples vital issues, pillars of
society, a carrot-and-stick policy)',
d) abbreviations and clippings (Examples Ph.D., MP, BBC, UFO,
ATO, UNESCO, lib (=liberal), rep (=business representative));
e) neologisms (Examples. nine-eleven syndrome, brain
fingerprinting) (they are susceptible to changes);
f) vocabulary typical of this style only (Examples go-ahead =
approval; poll =election/public opinion survey; plea = request; key
= essential; drive = campaign, effort; clash = dispute);
4. specific grammar and syntax:
a) complex sentences with a developed system of clauses;
b) verbal (infinitive, gerund, participle) and noun constructions;
c) attributive noun groups, used for the sake of brevity (i.e. a noun
is employed in the function of an attribute)
d) unusual word-order.
The function of the editorial is to influence the reader by giving an
interpretation of certain facts. It comments on the political and
other events of the day. It appeals not only to the readers mind, but
to his feelings as well. So the editorial is characterized by:
 emotionally coloured language elements, both lexical and
structural,
 use of colloquial words, slang, professionalisms.
 use of trite metaphors and epithets,periphrases,
 allusions .
The Scientific Prose Style, in articles, brochures, monographs

and other academic publications.
(scientific research papers, academic journals, scientific articles,
conference proceedings, and scholarly publications.) Examples:
"The experiment was conducted under controlled laboratory
conditions with a sample size of 100 participants. The results
indicate a statistically significant correlation between variables X
and Y, supporting our hypothesis."
The style of scientific prose has 3 subdivisions:
1) the style of humanitarian sciences;
2) the style of "exact" sciences;
3) the style of popular scientific prose.
Its function is to work out and prove theoretically objective
knowledge about reality, to create new concepts, to disclose the
internal laws of existence, development, etc.
The peculiarities are: objectiveness; logical coherence,
impersonality, unemotional character, exactness.
Vocabulary. The use of terms and words used to express a
specialized concept in a given branch of science. Terms are not
necessarily. They may be borrowed from ordinary language but
are given a new meaning.
The scientific prose style consists mostly of ordinary words which
tend to be used in their primary logical meaning. Emotiveness
depends on the subject of investigation but mostly scientific prose
style is unemotional.
Grammar: The logical presentation and cohesion of thought
manifests itself in a developed feature of scientific syntax that is
the use of established sentence patterns:
- postulator;
- formulate;
- argumentative;
The impersonal and objective character of scientific prose style is
revealed in the frequent use of passive constructions, impersonal
sentences. Personal sentences are more frequently used in exact
sciences. In humanities we may come across the constructions but
few.
The parallel arrangement of sentences contributes to emphasizing
certain points in the utterance.
Some features of the style in the text are:
- use of quotations and references;
- use of foot-notes helps to preserve the logical coherence of ideas.
Humanities in comparison with "exact" sciences employ more
emotionally coloured words, fewer passive constructions.
The Style of Official Documents and its Substyles
(government documents, legal texts, official announcements,
policies, treaties, contracts, and other formal written documents)
Examples: "By the power vested in me, I hereby declare the
building officially open for public use. This facility will serve as a
center for education, innovation, and community engagement,
fostering growth and development for years to come."
Subtypes:
1) Language of business letters;
2) Language of legal documents;
3) Language of diplomacy;
4) Language of military documents;
The aim:
1. to reach agreement between two contracting parties;
2. to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding.
Each of the substyles of official documents makes use of special
terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic
documents.
The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian
period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain
a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their
dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many
words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of
abbreviations and conventional symbols.
The most noticeable feature of grammar is the compositional
pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form
itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal
with.
All the functions of styles may be summarized:
Communicative
– i.e. communicating some primary information
Voluntative
- expressing one’s intentions, urging people to some kind of
action
“Inform us of your intentions!”
Pathos
- attracting smb’s attention to make the situation natural
“I say, you know that …”
Aesthetic
– appealing to people’s heart, deriving the effect of beauty and
emotional response
“Tired with all these, for restful death I cry!”
above
3. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.

The English vocabulary is divided into neutral,
literary and colloquial.
NEUTRAL - words, possessing no stylistic connotations and
suitable for any communicative situation. Examples (table, chair,
book)
LITERARY - words serve to satisfy communicative demands of
official, scientific, poetic messages.
COLLOQUIAL - words are involved in non-official everyday
communication Examples (chill, wanna, crap, прикольно, давай,
тусити)
Literal and Colloquial words are subdivided into GENERAL
(known and used by most native speakers) and SPECIAL.
Literary:
 1) general words, Examples harmony, calamity, alacrity,
розум, справедливістт, честь etc. Are used in public
speeches, official negotiations etc. and are formal, sometimes
high-flown synonyms of ordinary neutral words: Examples
COMMENCE – BEGIN, RESPOND – ANSWER,
INDIVIDUAL – MAN
 2) special-literary learned words include several specific
subgroups, namely:
 terms or scientific words such as, e.g. renaissance,
genocide, teletype, etc.;
TERMS - words or nominal groups which convey
specialized concepts used in science, technology, art, etc.,
Examples gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint,
common denominator, periodic table, still life,
choreography, etc. The sphere of application of terms is
scientific discourse but they can occur in artistic discourse
to contribute to characters’ description or create a special
background
 poetic words and archaisms such as, Examples whilome -
‘formerly’, aught - ‘anything’, ere ‘before’, albeit -
‘although’, fare - ‘walk’, tarry - ‘remain’, nay - ‘no’; etc.;
ARCHAISMS – words denoting historical phenomena
which are no more in use; in the course of language
substituted by newer synonymic words; is the deliberate
use of an older form that has fallen out of current use; are
most frequently encountered in poetry, law and ritual
writing and speech.
Examples Достоліпний (magnificent, grand): "Палац має
достоліпний вигляд."
Ректи (говорити); толмач (перекладач); піїт (поет)
 barbarisms and foreign words
BARBARISMS - words of foreign origin not entirely
assimilated into the English language. They bear the
appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien
to the native tongue. Barbarisms are words or expressions
borrowed from other languages without being adapted to
the phonetic, morphological, or semantic rules of the
English language. Examples chic [ʃiːk] – ‘stylish’; ad
infinitum - ‘to infinity’; Bon appétit. Barbarisms are words
which have already become facts of the English language.
They are, as it were, part and parcel of the English word-
stock, though they remain on the outskirts of the literary
vocabulary. (сендвіч, менеджер, кейс, тренд)
FOREIGN WORDS - though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They
are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind
of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words
most frequently used in literary English.
 neologism
NEOLOGISMS - newly coined lexical units or existing
lexical units that acquire a new sense. Neologism is any
word, which is formed according to the productive
structural patterns or borrowed from another language and
felt by the speakers as something new:
Examples: - Hangry (A combination of "hungry" and
"angry," describing the feeling of irritability or frustration
when one is hungry.) - FOMO ((Fear of Missing Out): The
anxiety or unease caused by the fear of missing out on
enjoyable experiences or social event); - Textlationship (A
relationship that primarily exists through text messages or
online communication.). - Аватар, - бавовна, -
чорнобаїти (тобто наступати на одні й ті ж самі
граблі.) - кадирити (тобто видавати бажане за
дійсне), - відбандерять ворогів (тобто вб'ють.)
Colloquialisms are devided into:
 literary colloquial words (which are used in every day
conversations both by educated and non-educated people)
 non-literary colloquialisms which include:
 SLANG - words (the biggest group) used in a very
informal situations. They are highly emotive and
expressive. Refers to informal (and often transient) lexical
items used by a specific social group, for instance
teenagers, soldiers, prisoners, or surfers. It is not
considered the same as colloquial speech, which is
informal, relaxed speech used on occasion by any speaker.
Slangisms are often used in colloquial speech but not all
colloquialisms are slangisms. Examples
attic (“head”), beans (“money”), saucers (“eyes”), cheesy
(dull), salty (upset), to ghost (cut off the communication),
to flex (to show off), Slang is sometimes described as the
language of sub-cultures or the language of the streets.
Linguistically, slang can be viewed as a sub-dialect. It is
hardly used in writing - except for stylistic effect. People
resort to slang because it is more forceful, vivid and
expressive than standard usages. Slangy words are rough,
often scornful, estimative and humorous. They are com-
pletely devoid of intelligence, moral, virtue, hospitality,
sentimentality and other human values. Examples
(Потріпаний, забити, кайф, залипати)
 JARGOMISMS PROPER - words or phrases used by
people in a particular job or group that can be difficult for
others to understand. They are usually motivated and, like
slang words, have metaphoric character,
 Examples bird (“spacecraft”) /astronauts’ jargon/; to
grab (“to make an impression on smb.”) /newspaper
jargon/ , berries and cherries (police - the lights on top of
a police car). Jargon is often referred to as “technical
language”. It makes communication quicker and easier
among members of a group who understand it. Its aim is to
preserve secrecy within a certain social group. Jargonisms
are usually old words with entirely new meanings, which
can be understood only by the people inside the social
group Examples Бух (Jargon term for an accountant or
someone working in the field of accounting.) мама
(материнська плата), качати (реанімувати)
 PROFESSIONALISMS - are used in a definite trade or

profession by people connected by common interests. They
are correlated to terms. Whereas terms are coined to name
new concepts or phenomena appearing in the process of
science and technology development, professionalisms
name the already-existing concepts, tools or instruments
anew. Examples tin-fish (submarine); block-buster (a
bomb especially designed to destroy blocks of big
buildings); вікно – незаповнений уроками час. добрива,
меліорація, жнива, тиск, лікарняний, щеплення.
In essence, jargonisms have a broader application and can be found in various contexts,
while professionalisms are more specific to a particular profession or occupation.
 VULGARISMS - are coarse words with a strong emotive

meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite
conversation. Their function is to express strong emotions:
annoyance, anger, vexation, etc. Not every coarse
expression is a vulgarism. Coarseness may result from
improper grammar, non-standard pronunciation. Vulgar
words are not simply coarse; they are rude and strongly
emotionally charged. Examples Паскуда, стерво, харя,
damn, bloody,
 DIALECTICAL - words are normative and devoid of any
stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of
them, carry a strong flavor of the locality where they
belong. (Dialectical words may be divided according to the
differences on the phonemic and lexical level). Dialectal
words are those, which in the process of creation of the
English national language remained beyond its literary
boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite
locality. Examples tittie = sister, cutty = naughty girl
/woman, бульба, пигуля (щука- Southern Ukrainian dialect),
первань (вечеря- Lemko dialect)
above
4. Key notions of stylistics: imagery (Verbal Image).

Image is a means of artistic generalization of reality, a sign of the
objective correlation of human feelings and surroundings. In its
broader meaning, image is the reflection of the outer world in the
consciousness. Verbal image as one of the means of reflecting the
reality has its peculiarities: it allows to comprehend the world in
another way, to show a certain attitude to the surrounding. Verbal
imagery refers to the use of vivid and descriptive language to create mental
Verbal image is
pictures and sensory experiences in the reader's mind.
created by words Examples: білими квітами зацвіла моя
голова, to be wrapped in thoughts. "Her voice flowed like a gentle
stream, soothing and calming all who listened."
When considering the structure of an image we may

distinguish:
1. Tenor – the actual meaning of the image, what is being talked
about, existing denotative meaning;
Denotative meaning refers to the literal or dictionary definition of a word. It is the
objective and straightforward meaning of a term. Denotative meanings are commonly
shared and understood within a language community. For example, the denotative
meaning of the word "dog" is a domesticated carnivorous mammal.
2. Vehicle – the object with which the tenor is compared,

connotations;
Connotative meaning refers to the subjective and associative meanings of a
word or phrase. It involves the personal, cultural, or emotional associations
and implications that people may have with a particular term. Connotations
can vary from person to person based on their experiences, beliefs, or cultural
backgrounds. For example, the word "dog" might have positive connotations
for someone who loves dogs, while it might have negative connotations for
someone who has had a traumatic experience with dogs.
3. Ground – common feature of the compared concepts;
4. Relationship between the two;
5. Comparison technique (type of trope);
6. Grammatical and lexical peculiarities of comparison.
Examples
Metaphor: "Her words were a soothing balm for his wounded
soul."
Tenor: Her words
Vehicle: Soothing balm
Ground: Wounded soul
From the functional-communicative point of view, the verbal

image has two aspects. On one hand, it has cognitive value, being
a sign rendering a certain idea, playing a certain role in
comprehending extralinguistic reality through reflecting ethno-
cultural bonds. On the other hand, it is a means of emotional
influence, expression of the author’s subjective evaluation of the
reality.
Each verbal image consists of a number of lexemes, which
constitute its first sense layer. Imagery is created not by arbitrary
combination of words. It takes two or more lexemes to occur
together and simultaneously to violate the conventional
combinability in order to make the reader/listener change the
conceptual fields. The reader/listener has to think differently,
unusually. As a result, semantic fields are broken, separate
semantic elements are detached from these lexemes. These
detached elements form up an emotional-conceptual image with a
certain denotative imagery, on the basis of which a new semantic
imagery, new meaning is created. The new meaning created by
these components is an integral semantic unit, which is formed by
the interaction of separate semantic components and reaches the
mind through imagination. This meaning is usually imposed on by
various connotations. This constitutes the 2nd sense layer.
Some verbal images have become idiomatic. The difference
between idiomatic and non-idiomatic verbal images has been
established by Ch.Ballie, who classified them from the point of
view of their expressive colouring at a certain stage of the
language development. He singled out 3 groups:
1. perceptible, concrete images arousing imagination and drawing
pictures. These are original creations of the authors or
occasional transformations of the set expressions in order to
more clearly render the idea: Examples Examples Your locks
are like snow (R.Burns) – Чуб іній притрусив (пер.
М.Лукаша); Her cheeks like lilies dipt in wine (R.Burns) – В
неї личко із лілей і лала (пер. М.Лукаша);
2. weakened or emotional images in which emotions prevail the
concrete content. Idiomatic expressions most of which are
based on still perceptible image, however, they have been used
so often that they lose their expressiveness Examples очі, як
зорі; струнка, як тополя;
3. dead images, in which imagery and perception have become
obliterated. The expressions in which the image is no longer
perceived Examples лампочка горить, дощ іде, час біжить,
рушниця стріляє.
There exist 5 main methods of rendering the semantico-stylistic
functions of a verbal image in artistic translation.
1. Ukrainian and English contain images which coincide not
only in general meaning but also in the meaning of their
components, stylistic and expressive shades. These are full
image equivalents. Both languages contain international
expressions rooted in the Bible and ancient culture. Examples
Кров виссали (М.Коцюбинський) – sucking out all my blood
(tr. by A.Berngard)
2. Sometimes images differing in their composition have the
same meaning, produce the same effect. Such expressions in
contrasted languages are called partial image equivalents,
because the component composition of the image in a certain
way influences its general meaning. Examples Вставать з
домовини (Т.Шевченко) – to rise up from a grave (tr. by
J.Weir)
3. Loan translation (calque) is a word-for-word translation of
a word or a figure of speech. Ukrainian idiomatic expression
хліб і сіль, which means minimum means of surviving
Examples До нас в науку! Ми навчим,/ по чому хліб і сіль
по чім! (Т.Шевченко) – You’ll be taught/ The price of bread
and price of salt (tr. by M.Skrypnyk)
4. It is very often the case that on comprehending the source
image, the translator senses the impossibility of its
component wise rendering. Then using motivation, idea, the
translator models the figurative expression of the TL basing
on the semantic meaning of the image and possibilities of the
TL. The created images are called semantic-figurative
calques: Examples Блукав по світу я чимало,/ Носив і
свиту і жупан (Т.Шевченко) – Much have I wandered in
the world,/ In peasant’s coat and garb of lord. (tr. by A.-J.
Hunter)
5. The least productive means of conveying the verbal image in
the translation is non-figurative occasional word
combination. Examples Сей бориславець пішов з торбами
ходити (І.Франко) – This inhabitant of Borislav became a
beggar (tr. by C.Dulway)
above
5. Key notions of stylistics: contextual meaning, transference,

transferred meaning. Stylistic Devices, groups of SD.
Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not
fixed in the dictionaries, what we call contextual meanings. The
latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such
a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the
primary meaning.
Examples "The bank is closed."
In this sentence, the word "bank" can have different contextual
meanings depending on the overall context. If the preceding
sentence was about financial institutions, it would likely refer to a
financial institution. However, if the preceding sentence was about
a river or the edge of something, it would likely refer to the
landform.
Transferred meaning-the interrelation between two types of
lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual.(the substitution of the
existing names fixed in dictionaries by new, occasional, individual
ones, prompted by the speaker’s subjective original view and
evaluation of things. The act of name-exchange is traditionally
referred to as transference).
Examples "He has a heart of gold."
In this phrase, the literal meaning of "heart" is the organ
responsible for pumping blood. However, the transferred meaning
implies that the person being described is kind, generous, and
compassionate.
Stylistic device (SD)-conscious and intentional intensification of
some typical structural and / or semantic property of a language
unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to a generalized status and
thus becoming a generative model. (I.R. Galperin): Stylistic
devices (tropes, figures of speech) unlike expressive means are
not language phenomena. They are formed in speech and most
of them do not exist out of context.
Basically all SDs are the result of revaluation of neutral words,
word-combinations and syntactic structures. Revaluation makes
language units obtain connotations and stylistic value.
When the contextual meaning deviates from the acknowledged
one to a degree that causes an unexpected turn in the recognized
logical meaning, a transposition of the existing model, we register
a stylistic device. Types (groups) of SDs:
 Lexical SDs suggest the opposition of lexical meanings
regardless of the syntactical organization of the utterance. (are
separated into devices based on the interaction between the
logical and nominal meanings of a word (antonomasia); devices
based on the interaction between two logical meanings of a
word (metaphor, metonymy, irony); devices based on the
interaction between the logical and emotive meanings of a word
(hyperbole, epithet, oxymoron); devices based on the interaction
between the free and phraseological meanings of a word
(zeugma, pun))
 Syntactical SDs based on the opposition of syntactical
meanings regardless of their semantics. (based on reduction of
the initial sentence model: ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative
sentences, asyndeton; based on extension of the initial sentence
model: repetition, enumeration, tautology, polysyndeton, 'it is
(was) he, who...', the emphatic verb 'to do', parenthetic
sentences; based on change of word order: inversion,
detachment; based on interaction of syntactic structures in
context: parallel constructions; based on transposition of
meaning and connection of constituent parts: rhetoric
questions, parceling.)
 Lexico-Syntactical SDs based on the opposition of lexical
meanings accompanied by fixed syntactical organization of
employed lexical units. Usually they suggest identity, contrast,
inequality. (Antithesis, climax, anticlimax, simile, litotes,
periphrasis).
 Graphical and Phonetical SDs based on the opposition of
meanings of phonological and/or graphical elements of the
language. (Onomatopheia, Alliteration, Assonance, Graphon,
Multiplication, Hyphonation, Capitalization, Italics)
 Fresh, original, genuine SDs appear when the opposition is
clearly perceived and both indicated meanings are
simultaneously realized within the same short context we speak
of.
 Trite or hackneyed SDs appear when one of the meanings is
suppressed by the other.
(4) Expressiveness-a kind of intensification of an utterance (or a

part of an utterance). Emotivenessis an integral part of
expressiveness.
Expressive means of a language are those phonetic,
morphological, word-building, lexical, phraseological and
syntactical forms which exist in language-as-a-system for the
purpose of logical and/ or emotional intensification of the
utterance.(I.R. Galperin)
above
6. Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the

primary and contextual meanings; Quantitative tropes
([hyperbole]; [meiosis, litotes]).
Figure is syntagmatically arranged expressive means. Figures are
characterized by various level of formalization.
 Figures of convergence (combination; co-occurrence)
(суміщення) studies types of syntagmatic (linear) arrangement
of meanings.
 Figures of substitution (replacement)(заміщення). includes all
means of secondary nomination. (→ trope)
 TROPE - generally, a word used in the transferred meaning
that evokes certain feelings. It includes everything based on
transference of meaning (interplay of contextual and dictionary
meanings). I. Arnold defines it as a lexical descriptively
expressive means in which a word or word combination is used
in transferred meaning; the nature of the trope consists in
contrasting the notion, presented by the traditional use of the
lexical unit and the notion presented by the same unit in the
artistic speech where it performs a special stylistic function.
LINES of interaction between the primary and a contextual
meanings
Line 1: two objects which have nothing in common are
subjectively identified. IT'S A GROUP OF METAPHOR.
 Metaphor (genuine, trite, sustained)
 Antonomasia
 Personification
 Allegory
Line 2: one object is substituted for another on the ground that
there is some kind of their interdependence or interrelation. IT'S A
GROUP OF METONYMY.
 Metonymy
 Synecdoche
 Periphrasis
 Euphemism
Line 3: imposing opposite or contradictory sense.

 Irony.
TROPES (SUBSTITUTION)
Quantaty tropes Quality tropes

QUANTITY TROPES – identification of two different object on
the base of common quantitative features (hyperbole, meiosis-
litotes).
QUALITY TROPES – identification of different objects with
common qualitative features (metaphor-
antonomasia_personification_allegory, metonymy-
synechdoche_periphrasis_euphemism, irony).
Quantity tropes:
1) Hyperbole is a stylistic device of most evident and intentional
exaggeration of properties and qualities of the object or
phenomenon for emphasis or comic effect. It is not meant to be
literally understood. There are very many familiar, colloquial
expressions that are based on hyperbolic overstatement, Examples:
to be scared to death; haven’t seen you for ages; so hungry that
he/she could eat a horse; a person of no brains; to have all the
time in the world, etc. They do not have great stylistic value and
belong to the system of the language. Stylistic, or genuine,
hyperbole is a powerful device used in various types of text and in
everyday conversation: .. .she came back with a wardrobe the size
of the Eiffel tower. It is the opposite of understatement. This is a
way to intensify an emphatic character of the utterance. In the
process of overstating, the speaker supply the object with such
amount of quality that in reality is absolutely unnatural for it.
Examples “When people say “I’ve told you fifty times”// They
mean to scold and very often do.” (Byron)
2) Meiosis (МАЙОЗИС)-мейоз/зменшення - consists in the
downtoning, lessening, weakening of some idea. It is a stylistic
device aiming at deliberate reduction of dimensions of the object.
This SD is mostly based on the contrast of two notions belonging
to two different classes. Mostly it concerns size, shape, distance,
time. Examples She wore a pink hat, the size of a button. It will
cost you a pretty penny. Little town (New York). I was half afraid
you've forgotten me. Ні копійки, нікуди не годиться, на макове
зерня, як кіт наплакав
In some classifications the term is used interchangeably with the
term “understatement”. The confusion is explained by the fact that
meiosis can be defined as a deliberate understatement of some
idea, which is expressed as less important than it actually is.
Besides, meiosis is often confused with litotes, which is, in fact,
a type of meiosis, or may even be treated as a separate device.
They have completely different structural characteristics.
Understatement in meiosis can be expressed by means of various
lexical-syntactic models, Examples He is rather a decent fellow. I
think we might do worse, (which means neither “we did badly”
nor “we did well)
Understatement (often ironical) in litotes is expressed by a fixed
syntactic model: through giving an affirmation by denying the
opposite. Examples The smell was not unpleasant. This is not
unexciting. He is not half bad when you know him.
3) Litotes (Лайтотіс) is a specific form of understatement
consisting in expressing the lessened degree of quantity of a thing
by means of negation of the antonym. The negation of the
antonym express the positive idea but in somewhat lessened
degree. The negation + N or Adj serves to establish a positive
feature, however is somewhat diminished in quality as compared
with the synonymous expression making a straightforward
assertion of the positive feature Examples: “It wasn't a terrible
trip”; “He is not without sense of humour”, "All in all, she wasn’t
a bad dancer". “No, ‘tis not so deep as a well nor so wide as a
church-door.” (William Shakespeare) The novel is not bad.
You’re not wrong. I can’t disagree with your logic. My feelings
are not unhurt. He is hardly unattractive. У цій же річці чаплі по
коліно
above
primary and contextual meanings; Qualitative tropes
([metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis, euphemism]).
of meanings.

meanings
 Antonomasia
 Personification
 Allegory
GROUP OF METONYMY.
 Metonymy
 Synecdoche
 Periphrasis
 Euphemism

 Irony.

litotes).
Qualitative tropes:
Metonymy - is based on contiguity (nearness) of objects or
phenomena. (Metonymy is a figure of speech in which one object
or idea takes the place of another with which it has a close
association.) Transference of names in metonymy does not
involve a necessity for 2 different objects to have a common
component in their semantic structure (like metaphor) but
proceeds from the fact that two objects (phenomena) have
common ground for existence in reality. Examples Читати
Підмогильного, Київ прокидається
The proximity may be revealed:
 between the symbol and the thing it denotes Examples Heart -
love or emotion: "My dear, you have all of my heart".
 in the relations between the instrument and the action
performed with this instrument; Examples His pen is rather
sharp.
 in the relation between the container and the thing it contains;
Examples. He drank one more cup. Я з'їв цілу тарілку
 the concrete is put for the abstract; Examples. "I wish he would
keep his nose out of the plans" (nose - interest or attention).
 the material of which an object is made may become the name
of the object Examples: a glass, boards;
 The object and what is on it: Examples смачний стіл (їжа)
 Effect and cause: Examples cancer sticks (cigarettes)
 The author and his/her work: Examples To read Shakespeare,
Читати Підмогильного
 the name of the place may become the name of the people or of
an object placed there Examples: the House – members of
Parliement, the White House – the Administration of the USA;
 names of musical instruments may become names of musicians
when they are united in an orchestra Examples: the violin, the
saxophone;
 the name of some person may become a common noun,
Examples boycott was originally the name of an Irish family
who were so much disliked by their neighbours that they did not
mix with them.
 names of inventors very often become terms to denote things
they invented, Examples watt, om, roentgen;
 some geographical names can also become common nouns
through metonymy Examples holland (linen fabrics), Brussels
(a special kind of carpets), china (porcelain).
Synecdoche (синекдокі) - synecdoche is a trope in which a word
or phrase that refers to a part of something is substituted to stand
in for the whole, or vice versa. Examples Boots on the ground
(soldiers); Wheels (car); Ask for hand (Ask a woman to marry) to
earn an honest penny(money). Червона шапочка, Ноги моєї
тут не буде
Difference Between Synecdoche and Metonymy: Synecdoche is
a subset of metonymy. However, synecdoche suggests either a
part of the whole or a whole standing in for a part. Metonymy, on
the other hand, is the substitution of a term that is connected in
any way to the original concept.
Periphrasis (перифресис)- it appears as a result of substitution
of logical generally accepted nomination of the object for
figurative imaginary ones. (is a stylistic device that can be defined
as the use of excessive and longer words to convey a meaning
which could have been conveyed with a shorter expression, or in a
few words. It is an indirect or roundabout way of writing about
something). Examples “Above, the forests ran up into the clouds
of rain; below, the black lava fell in cliffs, where the kings of old
(=ancestors) lay buried.” (R. Stevenson). Cannot be expressed
by one word (metonymy can): Exciting book = thriller
(metonymy); 200 pages of blood curdling narrative (periphrasis).
Examples (king – the leader of hosts, the giver of rings, the
protector of earls, the victory lord) благородні птахи — лебеді;
чорне золото — вугілля; бити себе в груди — каятись;
накивати п'ятами — втекти
Euphemism - words or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word
or expression by a more acceptable one, caused by social
conventions and psychological factors. It is a synonym which aims
at producing a deliberately mild effect. Examples Ukr.:
нерозумний (замість дурний), на заслужений відпочинок (на
пенсію), пішов з життя (помер), знайтися (народитися);
Eng.: queer (mad), deceased (dead),elevated (drunk).
1. Religious euphemisms: God = Lord, Almighty, Heaven,
goodness.
2. Moral euphemisms: to die = to be gone, to expire, to be no
more, depart, to decease, to go west, to join the majority, to
pass away.
3. Medical euphemisms: lunatic asylum = mental hospital,
madhouse; idiots = mentally abnormal, low, medium and high-
grade mental defectives; cripple = invalid; insane = person of
unsound mind.
4. Political euphemisms: revolt, revolution = tension; poor
people = less fortunate elements.
above

primary and contextual meanings; Qualitative tropes
([metaphor, antonomasia, personification, allegory];
[irony]).
of meanings.

meanings
 Antonomasia
 Personification
 Allegory
GROUP OF METONYMY.
 Metonymy
 Synecdoche
 Periphrasis
 Euphemism

 Irony.

litotes).
Qualitative tropes:
Metaphor - the term “metaphor” means transference of some
quality from one object to another on the basis of their comparison
(quasi similar properties). Two different phenomena are
simultaneously brought to mind by the subjective imposition of
some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other
which by nature is deprived of this properties. In other words,
metaphor is the power of realising two lexical meanings
simultaneously.
Metaphorization is based on the comparison of some features of
different objects according to:
 Their similar physical features: position (шапка профілю),
sounding (high note of an evening, to thunder into the
room), movement (domino effect, butterfly economics,
політика качелей), functioning (head of state, blanket of
clouds, hand of a clock), form and sight (apple of an eye)
Their similar physiological and psychological impressions –
synesthesia (warm and cold colors, frozen silence, bitter cold,
smell of death, гірка правда, солодка брехня)
Types of metaphors:
● Genuine metaphors - unexpected, fresh and quite
unpredictable. "Her laughter was music to his ears." (This
metaphor compares the sound of her laughter to the pleasant
and enjoyable experience of listening to music.)
● Trite (dead) metaphors - commonly used in speech and
sometimes even fixed in dictionaries. Examples "Life is a
journey." (While this metaphor is widely used, it has become
cliché or trite due to its overuse in various contexts.)
Metaphor, as all other SDs, is fresh, original, genuine, when first
used, and trite, hackneyed, stale when often repeated. In the latter
case it gradually loses its expressiveness becoming just another
entry in the dictionary, as in the "leg of a table" or the "sunrise",
thus serving a very important source of enriching the vocabulary
of the language. Metaphor can be expressed by all notional parts
of speech, and functions in the sentence as any of its members.
+When the speaker (writer) in his desire to present an elaborated
image does not limit its creation to a single metaphor but offers a
group of them, each supplying another feature of the described
phenomenon, this cluster creates a sustained (prolonged)
metaphor.
S. Ullmann considers metaphor as one of the semantic universals

and singles out 4 types of metaphorization:
1) anthropomorphic metaphor when the features of human
beings are ascribed to inanimate things, i.e. personification
Examples: water speakes; the sea laughed; Вітер шепоче
таємниці
2) the reverse type – the properties of nature or birds, animals are
ascribed to people Examples: He is a lion; Why don’t people fly?
Він лев справедливості.
3) transfer from concrete to abstract Examples: Time runs, flies;
Час біжить швидко, Любов гріє серце.
4) synaesthetic metaphors – in this case the transition takes place
from one sphere of feelings to another Examples: warm colour:
Soft is the music, М'яка музика
Antonomasia - is a lexical SD in which a proper name is used

instead a common noun or vice versa, i.e. it is based on the
interplay of logical and nominal meanings.
There tree types of antonomasia:
1. A proper name is used in the function of a common noun.
Examples.: Einstein - a scientific genius; Solomon - a wise
ruler. Він - новий Шевченко у світі живопису
2. A common noun serves as individualizing name Examples.:
The Iron Lady for Margaret Thatcher. Вона - наша принцеса
3. So-called “speaking names” – whose origin from common
nouns is still clearly perceived. They perform double role: to
name and to qualify. Examples The answer for this question can
be given only by Mr. Know-it-all. A lover - "Cassanova",
Napoleon - "The Little Corporal”, Elvis Presley - "The King of
Rock"
Personification - a stylistic device based on the transference of
the properties natural for animate objects onto inanimate ones. It is
usually manifested in a specific valence, peculiar for “human”
nouns. Examples “Earth hath swallowed all my hopes. The sun
smiled down on us.”'The story jumped off the page.” Весна
посміхається зеленим листям. Гори сповідаються небу у
своїх таємницях
Allegory (аалеґорі)- a way of artistic description where real
objects and events are camouflaged by some definite artistic
images which are marked with the most vivid characteristics of
hidden objects. a figure of speech in which abstract ideas and
principles are described it terms of concrete pictures. Abstract
notions used as a proper names when a picture in which character
or event is a symbol representing an idea or quality Thus allegory
is remarkable for its two sense levels: denotative (expressed
implicitly) and imagery – explicit. Allegory is a narration or
description in which events, actions, characters, settings or objects
represent specific abstractions or ideas. peace is a white dove, of
freedom – broken chains. Examples All is not gold that glitters.
Вовк та ягня. «незборимий царизмом Кавказ» — Прометей
Irony - A SD based on the simultaneous realization of two logical
meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand
in opposition to each other (the word positively charged is
understood as negative qualification). Examples “It must be
delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in
one’s pocket.” It is the type of the semantic change which occurs
when a word with a positive or assertive connotation (in a wide
sense) is used to denote opposite characteristics. It is usually
pronounced with a specific intonation, which in written form can
be marked by inverted commas. Examples святий та божий,
частувати (палицею), нагородити (стусаном), Eng.: a pretty
mess. She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator / З чудовим
талантом, він вирішив стати нудним бухгалтером
above
9. Figures of identity (Simile, Quasi-identity, Replacers);
Figures of contrast (Oxymoron, Antithesis)
of meanings.
There are 3 most general types of semantic relations between
co-occurring units:
• Identical meanings–when co-occurring units in the text either
have the same meaning or are used as the names of the same
object.
• Different meanings–the correlative linguistic units in the text
are perceived as denoting different objects (phenomena,
processes, properties).
• Opposite meaning–when two correlative units are semantically
polar. The meaning of one of them is incompatible with the
meaning of the second: the one excludes the other.
Figures
Identity Inequalit Contrast
y
Simile Specifiers Oxymoron
Quasi- Climax Antithesis
identity Anti-
Replacers climax
Pun
mgma
Tautology
I. Figures of Identity
1. Simile, i.e. imaginative comparison. aims at characterizing one
object by bringing it into the contact with another object of an
entirely different class. -an explicit statement of partial identity
(affinity, likeness, similarity) of two objects. (In fact, the objects
cannot be identical; they are only similar, they resemble each
other due to some identical features).
Simile always employs two names of two separate objects and at
least one more component-a word or a word-group signalizing the
idea of juxtaposition and comparison. (Conjunctions: like, as (as
if, as though), than; Verbs: to resemble, to remind one of;Verbal
phrases: to bear a resemblance to, to have a look of and others).
Examples
 Our soldiers are as brave as lions.
 Her cheeks are red like a rose.
 He is as funny as a monkey.
 The water well was as dry as a bone.
 He is as cunning as a fox
 Тихий, як море, був його голос

 Блискучі очі, як зорі на небі
2. Quasi-identity - complete two-member utterances in which the
theme ('topic') is the traditional, non-figurative denomination of an
object, and the rheme ('comment'), its figurative, situational,
charactering denomination: a metaphor, a metonymy, or a
combination of tropes (i.e., metaphor + hyperbole + irony
amalgamated)
Examples Jane is a real angel. That old duffer? He's oil, I guess.
Лагідна долина спала у сивій тиші." (The gentle valley slept in
the gray silence.) - Here, the adjective "сивій" is used instead of
the more commonly used "сірій" (gray) to convey a softer and
more subdued atmosphere, while still retaining the quasi-identity
of describing the same color.
A figure intermediate bw metaphor and simile with the
structure "Tenor is vehicle".
3. Synonymous replacements (“variations”) are used in actual
texts for two different reasons. One of them is to avoid
monotonous repetition of the same word in a sentence or a
sequence of sentences. Examples "The little boy was crying. It
was the child's usual time for going to bed, but no one paid
attention to the kid." Semantic function - highlighting differences.
II. Figures of Contrast are formed by intentional combination,
often by direct juxtaposition of ideas, mutually excluding, and
incompatible with one another.
1. Oxymoron. (оксімоорон) ascribes some feature to an object
incompatible with that feature. The most typical oxymoron is an
attributive or an adverbial word combination, the members of
which are derived from antonymic stems or, according to our
common sense experience, are incompatible in other ways, i. e.
express mutually exclusive notions. Examples Open secret, Tragic
comedy, Seriously funny, Awfully pretty, Foolish wisdom,
Original copies, Liquid gas, живий мертвець, тиша кричить,
гучна тига
2. Antithesis (антисесиз) denotes any active confrontation,
emphasized co-occurrence of notions, really or presumably
contrastive. It is any identification of contrast meant to be
perceived by the recipient. The two opposed notions may refer (1)
to the same object of thought or (2) to different objects. The
purpose of using this device is to demonstrate the
contradictory nature of the referent! Examples “Setting foot on
the moon may be a small step for a man but a giant step for
mankind”. The use of contrasting ideas, “a small step” and “a
giant step”, in the sentence above emphasizes the significance of
one of the biggest landmarks of human history. Youth is lovely,
age is lonely. Better to reign in hell, than serve in heaven. Ми
жили в райському саду, а потім стали заручниками власної
пастки.
above
10. Figures of inequality (Specifiers, Climax, Anti-climax,
Pun, Zeugma, Tautology);
Figures of Inequality (semantic function - highlighting
differences)
1. Specifying, or clarifying synonyms contribute to precision in
characterizing the object of speech. They may: either (1) arise in
the speaker's mind as an afterthought and be added to what has
been said, or (2) occupy the same syntactical positions in two or
more parallel sentences. Examples Uncle James looked old, fat,
and sleepy. Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-
going, foolish dear fellow. E.g. scream, yell, shout.
2.Climax (or: Gradation) - such an arrangement of correlative
ideas (notions expressed by words, word combinations, or
sentences) in which what precedes is less than what follows. an
arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts of one
sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance,
importance or emotional tension The minimum number of
elements (notions, meanings) is two; a greater expressive effect is
achieved by participation of three or more units of meaning.
Examples I am sorry, I am so very sorry, I am so extremely sorry.
The book has a power, so to speak, a very exceptional power; in
fact, one may say without exaggeration it is the most powerful
book of the month. / . E.g. It’s a big, large, giant spider / Він
дивився на неї з ненавистю, з розчаруванням, зі злістю, а
потім вдарив її сильно в обличчя.
3. Anti-climax (or: Bathos - a sudden deception of the recipient:
it consists in adding one weaker element to one or several strong
ones, mentioned before. Anticlimax is employed with a humorous
aim. The recipient predicted a stronger element to follow.
Examples It’s a bloody lie and not quite true. “… he had actually
left 15.000 pounds to ‘whomever do you think, my dear? To
Irene!’ that runaway wife of his nephew Soames; Irene, a woman
who had almost disgraced the family, and – still more amazing –
was to him no blood relation.” Він мріяв стати великим
героєм, але його найбільше здобуття - знайти загублений
пульт від телевізора
4. Pun ('play upon words‘) - is a form of a word play which
suggest 2 or more meaning by exploiting multiple meanings of
words or similar sounding words, for an intended humorous or
rhetorical effect.based on polysemy or homonymy. The pun
appears from the collision of two elements with the identical or
similar phonetic/graphic form.
Regarding its form there are three types of the pun:
(1) the forms of the elements fully coincide
(2) phonetic forms coincide, graphic differ
(3) Both phonetic and graphic forms are different
Examples Always trust a glue salesman. They tend to stick to
their word. Santa Claus' helpers are known as subordinate
Clauses. I was struggling to figure out how lightning works, but
then it struck me. Як справи?-Як справа так і злів. Діти, діте,
де мені вас діти. How do you call an alligator in a vest? An
investigator.
5. Zeugma (зюґма) consists in combining unequal, semantically
heterogeneous, or even incompatible, words or phrases. It is co-
occurrence and seeming analogy of syntactical connection of two
or more units (words, phrases) with another unit. Grammatical
analogy and semantic incompatibility! Examples "I lost my keys
and my temper." “She broke his car and his heart.” Він вийшов з
дому і з життя її.
6. Tautology (тотолоджі)- Tautology is the repetitive use of
phrases or words that have similar meanings. In simple words, it is
expressing the same thing, an idea, or saying, two or more times.
A grammatical tautology refers to an idea repeated within
a phrase, paragraph, or sentence to give an impression that the
writer is providing extra information. Examples “Your acting
is completely devoid of emotion.” “Shout it, shout it, shout it out
loud!”“This is like deja vu all over again” (Yogi Berra) He was
the only survivor; no one else was saved. Рано вранці, вийти на
вулицю на зовнішній світ, істина правда
above
11. Phonetic level of stylistics: Sound symbolism. Alliteration
and its functions. Assonance, consonance, paronomasia.
Onomatopoeia.
The basic unit of a phonological level of a language is a phoneme.
It has a unilateral nature: this language unit helps to differentiate
meaningful lexemes but has no meaning of its own. As a rule,
phonemes in English are not stylistically marked but on the
phonetic level we can observe certain combinations of sounds
which contribute to various stylistic effects. A phoneme has a
strong associative and sound-instrumenting power.
Sound symbolism – attributing symbolic meaning to phonemes.

It is based on the assumption that separate sounds due to their
specific features are able to evoke certain ideas, emotions,
perceptions and images.
• Subjective sound symbolism – the relations between the sound
and the meaning as they exist in the individual’s mind.
• Objective sound symbolism – the relations between the sound
and the meaning reflected in the language objectively.
Sound symbolism can be classified into three types according to

the different sound makers.
 sounds produced by animals，
 by human beings
 by objects in broad sense.
It is a device that uses words which imitate the sounds made by an
object (animate or inanimate), or which are associated with or
suggestive of some action or movement. This is the most primitive
word formation method.
• Phonetic intensifiers – certain phoneme combinations linked

up with special national areas.
Examples flickers, flame, flare, flash
Glow, glare, glaze
slide, slime, sleek, sleet, slither, slop, sludge
Слизький, слимак, слина
Exceptions: gleam, glitter
Euphony – sounds compound to sound sweet. All euphony
examples share the following features:
 Euphony involves the use of long vowel sounds, which are
more melodious than consonants.
 Euphony involves the use of harmonious consonants, such as l,
m, n, r, and soft f and v sounds.
 Euphony uses soft consonants or semi-vowels, including w, s, y,
and th or wh, extensively to create more pleasant sounds.
Examples I see the moon, and the moon sees me.
E.A. Poe:
...silken sad uncertain
rustling of each purple curtain...
«Утоплена», Т. Г. Шевченко:
...вітер з осокою
шепче: хто се, хто се
сидить сумно над водою,
чеше довгі коси.
Cacophony – sounds compound to sound harsh.
Cacophony, on the other hand, uses consonants in combinations
that require explosive delivery (e.g., p, b, d, g, k, ch-, sh- etc.).
Examples R. Browning: Nor soul helps flesh now more than flesh
helps soul. Klarissa Klein drives an old, grumbling Cadillac
which has a crumpled bumper and screaming, honking horn.
Onomatopoeia – combination of sounds which aim at imitating
sounds produced by nature, things, people, and animals.
 Direct – natural sounds (hiss, rattle, bang, snap, scratch)
Examples ding-dong, bang, mew, woof, purr, giggle; квакати,
кукурікати)
 Indirect – utterance the echo of its sound. It is often produced
by rhythm, lexical repetition and phonetic repetitive figures. Or,
in other words, a writer (a speaker) arranges sounds in such a
way as to create the impression of the sound (s)
produced. Examples And the silken sad, uncertain rustling of
each window curtain …
where the repetition of the sound [s] aims at producing the sound
of the curtain rustling. Indirect onomatopoeia demands some
mentioning in the text (utterance) of the object which makes the
sounds. It is sometimes very effectively used by repeating the
words which themselves are not onomatopoeia. Many stanzas in
Poe’s poem “The Raven” end with the word “Nevermore”, as in:
Qnoth the Raven, “Nevermore”…
Then the bird said, “Nevermore”…, which is not onomatopoeic
but is used to resemble the sounds of the crow.
Examples Дзюрить, дзичить, дзюрчить, дзирчить вода,
Мелодії грає на кам’яній флейті.
(Б.-І.Антонич)
Alliteration – the repetition of similar sounds, in particular in the

beginning of successive words. Alliteration in the English
language is deeply rooted in the traditions of English folklore. The
laws of phonetic arrangement in Anglo-Saxon poetry differed
greatly from those of present-day English poetry. In Old English
poetry alliteration was one of the basic principles of verse and
considered, along with rhythm, to be its main characteristic. Each
stressed meaningful word in a line had to begin with the same
sound or combination of sounds. Alliteration is therefore
sometimes called initial rhyme. Examples as busy as a bee; as
cool as a cucumber; as red as a rose; as bright as a button
Samuel Taylor Coleridge uses alliteration in “Rime of the Ancient
Mariner”:
The fair breeze blew, the white foam flew,
The furrow followed free;
We were the first that ever burst
Into that silent sea.
/ Ріка розлітається у різні різи"
Сині морські хвилі ходять хором, Відлітають птахи в далекий край, Вечірні вітри
віє, віє вдворі, Там, де троянда трепеще в саду рай.
Alliteration is often seen in advertising and business names for

easy memorization and recognition.
Examples
 American Apparel
 American Airlines
 Best Buy
 Coca-Cola
 Dunkin’ Donuts
 Krispy Kreme
Assonance – the repetition of the same or similar vowels within

the passage. Examples
Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary
(“The Raven” Edgar Allan Poe)
Nutter Butter (American cookie brand)
Впали роси на покоси,
Засвітилися навколо.
Там дівча ходило босе,
Білу ніжку прокололо.
(Д. Павличко)
Consonance – the repetition of a pattern of consonants with
changes in intervening vowels (consonants are the same, vowels
change). The literary device of consonance is inherently
different from assonance, which involves the repetition of
similar vowel sounds within a word, sentence, or phrase. Another
distinction to be appreciated is that between consonance and
rhyme. In the case of rhyme, consonant sounds can be present at
the beginning, middle, or end of several successive words, rather
than merely at the ends of words. Further, the device of
consonance needs to be distinguished from alliteration. In
contrast to alliteration, consonance involves repetition of
consonant sounds only.
Examples
She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year. Zealots
(By Fugees)
Rap rejects my tape deck, ejects projectile
Whether Jew or gentile, I rank top percentile
Many styles, more powerful than gamma rays
My grammar pays, like Carlos Santana plays.
Запалало сонце, спокоєм гріє
Літо лине легким плітом
Paronomasia – a similar sounding of contextually bound words
(words with similar or the same spelling or sounding but different
meaning used in one context).
Examples
Richard III (By William Shakespeare)
Launce: “It is no matter if the tied were lost; for it is the unkindest
tied that ever any man tied.”
Richard: “Now is the winter of our discontent … made glorious
summer by this Son of York.”
"Champagne for my real friends and real pain for my sham
friends." (credited to Tom Waits)
"Your children need your presence more than your presents."
(Jesse Jackson)
Лечу на крилах персів в країну персів, в державу персів, в
князівство персів, у Персію, сказати б. (Драч)
above
12. Syntactic EM (the reduction of the initial model).
Syntactic expressive means is a syntactic model of a sentence
charged with additional logic or expressive information
generally intensifying pragmatic effect of the utterance.
There are three groups of syntactic expressive means
differentiated according to the transformations of the initial model.
(Completeness of structure)
Namely:
1. The reduction of the initial model;
2. The extension of the initial model;
3. The change of the components order within the frame of
initial model.
The sentence, as a unit of a certain level, is a sequence of

relatively independent lexical and phrasal units (words or word
combinations), and what differentiates a sentence from a word is the
fact that the sentence structure is changeable; it does have any
constant length: it can be shortened or extended, complete or
incomplete, simple, compound or complex. Besides, its constituents,
length, word-order, as well as communicative type (assertion,
negation, interrogation, exhortation) are variable.
Syntactic expressive means of reduction of the initial model:

Ellipsis, aposiopesis, nominative sentences, asyndeton: +
apokoiny construction, absense of auxiliary elemnts
1) Ellipsis is a deliberate omission of at least one member of a
sentence. In modem prose ellipsis is used mainly in dialogues to
reflect the natural omissions of oral colloquial speech. Speaking to
someone we leave out words because they may be either mentally
supplied from the preceding sentence or can be easily dispensed
with thanks to the extralinguistic context:
Examples - See you tomorrow, Mabel. - Right, George.
Tomorrow. - Same place, same time? - Yes. Don'/ be late.
Ellipsis is important in providing cohesive discourse since
redundancies such as complete statements in replies sound
unnatural and are inappropriate, e.g.: • - Finished your work,
John? -Almost. (Cf: Have you finished your work, John? - Yes,
Martin, I have finished my work. The complete structure might
thus acquire an additional stylistic colouring, such as, for instance,
a tinge of irony, irritation, or a “tired” tonality, etc.)
an elliptical sentence is such a syntactic structure in which there is
no subject, or predicate, or both. The main parts of elliptical
sentences are omitted by the speaker intentionally in cases when
they are semantically redundant. Examples In the baseball game,
our team scored four homeruns, the other team, only two…
In this example, the words “homeruns” is left out of the second
part of the sentence. The sentence remains complete, however,
because the context makes it clear that the author is referring to
homeruns, not something else.
2) One more device based on the incompleteness of the sentence

structure is called aposiopesis (апосайопісис) , or break-in-the-
narrative. This intentional and sudden break in the narration or
dialogue is based on the aesthetic principle of incomplete
representation [96, p. 67]. What is not finished is implied: the
reader is expected to find out for himself what is unexpressed.
Aposiopesis is mainly employed by writers in dialogues and
represented speech which imitate spontaneous oral conversation,
and reflects the emotional or psychological state of the speaker –
the speaker is either (1) reluctant or (2) unable to continue,
(seemingly) overpowered by emotions. The graphical indication of
an aposiopesis is usually a dash or dots:
• And it was unlikely that anyone would trouble to look there -
until - until - until - well. (Th.Dreiser)
• “I just work here ”, he said softly. “I f I didn't - “ he let the rest
hang in the air, and kept on smiling. (R. Chandler)
• “Well, they’ll get a chance now to show - “ (Hastily): “I don't
mean - But lets forget that. ” (E. O’Neill) [quoted from 166].
3) NOMINATIVE SENTENCE - variant of one-member
structures: it has neither subject nor predicate,-called nominative
because its basic (head) component is a noun or a noun-like element
(gerund, numeral). Types:
1)Unextended - consisting of a single element(Morning. April.
Problems.)
2)Extended – cons.of the basic component and one or more
words modifying it(Nice morning. Late April. Horribly great
problems.)
3)Multicomponent-containing two or more basic elements(Late
April and horribly great problems)
According to Yu.M.Skrebnev, they arouse in the mind of the
hearer (reader) a more or less isolated image of the object, leaving
in the background its interrelations with other objects. Nominative
sentences are especially suitable for preliminary descriptions: •
Implacable November weather. (Ch.Dickens) • Dusk - o f a
summer night. (Th.Dreiser)
4) Asyndeton is a marked, deliberate avoidance of conjunctions
(usually the conjunction 'and'): Examples Starlight twinkled on
the empty highway where now there was not a sound, no car, no
person, nothing. (R.Bradbury)
In colloquial speech the most frequent are conditional and
temporal asyndetic adverbial clauses (Examples You want this,
you do it!). Asyndetic connection in fiction often imparts dynamic
force to the text. Such constructions help to create the effect of
terse, energetic, active prose, Examples We had heard planes
coining, seen them pass overhead, watched them go far to the left,
heard them bombing... Механізм справді був простий, зручний,
корисний.)
5) In apokoinu constructions a blend of two clauses in which one
word has the function of a predicate or object of one sentence and
that of a subject of the other. the omitted member is fixed.
Consider the examples:
Examples I never met so many people didn't own a watch. (A.
Miller) (‘people’ = the object of the first clause = the subject of
the second clause)
As you see from the given apokoinu constructions, the omission of
the pronominal (sometimes adverbial) connective creates a blend
of the main and subordinate clauses so that the predicative or
object of the first one is simultaneously used as the subject of the
second one. (Compare the first example of apokoinu with the
standard structure: I never met so many people who didn’t own a
watch). This device was widely used in Old English and Middle
English. In modem prose its stylistic function in the text is to
produce the effect of a careless, clumsy, colloquial speech. As a
speech characteristic it is met in prose works in dialogues,
reported speech
Examples
• There’s a ferryboat crosses to the pier these days. (W.Trevor)
• He was the man killed that deer.
above
13. Syntactic EM (the extension of the initial model).
Namely:
6. The change of the components order within the frame of initial
model.
Based on extension of the initial sentence model: repetition,

polysyndeton, prolepsis, emphasizing the rheme of the utterance
Repetition is based on repeated occurrence of one of the same
word or word-group. Examples Never take the rifle again. Put it
back! Put it back! Put it back
Depending upon the place a repeated unit occupies in an utterance
there are distinguished different types of repetition:
Anaphora – the repetition of the first word (or word-group) in
several successive sentences, clauses, phrases: Examples It was
better for him, better for common sense, better for…
Epiphora – repetition of the final word or word-group Examples:
I wake up and I’m alone and I walk around valley and I’m alone,
and I talk with people and I’m alone. The main function of
epiphora is to add stress to the final words of the sentence.
Framing (ring repetition) – the repetition of the same unit at the
beginning and at the end of the utterance (paragraph) Examples:
He ran away from the battle, he was an ordinary human being
that he didn’t want to kill and to be killed, so he ran away.
Anadiplosis (catch repetition) – the last word or phrase of the first
part of the utterance is repeated at the beginning of the next part,
thus hooking two parts together Examples : All was old and
yellow with decay and decay was the smell and being of that
room.
Chain repetition – based on anadiplosis is used several times in
one utterance Examples : A smile would come into Mrs.
Pickwick’s face. The smile extended into a laugh. The laugh into a
roar. The roar became general.
Ordinary repetition - has no definite place in the sentence and
the repeated unit occurs in various positions.
Successive repetition is a string of closely following each other
reiterated units. This is the most emphatic type of repetition which
signifies the peak of emotions of the speaker.
repetition is a powerful means of emphasis. Besides, repetition

adds rhythm and balance to the utterance. The latter function is the
major one in parallel constructions which may be viewed as a
purely syntactical type of repetition for here we deal with the
reiteration of the structure of several successive sentences
(clauses. Parallelism based on a recurrence of systematically
identical sequence which lexically are completely or partially
different:
Examples
She was a good servant,
She walked softly,
She was a determined woman,
She walked precisely.
True enough, parallel constructions almost always include some
type of lexical repetition too, and such a convergence produces a
very strong effect, foregrounding at one go logical, rhythmic,
emotive and expressive aspects of the utterance.
Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. based on the repetition

of the syntactical pattern but it has a cross order of words and
phrases. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact, inversion of the
first construction. Thus, if the first sentence (clause) has a direct
word order - SPO, the second one will have it inverted - OPS.
Examples
Down dropped the breeze, The sails dropped down. The jail might
have been the infirmary, the infirmary might have been the jail.
Polysyndeton is an insistent repetition of a connective

(conjunctions, prepositions) between words, phrases, clauses
Examples : The haviest rain, and snow, and hail, and sleet, could
boast of the advantage over him in only one respect.
The repetition of conjunctions and other means of connection
make an utterance more rhythmical so much so that prose may
even seem like a verse. One of the most important functions of
polysyndeton is rhythmical. The repetition of “and” mainly
creates the effect of bustling activity. The repetition of “or” may
stress equal importance of enumerated things.
above
14. Syntactic EM (the change of the order of components
within the frame of initial model)
Namely:
3. The change of the components order within the frame of initial
model.
The sentence, as a unit of a certain level, is a sequence of
relatively independent lexical and phrasal units (words or word
combinations), and what differentiates a sentence from a word is
the fact that the sentence structure is changeable; it does have
any constant length: it can be shortened or extended, complete or
incomplete, simple, compound or complex. Besides, its
constituents, length, word-order, as well as communicative type
(assertion, negation, interrogation, exhortation) are variable.
Syntactic expressive means based on the change of the order of

components within the frame of initial model:
Inversion, distant position, detachment/isolation, parenthesis
1) The most important place in of EMs, namely those based on the

abnormal arrangement of sentence components, is occupied by
stylistic inversion (Latin for “displacement”). Stylistic inversion
is any violation of the traditional, fixed word-order in English
(subject-predicate-object, etc.) which does not change the
grammatical type and the meaning of the sentence but adds a
logical stress and/or emotional colouring to the utterance
Examples : • Out came the chase - in went the horses - on sprang
the boys - in got the travellers. (Ch.Dickens)
There are several patterns of stylistic inversion:

Predicative + (link verb) + SubjectExamples Clever, clear and
concise was her answer.
Adverbial modifier + Subject + Predicate (partial inversion)
Examples Slowly I went out. (Cf: I went out slowly. The qualifier
“slowly” sounds stronger in the first sentence.)
Adverbial modifier + Predicate + Subject (complete inversion)
Examples Directly in front o f them stood a great castle. Along the
road came a strange procession. (The structure is most common
in literary and descriptive writing when a new indefinite object is
being introduced).
Object - at the beginning of the sentenceExamples Little change
did he make.
Attributes - after the modified noun Examples I saw the clouds
blue and white, (often found in poetry)
Inversion is used in imaginative prose either as (1) a special

stylistic device for emphasis or as (2) a natural outcome of the
speaker’s desire to mention something first, and to explain what
he means afterwards,
2) Detached construction (відособлена конструкція),
sometimes one of the secondary parts of a sentence, by some
specific consideration of the writer is placed so that it seems
formally independent of the referent it logically referred to. The
detached parts being torn away from the utterance, they assume a
greater degree of significance and given prominence by
intonation.
Types of detached constructions:
 An attribute or adverbial modifier is placed not in the
immediate proximity to its referent but in some other position:
Examples He rose up, grinding his teeth, pale, and with fury in
his eyes.
 A nominal phrase may serve as a detached element Examples
And he walked slowly past again, along the river – an evening
of clear, quiet beauty, all harmony and comfort, except within
his heart.
This stylistic device is akin to inversion because their functions
are almost the same. But detached constructions produce a much
stronger effect. The word-order may or may not be violated.
3) One more device standing close to detachment syntactically and
functionally is parenthesis or parenthetic words, phrases and
sentences. Parenthesis is an explanatory or qualifying word,
phrase, or sentence which is inserted in a longer passage usually
without being grammatically connected with it. It is marked off by
brackets, dashes, or commas. Parenthesis performs various
stylistic functions, of which supplying some additional
information and making the inserted phrases more conspicuous
and thus more important are two most obvious: • Awake (not
Greece -she is awake), awake my spirit! (G.G.Byron) One of the
most important potentialities of parentheses is the creation of the
second plane, or background, to the narrative, or a mingling of
“voices” of different (for example, the personage’s uttered and
inner, unuttered) speech parties [see 93, p.96]: Examples He was a
fast-stepping, brassy young fellow with a brutal jaw and the
bashful eyes of a cardsharp; his name was Junius Candle (can
you believe it? The same Junius Candle who is a Senator today!).
(T.Capote) • I'm so glad when I look back to think that we have
nothing to reproach ourselves with. The bitterness of life is not
death, the bitterness of life is that love dies. (She’d heard
something like that said in a play.) (W.S.Maugham)
above
15. Syntactic SD (types of combination of various syntactic

models (sentences) within the frame of passage, text).
The analysis of types of sentence connection within the text
constitutes a special trend of syntactic stylistics. The arrangement
of sentence members, the completeness of the sentence structure
and the ways sentences are combined within the structure of a
suprasyntactic unit give additional emotional and expressive
meanings to the text as a whole and to each separate sentence.
Producing of two or more syntactic structures according to the
same syntactic pattern is known under the term parallelism. In
parallelism either the whole sentence or its part can be built
according to the similar structural pattern: E.g. Intelligent men
want women. Intelligent women don’t want men. Syntactic
parallelism is widely spread in poetry and emotive prose. It creates
special rhythmical contour of the text, reinforces the semantic ties
between the utterances, increases the communicative, expressive
and aesthetic value of the successive utterances.
Chiasmus (каЄсмус) is reversed parallelism based on the
repetition of the syntactical pattern but it has a cross order of
words and phrases. The second part of a chiasmus is, in fact,
inversion of the first construction. Thus, if the first sentence
(clause) has a direct word order - SPO, the second one will have it
inverted - OPS. Examples Down dropped the breeze, The sails
dropped down. The jail might have been the infirmary, the
infirmary might have been the jail.
Beauty is a joke. A joke is beauty.
Parcelation (парцеляція) is a deliberate split of one single
sentence into two (or more) parts, separated by a full stop or its
equivalent. Parcelling is stylistic device based on the transposition
of the meaning of grammatical means of connection between parts
of a sentence. Both parts of the sentence remain semantically and
logically connected, but being structurally independent, they
acquire greater communicative value and give expressiveness to
the whole utterance: Examples I saw him. There. As usual.
Attachment or gap-sentence link (приєднання) is based on a
peculiar type of connection of sentence parts or sentences in a text.
In the case of attachment this connection is not immediately
apparent and it requires a certain mental effort to grasp the
interrelation between the parts of the utterance, in other words, to
bridge the semantic gap: Examples Prison is where she belongs.
And my husband agrees one thousand per cent.
RHETORIC QUESTIONS
Rhetoric questions are not questions but affirmative or negative
statements put into the interrogative shape. A rhetoric question
needs no answer, because the answer to it is quite obvious:
Me, obsessed with you?
Communicative functions. A rhetoric question enhances the
expressiveness of speech. Used in oratory style, rhetoric questions
aim at catching the attention of the audience, making the sequential
sentences sound persuasive and significant.
Rhetorical question – a vivid emphatic statement in the form of a
question. No answer is required.
Scholars differentiate between 2 types of rhetorical questions:
1) leaves the reader/listener to answer for him/herself;
2) is used in soliloque, when a person asks a question for
him/herself and gives his/her own answer, used especially in a play.
They are essential elements of the publicist style. The question at

the beginning of the speech – form of introduction into the problem
to be thought over during its discussion. There are different lines of
approach as far as its essence is concerned – disguised assertion,
implied negation, appellation to the reader, categorical disagreement
with the interlocutor.
A rhetorical question is asked just for effect, or to put emphasis on
some point being discussed, when no real answer is expected. A
rhetorical question may have an obvious answer, but the questioner
asks it to lay emphasis to the point. In literature, a rhetorical
question is self-evident, and used for style as an impressive
persuasive device.
Broadly speaking, a rhetorical question is asked when the
questioner himself knows the answer already, or an answer is not
actually demanded. So, an answer is not expected from the
audience. Such a question is used to emphasize a point or draw the
audience’s attention.
Coordination and Subordination are ways of combining words,
phrases, and clauses into more complex forms. The discussion
below examines coordination and subordination of clauses.
Coordination — uses coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive
adverbs (such as "and," "but," "or," "nor," "for," "yet," and "so"), or
punctuation to combine short independent clauses into a single
sentence. Coordination implies the balance of elements that are of
equal semantic value in the sentence Examples She studied for the
exam, but she still didn't pass." "He finished his work early, so he
decided to go for a walk."
Subordination — uses subordinating conjunctions (such as
"after," "although," "because," "if," "since," "while," etc.) or relative
pronouns (such as "who," "whom," "whose," "which," "that," etc.) to
combine dependent clauses (subordinate clauses or ideas).
Subordinate clauses are subordinate to (and thus hold less semantic
value than) the independent clause(s) to which they are linked.
Examples "The book that I bought yesterday is very interesting."
"She is the person whom I admire the most."
So (cause/effect): Maria loves dogs, so she went to the animal
shelter to adopt one.
above
Lexicology (Лектор проф. Андрейчук Н.І.)

1. The word as a fundamental unit of the language. Criteria of
the definition.
Any unit can be considered unit of the language if it possesses
external (sound) form and semantic content, is not created in the
process of speech but used as something already existing and only
reproduced in speech, has a purpose.
There are two possible main directions of linguistic research:
 phonetics – we study the speech event without reference to its
meaning
 semantics – we study the relation of the event to the features
of meaning
Each linguistic form has a constant and definite meaning, different
from the meaning of any other linguistic form in the same
language. If the forms are different their meanings are also
different.
The ides of language as system of signs is usually associated with
Ferdinand de Saussure. He is usually referred to as “The Father of
Modern Lingustics”.
Important features of the word:
1. The word is a dialectical unity of form and content.
2. The word is internally stable (in terms of the order of the
component morphemes).
3. The word is the minimum significant unit capable of
functioning alone and characterized by positional mobility
(permutable with other words in the sentence).
There are 6 criteria of the definition:
1. syntactic criterion – Dionysius Thrax was the first to say that
the word is the smallest part of the sentence. A lot of scientists
agree with this statement. Henry Sweet defined the word as “a
minimum sentence” and Leonard Bloomfield as “minimum free
form”.
2. semantic criterion connected discourse, if we analyze the text
from the semantic point of view, it is composed of meaningful
units. These meaningful units are termed words” (S. Ulmann)
3. syntactic-semantic criterion A word is the smallest unit which
may have a structure of the sentence because it has isolated
meaning. (Edward Sapir)
4. semantic-logical criterion W.Humboldt, D.Kudriavskyy
identified the sentence with the logical statement and
considered the smallest part of the sentence - the word - the sign
of a separate notion
5. semantic-phonological criterion A word is a sound-symbol
which denotes something which is spoken about
(A.H.Gardiner)
6. psychological criterion the word is as the linguistic equivalent
of a separate concept.
above
2. Morphemic structure of words. Types of morphemes. IC
analysis.
A linguistic form which bears no partial phonetic-semantic
resemblance to any other form is a simple form or morpheme.
Thus, play, dance, cran-, -y, -ing are morphemes. The term
morpheme is derived from Greek morphe - form and -eme. The
Greek suffix -eme has been adopted by linguists to denote the
smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.
A morpheme can be described phonetically, since it consists of
one or more phonemes. e.g. the morpheme pin bears a phonetic
resemblance to other morphemes, such as pig, pen, tin, ten. On the
basis of these resemblances it can be analyzed and described in
terms of three phonemes, but, since these resemblances are not
connected with resemblances of meaning, we cannot attribute any
meaning to the phonemes.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form, which can be
described phonetically.
The meaning of a morpheme is a sememe.
Words are composed of root-morphemes (roots) and affixal
morphemes (affixes):
 Roots express the concrete part of the meaning of the word.
 Affixes express the specific part of the meaning of the word.
According to the position in a word, affixational morphemes fall

into:
 Prefixes - derivational affixes standing before the stem and
modifying its meaning, Examples ex-minister, in-sensitive, re-
read etc.;переробити, about 51 in the system of Modern
English;
 Suffixes - realize their meaning only in connection with the root
morpheme. The suffix being combined with the root specifies or
changes the content of the word and together with the ending
indicates what part of speech it belongs to. following the stem
and forming a new derivative within the same part of speech
Examples king-dom, book-let, child-hood etc.) or in a different
word class Examples do-er, wash-able, sharp-en etc.);
сонечко,кораблик
 Infixes - are used to connect two or more roots thus occur
within a stem. In Ukrainian this function can be performed by
three vowels: о, е, є, Examples лiсотундра. affixational
morphemes placed within a word, e.g –n– in stand. English has
almost no true infixes. and those it does have are marginal. A
few are heard in colloquial speech None of the following are
recognized in standard English.The infix ⟨-iz-⟩ or ⟨-izn-⟩ is
characteristic of hip-hop slang, Examples h-iz-ouse for house
and sh-izn-it for shit.
 Postfixes - ся serves to create reflexive verbs Examples лити –
литися.
Inflectional morphemes change what a word does in terms of

grammar, but does not create a new word. Examples the word
<skip> has many forms: skip (base form), skipping (present
progressive), skipped (past tense), читаю, читав, читатиму
Root is obligatory for any word, while affixes are not.
According to their function and meaning, morphemes are
subdivided into derivational and functional affixes, the latter
also called outer formatives. (The term was suggested by E.Nida
as contrasted to inner formatives which is equivalent to our term
derivational affixes.)
 Functional (form creating) affixes convey grammatical
meaning. They build different forms of one and the same word.
Examples (син,сина,синові) cats,tall-taller-the tallest
 Derivational (word-changing) affixes generate a number of
new words Examples (love, lovely, loveliness, lover, loving)
сміливий, сміливість, пакувати, пакувальник
Functional affixes may combine with almost any word, while
derivational affixes can combine only with certain words.
Examples we can add suffix –ize to form word modernize,
legalize, but not newize.
Morphemic structure has two basic criterion:
— Positional criterion – the location of the marginal morphemes
in relation to the central ones.
Marginal morphemes, also known as bound morphemes, are linguistic units
that cannot function as standalone words and must be attached to other
morphemes to convey meaning.
— Semantic or functional criterion – the correlative contribution
of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word.
Types of morphemes:
 on the basis of the degree of self-dependence
-free morphemes may exist separately (build up words by
themselves) Examples (eat, date, weak, сонце, дім, кіт)
-bound morphemes cannot form words by themselves since they
are only componential segments of words Examples (“-er,” “s,”
and “ing” -ка, -ість, -оньк).
-complex form is a combination of several forms.
Examples, the word “playing” is a complex form, in which “play”
is a free form, while “ing” is bound,
Недоторканний, передвечірній
 on the basis of formal presentation
-overt are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words
-covert is identified as a contrastive absence of morphemes
expressing a certain function (zero morpheme)
Examples -clocks – two overt morphemes (root-meaning, -s-
plurality), clock –two overt and covert morphemes (overt- root-
meaning, covert-zero morpheme of singularity)
 on the basis of grammatical alternation
-additive – are outer grammatical suffixes, since, as a rule, they
are opposed to the absence of morphemes in grammatical
alteration Examples (look+ed, small+er)
-replacive – grammatical interchange, since they replace one
another in the paradigmatic forms Examples (dr-i-ve – dr-o-ve –
dr-i-ven; m-a-n - m-e-n) кіт-котик
 on the basis of number of morphemes
- monomorphic are root-words consisting of only one root-
morpheme, i.e. simple words, Examples to grow, a book, white,
fast etc.
- polymorphic are words consisting of at least one root-
morpheme and a number of derivational affixes, i.e.
derivatives, compounds, Examples good-looking, employee,
blue-eyed etc., зелено-синій, багатопоерховий
IC analysis in lexicological research. (Immediate constituents

analysis)
The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally
elaborated as an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical
units are relevantly related to one another.
It was discovered that combinations of units are usually structured
into hierarchial sets of binary constructions.
The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of
lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs
thus revealing the hierarchical structure of this set.
A sample analysis which has become almost classical, being
repeated many times by many authors, is Bloomfield`s analysis of
the word ungentlemanly.
The two first stages of the analysis resulted in separating a free
and a bound form:
Examples 1) un- + gentlemanly, 2) gentleman + -ly.
Firstly, he separated un- as a negative prefix, which is used to
express negative meaning. Then, he separated suffix –ly which
characterizes adverbs.
The third cut has its peculiarities. The devision into gent- + -leman
is obviously impossible as no such patterns exist in English, so the
cut is gentle + man. so we state adjective stem + -man. Also, in
word “gentle” suffix –ly shows that this word is an adjective.
To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only
two ICs, one of which is the stem of the given word. All the
time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the
English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of
all the constituents segregated at various stages we obtain the
following formula:
un- + {[(gent- + -le) + -man] + -ly}
This method of analysis is extremely fruitful in discovering the
derivational structure of words.
Examples
Unhappiness:
Un- (prefix): indicating negation or reversal
Happy (root): expressing a state of joy or contentment
-ness (suffix): forming a noun indicating a quality or state
above
3. Types of word-formation in modern English. Principles of
classification.
Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and
the process of creating new words from the material available in
the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and
patterns.
I. Based upon the semantic structure of word or words.
Proceding from this principle we may distinguish:
 Derivation - the type where the word has only one semantic
centre, the other morphemes being affixes Examples
brotherhood, книжковий, дівчинастий
 Compounding - the type where the word has at least two
semantic centres, Examples red-hot, navy-blue walking-stick,
newspaper, to whitewash, кавомолотий, яблуко-зелений,
снігобілий
II. Based on the relationship of components to the new word.
According to this principle we have the following types:
 Morphological word-building - creating new words using
morphemes and changing the structure of the existing words
after certain linguistic patterns: It is characterized by a change
in morphological structure.
 - derivation - suffixation (A suffix is a derivative final
element which is or was productive in forming new words.
It has semantic value, but doesn’t occur as an independent
speech use. Examples (played)
prefixation (Prefixes are such particles that can be
prefixed to full words. But are themselves not with
independent existence. Examples (co-author)
zero-derivation,(CONVERSION- A certain stem is used
for the formation of a categorically different word without
a derivative element being added. Examples Bag – to bag)
BACK DERIVATION is deraving a new word, which is
morphologically simpler from a more complex word.
Examples ( A babysitter – to babysit Television – to
televise)
 - compounding is joining together 2 or more stems.
Types: 1) without a connecting element (headache,
heartbreak); 2) with a vowel or consonant as a linking
element (speedometer, craftsman); 3) with a preposition or
conjunction as a linking element down-and-out
(опустошенный) son-in-law.
 shortening – abbreviation
CLIPPING Consists in the reduction of a word to one of
its parts. Examples (Mathematics – maths)
BLENDING is blending part of two words to form one
word Examples (Smoke + fog = smog)
ACRONYMS formed by taking the initial letters of a
phrase and making a word out of it. Acronyms provide a
way of turning a phrase into a word. Examples UN or U.N.
(United Nations); IMF (International Monetary Fund).
Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word: UNICEF
ANALOGY Sometimes speakers take an existing word as
a model and form other words using some of its
morphemes as a fixed part, and changing one of them to
something new, with an analogically similar meaning.
Examples Cheeseburger was formed on the analogy of
hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with
cheese. carjack and skyjack were also formed by analogy
 - sound-interchange - may be defined as an opposition in
which words or word forms are differentiated due to an
alternation in the phonemic composition of the root. The
change may affect the root vowel, as in Examples food n
→ feed v; or root consonant as in speak v → speech n; or
both, as in life n → live
 - stress-interchange Examples PHOtograph (noun) /
phoTOgrapher (noun) CONduct (noun) / conDUCT (verb)
PERmit (noun) / perMIT (verb)
 - back – formation creating a new word by removing
actual or supposed affixes Examples (edit from editor,
donation-donate)
 Morphological-syntactic word-building - new words

appear through transference from one part of speech into
another which implies both a change in morphological and
syntactic peculiarities of a word Examples the unemployed, the
poor, молода тополя i молода запрошувала гостей на
весiлля.
 Lexico-syntactic word-building - the formation of new units
by the process of isolation from free word-combinations.
Examples forget-me-not, marry-go-round, stay-at-home,
добраніч, нісенітниця.
 Lexico-semantic word-building ? - some scientists (М.А.
Жовтобрюх and Б.М.Кулик, М.Я. Плющ) are inclined to
include into this classification lexical-semantic word-building
i.e. any change in the meaning of word that comes out as the
result of the historical development of the language. Examples
To run: - to move, - to manage. Машина: - механізм, -
автомобіль.
above
4. Derivation as the most productive type of word-formation in
English.
Derivation, in linguistics, is the process of forming a new word
from an existing word, often by adding a prefix or suffix, such as
un- or -ness. Examples unhappy and happiness derive from the
root word happy.
Degrees of Derivation:
 Zero - degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e.
words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form and often
with a root-morpheme, Examples atom, haste, devote, anxious,
horror, etc.
 First - derived words whose bases are built on simple stems and
thus are formed by the application of one derivational affix,
Examples atomic, hasty, devotion, etc.
 Second - derived words formed by two consecutive stages of
coining, Examples atomical, hastily, devotional, etc.
Classification of derived words:
1. according to the root-morpheme Examples woman, womanly,
womanish, womanized; добро, добрий, доброта, добряга),
2. according to the affix morpheme Examples swimmer, speaker,
drinker; погонич, пiдпасич, керманич)
The basic ways of forming words in word-derivation are:
1. Affixation is the formation of a new word with the help of
affixes: pointless (from point).
2. Conversion is the formation of a new word by bringing a stem
of this word into a different formal paradigm: a fall (from to
fall), a cut (from to cut).
Derivational affixes:
 1. Suffixes - realize their meaning only in connection with
the root morpheme. For example, suffixes can express the
meaning of generalized property, abstract notion when
combined with roots of adjectives denoting concrete properties
or features of objects Examples: добр-от-а - добр-ий,
хоробр-iсть - хоробр-ий, крут-изн-а - крут-ий.
The suffix being combined with the root specifies or changes
the content of the word and together with the ending indicates
what part of speech it belongs to. Suffixes can transform the
word into another part of speech.
Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance
with different principles:
1) According to the part of speech formed
1. noun-forming suffixes Examples (teacher, nationalism)
2. adjective-forming suffixes Examples
(beautiful,dangerou)
3. numeral-forming suffixes Examples (fourteen, tenth)
4. verb-forming suffixes Examples (deepen, simplify)
2) According to the lexical-grammatical character of the base
suffixes are usually added to, they may be:
1. deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base)
Examples: -er (builder); -ing (writing);
2. denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal base):
Examples -less (timeless); -ful (hopeful); -ist (scientist); -
some (troublesome);
3. deajectival suffixes (those added to the adjectival base)
Examples: -en (widen); -ly (friendly); -ish (whitish); -ness
(brightness).
 2. Prefixes - differ from derivational suffixes because they
are added to the whole word and not to the root and can't
transform the word into another part of speech, Examples весна
- провесна, давнiй - прадавнiй, ходити - заходити, звично -
незвично.
According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes
fall into:
a) negative prefixes: un- (ungrateful); non- (non-
political); in- (incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a- (amoral);
b) reversative prefixes: un2- (untie); de- (decentralize);
dis2- (disconnect);
c) pejorative prefixes: mis- (mispronounce); mal-
(maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific);
d) prefixes of time and order: fore- (foretell); pre- (pre-
war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president);
e) prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite);
f) locative prefixes: super- (superstructure), sub-
(subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans-
(transatlantic).
 3. Postfixes - - ся serves to create reflexive verbs Examples:
лити - литися, солодкий - насолоджуватися.
 4. Infixes - are used to connect two or more roots thus occur
within a stem. In Ukrainian this function can be performed by
three vowels: о, е, є, Examples лiсотундра, першодрукар,
працездатний, життєрадiсний.
CONVERSION (zero derivation, root formation, functional
change) is the process of coining a new word in a different part of
speech and with different distribution characteristics but without
adding any derivative element, so that the basic form of the
original and the basic form of derived words are homonymous.
Examples work – to work, love – to love, water – to water.
1. Partial conversion is a kind of a double process when first
a noun is formed by conversion from a verbal stem and
next this noun is combined with such verbs as Examples to
give, to make, to take to form a separate phrase: to have a
look, to take a swim, to give a whistle
2. Reconversion is the phenomenon when one of the
meanings of the converted word is a source for a new
meaning of the same stem: Examples cable (металевий
провідник)– to cable (телеграфувати) –
cable(телеграма); help(допомога) – to help
(допомагати пригощати) – help (порція їжі), deal
(кількість) – to deal (роздавати) – deal (роздача карт).
3. Substantivation can also be considered as a type of
conversion. Complete substantivation is a kind of
substantivation when the whole paradigm of a noun is
acquired: Examples a private - the private – privates – the
privates.
above
5. Compounding as the type of word formation. Types of
compounds.
A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one stem
and functioning both grammatically and semantically as a single
word.
In Ukrainian lexicological tradition compounding is subdivided
into:
 Stem-combining with the help of interfixes о, е, є Examples
(доброзичливий, працездатний, життєрадісний) or without
them (триповерховий, всюдихiд);
 Word-combining or juxtaposition (Lat. juxta − near, positio −
place) − combining several words or word-forms in one
complex word Examples (хата- лабораторiя, салон-
перукарня) [Плющ 1994, с. 158].
Three aspects of compounding
1) Structural. In English grammars three structural types are
distinguished:
 Neutral - the process of compounding is realized without any
linking element (juxtaposion of two stems). Examples shop-
window, sunflower, bedroom.
 There are three types of neutral compounds:
 simple neutral compounds: they consist of affixless stems;
 derivational compounds: contain affixes Examples absent-
mindedness, golden-haired, honey-mooner;
 contracted compounds: have a shortened stem in their
structure: Examples TV-set, H-bag, T-shirt
 Morphological - two stems are combined by a linking vowel or
consonant: Examples Anglo-Saxon, handiwork, spokesman
 Syntactic - formed from segments of speech preserving in their
structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of
speech: Examples lily-of the valley, Jack-of-all-trades, mother-
in-law
2) semantic - correlation of the separate meanings of the
constituent parts and the actual meaning of the compound.
Examples classroom, evening-gown, sleeping-car. We can speak
about the sum of constituent meanings, Examples blackboard,
football, chatterbox. We can trace some change in meaning, but
the meaning of the components is still transparent. Examples
Ladybird, tallboy, bluestocking. Meaning does not correspond to
the separate meanings of constituent parts.
3) functional
In English there are three forms of compound words:
 the closed form, in which the words are melded together,
such as Examples firefly, secondhand, softball, childlike,
crosstown, redhead, keyboard, makeup, notebook;
 the hyphenated form, Examples such as daughter-in-law,
master-at-arms, over-the-counter, six-pack, six-year-old, mass-
produced;
 and the open form, Examples such as post office, real estate,
middle class, full moon, half sister, attorney general.
Reduplicatives
Some compounds have two or more constituents which are either
identical or only slightly different, Examples goody-goody (a self-
consciously virtuous person, informal). The difference between
the two constituents may be in the initial consonants, as in walkie-
talkie, or in the medial vowels, Examples criss-cross. Most of the
reduplicatives are highly informal or familiar, and many belong to
the sphere of child-parent talk, Examples din-din (dinner). The
most common uses of reduplicatives (sometimes called ‘jingles’)
are:
● to imitate sounds, Examples. rat-a-tat [knocking on door],
tick-tock [of clock], ha-ha [of laughter], bow-wow [of dog].
● to suggest alternating movements, Examples seesaw, flip-
flop, ping- pong.
● to disparage by suggesting instability, nonsense, insincerity,
vacillation(вагання) etc. Examples: higgledy-piggledy,
hocus-pocus, wishy-washy, dillydally, shilly-shally.
● to intensify, Examples teeny-weeny, tip-top.
In connection with reduplication (Uk.: тихо-тихо, ледь-ледь,
думав-думав) Ukrainian linguists single out such compounds
as:
● synonymic unities, Examples пане-брате, стежки-
доріжки, часто-густо;
● semantic unities, Examples. батько-мати, руки-ноги, хліб-
сіль, діди- прадіди;
● appositional unities, Examples. машина-амфібія, дівчина-
смуглянка.
Bahuvrihi compounds
The term bahuvrihi was introduced by the Sanskrit grammarian
Panini. According to him bahuvrihis are those compounds which
denote a new thing not connoted by the constituent members
individually. The term “bahuvrihi” refers not to the pattern of
formation but to the relation such compounds have with their
referents. Neither constituent refers to the entity named but, the
whole refers to a separate entity (usually a person) that is claimed
to be characterized by the compound, in its literal or figurative
meaning.a highbrow means ‘an intellectual’, on the basis of the
facetious claim that people of intellectual interest and cultivated
tastes are likely to have a lofty expanse of forehead. Many
bahuvrihi compounds are somewhat disparaging (зневажливий)
in tone and are used chiefly in informal style. They are formed on
one or other of the patterns already described. Examples
birdbrain, egghead, hardback, loudmouth, blockhead,
butterfingers, featherweight.
Ukrainian: твердолобий, криворукий.
above`
6. Shortening as the type of word formation. Types of

shortenings.
Shortening is the process of subtracting phonemes and/or
morphemes from words and word-groups without changing their
lexico-grammatical meaning.
Types of shortenings: abbreviation, clipping and blending.
1) Abbreviation is a process of shortening the result of which is a
word made up of the initial letters or syllables of the components
of a word-group or a compound word. Abbreviation can be
graphical and lexical.
 Graphical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a
word or a word-group only in written speech, while orally
the corresponding full form is used. For example: forms of
address- Examples Mr., Mrs., Dr.; days of the week and
months- Sun., Tue., Feb., Oct.; units of measurement-sec.,
km.
 Lexical abbreviation is the result of shortening of a
word or a word-group both in written and oral speech. It is
divided into the following groups:
- alphabetical abbreviation (initialism) is a shortening which is
read as a succession of the alphabetical readings of the constituent
letters. Examples BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation), MTV
(Music Television), EU (European Union), MP (Member of
Parliament).
-acronymic abbreviation (acronym) is a shortening which is read
as a succession of the sounds denoted by the constituent letters,
i.e. as if they were an ordinary word. Examples UNESCO (United
Nations Scientific, and Cultural Organisation), NATO (North
Atlantic Treaty Organisation).
- anacronym is an acronym which is longer perceived by speakers
as a shortening: very few people remember what each letter stands
for. Examples laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus).
-homoacronym is an acronym which coincides with an English
word semantically connected with the thing, person or
phenomenon, Examples PAWS (Public for Animal Welfare
Society), NOW (National Organisation for Women).
2) Clipping is the process of cutting off one or several syllables of
a word. It is divided into such groups: (back-clipping) is a final
clipping, Examples prof < professor, disco < discotheque; (fore-
clipping) is an initial clipping, e.g. phone < telephone, Bella <
Isabell; -syncope is a medial clipping, e.g. maths < mathematics,
specs < spectacles; ma'am < madam; -fore-and-aft clipping is an
initial and final clipping, e.g. flu < influenza, fridge < refrigerator.
3) Blending (telescoping) is the process of merging parts of words
into one new word. Examples brunch < breakfast + lunch, webcam
< web + camera.
above`
7. Approaches to the study of lexical meaning. The notions of
meaning and sense.
Semasiology as a branch of linguistics
Semasiology is a branch of linguistics that focuses on the study of meaning
in language. It examines how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning
and how meaning can vary across different contexts and cultures.
diachronically synchronically
 studies the change in  studies the semantic

meaning which words structures typical of the
undergo language studied
The main objects of semasiological studies

 semantic development of words its causes and classification;
 relevant distinctive features and types of lexical meaning;
 polysemy and semantic structure of words;
 semantic grouping and connections in vocabulary systems i.e.
synonyms, antonyms, terminological systems etc.
Semasiology and Semantics

According to J.R.Firth the English word to denote the historical
study of change of meaning was semasiology, until in 1900
Breal’s book (Essai de s`emantique) was published in English
under the title of Semantics.
‘Pure semantics’
 refers to a branch of symbolic or mathematical logic originated
by R.Carnap. It is a part of semiotics - the study of signs
SEMANTICS
 as a term semantics is widely accepted by a lot of linguists
 It is used to denote:
 the branch of linguistics which specializes in the study of
meaning;
 the expressive aspect of language in general;
 the meaning of one particular word in all its varied
aspects and nuances.
The Word and its Meaning

A word is a basic unit of language that carries meaning and can be spoken or
written. It is a combination of sounds or letters that represents a specific
concept, idea, or object.
Lexical meaning – is the realization of the notion by means of a
definite language system.
There are 4 approaches to the study of lexical meaning.

1. referential approach - seeks to formulate the essence of
meaning by establishing the correlation between the words and
things or concepts they denote. (connection bw the word and
the object of reality that refers to the word & sound form)
 Some scholars point out that the meaning of the linguistic
sign is the concept underlying it and thus substitute meaning
for concept.
 Others identify meaning with the referent.
 The most convincing approach: meaning is the
interrelation of the sound-form, concept and referent of the
linguistic unit
2. functional approach - studies the functions of a word in
speech and is concerned with how the meaning works. (words are
studied in the context, esp. their meaning)
3. differential approach - meaning is formed by a certain
amount of semes on the basis of which words are opposed to each
other in lexical semantic groups. (meaning is constitued by
semes)
 If you were asked to give the crucial distinguishing features
of the meanings of this set of English words Examples (table,
cow, girl. woman, boy, man), you could do so by means of the
following diagram:
 table cow girl woman boy man
animate - + + + + +
human - - + + + +
male - - - - + +
adult - + - + - +
4. Integral approach. According to it lexical meaning includes
both differential and non-differential (integral) semantic
components. There are different levels of the depth and adequacy
of describing the meaning It is impossible to draw the distinct
limit of meaning because: …..
 Many objects of reality cannot be distinctly differentiated
Examples (bachelor – is Pope a bachelor?)
 The change of reality results in the change of its reflection in
the consciousness of human beings Examples (queen – leader,
tyrant, unnecessary institution; robot – fantastic creature and
everyday helper)
 The knowledge of the notions is increasing Examples (earth –
flat and round; crazy – possessed and mentally ill)
 There are differences in the cognition of various people:
Examples black- the colour of night, coal; snow – in Africa,
Europe, northern countries)
Meaning – is a concept or object that a word or phrase denotes,
represents or expresses.
Sense – is a single conventional use of a word; one of the entries
for a word in a dictionary; one of the possible meaningsof a word
or phrase.
Meaning– is the symbolic value of something while sense is one
of the methods for a living being to gather data about the
world: sight, smell, hearing, touch, taste.
(Examples what is the meaning of “mother?” The dictionary
would probably say something like “female parent.” But is that its
full meaning? Not even close. Terms like “love,” “care-giver,”
“tenderness,” “devotion,” “warmth” are associated with
“mother”).
Сенс – конотативне значення слова
The semantic structure of the word
 The levels of the analysis of the word:
 Sememic (on the level of sememe – a separate sense of a
polysemantic word)
 Semic (on the level of semes – separate components of
meaning)
The principles of the description of meaning
1. The meaning is a system of components (semes) constituting a
structure (sememe);
2. Components of meaning are arranged into one functional
language unit – sememe;
3. The structure of meaning includes three macrocomponents:
connotative, denotative and grammatical
4. there are semantic components belonging to nucleus and
periphery;
5. the nucleus is constituted by constant and essential semantic
components;
6. the semes of periphery add to the nucleus and stipulate the
semantic development of the word (polysemy)
7. the border between the semes of nucleus and periphery is
indistinct
8. the semes that constitute one sememe can be repeated in other
sememes, the semes of nucleus in one sememe can be those of
periphery in a different one
9. meaning can differ in some semes and coincide in others
(synonyms, antonyms etc.)
Macrocomponents: Denotative meaning

 The notional content of the word is expressed by the
denotative meaning (also called referential or extensional).
To denote is to serve as linguistic expression for a notion or as a
name for an actually existing object referred to by a word. The
term denotatum (Lat. denotatum, pl. denotata - означуване) is
used in different meanings. When we speak about denotative
meaning we consider it to be the notional nucleus of meaning
abstracted from stylistic, pragmatic, modal, emotional,
subjective, communicative and other shades. Quite often the
terms denotatum and referent are being used indiscriminatedly
as synonyms.
Macrocomponents: Connotative meaning
 The emotional content of the word i.e. its capacity to evoke
or directly express emotions is rendered by connotative
component of meaning (also called emotive charge or
intentional connotations). Connotation (Lat. connotation from
connoto - маю додаткове значення) is an emotional,
evaluative or stylistic component of a linguistic unit of regular
or occasional character. Within the connotations of a word we
distinguish its capacity to evoke or express: a) emotion (daddy -
father); b) evaluation (clique - group); c) intensity (adore -
love); d)stylistic colouring (slay - kill) etc. In a broad sense
connotation is any component which adds to to the denotative
meaning.
Macrocomponents: grammatical meaning
 The complexity of the word-meaning is manifold. Apart from
the lexical meaning including denotative and connotative
meaning it is always combined with the grammatical meaning.
The grammatical meaning is defined as an expression in speech
of relationship between words based on contrastive features of
arrangements in which they occur.
Componential analysis
It is used for:
 a) a detailed comparison of meaning whether within a
single language or between languages;
 b) providing a more adequate basis for translational
equivalences;
 c) the judging of the semantic compatibility as an
important feature of style;
 d) treating semantic transpositions of words, figurative
extension in particular.
above
8. The notion of polysemy. Componential analysis.
Polysemy - the fact of having more than one meaning: (polysemy
occurs when a word form carries more than one meaning). Both in
English and in Ukrainian polysemy is widespread but is more
characteristic of English due to the predominance of root words.
The greater the relative frequency of the word, the greater the
number of elements that constitute its semantic structure, i.e. the
more polysemantic it is. One of the main objects of semasiological
studies. Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come
together due to the proximity of notions which they express
Examples the word “blanket” has the following meanings: a
woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse
warm, a covering of any kind (a blanket of snow), covering all or
most cases used attributively, e.g. we can say “a blanket insurance
policy”. Плід, гора (mountain, pile)
There are some words in the language which are monosemantic,
such as most terms, synonym, some pronouns (this, my, both),
numerals. The phenomenon of polysemy exists not in the speech
but in the language. Problem of polysemy is mainly the problem
of interrelation and interdependence of the various meanings
of the same word. It is impossible to speak about the role of
the meaning without understanding the word, the basic unit of
language that unites meaning and form. The context is
observed.
“principle of diversity of meaning”G.K.Zipf tried to find a
mathematical formula for it: his calculations suggested that
“different meanings of a word will tend to be equal to the square
root of its relative frequency (with the possible exception of the
few dozen most frequent words). Put in a different way: m = F1/2
E.g. the total number of meaning registered in NED for the first
thousand of the most frequent English words is almost 25 000, i.e.
the average number of meanings for each these most frequent
words is 25.
Componetital analysis - an attempt to describe the meaning of

words in terms of a universal inventory of semantic components
and their possible combinations.
In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the
smallest units of meaning are sememes or semes .
A sememe is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. It represents the basic semantic
unit that contributes to the overall meaning of a word or expression. Sememes are typically
associated with lexical items, such as words or morphemes, and they can be combined to
form larger units of meaning.
A seme, on the other hand, refers to a basic component of meaning within a sememe. It
represents a distinctive feature or element of meaning that helps to differentiate one
sememe from another. Semes can be thought of as the building blocks of sememes,
providing specific aspects or qualities that contribute to the overall meaning of a word or
expression.
Examples. In the lexical item "woman" several sememes may be

singled out , such as human , not an animal, female , adult.The
analysis of the word "girl" will show the following sememes :
human , female , young. The last component of the two words
differentiates them and makes impossible to mix up the words in
the process of communication. It is classical form of revealing the
work of componental analysis to apply them to the so called
closed systems of vocabulary , for example , colour terms .
Examples
Word: Кіт (kit) - "Cat"
Components/Features:
1. [+Animate]: The word refers to an animate entity.
2. [+Mammal]: The word refers to a mammal.
3. [+Carnivore]: The word refers to a carnivorous animal.
4. [+Domestic]: The word refers to a domesticated animal.
5. [-Big]: The word refers to a small-sized animal.
6. [+Furry]: The word refers to an animal with fur.
7. [+Four-legged]: The word refers to an animal with four legs.
8. [+Whiskered]: The word refers to an animal with whiskers.
9. [-Tailless]: The word refers to an animal with a tail.
Componental analysis is practically always combined with

transformational procedures or statistical analysis .The
combination makes it possible to find out which of the meanings
should be represented first of all in the dictionaries of different
types and how the words should be combined in order to make
your speech sensible.
It is used for:
a) a detailed comparison of meaning whether within a single
language or between languages;
b) providing a more adequate basis for translational
equivalences;
c) the judging of the semantic compatibility as an important
feature of style;
d) treating semantic transpositions of words, figurative
extension in particular.
above
9. Semantic groups of words: synonyms, antonyms,
homonyms, paronyms, hyponyms, meronyms.
Synonyms
Synonyms (from Greek syn – plus and onoma – name) are words
whose meaning coincide either fully or partially. Synonyms can
also be described as words and word-combinations that have the
same meaning in some or in any contexts. Examples
Beautiful, Attractive, Pretty, Lovely, Stunning;Funny, Humorous,
Comical, Hilarious, Hysterical; проживати, мешкати;
бажати, хотіти;
Approaches to the research of synonym
1. The equivalence of meaning
2. A full or partial ability of synonyms to interchange
3. The evaluative, stylistic qualities of synonyms.
Full and partial synonyms

Full synonyms - semantic contents coincide completely.
Examples
cat, feline. шофер, водій.
Partial synonyms – only some meanings coincide, they become
synonyms when used in one of their meanings or in certain
combinations. Examples words student and pupil are synonyms
only in the meaning a person who is being taught.
Розмовляти (rozmovlyaty) / Говорити (hovoryty):
 Both words relate to speaking or talking.
 Розмовляти (rozmovlyaty) emphasizes conversing or having a conversation.
 Говорити (hovoryty) is a more general term for speaking or talking.
Types of synonymy
1. Semantic (ideographic) synonyms
 Describe different quality of the object denoted
Examples mistake error, slip, lapse; помилка, хиба,
провина, похибка, неточність, блуд, недогляд).
 Show different degree of the same quality or phenomena
(Examples mistake – blunder, великий величезний).
2. Stylistic synonyms
 are used in different communicative styles Examples:
insane (formal) and loony (informal); salt (everyday speech)
and sodium chloride (technical)
 may have different evaluative quality Examples
(compare horse and steed).
 differ in both semantic content and stylistic colouring,
like to eat and to pig (i.e. to eat greedily)
 Dialect differences Examples autumn (British English)
and fall (American); картопля, бульба, біб; дорога,
алфальт, гостинець;
 collocational difference Examples rancid (is used only
of butter) and rotten (of bacon)
 differences in connotation: Examples youth (less
pleasant) and youngster.
Functions of synonyms
 Substitution can be observed in the text parts which follow
each other. Semantically adequate lexical units interchange in
order to avoid monotony: Examples And when he got too old to
go to school he went swimming more than ever, to get away
from his worried feeling. Even on a winter day he would take
a plunge if it wasn’t too freezing cold, moving rapidly through
the water
 Specification serves to unfold the qualities and various
characteristic features of the denoted objects or phenomena.
There are two possible contexts in this case:
 neutralizing context - the differences between synonyms
are not crucial for the content of the utterance. Examples
In the early summer, nobody came to the beach except at
weekends, so for five days Jimmy was lord and owner of
the sea and the shore, king of birds, master of crabs,
director of shells and seaweed.
 In the differenciating context the differences in the
semantic content of the synonyms are in the center of
attention: Examples The field behind Owen’s Fish and
Chips held three straggling rows of caravans, from little
ones like hen-coops on wheels to immense silvery ones fit
to be called Mobile Homes.
Functions of stylistic synonyms
 Emotional evaluation - based upon different stylistic
colouring of synonyms:
1. Higher than neutral (high, poetic, bookish, etc);
2. Lower than neutral (colloquial, jargon, etc).
 stylistic organization of the text is realized, when
stylistically marked synonyms coordinate stylistically and
semantically with the whole text.
Synonymic paradigm
 Synonymic words form synonymic paradigm that consists
of number of words with similar or identical meaning.
 Every synonymic paradigm has a central member, whose
meaning is the simplest semantically, the most neutral
stylistically. For instance, in the paradigm Examples big, large,
sizeable, colossal, giant, enormous, gigantic, great, huges,
immense, vast, large-scale the word big is evidently the central
member.
Types of non-lexical synonymy
1. Phraseological synonymy
To hit the target = to reach one’s end
2. Derivational synonymy
Unable, incapable.
3. Grammatical synonymy
We used to talk a lot in the quiet evenings.
We would talk a lot in the quiet evenings.
We close the store at 5 p.m.
The store is closed at 5 p.m.
Antonyms
Antonyms (from Greek anti – opposite and onama - name) are
word pairs that are opposite in meaning, such as young and old, up
and down.The meaning of the word may be partially defined by
saying what it is not. Male means not female. Dead means not
alive.
Categories of antonyms
1. GRADABLE ANTONYMS - two ends of the spectrum (slow
and fast) G - is one that can be used in the comparative or
superlative, or that can be qualified by words eg 'very' or 'quite'.
 Implicit comparison
Examples big and little;
tall and short;
hot and cold describe opposite
ends of the scale of the temperature.
 Committedness involves an adjective’s behavior in
question
«How tall is Sara?» The question is neutral and is used to
know Sara’s approximate height and whether she is tall,
short or of average height.
In the sentence «How short is Sara?» there is some reason to
believe that Sara is shorter than average height.
 Markedness – cover term for several related
phenomena which distinguish the marked member of an
antonym pair from unmarked member. In pairs in which
antonym is derived from the other, the derived member is
said to be marked, so happy is unmarked and unhappy is
marked.
The name of the scale of length is related to unmarked long
rather than the marked short.
2. COMPLEMENTORY ANTONYMS - pairs that describe
absolute opposites, like alive and dead,
Examples If you lose the contest, than you have not won it;
If a switch is on, then it is not off.
3. REVERSE ANTONYMS - comprise adjectives or adverbs
which signify a quality of verbs or nouns which signify an act
or state that reverse the quality, act or state of the other
Examples enter/leave, appear/disappear, student/teacher,
одружений/розлучений, лікар/пацієнт;
He spoke and spoke but nobody listened;
Габріель – лікар Джона. Джон – пацієнт Габріель;
The shed is behind the house. The house is in the front of the
shed.
Formation of antonyms
 By adding prefix un- and non-:
Examples likely/unlikely, able/unable, entity/nonentity;
 By adding in-:
Examples tolerant/intolerant, decent/indecent;
Other prefixes may also be used to form negative words
morphologically:
Examples
 mis- (misbehave)
 dis- (displease)
Homonyms
A homonym is a word that has the same pronunciation and
spelling as another word, but a different meaning
Examples ray 1) narrow beam of light;
2) a sea fish with a large flat body;
3) in music the second note of a major scale.
ключ 1) скрипковий; 2) музичний; 3) пташиний.
Origin of homonyms
 Result of a coincidence of phonetic change in two
semantically unrelated words (sea and see);
 Borrowings:
Mail (the system of delivery) was borrowed from Old
French mail (bag)
 Onomatopoeic origin or exclamation:
Hey (an exclamation used to draw attention);
Hey (a kind of country dance).
 Semantic cleft: Check 1) in bank 2)verification
Full and partial homonyms
 FULL homonyms coincide in spelling and pronunciation in
all grammatical forms Examples (farmer’s bull and a papal
bull)
 PARTIAL homonyms coincide only in separate forms: saw
– the Past Simple form of the verb to see, saw – a tool that has a
long blade with sharp points used for cutting wood or metal.
Types of partial homonyms:
 A homograph – word that has the same spelling, but a
different meaning and pronunciation Examples (lead – [led]
heavy soft grey metal and [li:d] – to go with showing the way )
 A homophone is a word that has the same pronunciation as
another word, but those meaning and spelling are different:
Examples to, too, two; there and their;
week and weak.
 Capytonyms are words that are spelled in the same way but
have different meanings when capitalised:
Examples polish (to make shiny) - Polish (from Poland)
 The interpreter’s false friends – words in different languages
that have the same spelling and/ or pronunciation but have
different meaning (artist – артист, magazine - магазин)
In the Ukrainian language we have such groups of homonyms:

 Homophones Examples (стати по три – потри,
вгорі – в горі);
 Homographs Examples (по́тяг - потя́г; за́мок -
замо́к; бра́ти - брати);
 Homoforms Examples (покласти на віз - віз дрова;
жовте поле - поле город);
 Homomorphemes Examples
(чистий став(ок) - став, як вкопаний).
Paronyms
words that have slight differences in spelling or pronunciation and
have different meaning. They can be divided in two groups:
 With the same root but diff. derivational affixes: Examples
affect – effect, alnernately – alternatively, земляний –
землистий,
 That derive from different roots: Examples farther – further,
complement – compliment, excise – exercise, компанія –
кампанія, талан – талант.
Hyponyms
words that have lexical representation and features that indicate
the class to which those words belong.
Examples lion, tiger, leopard have a feature [ feline];
white, rose, blue [colour];
guitar, piano, violin [musical instrument].
Meronyms
denotes a constituent part of, or a member of something:
Examples frame, wheels, brake, pedals –bicycle ;
petal is meronym of flower; flower, root, stem, etc. are meronyms
of plant.
Двигун — меронім для автомобіля.
above
10. Stylistically marked layer of the vocabulary: “learned”
words.
Stylistically marked layer
 Literary-bookish words (“learned” words):
 belong to the formal style, to the formal category of
communication.
 are more stable due to the traditions of the written type of
speech
 are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts,
radio and television announcements, official talks and
documents, business correspondence, etc.
Literary-bookish words
 mark the text as belonging to this or that style of written speech
(most commonbly), but when used in colloquial speech or in
informal situations, they may create a comical effect
 are mostly of foreign origin and have polymorphemic structure,
Examples solitude, fascination, cordial, paternal, divergent,
commence, assist, comprise, endeavor, exclude, heterogeneous,
miscellaneous, hereby, thereby, herewith, wherein, etc.
 are not stylistically homogeneous:
 These words often have precise or specialized meanings and are used to convey more technical or
complex ideas. Their usage in everyday conversation or informal writing is less common, and they
are typically reserved for more formal or specialized contexts. The inclusion of "learned" words can
add depth and sophistication to one's language use, particularly in academic or intellectual settings.
LITERARY - words serve to satisfy communicative demands of

official, scientific, poetic messages.
COLLOQUIAL - words are involved in non-official everyday
communication
Literal and Colloquial words are subdivided into GENERAL
(known and used by most native speakers) and SPECIAL.
Literary:
 1) general words, e.g. harmony, calamity, alacrity, etc. Are
used in public speeches, official negotiations etc. and are
formal, sometimes high-flown synonyms of ordinary neutral
words: E.g. COMMENCE – BEGIN, RESPOND – ANSWER,
INDIVIDUAL – MAN
 2) special-literary learned words include several specific
subgroups, namely:
 terms or scientific words such as, e.g. renaissance,
genocide, teletype, etc.;
TERMS - words or nominal groups which convey
specialized concepts used in science, technology, art, etc.,
e.g. gerontology, phoneme, radar, kneejoint, common
denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography, etc.
The sphere of application of terms is scientific discourse
but they can occur in artistic discourse to contribute to
characters’ description or create a special background
 poetic words and archaisms such as, e.g. whilome -
‘formerly’, aught - ‘anything’, ere ‘before’, albeit -
‘although’, fare - ‘walk’, tarry - ‘remain’, nay - ‘no’; etc.;
ARCHAISMS – words denoting historical phenomena
which are no more in use; in the course of language
substituted by newer synonymic words; is the deliberate
use of an older form that has fallen out of current use; are
most frequently encountered in poetry, law and ritual
writing and speech.
 barbarisms and foreign words
BARBARISMS - words of foreign origin not entirely
assimilated into the English language. They bear the
appearance of a borrowing and are felt as something alien
to the native tongue. chic [ʃiːk] – ‘stylish’; ad infinitum -
‘to infinity’. Barbarisms are words which have already
become facts of the English language. They are, as it were,
part and parcel of the English word-stock, though they
remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary.
FOREIGN WORDS - though used for certain stylistic
purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They
are not registered by English dictionaries, except in a kind
of addenda which gives the meanings of the foreign words
most frequently used in literary English.
 neologism
NEOLOGISMS - newly coined lexical units or existing
lexical units that acquire a new sense. Neologism is any
word, which is formed according to the productive
structural patterns or borrowed from another language and
felt by the speakers as something new: tape-recorder,
supermarket, V-day (Victory day).
Colloquialisms are devided into:

 literary colloquial words (which are used in every day
conversations both by educated and non-educated people)
 non-literary colloquialisms which include:
 SLANG - words (the biggest group) used in a very
informal situations. They are highly emotive and
expressive. Refers to informal (and often transient) lexical
items used by a specific social group, for instance
teenagers, soldiers, prisoners, or surfers. It is not
considered the same as colloquial speech, which is
informal, relaxed speech used on occasion by any speaker.
Slangisms are often used in colloquial speech but not all
colloquialisms are slangisms.
attic (“head”), beans (“money”), saucers (“eyes”),
 JARGOMISMS PROPER - words or phrases used by
people in a particular job or group that can be difficult for
others to understand. They are usually motivated and, like
slang words, have metaphoric character,
e.g. bird (“spacecraft”) /astronauts’ jargon/; to grab (“to
make an impression on smb.”) /newspaper jargon/. Jargon
is often referred to as “technical language”. It makes
communication quicker and easier among members of a
group who understand it. Its aim is to preserve secrecy
within a certain social group. Jargonisms are usually old
words with entirely new meanings, which can be
understood only by the people inside the social group
 PROFESSIONALISMS - are used in a definite trade or
profession by people connected by common interests. They
are correlated to terms. Whereas terms are coined to name
new concepts or phenomena appearing in the process of
science and technology development, professionalisms
name the already-existing concepts, tools or instruments
anew. tin-fish (submarine); block-buster (a bomb
especially designed to destroy blocks of big buildings);
вікно – незаповнений уроками час.
 VULGARISMS - are coarse words with a strong emotive
meaning, mostly derogatory, normally avoided in polite
conversation. Their function is to express strong emotions:
annoyance, anger, vexation, etc. Not every coarse
expression is a vulgarism. Coarseness may result from
improper grammar, non-standard pronunciation. Vulgar
words are not simply coarse; they are rude and strongly
emotionally charged.
 DIALECTICAL - words are normative and devoid of any
stylistic meaning in regional dialects, but used outside of
them, carry a strong flavor of the locality where they
belong. (Dialectical words may be divided according to the
differences on the phonemic and lexical level). Dialectal
words are those, which in the process of creation of the
English national language remained beyond its literary
boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite
locality. tittie = sister, cutty = naughty girl /woman.
above

Стилістика або лексикологія

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Stylistics (Лектор доц. Грабовецька О.С.

1. The object and subject-matter of stylistics. Types of

2. The object and subject-matter of Stylistics.

Literary Stylistics is focused on

There are other types of Stylistics such as:

Norm is the invariant of the phonetic, morph., synt. patterns,

2. Functional styles; forms of styles;

Functional stylistics embraces all possible varieties, or concrete

According to Galperin: Functional Style is a system of

phonetic arrangement of the utterances;

 fresh unexpected imagery; image is the reflection of the outer

world in the consciousness.

 the synthesis of formal and informal English.

The Pubicistic Style

pronouns, various repetitions, a developed system of

 the use of emotive words and numerous stylistic devices aiming

at producing a highly emotional impact on the reader

 intonation full of conviction and persistence;

Oratory. The oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the

 the use of the 1-st person singular (personal approach to the

 the abundant use of emotive words;

 use of similes and sustained metaphors.

The journalistic articles.

 Verbal constructions (infinitive, gerundial, participial);

Headlines. The headline is a dependent form of newspaper

To attract potential customers’ attention adverts should be eye-

 use of trite metaphors and epithets,periphrases,

The Scientific Prose Style, in articles, brochures, monographs

3. Stylistic differentiation of the English vocabulary.

 PROFESSIONALISMS - are used in a definite trade or

 VULGARISMS - are coarse words with a strong emotive

4. Key notions of stylistics: imagery (Verbal Image).

When considering the structure of an image we may

2. Vehicle – the object with which the tenor is compared,

From the functional-communicative point of view, the verbal

5. Key notions of stylistics: contextual meaning, transference,

(4) Expressiveness-a kind of intensification of an utterance (or a

6. Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the

Line 3: imposing opposite or contradictory sense.

Quantaty tropes Quality tropes

LINES of interaction between the primary and a contextual

Line 3: imposing opposite or contradictory sense.

Quantaty tropes Quality tropes

8. Tropes and figures; Three types of interaction between the

LINES of interaction between the primary and a contextual

Line 3: imposing opposite or contradictory sense.

Quantaty tropes Quality tropes

S. Ullmann considers metaphor as one of the semantic universals

Antonomasia - is a lexical SD in which a proper name is used

 Her cheeks are red like a rose.

 The water well was as dry as a bone.

 Тихий, як море, був його голос

Sound symbolism – attributing symbolic meaning to phonemes.

Sound symbolism can be classified into three types according to

• Phonetic intensifiers – certain phoneme combinations linked

Alliteration – the repetition of similar sounds, in particular in the

Alliteration is often seen in advertising and business names for

Assonance – the repetition of the same or similar vowels within

The sentence, as a unit of a certain level, is a sequence of

Syntactic expressive means of reduction of the initial model:

2) One more device based on the incompleteness of the sentence

Based on extension of the initial sentence model: repetition,

repetition is a powerful means of emphasis. Besides, repetition

Reversed parallelism is called chiasmus. based on the repetition